1

Introduction

Changing fashion is as commonplace as any other thing related

to lifestyle. Over the centuries, we have come across

different phenomenal incidents of changing fashion, be it

recreating the old or introducing the new. These changes were

not are result of one single event or person. In fact, it is a

team effort of time, economy, society, climate, and politics.

The eighteenth century was not an exception to this

phenomenon. Throughout the world, the eighteenth century is

marked by some socio-political activity. The Far East was

opening up to the west, the Asian sub-continent and the

Americas were on the verge of becoming European colonies, and

Europe was being heavily influenced and awed by the riches of

the Orient.

If there was one thing that symbolised eighteenth century

European society’s fascination with the east, it was the

‘banyan’, a long loose garb worn by men of status1. They were

often made of silk, cotton, linen or other exotic materials,

but this garment was not just limited to Europe. In fact, the

banyan crossed the Atlantic and reached the Americas as well.

Although this garment had several other nomenclature attached

to it like ‘Indian gown’, ‘morning gown’ etc, the name

‘banyan’ has a particular significance pertaining to its

journey to the west.

1 Naomi E A Tarrant, “Lord Sheffield's Banyan,” The Costume Society, no. 11(1977): 92-97, http://docserver.ingentaconnect.com/deliver/connect/maney/05908876/v11n1/s10.pdf?expires=1366542986&id=73869316&titleid=75000335&accname=University+of+Glasgow&checksum=C40EEBA2E9CF9B36DAA4F5483400A2B6

2

On this note, I would like to mention what the primary

questions are that this particular paper seeks to answer. The

first and foremost question is that of the etymological

background of the term ‘banyan’, and its journey from India to

Europe. The next issue that this paper will look closely into

is the issue of its true nature of origin. The paper will

examine the physical resemblance of the European nightgowns

and their original Indian counterparts from the perspective of

its cut and construction. This will eventually lead into

observations of other Indian influences that shaped this

eighteenth Century European garment, like the influence of the

Indian lattice work on its embroidery. Finally, this paper

will try and solve a supplementary question of loss of class

in translation because banyans in the sub-continent today are

contrary to the ostentatious ones from eighteenth century

Europe. In the sub-continent today, banyans are very similar

to an American undershirt in cut and construction. However,

rather than being fashionable wear, they are used as no better

than rags.

Etymological Roots

The earliest examples of gowns were just conventional

nightgown styles (rather than the more stylistic features

found in Japanese kimonos) in its collars and sleeves and

construction. Although they were called by different names in

different parts of Europe, like ‘banyans’ by the Portuguese,

it was not until the early 17th Century that the term ‘Indian

3

gown’ made it into British parlance2. Hence it is clear that

till the 17th century ‘banyan’ was the popular nomenclature for

this garment. Moira Thunder, design curator at the Victoria

and Albert Museum, mentions in her paper Man’s Banyan, ‘The term

banyan came from a word in Gujerati [sic] for a Hindu merchant

or trader, in the province of Gujerat [sic], India. The

anglicised form of the word was mentioned as early as about

1599.’3

While researching the word’s etymological root, the earliest

example of the word ‘banyan’ I could find was written in a

book by Richard Haklyut (c. 1552-1616), a Jesuit priest and

scholar entitled The Principal Navigations, Voiages, Traffiques and

Discoueries of the English Nation4. Although Thunder states that the

anglicised form of the word was mentioned first in about c.

1599, the book mentioned above was first published in c. 1589,

at least ten years before the date mentioned by Thunder.

2 Swain, Margaret, “Nightgown into Dressing Gown: A Study of Men's Nightgowns in the Eighteenth Century,” The Costume Society, 6, no. 1, (1972): 10-21, http://docserver.ingentaconnect.com/deliver/connect/maney/05908876/v6n1/s2.pdf?expires=1366498212&id=73865855&titleid=75000335&accname=University+of+Glasgow&checksum=3F08789459548C21C9437EB2DFBB1BCC (accessed March 14, 2013)3 Thunder, Moira, “An investigation into Masculinities and Nightgowns in Britain, 1659–1763,” unpublished MA dissertation, http://www.fashioningtheearlymodern.ac.uk/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Banyans-21.pdf4 “King's College Library,” King's College Cambridge, http://www.kings.cam.ac.uk/library/images/discovery/hakluyt.html (accessed March 20, 2013)

4

The online Oxford English Dictionary defines the word ‘banyan’

as:

A Hindu trader, especially one from the

province of Gujarat (‘many of which have

for ages been settled in Arabian ports,

and known by this name’ —Col. Yule);

sometimes applied by early writers to all

Hindus in Western India.5

Thus we know that the popular belief that the word ‘banyan’

refers to a Hindu trader from the region of Gujarat in western

India.

Contrary to this belief, my theory is that the etymological

root of this word is much more complicated than this, and a

lot more ancient. Although it has a deep rooted connotation to

the trade and economic history of the Indian sub-continent, it

does not directly refer to the business or merchant class

people from the western part of India.

5 “Oxford English Dictionary,” Oxford English Dictionary, http://www.nationalgalleries.org/visit/introduction-118 (accessed March 22,2013)

5

The word ‘banyan’ has both Sanskrit and Persian roots to it.

In Sanskrit, ‘banij (k)’ “is connected to the Vedic ‘paani’

which means water, which was later often written as ‘vanij’ or

‘banij’, a trade or traffic. A trader or merchant is known as

a ‘banik’6. In Persian, the word ‘banya’ means “victuals which

people carry into the country”. Derived from this is the term

‘bunyad’ which means “a foundation, fabric, or wall”.

Alternatively, there is the word“bunyan” (pronounced as

banyan), which means “roots”7.

From an Indian perspective, ‘banyan’ is a garment worn by

traders (banya). Keeping the Persian root of the word ‘banyan’

in mind, I can conclude that it was a basic (a sort of 'root'

or 'foundation') garment, something worn beneath the main

garment by the traders from India that was originally called a

‘banyan’ but the European travellers of the 15th and 16th

century misinterpreted it. They not only switched the meaning

of the words ‘banyan’ / ‘bunyan’ and 'bunya', it also seems

like they did not grasp the meaning of the Persian word

6 Monier Williams, A Sanskrit – English Dictionary, (London: Clarendon Press, 1873), _____7 F Stiengass, A Comprehensive Persian-English Dictionary, (London: Routledge and Keagan Paul, 1943), ____

6

'bunyan', which as explained above, could refer to as the

'foundation' garment, but instead ended up applying the term

to the main garment worn on top of the eastern banyan. This is

probably why the western banyan was closer in construction to

the main garments worn by people in the east, despite the fact

that the term used for it actually referred to the

undergarment that was worn in India, as we shall see later in

the paper.

7

The Nature of its Origin

As mentioned earlier, the true nature of this garment was not

what the original Indian ‘banyan’ was like. What the Europeans

adopted was the basic shape of the main garments worn by

regular people of western India, most of whom were traders or

merchants. The Europeans who first travelled to India in the

15th century were primarily merchants themselves, with the

intention of trading with the east. Therefore, it would not be

surprising to know that the people they came across and

interacted the most with were other traders like themselves.

Furthermore, the colourful and exotic clothes which were worn

by these common traders (or banyas) that so intrigued Europeans

were influenced by what was worn in the rulers' courts, a

point that some foreign traders would have noticed as they

were as occasional guests in the houses of nobility. This, in

turn, gave the clothes a greater sense of worth than what they

perhaps actually had. This point is exemplified by one of the

key accessories that travelled to the west along with the

banyan – the turban. In the sub-continent, turbans have

historically and culturally been viewed as a symbol of pride

and respect and are quite often associated with princes and

kings, who were quite often the ones who wore turbans.

Although the Portuguese traders were not importing cotton as a

part of their main cargo, the dresses and costumes had a major

influence on them. The Portuguese traders were not just

8

influenced by the common garment but also the rich and

colourful exoticness of the royal courts (especially that of

the Mughals), while adopting them into a style more suitable

and palatable to European tastes.

From researching various primary and secondary literatures, I

can conclude that it was Portuguese traders, and not English,

who first turned what was a garment worn by commoners in India

into an exotic and upmarket garment in the west. This, in

turn, makes me assume that it was in fact the Portuguese who

coined the term and meaning of the garment incorrectly. This

assumption of mine is based on two important factors. Firstly,

according to P.J.A. Guinote, ‘(...) between the years 1497 to

1640, 1,033 ships travelled from Lisbon to 8India on what was

called the Carreira da India.’ The 'Carreira da India' refers

to 'the India Run', the trade route they had established

between their country and the sub-continent. In contrast, the

first English ship arrived in India almost a hundred years

after the first Portuguese armada had made it there, which was

in 1601. Furthermore, it took another eleven years for them to

visit the Mughal court of the then emperor Jahangir. By the

time the British arrived, the Portuguese had already

established a stronghold in modern day Gujarat. Modern day

Surat was used as the main port town and the Portuguese

already had the town of Daman under their control9. Secondly,

8 Guinote, PJA, “India Route Project: THE RISE AND DECLINE OF THE Carreirada India,” Nautical Archaeology Program, Texas A & M University (2003)9 Ellison B. Findly, “The Capture of Maryam-uz-Zamānī's Ship: Mughal Womenand European Traders,” American Oriental Society,108, no. 8 (1998): 227-

9

as mentioned earlier, Richard Haklyut mentions this word in

his writings, which were published in the year 1589. But we

also know that the term ‘Indian gown’ was not used before the

17th century in Britain. Prior to the 17th century, these

garments were primarily known as ‘banyan’ and they were

brought to Europe mainly by Portuguese traders.

The earliest possible Indian influence of the European banyan

could have been the ‘chakdar jama’ or the ‘akbari jama’. Both these

garments were worn in the royal darbars, as well as by the

common men, if not as elaborately designed in the case of the

latter. These garments were accompanied by the elaborate

turbans or sometimes a cap. Both these garments were fastened

with a sash around the waist commonly known as the ‘patka’ (Fig

1.)

238, http://www.jstor.org/stable/603650?seq=1

10

This painting is an illustration of the

variety of jamas in use during the Mughal

period. The top two figures are Hindu

noblemen dressed in fine white Ichakdar

jamasI. The Muslim noblemen on the bottom

are wearing round-hemmed Akbari jama, which

are fastened on the right as opposed to the

left.10

10 Ritu Kumar, Costumes and Textiles of Royal India, (Christie’s Books Ltd, 2006), 39

Fig 1. Miniature from the Jahangir Album, attributed to Bhishan Das, c.1615

11

A banyan, although popular for its rather straight and lose

fit, still had an amount of shape to it with the wavy hem and

the rouged effect at the elbow of the sleeves as seen in Fig

211.

11 Nikki Scheur. “The Elegant Art of Embroidery”, in An Elegant Art, ed. Edward Maeder, 89-106 (Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum, 1983)

12

Fig 2. Banyan and Waistcoat (sleeved), England, c. 1760-80Pink, green, pale yellow, and cream meandering realistic floral pattern on palegreen diapered silk ground; self covered buttons; double

13

Cut and Construction a startling similarity

The general look of a European banyan dating back to the 17th

and 18th Century was a loose robe, sometimes with collars and

sometimes without (Fig 3.)12.

12 "V&A Collections,” Victoria and Albert Museum, http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O89443/banyan-unknown/ (accessed March 20, 2013)

Fig 3. Banyan, Coromandel Coast, India (fabric), Holland (possibly, tailored) , England, Great Britain (possibly, tailored), 1750-1775, Cotton chintz painted and dyed, and lined with block-printed cotton,Victoria and Albert Museum, London, Dimension: Width: 47 in along the arms, maximum, Width: 190 cm along thearms, maximum, Length: 57 in neck to hem, Length: 145

14

The banyans in Europe were one of the earliest examples of

readymade garments. They were constructed to fit every size

and shape because, unlike other garments of the time, banyans

were not tailor made to fit the wearer. The finished product

looked like a T-shaped lose garment (Fig 4.)13. However, the

construction details of a banyan reveal that, although

straight and loose and made to fit every size, it was not

absolutely shapeless [(Fig 5.) and (Fig 6.)]*14. Some banyans

were tailored more closely to the body.

13 Swain, Margaret, “Nightgown into Dressing Gown: A Study of Men's Nightgowns in the Eighteenth Century,” The Costume Society, 6, no. 1, (1972): 10-21, http://docserver.ingentaconnect.com/deliver/connect/maney/05908876/v6n1/s2.pdf?expires=1366498212&id=73865855&titleid=75000335&accname=University+of+Glasgow&checksum=3F08789459548C21C9437EB2DFBB1BCC (accessed March 14, 2013)14 Swain, Margaret, “Nightgown into Dressing Gown: A Study of Men's Nightgowns in the Eighteenth Century,” The Costume Society, 6, no. 1, (1972): 10-21, http://docserver.ingentaconnect.com/deliver/connect/maney/05908876/v6n1/s2.pdf?expires=1366498212&id=73865855&titleid=75000335&accname=University+of+Glasgow&checksum=3F08789459548C21C9437EB2DFBB1BCC (accessed March 14, 2013) *Note: These images are scaled because they were one of those typical examples of a tailor made banyan. The images are used as sample for the sole purpose of the pattern and cut. It is not to be scaled.

15

Fig 4. Man's Nightgown of brown and green Spitafields silk, woven from a design by AnnaMaria Garthwaite dated 1742.

16

Fig 5. Man's nightgown of light orange Indian Silk, striped with red cream andblack. Lined with self material, and with matching waistcoat fronts fastened to the inner sideseams. Padded and quilted in a diamond pattern. Pocked slits in side

Fig 6.

17

In comparison if we study the construction of several types of

Indian garments worn in the Indian subcontinent from the 14th

to the 19th Century we cannot help but notice the startling

resemblance between the two. Figure 7 (Fig 7.)15 is an

illustration from a Mughal manuscript dating back to c. 1590

which shows the royals of the Mughal court in lose garbs,

something very similar to the European banyans.

15 "V&A Collections,” Victoria and Albert Museum, http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/t/a-teachers-resource-plant-motifs/ (accessed March 14, 2013)

Fig 7. 'Babur supervising the laying out of the Garden of Fidelity', illustration from a Mughalbook of manuscripts, watercolour and gold on paper, India or Pakistan, about 1590, Museum no. IM.276-1913, Victoria and

18

Heavy influences of other Indian garments can also be seen in

European banyans in the later years. I would like to point out

here that although it has been mentioned that the European

banyans were influenced from the T-shaped Japanese kimonos16,

it was not until The Dutch East India Company started trading

with the Tokugawa shogunate (roughly around 164017) that the

kimonos started influencing this fashionable European garb,

and was after the Portuguese had already started their trade

campaigns with the east.

The later Indian influences range from ‘chogha’ to a ‘jama’. The

origin and the development of a ‘jama’ is not known for sure.

The word refers to a garment which has failed to stick to a

precise stylistic definition. The meaning of this Persian word

ranges from robe, vest, gown, or coat to simply a garment. In

fact, hardly any difference is noticed between a ‘jama’ and a

‘chogha’ at times. It is my conclusion that since the ‘jama’

originated from Central Asia, where it is more popularly known

as the ‘yaktahi jama' (which translates to 'unlined garment'),

European banyans were mostly influenced by them. It first made

its appearance in India in the second century through the

Kushan Empire and was a rather popular fashion amongst the

Rajputs. However, there was a long absence of this garment in

the country's fashion history before it reappeared again in

16 Linda Baumgarten, What Clothes Reveal: The language of Clothing in Colonial and Federal America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003), 11017 Thunder, Moira, “An investigation into Masculinities and Nightgowns in Britain, 1659–1763,” unpublished MA dissertation, http://www.fashioningtheearlymodern.ac.uk/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Banyans-21.pdf

19

the 16th Century Mughal court of Delhi. This time, it appeared

in a different, newer version18. The following figure (Fig 8.)

clearly shows the resemblance between the ‘chogha’ of Indian

origin and the banyan in figure 3 (Fig 3.)

Woven in Kashmir this Ochre Chogha was

probably for a Jaipur or Rajasthan court.

The hem seams and cuffs are edged with

three decorative borders. The two outer 18 Ritu Kumar, Costumes and Textiles of Royal India, (Christie’s Books Ltd, 2006), 150

Fig 8. A Kashmir chogha designed for a court in west India, c. 19th Century, Length: 144 cm.

20

borders feature small flower motifs on an

ecru background and frame a central border

which is woven with a line of olive-green,

red and blue butis. The main body of the

garment is woven with a repeat buti

pattern.19

Influence of Indian lattice works in embroidery

With the advent of the cotton textile in the English market

which was rather sudden like an overnight event, and the craze

for calicoes surged high. With this event, the English finally

established a foothold in trade with the east. The demand for

Indian textiles surged extremely high. The categories of goods

shipped from India were so extensive and diverse that in 1696,

an anonymous merchant published a catalogue of these goods and

fabrics that were available in order to enlighten consumers

about the quality of the products20. This craze was not just

limited to calicoes or Indian chintz. In fact, it took a

unique turn. Demand for textile of Indian origin so high that

the British market was soon awash with floral patterns. The

rich, famous, and academic circles preferred flowers over all

19 Ritu Kumar, Costumes and Textiles of Royal India, (Christie’s Books Ltd, 2006), 18520 Beverly Lemire, Fashion’s Favourite: The Cotton Trade and the Consumer in Britain, 1660-1800, (Oxford: Pasold Research Fund and Oxford University Press, 1991), 3-17

21

other things. Nothing was spared from this botanical wave, not

even the scholar’s garb called the banyan21.

From silk damasks to woven or embroidered silks to more exotic

cotton ones, banyans only saw floral patterns on them. The

influence of these patterns for embellishment was also of

Indian origin. The Indian counterparts of these banyans were

often embellished with fine, rich floral designs. In fact,

during the time of the first English settlements in India, the

Mughal court was experiencing an overwhelming surge of

interest for flora and fauna under the emperor Jahangir.

Jahangir’s craze for gardens and his successor Shah Jahan’s

craze for making the exotic gardens built by his father

immortal are well recorded. If Jahangir’s expertise lay in,

gardens then Shah Jahan’s expertise was imitating his father's

floral patterns and bringing life to lifeless architecture.

21 Beverly Lemire, “Domesticating the Exotic: Floral Culture and the East India Calico Trade with England, c. 1600-1800,” Textile: The Journal of Cloth and Culture 1, no. 1 (2003): 64-85, http://docserver.ingentaconnect.com/deliver/connect/bloomsbury/14759756/v1n1/s5.pdf?expires=1366597742&id=73876053&titleid=6328&accname=University+of+Glasgow&checksum=73562DD3FC0FB2E6C1E003085C34D93B

22

Both father and son took all measures to lay the foundations

of a glorious architectural renaissance. European banyans

experienced the phenomenal influence of this duo during its

hay days.

Despite the prohibition of Indian textile in the late 17th

century, the influence of these floral designs were so popular

that Indian gown makers in Britain were ordered to make

designs which resembled exotic Indian designs which were

earlier brought from the province of Gujarat. Some nightcaps

and gowns from this period still bear evidence to this fact

(Fig 9)22 and (Fig 10.)23.

22 Linda Baumgarten, What Clothes Reveal: The language of Clothing in Colonial and Federal America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003), 11023 “Heilburn Timeline of Art History,” Metropolitan Museum of Art, http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/55.121.10.39 (accessed March 20, 2013)

23

Fig 9. Cap top view , France, 1720-1740, linen cotton embroidered with crewel wool, trimmed with

24

Fig 10. Rosette (shamsa) bearing the name and titles of Emperor Shah Jahan (r. 1628–58), Mughal, 17th century, Ink, opaque watercolor, and gold on paper, 15 3/16 x 10 7/16 in. (38.6 x 26.5 cm), Metropolitan Museum of Art.

25

The loss of class in translation

In the 18th century, European Banyans were very ostentatious,

but in modern day India the banyans look like an American

undershirt. However, unlike in America, banyans in India are

used as a vest for men and are treated like a rag. So why was

there a sudden seeming loss of class for it? The answer to

this question is probably the easiest: there was no loss. It

was the Portuguese who misinterpreted the term and mistook a

garment that was not a banyan as it was truly called in India.

In the subcontinent, the meaning of the word 'banyan' still

refers to the undress or the foundation garment. Yes, it has

definitely evolved in its shape and construction from its

original counterpart, but then again, so has every other

garment.

26

Conclusion

In conclusion I can only sum up what has already been

mentioned in the paper. The answers to my questions at the

very beginning of the paper are short and simple. It was the

Portuguese traders who first came up with the concept of the

European banyans. In the process, they misinterpreted the

meaning of the term and also the originality of the Indian

banyans. They ended up imitating the main outer garments worn

in India as a fashionable undress and termed it banyan, a term

used to refer to undress or undergarment in India and the sub

continent. Finally, the influence of the Indian floral designs

inspired by the lattice works were so prominent, that even

after over a century’s time when this garment made into the

English fashion scene, they were very high in demand.

27

Bibliography

1. Naomi E A Tarrant, “Lord Sheffield's Banyan,”

The Costume Society, no. 11 (1977): 92-97,

http://docserver.ingentaconnect.com/deliver/

connect/maney/05908876/v11n1/s10.pdf?

expires=1366542986&id=73869316&titleid=75000335&

accname=University+of+Glasgow&checksum=C40EEBA2E

9CF9B36DAA4F5483400A2B6 (Accessed March 14,

2013)

2. Swain, Margaret, “Nightgown into Dressing Gown:

A Study of Men's Nightgowns in the Eighteenth

Century,” The Costume Society, 6, no. 1, (1972):

28

10-21,

http://docserver.ingentaconnect.com/deliver/conn

ect/maney/05908876/v6n1/s2.pdf?

expires=1366498212&id=73865855&titleid=75000335&

accname=University+of+Glasgow&checksum=3F0878945

9548C21C9437EB2DFBB1BCC (Accessed March 14,

2013)

3. Thunder, Moira, “An investigation into

Masculinities and Nightgowns in Britain, 1659–

1763,” unpublished MA dissertation,

http://www.fashioningtheearlymodern.ac.uk/wordpr

ess/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Banyans-21.pdf

(Accessed March 14, 2013)

4. “King's College Library,” King's College

Cambridge,

http://www.kings.cam.ac.uk/library/images/discov

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5. “Oxford English Dictionary,” Oxford English

Dictionary,

http://www.nationalgalleries.org/visit/introduct

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6. Monier Williams, A Sanskrit – English

Dictionary, (London: Clarendon Press, 1873)

7. F Stiengass, A Comprehensive Persian-English

Dictionary, (London: Routledge and Keagan Paul,

1943)

8. Guinote, PJA, “India Route Project: THE RISE AND

DECLINE OF THE Carreira da India,” Nautical

29

Archaeology Program, Texas A & M University

(2003)

9. Ellison B. Findly, “The Capture of Maryam-uz-

Zamānī's Ship: Mughal Women and European

Traders,” American Oriental Society,108, no. 8

(1998): 227-238,

http://www.jstor.org/stable/603650?seq=1

(accessed March 22, 2013)

10. "V&A Collections,” Victoria and Albert

Museum,

http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O89443/banyan-

unknown/ (accessed March 20, 2013)

11. "V&A Collections,” Victoria and Albert

Museum,

http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/t/a-

teachers-resource-plant-motifs/ (accessed

March 14, 2013)

12. Linda Baumgarten, What Clothes Reveal: The

language of Clothing in Colonial and Federal

America (New Haven: Yale University Press,

2003), 110

13. Ritu Kumar, Costumes and Textiles of Royal

India, (Christie’s Books Ltd, 2006), 150

14. Beverly Lemire, Fashion’s Favourite: The

Cotton Trade and the Consumer in Britain, 1660-

1800, (Oxford: Pasold Research Fund and Oxford

University Press, 1991), 3-17

30

15. Beverly Lemire, “Domesticating the Exotic:

Floral Culture and the East India Calico Trade

with England, c. 1600-1800,” Textile: The

Journal of Cloth and Culture 1, no. 1 (2003):

64-85,

http://docserver.ingentaconnect.com/deliver/conn

ect/bloomsbury/14759756/v1n1/s5.pdf?

expires=1366597742&id=73876053&titleid=6328&accn

ame=University+of+Glasgow&checksum=73562DD3FC0FB

2E6C1E003085C34D93B (Accessed March 14, 2013)

16. “Heilburn Timeline of Art History,”

Metropolitan Museum of Art,

http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/55.12

1.10.39 (accessed March 20, 2013)

17. Scheur, Nikki. “The Elegant Art of

Embroidery”, in An Elegant Art, ed. Edward Maeder,

89-106 (Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum,

1983)

Further Reading

1. Haklyut , Richard, Voyages and Discoveries, (London:

Penguin Books, 1972)

2. Boxer , C R, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire 1415-1825,

(London: Carcanet Press Limited, 1991)

3. Pepys, Samuel, Letters and the second diary of Samuel

Pepys, (London: J M Dent and Sons, 1933)

31

4. Subrahmanyam, Sanjay, The Career and Legend of Vasco da

Gama, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

1997)

5. Boxer, C R, Portuguese Conquest and Commerce in

Southern Asia 1500-1750, (London: Variorum Reprints,

1985)

6. Buck, Anne, Dress in Eighteenth Century England,

(London: BT Batsford, 1979)

7. Andrews, Peter. “The Architecture and Gardens of

Islamic India (1982).” In The Arts of India,

edited by Basil Gray, 95-124. New Delhi: Vikas

Publishing House, 1982

8. Leach, Linda York. “Later Mughal Painting

(1982).” In The Arts of India, edited by Basil

Gray, 95-124. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House,

1982

9. Zebrowski, Mark. “Decorative Arts of Mughal

India (1982).” In The Arts of India, edited by

Basil Gray, 95-124. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing

House, 1982

10. Riello, Giorgio and Peter McNeil. “The

fashion revolution: the long eighteenth century

(2010).” In The Fashion History Reader: Global

Perspective, edited by Giorgio Riello and Peter

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