ASSIGNMENT - Global Edulink

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ASSIGNMENT UNIT 01

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NCFE LEVEL 3: AWARD IN SUPPORTING TEACHING AND LEARNING IN SCHOOLS

UNIT 01

UNDERSTANDING CHILD AND YOUNG PERSON DEVELOPMENT Guided Learning Hours: 30 Credit Value: 04 Level: 3

ACTIVITY 3.1

Before starting on this unit, write down the ways that we support children and young people from 0 to 19 years of age.

These self-assessment activities are for your own benefit only and do not need to be submitted for assessment, however you may like to keep your research and findings in your own portfolio as it may assist you in answering the end of unit assignment. Unit aim: This unit provides knowledge and understanding of how children and young people from birth to 19 years develop, including underpinning theoretical perspectives. It also includes actions taken when differences in development are identified as well as the potential effects of transitions on children and young people’s development. This unit can also be found in the handbook Teaching Assistant’s Handbook Level 3, written by Tina Kamen and Published by Hodder Education, Chapter 1 – Supporting child and young person development.

OBSERVING CHILDREN’S DEVELOPMENT So why do we observe children and young people? Observation is important as you can learn so much about a child or young person if the observation is done accurately. So what can we learn? Careful observation tells us about the child or young person’s learning style, strengths, weaknesses, learning needs, behaviour patterns this will help with the child or young person’s learning plan.

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The purpose of observation

• Tells us the developmental stage of a child or young person • Helps us to put in place any extra support a child or young person may need • Helps us with skills that the child or young person has in all areas of their development

Basic principles of child observation There are certain factors that we need to be aware of when carrying out any form of recording of children and young people:

• Confidentiality is of paramount importance. Written permission must be gained from the parent or guardian of a person under the age of 18 years before carrying out any recording concerning the child for observation purposes.

• Be objective. Everything that you record must be factually correct and accurate, you can’t record feelings as these are a personal comment, e.g. “John is happy” is subjective.

• Equal opportunities. When carrying out an observation you must consider the child as an individual bearing in mind culture, language etc. Also, look at any additional needs that the child or young person may have.

• Be positive. Look at the child or young person’s strength and build on this as well as the negative aspects.

• Use a holistic approach. As with all observation you need to look at the child or young person as a whole rather than just focusing on one part that could be positive or negative which would cloud the overall judgement made for that child or young person.

• Consider the children’s feelings. When carrying out an observation you need to explain to the child or young person what is about to take place as this could make the child feel uncomfortable or upset.

• Minimise distractions. It is necessary that whilst an observation is taking place that interruptions are cut down to a minimum, and you are a reasonable distance from the child or young person so that you can hear what they are saying without being intrusive.

• Practice. The only way that we become proficient in doing observations is to keep doing them and reflecting on our practice.

Confidentiality was covered in Unit 1, TDA3.1 Communication and Relationships.

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ACTIVITY 3.2

What do we mean by confidentiality and what do we do to keep confidentiality? Observation methods

ACTIVITY 3.3

What are the different types of methods used in observations? There are five key child observation methods, including:

• Narrative reports • Time sampling • Event sampling • Checklists • Verbatim reporting

Narrative Reports Narrative or written reports basically involve simply watching an individual child or group of children and writing down in note-form what has been seen. This form of child observation typically lasts for a short period of time and requires the observer to try to remain as unnoticed as possible, as any interaction with those being observed is likely to have an impact upon the child’s behaviour. Narrative reports must be written in the present tense without the use of jargon, and extra information may be beneficial in regards to setting the scene.

Time sampling Time sampling is an economical and efficient approach to child observation involving recording at regular intervals what a child is doing, and this approach also focuses on pre-selected behaviours taking place within certain time periods. Different intervals of time are selected in order to best suit the purpose of the observation and provide as much information as possible. A key benefit of the time sampling method is that it offers no restrictions on the types of behaviour to be observed whilst allowing for multiple recording techniques.

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Event sampling Observations focus on particular events to build up a pattern of a child’s behaviour over a period of days or weeks, for example, to discover what provokes tantrums, or how a child reacts to leaving their carer at the start of each day in nursery. Event samples are a useful way to detect if a child has a behaviour problem that needs help or referral to another professional, and helps to clarify what happens during tantrums; how long does it last, does it happen at the same time each day, does someone provoke the child? The observer needs to be focused and remember to note the details as the event occurs.

Checklists An observation checklist is a list of things that an observer is going to look at when observing a class or child or young person. This list may have been prepared by the observer or the teacher, or both. Observation checklists not only give an observer a structure and framework for an observation, but also serve as a contract of understanding with the teacher, who may as a result be more comfortable, and will get specific feedback on aspects of the class or child or young person.

Verbatim reporting Verbatim reporting is another helpful approach to child observation which basically involves the observer recording exactly (i.e. word for word) what is being said in a conversation taking place involving the child. Examples of conversations include those happening between two or more children, between a child and an adult, or between children and an adult. In order to undertake this approach, small personal microphones are required which may be attached discreetly to an adult’s lapel. Although it takes a considerable amount of time to transcribe recorded conversations, it allows the observer to gain much insight into the child’s language development, as one may listen repeatedly to specific words or phrases used. We have outlined methods for observation above; it will depend on what we want to know as to which method we use. Recording observation and assessment We’ve looked at the methods that are available to use to gain the information, but what format will we use to record it? This will normally be in some form of agreed format, a written description, a pre-coded chart. Once you have completed your observation you will then need to make an assessment in relation to the aims of the observation, looking at how it relates to developmental norms, external and internal factors that could affect the child or young person.

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You can present your information using charts, tables, graphs etc. There are examples in the text book Kamen, T. (2011) Teaching Assistant’s Handbook Level 3, Hodder Education, chapter 1 page 5.

PLANNING PROVISION TO PROMOTE DEVELOPMENT When we think of development this is linked to five areas, and they are all interlinked, so when you look at one area it crosses over into the other four. So when we do an observation, we look at the whole child, and observations are done holistically, meaning we look at every area of development in the same observation. So what are the five areas of development?

• Social • Physical • Intellectual • Communication • Emotional

Although when carrying out an observation we may focus on one aspect of development at any one time, this doesn’t mean we are ignoring the other areas, as children and young people will tend to develop in some areas quicker than others.

The planning cycle

ACTIVITY 3.4

What do we mean by the planning cycle, and how does it work? The start of the cycle is to identify what our aim is; it could be to look at a child or young person’s interaction with others. The activity would have been planned beforehand, taking into account safety factors. The activity is set up taking into account your role within the activity. You could be the observer, record as much factual and accurate detail of the child or young person’s responses to the activity. After the activity has taken place and you have recorded everything, you need to assess what the outcome of the activity is. The final stage of the cycle is to evaluate the evidence gathered from the observation. If there are any needs identified, then systems need to be put in place to support the child or young person. With the planning cycle it never ends, as the end is the beginning of the next cycle, as you need to check that systems that have been put in place on cycle one have been effective. We have looked at the planning cycle through doing an activity, but how do we make sure it gives us the evidence we want?

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We need to start off with good preparation, making sure that you have everything you need, the giving out of instructions and having thought of possible questions that may be asked by participants, also taking into account confidentiality when recording the observation. Also, consider health and safety issues. Once the activity has finished you will need to thoroughly evaluate the evidence gathered, although it is possible that you could be evaluating throughout the activity. When you have completed your evaluation you will be able to say whether or not the activity was a success or not. You will be able to make recommendations to the class teacher or SENCO if additional needs are required for the child or young person. With any type of observation and recording, it takes time to become proficient, so don’t expect to get it right the first time. “Practice makes perfect”!

Example of format for planning activities

• Description of the Proposed Activity:

• Overall Purpose of the Activity:

• Objectives:

O Child or young person Learning Objectives: (What sorts of child or young person dispositions and/or attitudes will this activity support?)

O Specific Curriculum Objectives: (How does this activity support particular curriculum objectives, framework elements, etc.?)

• Technology to be used in this activity:

O (State why this particular technology will be used)

• Non-technology resources or materials to be used in this activity:

O (e.g., books, original sources, manipulatives, etc.)

• Time necessary to complete this activity:

O (Class days required, start to finish)

• Activity Timeline/Procedure:

O (As specifically as possible, please describe this activity on a day-by-day, step-by-step basis. Be sure to include student directions, expectations, and teacher instructions. Please use additional sheets as necessary.)

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• Ideas for extended activities:

O (How might this particular activity be extended to cover other curriculum units? If time were available, how might you expand this activity?)

So we’ve looked at observation and mentioned development, but we need to understand the development of children and young people from 0 to 19 years.

UNDERSTANDING CHILD AND YOUNG PERSON DEVELOPMENT

When we talk about child development we mean the ‘whole child’ and not just certain aspects of their development. As we said before there are five areas of development, what are they? The easiest way of remembering the five areas of development is SPICE or PILES depending on your school of thought:

• Social Physical • Physical Intellectual • Intellectual Language • Communication Emotional • Emotional Social

Basic patterns of child and young person development We always used to think of stages of development which looked at children and young people achieving certain things at a fixed age. We should now think of children and young people as following a sequence in development, and although they will develop in the same way as every other child and young person, it may not be at a fixed age as we used to think. Having said this there are external and internal factors that can affect this sequence that need to be taken into account. The work of Mary Sheridan provides a useful guide to the milestones of expected development, that is, the usual pattern of development or norms.

Sequences of development There is lots of information available on this subject. Below is a brief outline of the sequences of development, and you should do some of your own research to get more information as people publish books on child development.

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ACTIVITY 3.5

Go to the library or go on the Internet and find a developmental chart that covers the sequence of development for 0 to 19 years.

The sequence of children’s development: 0 to 3 months

1. Physical development: Babies turn their head towards sounds and movements. They like to watch the face of the adult at feeding time. Sleeps most of the time and grows fast.

2. Social development: In the initial months they will recognise mother’s face and voice. Considers others if they meet their needs (feeding, cuddles etc.).

3. Intellectual development: They recognise familiar people and objects by putting them in their mouth.

4. Language development: Initially they make a variety of happy sounds. They cry when they need something or hear a sudden, unfamiliar noise.

5. Emotional development: There are mixed emotions; very happy, or very scared as everything is very new. They are very attached to parents and carers and can get very upset when they come across different people or environments.


1. Physical development: Begins to sit with support, starts to grasp objects and move them from one hand to the other. Starts to play with soft toys, board books etc. Some children will start to crawl and stand.

2. Social development: Starts to respond to other people, but is wary of strangers.

3. Intellectual development: Recognises familiar people, places and noises. Follows moving objects; once mobile explores their environment.

4. Language development: Starts to make single-syllable sounds but by about seven months is forming two-syllable sounds. Makes noises to attract attention, will recognise names.

5. Emotional development: Still has strong attachment to primary carer, will show if they like or dislike something, and shows preference to a particular parent or carer.

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1. Physical development: The child is becoming more mobile and is exploring in a safe environment, will be able to get up stairs but finds it difficult to come down. Starts to throw objects and enjoys the company of peers, but doesn’t play with them.

2. Social development: Has the ability to communicate using simple words and can follow simple instructions. Still very self-centred and thinks of self first, and can become unintentionally aggressive.

3. Intellectual development: Concentration is developing, but this is only for short periods of time. Watches people and tries to copy what they do.

4. Language development: Will start to say their first real word, will be able to say in the region of three to twenty words.

5. Emotional development: Has learnt the word “No”, which makes the child angry as they are used to getting their own way. Still hesitant in new situations and relies on parents for support.

The sequence of children’s development: 18 months to 2 years

1. Physical development: Walks well, can come down stairs with help. Fine motor skills develop; can do jigsaws with large pieces, at the stage of parallel play; can build a tower with several bricks.

2. Social development: Still thinks of self and wants own way. Wants to help adults, but has a tendency to want to do things for themselves; independence is developing.

3. Intellectual development: Can do simple jigsaws, recognises items from books, concentration span is getting longer, still thinks of self, can follow simple instructions.

4. Language development: By the age of two their vocabulary is about two hundred words, and they use words to get information. Start to repeat words used by adults.

5. Emotional development: Will explore new environments as long as an adult is present or close by. Has temper tantrums when unable to do something or isn’t allowed to do something. Independence grows, but is still emotionally attached to familiar adults.

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The sequence of children’s development: 2 to 3 years

1. Physical development: Can peddle a bike, climb on climbing frame, build more complex structures with bricks, comes down stairs upright.

2. Social development: Still very self-centred and protective of own possessions, and finds it difficult in groups due to being self-centred. Communicates with others more effectively due to language development.

3. Intellectual development: Begins to understand concepts of up/down, matches shapes and colours, still is self-centred, processes information more through language than images, concentration span is increasing but still not for any length of time.

4. Language development: The vocabulary has now expanded to about three hundred words, sentences are now forming an adult style, and the child is able to deliver simple messages.

5. Emotional development: Still liable to emotional outburst when they can’t solve a problem, independence grows, reassurance is still sought in new situations or when meeting unfamiliar people, has a lack of sense of danger when exploring the environment.


1. Physical development: Gross motor skills are well developed, fine motor skills are also well developed to the extent of using scissors, has moved onto cooperative play with others.

2. Social development: Still tends to be self-centred, but does play with others and likes their company. Watches others and copies them, communicates more effectively with others, is more confident with own abilities.

3. Intellectual development: Construction activities become more complex, experiments with textures, shapes and colours. Learns more about concepts within play, concentration is increasing with time span increasing as well, can recall a simple sequence of events.

4. Communication development: Vocabulary has increased considerably to between nine hundred and fifteen hundred words, has become very inquisitive by asking lots of questions, is able to associate colours with the words.

5. Emotional development: Is now starting to become less reliant on familiar adults in new situations, starts to use language to express feelings, shows concern when others are distressed.

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1. Physical development: Fine and gross motor skills are continually improving, not quite competent in doing shoelaces or buttons on clothes, still at the cooperative play level with peers. Has the ability dress/undress oneself.

2. Social development: Language has become more effective in communicating with others, may now have a special friend, at this point they may also copy unwanted behaviour swearing, biting etc., is now more aware of own abilities and is more confident, still observes others and copies.

3. Intellectual development: Can follow more complex instructions, considers other people views, concentration is increasing to be able to sit and watch a television programme, is still very curious and still asks lots of questions.

4. Communication development: Vocabulary has now increased to between fifteen hundred and four thousand words, language has now developed to more complex sentences being used, development of reading and writing skills starts, has the ability to follow more complex instructions and then verbalise to another person.

5. Emotional development: Can at times become aggressive as they are still trying to deal with negative emotions, still occasionally have tantrums, have disagreements with others which lead them to taking a long time to forgive and forget, shows concern for others that are upset or hurt.


1. Physical development: Fine and gross motor skills are well developed, can write, good coordination in climbing, hitting a ball, riding a bike. Play is at cooperative level.

2. Social development: Language skills are very effective, member of a group, knows rules of games, less likely to seek approval from adults, is self-sufficient with play and likes own space from time to time.

3. Intellectual development: Concentration has expanded considerably and can manage more complex instructions. Starts to become competitive, seeks knowledge from various sources e.g. internet, creative ability increases with better coordination.

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4. Communication development: Vocabulary now is between four thousand and ten thousand words, complex reading and writing skills are developed, more detail is given when describing past events, can manage more complex instructions, and develops a sense of humour due to increased understanding.

5. Emotional development: Starts to think of others rather than being self-centred, have disagreements with others which lead them to taking a long time to forgive and forget, becomes aware of more worldly things, e.g. other countries, animals, insects, hates to come second as they are getting more competitive.


1. Physical development: Fine motor skills improve writing becomes legible, plays games and sports which involves cooperation with others, enters puberty growing taller and thinner, construction activities become more complex.

2. Social development: Enjoys the company of others, member of a gang, will now support others in difficult situations, tends to look for approval from peers rather than the adult figure when younger, role models play a big part as they look up to celebrities.

3. Intellectual development: Concentration levels are extended further, still seeks knowledge from various sources e.g. internet, creative abilities develop into more complex drawing and stories, gets involved in games that have a strategic element to them, will consider the needs of others and to some degree listen to others point of view before making a judgement.

4. Communication development: Vocabulary is now in the range of ten thousand to twenty thousand words, reading and writing skills have increased to a more complex level of knowledge and understanding, gives very complex explanation when recreating past events, can manage undertaking a task with complex instructions, complex jokes are now understood.

5. Emotional development: becomes sensitive to one’s own feelings, starts to question the consequences of one’s actions, learns to be assertive in the way they portray themselves rather than being aggressive or passive, form their own opinions and beliefs, which lead to disagreements with peers and adults, again finding it difficult to forgive and forget at times.

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Supporting social development For children and young people to be accepted into society they have to develop social skills, so how do we support them to gain these skills? So what skills do they need: learn discipline, learn acceptable behaviour patterns, self-help skills, e.g. dressing/undressing, developing moral concepts, the difference between right and wrong?

THE SOCIALISATION PROCESS

What do we mean by socialisation? It is how children relate socially and emotionally to other people. Children need to know how to react within society in a way that is acceptable to others in a way that it doesn’t damage their own self-esteem. If the child behaves in an unacceptable manner it isn’t the child that is unacceptable but the behaviour that is being exhibited. There are many aspects to a child’s make up that are perfectly acceptable in society, but there may be one that isn’t, so that area needs to be focussed on, making the child or young person aware that as a person they are acceptable, but this aspect isn’t.

Developing independence Independence can’t be taught, it needs the support and guidance from others to help them develop. Some children need more support than others to gain independence. Independence is gained through encouragement with self-help skills and taking responsibility for their own actions. At a very young age children start wanting to do things for themselves and sometimes find it frustrating when they are unable to accomplish it, this when the emotional outbursts come into play, ‘temper tantrums’. In some cases adults tend to shield their child, or as we sometimes say, “wrap them up in cotton wool”, by doing this we inhibit their growth into independence, so as they get older they become shy and rely on adults to do their bidding. There needs to be some sort of balance between being over-protective and allowing the child to exhibit their natural curiosity.

ACTIVITY 3.6

Watch a group of children and observe their interaction with one another and comment on their socialisation both as individuals and as a group.

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Developing socially acceptable behaviour Children and young people tend to model their behaviour on role models in the media and close adult figures, so to some degree when children and young people see their idol behaving in what we would call unacceptable behaviour in our eyes, they see it as acceptable. As an adult working in school we need to act as a role model to the children and young people we come into contact with in our daily routine.

ACTIVITY 3.7

Look for examples in the media of unacceptable behaviour from people that we see as role models. As an example, footballers are high-profile so tend to be in the news a lot.

THE TEACHING ASSISTANT’S ROLE IN PROMOTING CHILDREN’S SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

The teaching assistant’s role is there as a role model of acceptable behaviour in society, to give the child or young person support and guidance to become self-reliant and gain independence through daily routines. The teaching assistant should be aware of the behaviour management policy in school for setting of boundaries and sanctions. There should be opportunities within the school day for children and young people to be able to interact with one another, which will encourage socialisation.

Ways to promote children’s social development

1. Setting limits to encourage the required behaviour can be carried out by using appropriate sanctions and rewards. This could be in the school’s behaviour policy, go and look.

2. Build independence through encouraging children through their self-help skills dressing/undressing for P.E.. Be patient and give support when a child is carrying out a task that will develop their self-help skills.

3. Opportunities should be made available for children and young people to have access to social play through cooperative play, e.g. team games and sports.

4. Using books, play people and DVDs to show children about ideas of conflict, fairness; within lots of children’s DVDs there is quite often a theme or moral.

5. Taking turns can be encouraged by playing board games or sharing toys, the focus being on cooperation rather than competition.

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Supporting physical development If you look at children of different ages you will probably notice that there are quite significant changes in their body shape. The head is quite large at first but doesn’t grow in proportion to the rest of the body. After the major changes of early childhood, the next major change occur in puberty as girls start to become mature females, and boys start to become mature males. (Lindon, 2007) Children and young people’s development can be affected by what they eat and drink, so diet and exercise are important to be established early on in their lives. Healthy eating and exercise habits should be established in childhood, which can then maintained into adulthood. (Lindon, 2007)

ACTIVITY 3.8

What do we mean by Gross and Fine motor skills? Give examples of each.

GROSS AND FINE MOTOR SKILLS

Gross motor skills involve using most of the body parts to run, jump, skip, climb; developing the muscles and stamina, to undertake sports and other physical activities; which also means that a balanced diet is important to support their development. Fine motor skills involve using mostly the fingers to carry out delicate tasks with young children. As we know they are very good at picking up bread crumbs and small objects off the floor, and drawing. As they get older threading starts to develop, which brings in hand-to-eye coordination. If children and young people have additional needs then hand-to-eye coordination may be difficult and they may need extra support to carry out certain tasks.

Developing physical skills

ACTIVITY 3.9

Looking at both gross and fine motor skills, what activities and routines would you make available to develop these skills?

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When working with children and young people, appropriate activities should be provided for their age, but also, bear in mind that for them to develop, some activities need to be there that are slightly more challenging. As an example, move from large Duplo bricks to small Lego, or jigsaws that have more pieces. Throughout the period in the school, some form of physical activity should be carried out to develop the physical body through individual activities like stretching and bending, but also sports which involve team work. Within physical activities, individual needs have to be taken into account. Children and young people may have additional needs that make it difficult to take part but they should be given the opportunity to try, with support given. There will also be children and young people who choose not to take part but should be given every encouragement to participate. When children and young people are to carry out and physical activities where equipment is involved, a risk assessment should be carried out first, although with any activity there is a certain amount of risk attached to it.

So as a Teaching Assistant, what is your role in promoting children’s physical development? You are there to support the teacher. You need to be given time to plan activities to promote the physical development of children and young people, as a teaching assistant you will be aware of any additional support that a child or young person needs, also you will be ware of keeping children and young people safe through being able to administer first aid, handling emergencies and a knowledge of childhood illnesses.

Ways to promote children’s physical development:

• Making sure the environment is safe • Giving them the opportunity to explore • Giving them as much autonomy as the setting allows • Activities are appropriate for their age with a degree of challenge • Routines which develop fine motor skills

ACTIVITY 3.10

What would prevent a child from developing Gross and/or Fine motor skills?

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SUPPORTING INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT

Children up to the age of about 5 are like little sponges and soak up vast amounts of knowledge, as to some degree they are like a blank slate, although some theorists wouldn’t agree (it’s the nature vs. nurture argument). We will come onto theorists later on in this unit. That is not to say they don’t learn anything else after this age, they continue to gather information and using it to formulate ideas and use it to solve problems. Intellectual development is more to do with brain development and covers areas of sensory perception, thinking skills, language skills, understanding of concepts, problem-solving, memory skills, concentration, imagination and creativity, which we will look at in turn.

Developing sensory perception To start off with, what is perception? Levine & Shefner (1981) in Fundamentals of Sensation and Perception, define perception as: “The way in which we interpret the information gathered and processed by the senses.” They have explained that an individual senses the presence of stimuli, but perceives what they are. It is our perception of the world around us which leads us to respond in many different ways, making perception a key factor in the way both children and adults behave.

Perception is divided into two areas:

1. There is auditory perception, which links the sounds that we hear to give us an idea of what surrounds us. Babies make the link with their mother’s voice and can interpret through tone and pitch as to whether the voice is friendly or not. Babies are born with some skills and abilities, so they are not a blank slate in this case; auditory perception allows us to judge the distance an object is from us and what it is. So for children and young people to develop perception they need to experience as much as they can both indoors and outdoors, so what happens if you have some sort of hearing impairment? We shall look at this later in the unit.

2. Visual perception allows us to differentiate between objects; it also lets us see how far away an object is. So with both auditory and visual perception we can pinpoint where an object is. Again what happens if you have some sort of visual impairment? We shall look at this later in the unit.

As we all grow up in different environments, social background, culture… as we develop we all have our own perceptions about the world around us.

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In this unit we shall not be looking at Extra Sensory Perception (ESP) as this is beyond the scope of this unit and should be researched separately. To get you started go to: http://www.davidmyers.org/esp/ or search for “Extra Sensory Perception”.

Language skills These are an important part of intellectual development, which is a means of communication, but not the only one. We develop language skills from the minute we are born through listening to sounds and then verbalising back. Language is also a way of making sense of all that goes on in our environment.

ACTIVITY 3.11

What would prevent us from gaining language skills? Thinking skills This is the process used by using the information we have collected and putting it into some sort of order to get an end result; this to some degree would bear out when a baby cries for attention. They have gone through a process and come up with the fact that if they cry, someone will come. As the child gets older they process information before acting upon it, asking a question or giving an answer which shows that a process is taking place. Various theorists have put forward theories on intellectual development, such as Sigmund Freud, Jean Piaget, L.S. Vygotsky and Jerome Bruner; we will look at theorists later on in the unit. Problem solving skills What is problem solving and how do we develop this skill? Problem solving is a mental process which is part of the larger problem process that includes problem finding and problem shaping. Considered the most complex of all intellectual functions, problem solving has been defined as a higher-order cognitive process that requires the modulation and control of more routine or fundamental skills. Problem solving occurs when an organism or an artificial intelligence system needs to move from a given state to a desired goal state.

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Children and young people to some degree have a limited knowledge and so tend to use a trial-and-error method to solve problems. As they get older and gain more knowledge they think back mentally and try to recall a similar experience that has happened in the past. When children and young people move into scientific discovery or mathematical calculations, problem-solving becomes a major part of this area. So in some cases it is developed through trial-and-error and in others it is by following a laid-down procedure to reach a solution.

Understanding of concepts What do we mean by concepts? Concepts are the constituents of thoughts. Consequently, they are crucial to such psychological processes as categorisation, inference, memory, learning, and decision-making. Concepts can be divided into two areas: the abstract, which is mainly associated with scientific and mathematical theories, and concrete, which is associated with solid objects relating to shape, colour and physical forces. We shall now look at the two areas of concepts to see what lies in each area.

Concrete concepts:

• Mathematical concepts – involve sorting, classification, numbers, shape, colour etc.

• Scientific concepts – living and growing, object permanence (although an object has been moved out of sight it is still there), change of state (ice, water and steam are the same in different forms).

• Positional relationships – inside and out, front and back, up and down. Abstract concepts:

• Moral concepts – learning the difference between right and wrong, looking at one’s own morality before making a decision.

• Concept of time – looking at the sequence of events, e.g. from birth to now or a school trip; the concept of today, tomorrow and yesterday; telling the time.

• Higher number operations – using numbers without actual objects, e.g. mental arithmetic, knowing times tables.

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Memory skills This is the ability to recall information which is stored in the brain. The more we are stimulated by our environment, the more information our brain stores. The information that we store in the brain isn’t stored randomly but tends to be compartmentalised or filed, so in effect a chair and sofa would be in the same category. So, if you then saw another item that you sat on, this would then go in the same box. There are two types of memory, short-term and long-term. Short-term memory is information that is stored for about 20 seconds, which is the working memory. Sometimes people that have a head injury lose short-term memory, so some of the memories are not passed on to the long-term memory. Normally the information gained in the 20 seconds is either forgotten or passed on to the long-term memory, where it is stored until needed, this is when we retain, as we say, “a piece of useless information”, it has been stored with some significance at the time.

Concentration Concentration has been defined as “the ability to direct one’s thinking in whatever direction one would intend”. As we saw when we looked at the sequences of children’s development, that concentration is gained through various stages of a child’s growth. Obviously there are factors that will impede the concentration development which could be a medical condition Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) or Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD), or purely that the child or young person isn’t engaged through boredom or lack of interest. Concentration is needed to be able to take in information which is linked to other intellectual functions such as memory skills and problem-solving skills. If a child or young person is so engrossed in an activity they tend to be oblivious to anything else that is happening around them, which shows that their attention span and concentration has increased considerably. Again, if they are not interested then they tend to be looking around and not showing any interest. Activities that are provided in the school should be meeting the needs of all children and young people to help develop their concentration skills and extend their attention span. Refer back to sequences of children’s development through the ages.

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Imagination and creativity Children from a young age start with imaginative play. As most people who work in the early years sector will comment on, the best piece of equipment is a cardboard box as this can be turned into so many environments through a child’s imagination. By giving children and young people junk materials, e.g. cardboard tubes, yoghurt pots, they will create some wonderful pieces of artwork. To extend a child or young person’s creativity or imagination, materials need to be supplied that are age-appropriate but also to challenge their abilities. Creative ability is not just developed through building things but through painting and drawing, experimenting with colours and shapes. Creativity brings in some of the other intellectual skills that we have already looked at; problem solving, concentration, fine motor skills and communication are also incorporated into creativity.

ACTIVITY 3.12

Having looked at the aspects of intellectual development, make a list of the skills linked to intellectual development, then give examples of possible activities you could use for each. Then think how you could develop these activities to make them more challenging.

So as a Teaching Assistant, what is your role in promoting children’s intellectual development? You are there to support the teacher, you need to be given time to plan activities to promote the intellectual development of children and young people. As a teaching assistant you will be aware of any additional support that a child or young person needs, activities should give them the opportunity to explore their environment, e.g. school trips; share books, rhymes, stories; again making them appropriate for their age.

Ways to promote children’s intellectual development

• Play and learning activities should stretch development by making them more challenging

• Materials should be provided to give children the opportunity to increase their curiosity

• Making children explore their environment more by using all their senses, which then gets them to experiment

• By engaging with the children in their activities, so extending their development by asking questions

• Making sure that the children are looking and listening attentively, so developing their concentration and memory skills

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ACTIVITY 3.13

What external and internal factors would prevent us from gaining intellectual skills? Supporting communication and language development We see language as the major ingredient in every aspect of development, but language isn’t the only way that we communicate with one another.

ACTIVITY 3.14

Make a list of what other forms of communication there are that we can use. Within society there are numerous languages, dialects, alphabets and symbols; so within each household or local community they will use one system that is common to them and they will learn this as they develop, as it is a complex system.

Communication skills We have already said that there are other ways to communicate with other people as well as verbalising; we call these modes of language, and these are numerous, but we can split them down into two categories, verbal and non-verbal.

ACTIVITY 3.15

Take the list you made for Activity 3.14 above and make two columns, verbal and non-verbal, then put each form of communication in its respective column.

Throughout the modes of communication, all of them are interlinked. If you refer to the textbook; Kamen, T. (2011) Teaching Assistant’s Handbook Level 3, Hodder Education Chapter 1 page 38, there is a diagram showing the inter-related components of the modes of learning.

So as a Teaching Assistant, what is your role in promoting children’s language development?

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The teaching assistant’s role is encourage and give children and young people the opportunity to express themselves using language, helping them to develop their language skills by guiding them to using language effectively. It is important to listen to what they are saying and respond in an appropriate manner, as you can pick up underlying trends from the manner in which they communicate; the teaching assistant works with these children and young people most of the time. As a teaching assistant you need to be aware of children and young people that have additional needs when planning or speaking to them, children that have English as a second language need consideration as well.

Ways to promote children’s language development

• Speaking to children and young people using language they understand

• Talking to them about everyday topics

• Engaging them as much as possible to develop their language skills

• Using the rules of communication turn-taking

• Sharing books, rhymes, stories, past and present events

• Encouraging them to develop and extend their vocabulary by copying the sounds and words that are said by speaking back to them with more words added. As with young children they will say a word, so you could add more description when speaking back to them.

ACTIVITY 3.16

What external and internal factors can affect language development?

EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

This section of development to some degree determines who we are, as it links to personality and temperament, giving us our individuality. Personality is the particular combination of emotional, attitudinal, and behavioral response patterns of an individual. Temperament is the manner of thinking, behaving, or reacting characteristics of a specific person.

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Nature versus nurture in personality development There has always been lots of discussion surrounding nature versus nurture in most areas of development; babies have distinct personalities from a few weeks old. As children develop they take on certain characteristics from their parents, such as hair and eye colour. They also inherit some of their parent’s personality and temperament, but influences through their environment also have an impact on how their personality and temperament develop through their life; so it would be fair to say that both nature and nurture contribute in the development of personality. In studies of young babies it has been shown that they have developed a distinct personality type: 40 per cent were easy-going, 10 per cent? (Fontana, 1994). As all children are individual it wouldn’t be appropriate to put them into categories and label their personalities from a young age, as we continually say that all children and young people are individuals.

ACTIVITY 3.17

What external and internal factors can affect emotional development? Developing attachment This is one of the most important steps that any baby goes through, and forming a bond with a significant adult that meets the needs of the child provides a firm foundation for promoting emotional development. Although they form many attachments in those first weeks of life they form a bond with a person that they spend a significant amount of time with, this may not be the parents, but could be a grandparent or child carer. There have been studies done on attachment and probably the best known theorist for this is John Bowlby, who looked at attachment theory. We will look at theorists further on this unit. Once the child has formed these stable and secure relationships they can then go on to build on other relationships in the knowledge that they have built a firm foundation. Having these foundations they can then go on to develop their own independence, and they can move on to children recognising and dealing with their own feelings and of others.

Developing self-esteem This is another part of becoming who we are and is how we perceive ourselves; this include self-respect, self-image, and self-worth, both positive and negative aspects. So how do we develop self-esteem? We look at ourselves as a separate person in relation to others around them. As there are so many factors that make us who we are it is virtually impossible to say we are identical to someone else, so we are all individuals with individual characteristics. We identify with others through culture, race, social background etc., which is part of our identity.

So as a Teaching Assistant what is your role in promoting children’s emotional development?

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As your role you should help provide routines that help the child develop self-esteem by giving them activities that they can accomplish, without it being too easy, but with a certain degree of difficulty so that it gives the child a challenge. Part of the building of self-esteem is you being a significant figure in the child’s life to provide support, stability and security. Throughout the activities and routines that the child carries out, praise should always be given by the teaching assistant who helps to develop the child’s self-esteem. The teaching assistant can help with the child or young person when going through transitions that occur in their lives; transitions will be looked at further on in the unit.

Ways to promote children’s emotional development

• Encouragement and praise should be used • Taking an active interest through their efforts and achievements • Making opportunities available so they can make decisions and choices • Providing positive images of adults and children which promotes equal opportunities • Consistence through discipline and rules

We have now covered all aspect of development, physical, intellectual, social, emotional and communication through sequence from birth to adolescence for what we would call expected development, but what happens when there are external and internal factors which affect this process? We will now look at external and internal factors that affect the development of the child or young person. Throughout each area of development you were asked to look at factors that affected development, now compare your list to factors that follow.

INTERNAL FACTORS

These are things that affect the child or young person as it relates to the person, some sort of disorder that affects the normal function of the body in its sequence of development. So what sort of internal factors affect development? Fetal alcohol syndrome is caused by the fetus having been exposed to alcohol in the womb. This can result in physical and cognitive malfunctions that are not connected to hereditary influences. In addition, nutrition plays a large role in the development of certain characteristics, or the lack thereof. Even stress can alter DNA and cause developmental delays. In addition, stress, pollutants such as cigarette smoke and malnutrition can slow the physical and cognitive development of children as well.

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Down’s syndrome: All people with Down’s syndrome will have some degree of learning disability. Children with Down’s syndrome do learn to walk, talk and be toilet-trained, but in general will meet these developmental milestones later than their ordinary peers. Details as to developmental delays can be found at: http://www.downs-syndrome.org.uk/component/content/article/38-health/190-6-how-does-downs-syndrome-affect-development.html

ADHD/ADD: Children with attention deficit and/or hyperactivity face many difficulties as they grow up. As infants, those later diagnosed with ADHD are often described to have been excitable, irritable, colicky, or inconsolable. Often they are very physically active, easily distracted, and can be extremely sensitive to sights, sounds and touch, which can make traditional soothing methods seem ineffective. More information can be found at: http://drpaul.com/oldsite/behaviour/adhddevl.html Hearing impairment: Hearing is a critical part of language development, communication and learning. If hearing loss is from birth then it is more serious, but if identified early enough and detected early enough it isn’t quite as serious. So how does hearing impairment affect development? It delays development of receptive and expressive communication skills; it causes learning problems that result in reduced academic achievement; communication problems can lead to being socially isolated or having poor self-esteem and self-worth, or have an impact on vocational choices. Visual impairment: Eighty per cent of all learning is achieved through vision. Children and young people’s vision is a learned and developed skill that requires inspiration and understanding. The visual system involves much more than the eyes. The visual system interacts with the muscles of the body to develop reaching, crawling, grabbing and walking. In fact, two thirds of the functions of the brain are connected with vision. Because vision requires motivation, problems that occur in the eye or in the visual areas of the brain can affect children’s vision. Examples of these problems include eye diseases, such as congenital cataracts, retinopathy of prematurity, ocular albinism, optic nerve and retinal disease, and neurological abnormalities to the visual pathways and visual centres of the brain. A young child with visual impairments has little reason to explore interesting objects in the environment, and thus, may miss opportunities to have experiences and to learn. This lack of exploration may continue until learning becomes motivating or until intervention begins. For more information on visual impairment go to: http://www.brighttots.com/Developmental_disorders/Children-Visual-Impairment Physical impairments: Impairments can range from asthma, diabetes, epilepsy and cancer, to more obvious physical conditions such as spina bifida and genetic disorders such as Down syndrome. In their own fashion, each can be as damaging as any other. A child or young person with a physical impairment may have difficulties in one or more of the following areas: gross motor skills, fine motor skills, self-care and communication skills.

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Cerebral palsy (CP) is a disorder that affects muscle tone, movement and motor skills (the ability to move in a coordinated and purposeful way). Cerebral palsy can also lead to other health issues, including vision, hearing, and speech problems, and learning disabilities. Cerebral palsy is one of the most common congenital (existing before birth or at birth) disorders of childhood.

The three types of CP are:

• spastic cerebral palsy – causes stiffness and movement difficulties • athetoid cerebral palsy – leads to involuntary and uncontrolled movements • ataxic cerebral palsy – causes a disturbed sense of balance and depth perception

Cerebral palsy affects muscle control and coordination, so even simple movements like standing still are difficult. Other vital functions that also involve motor skills and muscles such as breathing, bladder and bowel control, eating, and learning may also be affected when a child has C.P. Cerebral palsy does not get worse over time. For more information go to: http://kidshealth.org/parent/medical/brain/cerebral_palsy.html We have now looked at some of the internal factors that affect children and young person’s development, which you have seen can be genetic or develop through growing up. But having said this there will always be unforeseen accidents which could leave a child or young person with some form of impairment. In all cases if early intervention happens then the child or young person can get the help they need to meet their individual needs, giving them the opportunity to reach their full potential.

EXTERNAL FACTORS So what are the factors that will affect development from an external source? We are looking at this section in the context that the child or young person doesn’t have any internal factors affecting their development.

Economic Factors It has been shown that children who live in deprived areas have a harder time socialising than their more affluent peers. There may be several factors to account for the differences, but one of the most important is that the community as a whole likely has limited access to social opportunities. In towns with a comfortable economic demographic, there are typically many organisations that offer activities for children, but in communities where money is especially tight, residents do not have the necessary funds to extra-curricular activities that provide kids with opportunities for social development.

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Stress A generation ago, the word “stress” was reserved for adults, but these days, children and young people are often subjected to their own stressors. Over-scheduling, family difficulties, school and social commitments, limited outlets for active play, and exposure to frightening media influences can all be sources of stress for children and young people. Children are highly susceptible to the constant barrage of news, advertising, and celebrity influences that are common in the lives of today’s children and young people. Frightening movies, violent video games, and even news broadcasts can all leave children and young people feeling uncertain and insecure. Providing children and young people with a solid, secure base is vital for healthy emotional development, and without this foundation, social development is negatively impacted. Children who are nervous about their own safety cannot be free to focus on the joys of being a children or young person – playing, making friends, and developing a good sense of self. Taking steps to assure that children and young people feel safe and secure is one of the most important jobs of parents and others who are interested in the welfare of children and young people.

Health If children and young people don’t receive proper nutrition it can impact on their development both physically and psychologically; proper nutrition relates to functional outcomes for them as they get older. Unhealthy eating can lead to weight gain and other negative effects if the child does not learn how to eat healthy early in life. The fact is that it is the increased duration and intensity of the exposures to healthy eating habits, through both hands-on learning and leading by example, that really make a positive impact on a child’s development.

Parental Interactions Parental interactions with children can have a largely positive or negative effect on child development. Parents who spend time playing and teaching their kids through reading and by performing various types of hands-on games and activities can have a positive impact on their child’s development. On the flip side, parents who ignore or neglect to interact with their children in a positive way may be hindering their healthy development.

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Learning Environment Children and young people who are surrounded, both at home and at school/early years settings, by a strong learning environment that is both informative and supportive may improve their development. Children exposed to poor and underprivileged educational environments tend to be at a higher risk of being negatively affected in terms of their development. So parental involvement does play a large part in the educational development of children and young people. For more information go to: http://p15136218.pureserver.info/course-material/stls/TheImpactofParentalInvolvementon365kb2.pdf

Pollution Environmental pollution can directly affect a child’s physical development and damage the respiratory system. Babies and children can have their growth restricted. Follow the links below to find out more about car exhaust fumes and how pollution can affect development:

• http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/education/3207695.stm • http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/3254448.stm

Social background When we talk of social background we tend to think about where we live, class, culture, ethnicity etc. It has been found that the physical characteristics of neighbourhoods significantly influence children’s development. These characteristics include: residential instability, housing quality, noise, crowding, toxic exposure, quality of municipal services, retail services, recreational opportunities, including natural settings, street traffic, accessibility of transportation, and the physical quality of both educational and health facilities. Research findings support the therapeutic effects of children’s exposure to natural settings. Natural settings are preferred by children and allow them to exercise gross motor abilities as well as engage in social interactions. In addition, these settings also alleviate the adverse effects of children’s exposure to chronic stress.

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From above it shows how direct and indirect effects of the physical environment impact on children’s development. Direct effects include cognitive, social, emotional, and biological outcomes. Indirect effects include interactions with parents and teachers, which in turn, influence developmental outcomes such as learning and language development. For more information on effects of the physical environment go to:

• http://www.human.cornell.edu/hd/outreach-extension/upload/evans.pdf

We’ve looked at factors that affect the development of children and young people, but how would we know if there was some sort of developmental delay? Below are some examples of the possible signs:

• Behavioural

O Does not pay attention or stay focused on an activity for as long a time as other children of the same age

O Focuses on unusual objects for long periods of time; enjoys this more than interacting with others

O Avoids or rarely makes eye contact with others

O Gets unusually frustrated when trying to do simple tasks that most children of the same age can do

O Shows aggressive behaviours and acting out, and appears to be very stubborn compared with other children

O Displays violent behaviours on a daily basis

O Stares into space, rocks body, or talks to self more often than other children of the same age

O Does not seek love and approval from a caregiver or parent

• Gross Motor

O Has stiff arms and/or legs O Has a floppy or limp body posture compared to other children of the same age O Uses one side of body more than the other O Has a very clumsy manner compared with other children of the same age

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• Vision

O Seems to have difficulty following objects or people with her eyes

O Rubs eyes frequently

O Turns, tilts or holds head in a strained or unusual position when trying to look at an object

O Seems to have difficulty finding or picking up small objects dropped on the floor (after the age of 12 months)

O Has difficulty focusing or making eye contact

O Closes one eye when trying to look at distant objects

O Eyes appear to be crossed or turned

O Brings objects too close to eyes to see

O One or both eyes appear abnormal in size or colouring

• Hearing

O Talks in a very loud or very soft voice

O Seems to have difficulty responding when called from across the room, even when it is for something interesting

O Turns body so that the same ear is always turned toward sound

O Has difficulty understanding what has been said or following directions after once she has turned 3 years of age

O Doesn’t startle to loud noises

O Ears appear small or deformed

O Fails to develop sounds or words that would be appropriate at her age http://www.howkidsdevelop.com/developDevDelay.html

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Having identified the factors affecting expected development and the possible signs associated with these factors, we shall now move onto what help is available for the child or young person.

ACTIVITY 3.18

List all professionals that that can give support to help a child or young person develop to their full potential.

TYPICAL SUPPORT AND SERVICES THAT ARE CONSIDERED EARLY INTERVENTION

If it’s determined that early intervention can help your child, they could have access to the following specialists, depending on the condition:

• Developmental teachers • Occupational therapists • Physical therapists • Speech and language pathologist/audiologists • Vision consultants • Hearing consultants

Within the school we have already come across the SENCO. Special Educational Needs Coordinator (SENCO) The special needs coordinator is the teacher with overall responsibility for coordinating provision for children with special educational needs in the school and for monitoring their progress. The SEN Code of Practice outlines the role and responsibilities of the special needs coordinator, including:

• Overseeing the day-to-day operation of the school’s SEN policy • Coordinating provision for children with special educational needs • Liaising with and advising fellow teachers • Managing learning support assistants • Overseeing the records of all children with special educational needs • Liaising with parents of children with special educational needs • Contributing to the in-service training of staff

• Liaising with external agencies including LEA’s support and educational psychology services,

health and social services and voluntary bodies. (DfES. 2001 para 5:32)

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http://www.optimus-education.com/search/senco?f[0]=field_search_group%3A949 Depending on the size of the school sometimes they have a school nurse who is a medical nurse, based in a school, who provides support for children’s medical needs.

LEARNING MENTORS

What are they and what do they do? Learning mentors usually work in educational settings with pupils of all abilities who need help to overcome difficulties that are getting in the way of their learning. The types of issues which may get in the way of learning can include family problems, bereavement, bullying, low self-confidence and poor study skills. Learning mentors develop one-to-one supportive relationships and also work in group settings.

The work of a learning mentor could include:

• Identifying what difficulties are preventing the child or young person from reaching their full potential

• Agreeing targets for attendance, academic achievement, timekeeping and homework

• Helping pupils with study skills, revision and examination techniques

• Developing anti-bullying strategies

• Developing personal skills to improve self-confidence, self-esteem, and resilience

• Offering emotional support and motivation

• Supporting children and young people through personal crises

• Helping pupils to modify their behaviours using techniques such as anger management

• Working closely with teachers and other professionals, pupils’ families and others

• Running clubs and drop-in sessions for pupils and their parents or carers

• Developing action plans, produce reports, case notes and monitor children’s progress

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http://www.cwdcouncil.org.uk/learning-mentors

“Learning mentors are making a significant effect on the attendance, behaviour, self-esteem and progress of the pupils they support… [Learning mentors are] successful and highly valued… In 95% of the survey schools, inspectors judged that the mentoring programme made a positive contribution to the mainstream provision of the school as a whole, and had a beneficial effect on the behaviour of individual pupils and on their ability to learn and make progress.”

Page 46, Excellence in Cities and Education Action Zones: management and impact (Ofsted,

2003) Outside of school we have: Multi-agency teams Multi-agency working brings together practitioners from different sectors and professions to provide an integrated way of working to support children, young people and families. It is a way of working that ensures children and young people who need additional support have exactly the right professionals needed to support them. ‘Multi-agency working’ is a generic term and takes different forms locally. For example:

• in a team around a particular child or family

• as a panel dealing with needs of individual children or families based on an area or establishment

• where services work together within a single unit, either co-located or virtual

• regular meetings across services (e.g. once a month) Multi-agency working could involve anyone whose job or voluntary work puts them in contact with children, young people and their families. It is likely to include people from professional backgrounds, including social work, health, education, Early Years, youth work, police and youth justice. Because children, young people and family’s needs may be very different, the composition of a multi-agency team will differ from case to case.

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It is important each practitioner brings with them their own specialist skills, expertise and insight so that the child, young person and family gets the best support possible. Benefits to service users Multi-agency working provides benefits for children, young people and families because they receive tailor-made support in the most efficient way. The benefits of this include:

• early identification and intervention • easier or quicker access to services or expertise • improved achievement in education and better engagement in education • better support for parents • children, young people and family’s needs addressed more appropriately • better quality services • reduces need for more specialist services

http://www.education.gov.uk/childrenandyoungpeople/strategy/integratedworking/a0069013/multi-agency-working

Below are some of the specialists within the multi-agency teams. Educational psychologist – Their role is to help children who are experiencing problems within the educational setting. They can work with individuals or groups, advising relevant school staff on issues. They carry out an assessment to see what interventions need to be put in place to help the pupil. The educational psychologist will also do in-house training for the school staff. For more information on this role go to: http://www.prospects.ac.uk/educational_psychologist_job_description.htm Speech therapist – These people work within a multidisciplinary team along with other health professionals, nurses, doctors, psychologists. They support people across all age ranges from children to adults who have speech problems, so will liaise with schools if the need arises. For more information on this role go to: http://www.prospects.ac.uk/speech_and_language_therapist_job_description.htm A named officer is a family’s contact person at the local education authority, if it issues a statement of special educational needs for the child or young person. They manage the child or young person’s statutory assessment and write up the statement of needs. This statement follows the child through their time in education. For further information go to: http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/CaringForSomeone/CaringForADisabledChild/DG_10027150

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A social worker is an individual who aims to help those people within society who have – for whatever reasons – an inability or a difficulty in dealing with issues or crises that see them excluded from society. Social workers can carry out their duties in a variety of different locations and settings, ranging from a client’s home their school, hospital or other public sector organisation. Further information on social work can be found on: http://www.workingwithkids.co.uk/social-worker.html Above we have looked briefly into the people who are able to support children and young people who have additional needs to help them develop to their full potential, at the end of some of the professions there are links for further information.

TRANSITIONS AND HOW CHILDREN AND YOUNG PEOPLE MANAGE THEM

What are transitions? Transitions are changes that take place in our life; changes that move us from one stage to another, for example from being employed to being unemployed, from being on holiday to going back to school. Transitions are an essential part of growing up and the most important ones happen when we are babies and young children. Some of the more universal transitions that all children experience are:

• birth itself • from milk to solids • from crawling to walking • from being fed to feeding ourselves • from nappies to being potty trained • able to be cared for by others • going to nursery • going to school • developing new skills.

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Other transitions that some children or young people may experience are:

• a new baby • violence/abuse • parents divorcing/step parent/new partner • a serious illness/accident/death in the family • unexpected change of school • moving house.

It is these early transitions, and how we cope with them that will have the greatest effect on the rest of our emotional development, and on our ability to cope with life’s challenges. Experience of transitions Most transitions that children and young people go through are part of growing up and present them with challenges. The transitions that they go through are not always done on their own, as they are supported by adults and peers. The experience of going through the transition will depend on the kind of response and support they get from those around themselves. We must also keep in mind the fact that a child’s early experiences of transitions will have a big effect on how they handle transitions at later stages of their lives.

ACTIVITY 3.19

What are the possible effects on children through transitions? Effects of transitions on children and young people Most of the time children and young people will go through transitions quite easily as they will have the support of peers and adults. Children who are unable to cope with transitions will show different types of behaviour and emotions; they will try to hide their feelings and emotions from adults and peers. Looking at some of the ways that children and young people react to changes:

• The child or young person may behave in a manner that you are not normally accustomed to. Sometimes all they want is a quiet word asking if something is bothering them.

• On occasions children will want to talk and tell you things before the parent does.

• Children at times will regress for a time and need help with tasks that they have been able to do in the past; this can happen when a new baby arrives.

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• Concerns by the child can emerge through drawings or stories as they are sometimes unwilling to play.

(Lindon, 2007; pp.90/91) Positive and negative effects of transitions Transitions are something that continually happens through our development; I guess transitions happen all the way through our lives, as life is in constant change. There are positive aspects to transitions as well as negative ones.

ACTIVITY 3.20

Think back to your first day at school, moving from possibly some form of daycare nursery/Childminder/pre-school; certainly from my own experience you went straight to school on Monday morning and that was it, no settling-in period for the next 11 years. So was the transition positive or negative?

Let’s look at some of the transitions in early life that children and young people go through, we started off by asking you to look back at your first day at school so what are the feelings that might be experienced; stress, anxiety, dread, fear, anger etc.

What are possible reasons for these feelings?

• Being left by parent or guardian • Unfamiliar surroundings and people • Length of time being left • Having to do something you don’t want to do

ACTIVITY 3.21

So was the experience when you moved from primary school to secondary school positive or negative?

Moving from one school to another has its own challenges, whether one is the oldest and knows their way around, or one being the youngest, unfamiliar with the surroundings, moving round the school for different lessons, unfamiliar surroundings and people.

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Probably one of the hardest transitions for a child or young person is when they have to change schools mid-term when the family moves to another area, there are more pressures on them not only having to deal with the school but also a new area. So what are the effects and experiences likely to be?

• Not knowing anyone in the area • Being new at school and not having any friends • Unfamiliar surroundings and people • Feeling of isolation, stress, anxiety • Decrease of achievement levels • Negative impact on future academic achievement • Anger at having to move and leave familiar surroundings and friends

Thinking back not that long ago, children and young people had to deal with transitions, as they were seen as a part of growing up without any thought of how it affected the child or young person. So how can we support children and young people through transitions? Supporting transitions Common Core of Skills and Knowledge for the Children’s Workforce includes children’s transitions as a key area of work. In the chapter “Supporting transitions”, it notes:

“As recognised in effective communication and child development, it is important to understand a child or young person in the context of their life, to recognise and understand the impact of any transitions they may be going through. It is also vital to recognise the role of parents and carers in supporting children at points of transition and to understand the need for reassurance, advice and support that parents and carers may express at these points”.

(DfES, 2005a; p16)

So having gone from having to basically cope with transitions, it is essential that children and young people are prepared for these; for what some children and young people will see as traumatic events. How do we support a child through transitions between 3 and 11 years?

• Children will have probably been in some form of day-care before starting school so it won’t be so much of a trauma having to leave parent or guardian.

• It is commonplace now for teachers to do home visits to introduce themselves to the child and parent. School visits are organised so that the child gets used to the new surroundings.

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• You can talk or look at books about the move to school.

• The teacher can be given relevant details about the child on the home visit.

How do we support a child through transitions from 11 to 16 and beyond?

• By visiting the school on open days and evenings

• Speaking to people already at the school

• Talking to the teaching staff about their child’s individual needs and their previous achievements, interests etc.

• Using opportunities of taster days, or as some schools do, the new starters start a day before the rest so that they can get used to their new surroundings

• Visit colleges before moving from school, again taster days, open evenings

• Collecting information about the environment they are moving to

• Look on the Internet at settings as there will probably be testimonies from previous users

• Taking advantage of work experience to get a feel for what it’s like in the workforce

• To provide opportunities for careers advice and information about training and further education

Ten principles to support children’s transitions The National Children’s Bureau has developed ten principles to help workers support children and young people’s transitions at all ages and whatever the transitions they are facing. These are:

1. Identify key changes, critical moments and transition points for children and young people.

2. Ensure mainstream work with children and young people builds life skills, including emotional resilience and empathy, and emphasises the importance of asking for help and support when they are needed.

3. Develop curriculum and project work that focuses on transitions.

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4. Prepare children and young people for leaving school or leaving care well in advance, providing an opportunity to reflect on successes and challenges and celebrate their work together.

5. Identify individuals who may need particular support through transitions. Identify the support mechanism and agencies that are available for the child and their families. Work in partnership to provide this support, where possible.

6. Involve children and young people in providing support to their peers as part of everyday friendships and relationships.

7. Involve and support parents and carers in transitions work.

8. Encourage optimism and work with the excitement and opportunities, as well as the fears and anxieties.

9. If the behaviour of a child or young person changes, encourage them to acknowledge it and talk about it.

10. Provide consistent responses to critical moments and events in children and young people’s lives, such as when they are bullied, bereaved or experiencing parental divorce or separation. Ensure the child is at the heart of deciding what support and help they need.

(Worth, 2005 as quoted in Turnbull, 2006; p.30.)

ACTIVITY 3.22

What frameworks are there that support children through their development? For babies to 3 years old we have Birth to Three Matters; as we are looking at school this will not be discussed, but if you want to see what it is about go to: http://www.foundationyears.org.uk/files/2012/04/Birth-to-Three-Matters-Booklet.pdf The birth to the end of reception class is covered by the Foundation stage in England. The Early Years Foundation Stage (EYFS) is a comprehensive statutory framework that sets the standards for the learning, development and care of children from birth to five.

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All providers are required to use the EYFS to ensure that whatever setting parents choose, they can be confident their child will receive a quality experience that supports their care, learning and development. For more information go to: http://www.education.gov.uk/childrenandyoungpeople/earlylearningandchildcare/delivery/education/ a0068102/early-years-foundation-stage-eyfs In Wales they have the early years foundation phase. For information go to: http://wales.gov.uk/topics/educationandskills/earlyyearshome/foundation_phase/?lang=en In school they have the National Curriculum which is taught to all pupils in state or maintained schools, is made up of blocks of years, known as key stages:

• Year 1 and Year 2 of primary school are known as Key Stage 1 • Years 3 to 6 of primary school are known as Key Stage 2

Compulsory National Curriculum subjects are the same for Key Stages 1 and 2: English, Maths, Science, Design and technology, Information and Communication Technology (ICT), History, Geography, Art and design, Music and Physical education Schools also have to teach religious education, though parents have the right to withdraw children for all or part of the religious education curriculum. In addition, schools are advised to teach personal, social and health education (PSHE) and citizenship, together with at least one modern foreign language. For further information go to: http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Parents/Schoolslearninganddevelopment/ExamsTestsAndTheCurriculu m/DG_4015959

As the last part of this unit we shall look at theorists and theories of development. The following will give you a brief insight into some of the theories and theorist perspectives that are linked to the development of children and young people; it is expected that you should research further to gain a more in-depth knowledge of theoretical perspectives and theorists.

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THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

As we have mentioned throughout there has always been the ‘nature versus nurture’ argument. On the subject of language development there was Noam Chomsky’s nativist theory that all children had what was called LAD (Learning Acquisition Device) which stated that once children learned their vocabulary that they would then produce consistent sentences. On the other hand there was the behaviorist theory put forward by B. F. Skinner which says that language is learned through reinforcement and imitation, which would suggest that if children don’t hear language then they won’t develop language skills.

Theory of social development Lev Vygotsky was responsible for the Social Development Theory, one of the foundations of constructivism, which has three main themes:

1. Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. In contrast to Jean Piaget’s understanding of child development (in which development necessarily precedes learning), Vygotsky felt social learning precedes development. He states: “Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological).” (Vygotsky, 1978).

2. The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO). The MKO refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept. The MKO is normally thought of as being a teacher, coach, or older adult, but the MKO could also be peers, a younger person, or even computers.

3. The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). The ZPD is the distance between a student’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the student’s ability solving the problem independently. According to Vygotsky, learning occurred in this zone.

http://www.learning-theories.com/vygotskys-social-learning-theory.html Theories of Cognitive Development There exist several theories of cognitive development, and no one theory has yet explained all of the aspects of cognitive development.

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Jean Piaget’s stages of development Piaget’s theory is generally thought to be the most comprehensive theory of cognitive development. The general principles of Piaget’s theory include the following. He felt that intelligence is an aid in how one adapts to the environment. Equilibration refers to how development occurs through stages. Piaget considered four main stages of development. The sensorimotor stage is when an infant develops in terms of sensory input and motor output. In other words, the infant responds reflexively to their environment (i.e., crying, sucking, and grasping). At about 18-24 months as they start to be able to think about objects and people who are not in their immediate environment. The Preoperational stage (2-7 years) is made up of a development in how children can mentally represent things and verbally communicate. The concrete-operational stage (7-12 years) is characterised by a child’s ability to mentally manipulate their thoughts about real objects. They now have thoughts and memories of objects, and can perform mental operations on these. The final stage of the formal operational stage (12 onwards) is characterised by the ability to make mental manipulations on internal and abstract symbols – they begin to see others’ perspectives.

Lev Vygotsky’s Theory The main difference in Vygotsky’s theory is that he emphasises the role of environment in children’s intellectual development – in which development proceeds from the outside in, through internalisation. Internalisation is the process by which an individual absorbs knowledge from their external environment. Therefore, it is social rather than biological factors that most affect the child. He believed that there exists a Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which is the range of ability between a person’s level of abilities and their capabilities that may not be directly exposed. Therefore when observing children’s abilities we need to be careful in how we measure them, as we may not be observing all that they are capable of due to environmental circumstances that prevent them from showing their full potential.

http://www.psychologycampus.com/cognitive-psychology/development-theories.html Attachment theory When considering attachment theory, everyone automatically thinks of Bowlby, and his theories on attachment and on maternal deprivation have been some of the most influential writings on the topic. Bowlby did however concentrate on the bond between mother and child, but as we know other attachments that are made are just as important. The nature of attachment is to have a safe base to then go and explore from. For more details on Bowlby go to:

http://psychology4a.com/attach 4.htm

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Another theorist, Mary Ainsworth expanded on the work of Bowlby and her study on “strange situation” found that there was a profound effect of attachment on behaviour. For more information go to: http://psychology.about.com/od/loveandattraction/a/attachment01.htm When we talk about child development we are all aware of Sigmund Freud; his theories stressed the importance of childhood events and experiences. However he tended to focus on mental disorders more than normal development. According to Freud, child development is described as a series of ‘psychosexual stages.’ He outlined these stages as oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital. Each stage involves the satisfaction of a libidinal desire and can later play a role in adult personality. If a child does not successfully complete a stage, Freud suggested that he or she would develop a fixation that would later influence adult personality and behavior. For more information go to:

• http://psychology.about.com/od/developmentalpsychology/a/childdevtheory.html • http://psychology.about.com/od/theoriesofpersonality/ss/psychosexualdev.html

Theories of development Erik Erikson was a follower of Freud’s work, and he came up with a theory of his own, which was known as the the ‘psychosocial’ stages of human development, which span from birth to death, and focuses on ‘tasks’ at each stage that must be accomplished to successfully navigate life’s challenges. Psychologist Albert Bandura proposed what is known as social learning theory. According to this theory of child development, children learn new behaviors from observing other people. Unlike behavioural theories, Bandura believed that external reinforcement was not the only way that people learned new things. Instead, intrinsic reinforcements such as a sense of pride, satisfaction and accomplishment could also lead to learning. By observing the actions of others, including parents and peers, children develop new skills and acquire new information. For more information go to: http://psychology.about.com/od/developmentalpsychology/a/sociallearning.html One of the twentieth century’s theorists, Jerome Bruner made an enormous contribution to our understanding of the education process. As a professor of psychology at Harvard, he was particularly interested in the cognitive development of children and what appropriate forms of education might be. His ‘landmark’ text, The Process of Education (1960) revealed his particular view of constructivism – the theory that learners actively construct their own knowledge based upon the things they know now and have known in the past. For more information on Bruner go to: http://infed.org/mobi/jerome-bruner-and-the-process-of-education/

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At the beginning of this section it was stressed that it would be a brief overview of some of the main theorists who have had an impact on child development over the years; website addresses have been given for you to start doing some of your own research into theoretical perspectives.

SUMMARY OF KEY POINTS IN THIS UNIT

• Observing children’s development including: the purpose of observation; the basic principles of child observation; confidentiality; observation methods; recording observations and assessment.

• Planning provision to promote development including: the planning cycle; implementing and

evaluating plans to promote development.

• Understanding child and young person development including: the basic patterns of child and young person development; the sequences of development 0 to 16 years covering five different aspects social, physical, intellectual, communication and emotional.

• Supporting social development including: the socialisation process; developing independence; developing socially acceptable behaviour; the teaching assistant’s role in promoting children’s social development.

• Supporting physical development including: developing gross motor skills; developing fine motor skills; developing coordination; developing physical skills through activities and routines; the teaching assistant’s role in promoting children’s physical development.

• Supporting intellectual development including: developing sensory perception; developing thinking skills; developing language skills; developing problem-solving skills; developing an understanding of concepts; developing memory skills; developing concentration; developing imagination and creativity; the teaching assistant’s role in promoting children’s intellectual development.

• Understanding communication and language development including: developing communication skills; the modes of language – non-verbal communication, listening, speaking, thinking, reading and writing; the teaching assistant’s role in promoting children’s communication and language development.

• Supporting emotional development including: nature versus nurture in personality development; developing attachments; developing self-esteem; the teaching assistant’s role in promoting children’s emotional development.

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• Identifying transitions including: common transitions; personal transitions; family circumstances.

• How transitions may affect children’s behaviour and development including: the positive and negative effects of transitions.

Reference: Kamen, T. (2011) Teaching Assistant’s Handbook Level 3, Hodder Education

• Exploring internal and external factors – looking at the types of factors that can affect the sequence of development.

• Multi-agency teams – looking at the professionals that can support children and young people reach their full potential and integrate into the classroom environment.

• Theories of development – exploring how theorists have explained development.

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