Arts, Literacy, and Cognition

Scholarly Paper - Research Methods

Research Methods – Scholarly Paper

Laverne E. Mickens

American International College

Semester 3

November 2011

Dr. Judith Klimkiewicz – First Core

Dr. Linda Denault – Second Core

Abstract:

The purpose for writing this scholarly paper is to answer the

following questions, citing from texts and other sources on

research methodology that I have read:

1. At this point in your thinking, what research method(s)

seems most appropriate for your questions under inquiry in

the dissertation?

2. Why is this method the most appropriate choice for your

research?

Writing Assignment for EDU 980


3. What are the strengths and limitations of this method?

4. How would you go about developing the research design?

5. What ethical considerations might you consider in designing

your research?

6. How would you propose to carry out the research design?

Introduction-Background

The purpose of this study is to determine and examine how

arts education programs strengthen literacy and boost cognitive

development. The idea that arts education can enhance learning in

other areas is not new. But is it true? As it turns out, the

specific way arts education may impact the brain, and whether

that impact has implications for other domains of learning, is

still a bit unknown (Dunbar, 2008). The existing data that

suggest a link between arts training and other cognitive skills

may be purely correlative (Dunbar, 2008). But that’s not to say

definitively that there is not a causal link. This study will

include district report results for student achievement in



English Language Arts at grades 3, 6 and 9 as well as surveys and

interviews of teachers, parents and students. The study will

include models of successful performing arts education programs.

I am interested in studying the R.J. Kinsella Performing Arts

Magnet School in Hartford, CT; the Pioneer Valley Performing Arts

Charter School in South Hadley, MA; and the Rebecca Johnson

Magnet School for the Arts in Springfield, MA. Research has shown

that academic achievement is improving overall in Language Arts

at these three schools. The desired outcome is to find out how

performing arts schools and arts educators are successful at

raising academic achievement, strengthening literacy skills and

boosting cognition among students. During the course of the

study, statistical data on academic performance (as measured by

test scores and benchmark assessments) in all of the case study

schools will be gathered to better recognize performance patterns

over the past several years and to help understand the cause of

the gains.



This research will show that achievement is improving in reading

and language arts at several performing arts schools. After

analyzing the statistical data and making comparisons within

other schools who have not yet improved, the study will also

examine the historical, administrative, and programmatic context

within which arts education contributed to boosting student

achievement in these schools. For the first time ever, for

example, scientists have used sophisticated brain imaging tech-

niques to examine how music, dance, drama, and the visual arts

might positively affect cognition and intelligence. Such work,

researchers claim, is a crucial first step toward understanding

whether art can actually make people smarter in ways that can be

measured.

This study will attempt to find trends and use the

experiences of students at performing arts schools that are

making gains academically and socially to address the following

questions:



Driving Questions

1. How do the arts help children to analyze and think

critically?

2. What is the link between arts education, student achievement

and cognition?

3. Does exposure to arts education produce positive academic

and social effects? If so, how?

At this point in your thinking, what research method(s) seems

most appropriate for your

questions under inquiry in the dissertation?



Creswell states that research is a process of steps used to

collect and analyze information in

order to increase our understanding of a topic or issue. Three

reasons why research is important

include:

Reason 1: Research adds to our knowledge

Addresses gaps in knowledge.

Replicates knowledge

Adds legitimate and objective voices to individuals to

knowledge.

Reason 2: Research helps improve practice

Educators gain new ideas for their job.

Educators gain new insights into approaches.

Educators can connect with other educators.

Reason 3: Research helps inform policy debates



Research allows people to weigh different perspectives on

issues.

Research enables people to make informed decisions regarding

policy.

Legitimate research helps to seek funding support and

legislative changes from policy makers. (Creswell, 2008)

At this point in my thinking the research methods that are most

appropriate for my questions are a mixed study of qualitative,

descriptive and historical comparative research methodologies.

Qualitative research is research collecting descriptive

information: it gives detailed descriptions and explanations of

the phenomenon studied rather than providing and analyzing

statistics (Girdin 2001). Descriptive research is the most

commonly used. Its purpose is to identify the cause of something

that is happening. For instance, this research could be used in

order to find out what age group is buying a particular brand of

cola, whether a company’s market share differs between



geographical regions or to discover how many competitors a

company has in their marketplace (Jarvis 1998).

Historical Research is the systematic collection and objective

evaluation of data related to past occurrences in order to test

hypotheses concerning causes, effects, or trends of these events

that may help to explain present events and anticipate future

events (Gay, 1996). The process for conducting historical

research is the same as for other research.

o Definition of a problem

o Formulation of questions to be answered or hypotheses

to be tested

o Systematic collection of data

o Evaluation of data

o Production of a verbal synthesis of findings or

confirmation/disconfirmation of hypotheses.

The process of learning and understanding the background and

growth of a chosen field of study or profession can offer insight

into organizational culture, current trends, and future Writing Assignment for EDU 980


possibilities. The historical method of research applies to all

fields of study because it encompasses their origins, growth,

theories, personalities, crisis, etc. Both quantitative and

qualitative variables can be used in the collection of historical

information.

Bloland (1992) states that qualitative research is often defined

by how it differs from quantitative research. It may be helpful

to compare the two approaches. A major difference lies in their

fundamentally different assumptions about the goals of research.

Babbie (1983) for example, has defined qualitative analysis as

the non-numerical examination and interpretation of observation

for the purpose of discovering underlying meanings and patterns

of relationships, as opposed to quantitative research, the

numerical representation and manipulation of observations for the

purpose of describing and explaining the phenomena that those

observations reflect (Babbie, 1983).

The two approaches define problems differently and each approach

is looking for different solutions or answers. As defined above,


http://www.valdosta.peachnet.edu/vsu/dept/coe/coed/edled/edr701/quantita.htm


qualitative methods lend themselves to discovering meanings and

patterns while quantitative methods seek causes and relationships

demonstrated statistically, a theoretical perspective, positivism

that is concerned with facts, prediction, and causation and not

the subjective nature of the groups or individuals of interest.

Researchers in the qualitative mode seek understanding through

inductive analysis, moving from specific observation to the

general. Quantitative analysis, on the other hand, employs

deductive logic, moving from the general to the specific, from

theory to experience (Bloland, 1992).

Why is this method the most appropriate choice for your research?

There is a great deal of scientific research available to form a

hypothesis featuring schools and school systems that have

incorporated arts education into their curriculum. The advantages

of descriptive research include data collection and life

experiences. The data collection for descriptive research

presents a number of advantages as it can provide a very

multifaceted approach. Data can include case, studies,



observation or surveys and give several angles on the information

(Jarvis 1998).

Qualitative research is suitable for exploring new areas of

inquiry, new topics, new markets, new niches and new products. It

allows the researcher to draw boundaries for the topic and learn

the language that people use to talk about the subject.

Qualitative studies show how real people think in real life

situations (Girdin 2001). If the topic is new to the researcher,

even quantitative studies need some qualitative research at the

very start. Qualitative research gives more direct access to the

phenomenon and can add context and flesh-and-blood reality to the

theories that students learn from the literature (Jarvis 1998).

Qualitative exploration helps to gather material and generate

hypotheses for the main quantitative phase (Girdin 2001).

According to Wiersma (1969) the educational research problems

investigated by historical research generally deal with either

policy or processes. This study will showcase the policies and

process of how school districts use, add and/or enhance arts



education, arts curriculum and programs. Historical research is

necessary to define the situation of the past and its meaning in

the light of the present problem.

Historical research is the desire to arrive at an accurate

account of the past. For me this involves nothing more than a

scholarly interest in the truth. For example the desire to know

what happened and why. I believe it is my responsibility as a

scholar to interpret the data in order to link the past to the

present and to the future. By knowing our past, we know the

present condition better. Brillantes and Singson (2010) assert

that when making a historical report the actual events and the

conditions of the time are not violated, exaggerated, or

distorted. Methods of historical research may be used to judge

objectively the conditions which led to results of the studies

undertaken previously. When formulating a problem there are

several motivations for undertaking historical research including

doubt about some event, development, or experience in the past,

as well as discovery of new source materials which may supply the



meaning of answers about past events. An old interpretation of

existing data may evolve into a new hypothesis which will offer a

more satisfactory explanation of past events and help to

illustrate a simple, clear, and a fairly complete description of

my problem (Brillantes and Singson, 2010).

What are the strengths and limitations of this method?

According to HD. Gov (2010) strengths of historical research

include providing a comprehensive picture of historical trends,

using existing information and providing evidence of ongoing

trends and problems. Historical research gives a much better

picture of an area of research. Understanding the history of the

research under inquiry will often give a much clearer picture of

how communities and groups have evolved regarding attitudes,

perceptions, and uses. Historical research gives a better context

for making realistic decisions (HD.Gov, 2010).



Confidentiality is the primary weakness of descriptive research.

Often subjects are not truthful as they feel the need to tell the

researcher what they think the researcher wants to hear. This is

particularly difficult during interviews. Participants may also

refuse to provide answers to questions they view to be too

personal. Furthermore, the idea that someone is watching can turn

an observation into an event where people are acting how they

perceive they should act (Coolidge, 2006).

Descriptive research also presents the possibility for error and

subjectivity. For example, when a researcher designs a

questionnaire, questions are predetermined and prescriptive.

Furthermore, the study may contain errors, as the researcher may

record what she wants to hear and ignore data that does not

conform to the research project's hypothesis. Overcoming a

research bias is an extreme difficulty for descriptive research

practitioners and those who chose to use a descriptive research

approach must be aware of their influence on the outcome of the

research (Jarvis, 1998).



In order to be considered valid and credible, research must be

replicable. In fact, in the world of empirical research, many

feel that if a result cannot be replicated, the conclusion of a

study cannot be valid. However, due to a tendency to focus on

particular context and personal interpretation, qualitative

research can be difficult to replicate (Coolidge, 2001).

According to Princeton University's Andrew Moravcsik, "once

theories and cases are selected, case study analyses tend to

proceed almost entirely without explicit methodological rules--

particularly with regard to the treatment of evidence. The

selection, citation, and presentation of sources remain

undisciplined and opaque." The lack of formalized methodology

makes valid study replication very difficult.

How would you go about developing the research design?

Deflem (2007) asserts that research design concerns the planning

of scientific inquiry, the development of a strategy for finding

out something. This involves: theory, conceptualization,

formalization, operationalization of variables, preparations for



observation including choice of methods, selection of units of

observation and analysis, observation, data analysis, report and

back to theory. The purposes of research are basically three-

fold:

1) Exploration: to investigate something new which little is

known, guided by a general interest, or to prepare a further

study. The disadvantage of most exploratory studies is their lack

of representativeness and the fact that their findings are very

rudimentary.

2) Description: events or actions are observed and reported

meaning what is going on? Of course, the quality of the

observations is crucial, as well as the issue of

generalizability.

3) Explanation: research into causation meaning why is

something going on. The selection, organization, and analysis of

the most pertinent collected evidence, and the drawing of

conclusions is key.



To develop my research design I will do the following: draft a

list of research questions I want answered upon conducting the

entirety of my research. These questions will help me narrow in

on what is important to my area of study; write down all the

resources I plan on consulting. These sources may change or the

list may be expanded; decide what my sample will be and how many

will be in my sample. If my question relates to humans, then I

must decide how many people I will include in my study and

experiment and the population I wish to research; decide where I

will conduct the study that will lend the greatest validity to

the authenticity of the experiment; include limitations to the

study so the reader can be aware of any biases. For example, when

dealing with people, if the subjects of the studies volunteered,

then this is an example of potential bias as they were not

randomly sampled (Coolidge, 2006).

A theory has already been established and the purpose of the

research is to affirm or reject the theory by gathering evidence.



The following will be some of the qualities that make the

research approach inductive;

Application of scientific principles

Movement form a hypothesis/theory to collection of data

Quantitative data will be collected

Concepts will be operationalized

Controls will be applied to incorporate validity

Variables will have causal explanations

The researcher will be independent of the research

It is a structured approach

Will require high sample size.



What ethical considerations might you consider in designing your

research?

According to Wiersma (1969) the methodology of historical

research does not consist of the undirected collection of

information. A collection of unrelated or loosely related bits

of information would not be viewed as a valuable research

contribution. As a researcher I will have to use the information

I gather to explain and interpret conditions, events, and

phenomena that existed during the period under study (Wiersma,

1969.) The collection of source material will include utilizing

primary sources whenever possible. According to Good (1966) the

sources must be subjected to external criticism. External

criticism is the tool for establishing the validity of all

documents. Wiersma (1969) states that the problem of

establishing the validity of materials must concern several

possible factors, any of which could make the document invalid.

The status of the author (if it is written material) in the

context of the event is important. Was the author in a position



to make a valid record of the event? Was the author the on the

spot observer, if the document appears to be a primary source?

Are factors such as time and place consistent with what is known

about the event? There are steps that should be followed to

achieve a reliable result. When testing for truthfulness and

honesty I may ask several questions to test the truthfulness and

honesty of an author. Was the author motivated by personal or

vested interest in producing the material? To what race,

nationality, religion, ideology, social class, party, economic

group, or profession did he belong, which might have led him to

have biases and prejudices? Was he writing seriously,

ironically, humorously, or symbolically, or was he voicing his

real convictions? Was he presenting the views of the

establishment for public notice, using conventional language, to

write what he did not know or to conceal his own views? Was

there evidence of vanity or boasting by the author? Did he make

distortions, exaggerations, and embellishments, to achieve



colourful effects? When developing the research design I will

have to avoid special problems in writing and interpreting data

which may include:

1. Determining the major problems to be answered

2. Using inductive reasoning

3. Formulating and testing your own hypothesis

4. Causation

5. Historical perspective

6. Developing a guiding thesis or principles of synthesis

7. Framing my generalization and conclusions

How would you propose to carry out the research design?

The process for conducting my research would be as follows:

Definition of a problem

Formulation of questions to be answered or hypotheses

to be tested Writing Assignment for EDU 980


Systematic collection of data

Evaluation of data

Production of a verbal synthesis of findings or

confirmation/disconfirmation of hypotheses.

Conclusion

Deflem (2007) contends that a full research design is not just a

matter of determining the right methods of observation, there is

always (or there better be) theory first. Deflem suggest the

following procedure: First, there should be a theory that states

what is to be researched, and how this connects to the already

available body of literature (to ensure, or strive towards,

cumulative knowledge). There is no “naked” or mind-less

observation. Second, the theory has to be conceptualized, so that

the different variables of the theory are clearly defined and

identified. This may also involve acknowledgment of the

limitations. Third, the research topic and methodology is

formalized into observable phenomena. This involvers

specification of the research topic (where, when) and the methods



of observation (how) as well as the way in which the data are to

be analyzed, and the anticipated findings. Finally, after the

research is conducted, a report is drawn up, indicating theory,

methodology, as well as findings. (Deflem, 2007)

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http://web.ebscohost.com.ezai.ez.cwmars.org:3200/ehost/viewarticle?data=dGJyMPPp44rp2%2FdV0%2Bnjisfk5Ie46a9Ir620TK%2Bk63nn5Kx95uXxjL6urUqtqK5JrpayUrGmuEiuls5lpOrweezp33vy3%2B2G59q7Ra%2Bvs0izqK5QsZzqeezdu33snOJ6u%2Bbxkeac8nnls79mpNfsVa%2BvtEurpq9QtKmrSK6mpH7t6Ot58rPkjeri8n326gAA&hid=119

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