Beauty and the Beast.The stereotypes about women and 50 years of television advertising in Brazil and Portugal.

Abstract

This article analyzes and compares the presence of female

stereotypes in television advertising field and Brazilian

Portuguese, whose principal aim is to investigate the use

of the female image in advertising today. Through the

quantitative method of content analysis, we make a

comparative study of television spots, running in Brazil

and Portugal in two specific periods: 50/60 years in

Brazil, Portugal in years 57/67 and 2000/2010 in both

countries. 85 Ads were analyzed using a checklist, which

was based on the verification of the presence of

stereotypes and among others. On these results, several

aspects similar between countries were found, although

certain features do not go unnoticed.

Keywords: Gender stereotypes, advertising, creative

strategy and content analysis.

1

Simone Freitas de Araújo Fernandes - PhD. in Communication

Sciences from the University Minho, Scholarship from FCT -

Foundation for Science and Technology, Master in

Communication Sciences with specialization in Advertising,

University Fernando Pessoa (UFP), with the support of

Programme Alban - Scholarship Program for high-level

European Union, Latin America. Journalist and editor

advertising. E-mail: simonefaraujo@gmail.com

Introduction

Portugal and Brazil are linked by centuries of history.

Share the same language and a series of cultural traits.

But its origins, geographical location and references of

the past in each country that reflect differences

originate, of course, advertising.

The study of female stereotypes is attracting interest

among researchers in different areas in both countries,

because women have acquired more space in all social

fields.

At present, the female gender is a subject of study

increasingly used, because, over decades, women were

2

radically changing their attitudes and hence also their

shopping habits. This reason by which advertisers are

devoted to finding the ideal female portrait, since a large

part of the decision-making power at the time of purchase,

is in their hands. Given this context, the question arises:

does advertising today reflects the image corresponding to

the current wife or is still being used pictures of old?

Study the image of women in contemporary society through a

universal discourse par excellence - advertising - is no

easy task. With this work we had intended to present what

are, ultimately, the big cultural differences that

distinguish, the level of advertising stereotypes, the two

countries. We intend, instead, a topic little explored in

terms of academic literature, paving the way for future

research by reading some relevant work in this area and

with the completion of an empirical study with television

ads in both countries.

The choice of television as a communication vehicle to be

studied is based on the fact that this is one medium par

excellence, which includes image, sound and movement. The

television show allows the fantasy world created by

advertising where the consumer is projected out everyday,

sometimes repetitive, where he lives.In general, a

comparative analysis of advertising between countries often

reveal specific similarities or differences in the manifest

of cultural values. Such information may be used to resolve

3

debates about whether advertising reflects and reinforces

the values and concerns of your target audience. Moreover,

the findings on the use of gender stereotypes in

advertising reveal how gender roles are changing in those

societies, and how these new roles are a social change.

1 - Gender Stereotypes

Definitions for the word stereotype are increasingly

present in the academic world, due to several authors

devote themselves to research this topic. Here have

improved some of the various descriptions for the term,

and, ethnologically, it consists of two Greek words: STEREO

meaning "hard", "solid" and that means TUPOS dash.

"Therefore, the term bears a reference to what has been

predetermined and is fixed, crystallized (Lysardo days,

2007, p.26).

Various authors (Pereira, 2002 Lysardo-days in 2007, Diniz,

2000) report that the origin of the term "stereotype" means

the typographical jargon, in the case of a fixed metal mold

character, used in typographic workshops, designed to print

series, appearing there, by analogy, the word stereotype,

indicating something that could be repeated mechanically.

In the nineteenth century, psychiatry has used the word

stereotype to refer to mechanical and frequent repetition

of the same gesture, posture or speech of patients

suffering from dementia praecox, for example.

4

The first study on stereotypes began in the '20s, the

American journalist Walter Lippman, in his book Public

Opinion (1922), which reported that people quickly took a

series of decisions on various issues, often when they had

no knowledge on them, and the lack of information to be

rational decisions, they ended up relying on general

knowledge of the beliefs of society.

According Cabecinhas (2004, p.3) Lippmann focuses on how

culture provides us with evidence to "cut" the reality in

significant elements, giving it clarity and stability of

meaning. This will be reflected directly in information

processing and how prejudices fall deviations in the

selection, interpretation, memorization, and especially in

the use of information.

According Lysardo-days (2007, p.27), within sociology, the

stereotype is defined as a mental image that determines

legal ways to think, act and even feel the individual.

These images create a sense of connection between

individuals in relation to the community. Thus, stereotypes

guarantee on identity, as members of a group recognize each

other because they share a worldview.

According to Lippmann (1922, p.96) when a pattern of

stereotypes is established, they can not be neutral, since

they pass on information to the world of common sense,

5

common values, respect and right themselves. "The

stereotypes are, therefor, highly charged with the feelings

attached to Them That Are. They are the fortress of Our

tradition, and behind ITS Defenses We Can continue to feel

ourselves safe in the position we Occupy. "

Stereotypes circulate and are transmitted by various

sources: family, friends, school, media, are some agents

who act on consolidation, as well as the possible change of

stereotypes. "Therefore, language has an important role

because it is through the process of stereotyping is

materialized" (Lysardo days, 2007, p.28).

By Diniz (2000, p.140), stereotypes are manifestations of

the oldest in our culture are in fairy tales, in popular

narratives, the songs of middle age. Comes from the

rituals, myths, metaphors and comparisons, which used the

first time fell in popular taste. "As they are repeated,

they have become clichés, which come to mind at first

thought, which is necessary to avoid hiring and, above all,

strive to not believe them, or at least suspect them."

When considering the stereotype as a cognitive structure

that contains the knowledge, beliefs, and expectations of a

subject about a particular social group, some authors

(Shermer, 1996, and Pereira, 2002) suggest it is a

particular type of mental representation when activated,

has strong implications for social perception.

6

Initially, the stereotype is understood as an image

warehouse between the individual and reality, subjective

and personal in nature, whose development is based on the

set of values of the individual. It may therefore be

considered a dangerous generalization, false and revealing

a lack of knowledge and can only be changed through

education awareness from that person's lack of support of

their judgments (Amancio, 1994).

According Baccega (1998, p.8), stereotypes are "types

accepted, the current standards, the standard versions.

They interfere with our perception of reality, leading us

to "see" in a pre-constructed by culture and transmitted

through language. For "when man learns to talk, he also

learns to think, or shall relate to the world through

words, which convey concepts and stereotypes.

The stereotype, as well as the concept is a reflection /

refraction specific reality - that is reflected in

deviations, such as a pencil placed in the water, "bends" -

but the stereotype entails an additional charge of the

subjective factor, which manifests itself in form of

emotional elements, appreciated and volitional, that will

influence human behavior. "Grave is that the stereotype is

used as if it was just a concept that carries a negative

charge and is disguised" (Baccega, 1998, p.10).

7

Some authors (Mazzara, 1999 and Espindola, 2008) explains

that three factors generalize and maintain the stereotypes

in an integrated way: the need to simplify cognitive

categories in the world, the need biological, psychosocial

and cultural belonging to groups and differentiate

themselves from others, and finally, the historical events

and social changes that define the position and functions

of each human group on a global level. "In this context

intervenir en es indispensable, primero, act on them and

institutionalized causes estructurales, y, act followed act

on them psicosociales aspects" (Mazzara, 1999, p.7).

Other authors like Neto, Cid, Orchard, Parts, and Chaleta

Folque (2000. P.11/12) indicate that the conceptualisation

of gender stereotyping takes place on two levels:

stereotypes of gender roles and gender stereotypes traces .

The stereotypes of gender roles describe the shared beliefs

solidly on the appropriate activities to men and women,

referring to the stereotypes of gender traits to the

psychological characteristics that are attributed to both

differentially. In summary, it can be argued that gender

stereotypes include the widespread and socially valued

representations of what men and women should "be" (dashes

gender) and "do" (gender roles). "We consider the

stereotypes of gender traits and roles are inseparable, as

can be established between them a reciprocal network of

inferences."

8

According Lysardo-days (2007, p.26) is an important aspect

is that each era has its stereotypes, just as each social

group constructs together a whole range of customary

knowledge. This makes for a universal community that

throughout its history, can preserve those more traditional

or establish other stereotypes that accompany their

development. Thus, the stereotype is not static within the

social group which is part and may be renewed and gain new

contours or modifications, following the dynamics of

society and its new demands.

2 - Stereotypes and the media

We live in a world where information about what happens

around us in arriving edited by the media. "Reality" is

transmitted to us through stories steeped in stereotypes,

that we are not always favorable. "These are reports we

receive every day that will fill our world view, not only

about the facts that do not participate, but often also

about the facts of the universe we live" (Baccega, 1998,

p.10).

The consensus is that the media are seen as important

mediators between citizens and social reality. So, bear a

vital role in forming public opinion, and how they build,

reporting and convey ideologies quite relevant, for

9

example, in social definition of "feminine" (Cerqueira,

Cabecinhas and Ribeiro, 2009, p.112).

The stereotype is a ready opinion, idea or an expression

much used and worn, banal, commonplace or cliché. In a

general sense, we can consider every stereotype idea

supported by common sense, taken as indisputable.

Functioning as an element capable of synthesizing concepts,

the stereotype is being increasingly used in media

discourse. The televised speech, for example, uses images

that validate values "unquestionable" common sense: the

stereotype of the perfect mother, the sensual woman, youth

authentic, particularly in advertising (Diniz, 2000).

The media, particularly with regard to television,

constitute themselves as a privileged source of learning

gender stereotypes. The content analysis of various

categories of television programs show that abound models

patterned behaviors as gender-stereotyped and distorted

images commonly in relation to current reality (Durkin,

1985).

Importantly, once formed, stereotypes thus tend to resist

change. One factor that could boost the conservation of

gender stereotypes is the fact that the process of

stereotyping is generally unconscious and barely recognized

by individuals with (Neto et al., 2000, p.11/12).

10

That is, for the individual, the stereotype is itself a

significant order of reality that allows him to identify

and adapt to, and interdependence between stereotype and

value systems present in this individual is regarded as

decisive in its resistance to change and the rejection of

information that is contradictory to the stereotype

(Amancio, 1994, p.35).

According Cabecinhas (2002, p.408) the media have great

responsibility in the formation of stereotypes due to

simplistic and biased way as certain groups are portrayed.

These simplifications serve as summaries, with unfair and

dangerous to society and, for Lippman, changing the

stereotypes would be difficult, requiring a long critical

education, and a seminal role of the media.

According Lysardo-days (2007, p.29), the need for media to

broaden its audience increasingly due to the extremely

competitive market, makes the stereotype acts as a

multifunctional element that both encourages the perception

that the knowledge is proposed in informational terms, as

has a "reading" has assimilated the real, in addition to

bringing speakers to the subjects feel familiar in advance

for sharing a world view or values.

One way or another, it is undeniable that the media makes

use of stereotypes whose effectiveness depends on how they

are deployed and the power of seduction engaged with the

11

public that it is intended. According to Pereira (2002,

p.160), only the media have the power to change people's

views about a stereotyped group, since the show daily.

3 - Stereotypes and Gender in Advertising

"Advertising is revealed as the most notable media

mass of our time "(Baudrillard, 2007, p.131).

The advertising discourse is characterized by the seduction

of an audience. To achieve its objective, this discourse

must create an identification between the product being

sold and your audience. The product must somehow seduce the

audience.

We live in an age where advertising has invaded all space

communication.With an exemplary set tactics, advertising

works with high potential to study and understand the

society (Joannis, 1998).

In recent years, the consumer has come to be seen as an

individual with their own motivations and special features

on your buying behavior is subject to their deepest needs.

12

At the individual level, needs to consider the forces that

motivate the individual to perform a certain action. The

innate needs cover the most basic such as food, security,

etc.. The learned are acquired by inserting the

individual's environment (Cardoso, 2002, p.86).

The advertising discourse is characterized by the seduction

of an audience. To achieve its objective, this discourse

must create an identification between the product being

sold and your audience. That is, the product should attract

consumers and their advertising must somehow seduce the

public for their consumption.

Within this context, how is that advertising is now

seducing the female and male for consumption? There are

differences in approach to advertising aimed at men and

women? And do men and women today identify with their

corresponding image portrayed in contemporary advertising?

According Lysardo-days (2007, p.26), in general, all

communicative activity mobilizes stereotypical

representations that establish a space of approximation and

recognition through the evocation of this domain reference

marked by conventionality. And in most of the advertising

methods used to achieve business objectives, are the use of

gender stereotypes. But why does this happen? For what

purpose is made use of stereotypes in advertising? "

13

The author informs that advertising appeals to social norms

internalized by individuals, standards accepted by the

group and presenting statements of expected behaviors.That

is, when the search advertising communication establish a

close relationship between the subject and identifying the

advertiser and the audience, the more conventional beliefs

and values are, the more the public domain are the

references used during the process of advertising creation,

higher will be able to seduce and persuade the audience.

Stereotypes end up owning the function in its advertising

to attract consumers and persuade you to buy more quickly

the product or service advertised (Lysardo days, 2007,

p.29/30).

Although some studies show that men and women do not like

being portrayed through stereotypes in advertising, their

reactions to the ads show the opposite. That is, their

purchase intentions show much more favorable to the

messages content stereotyped than the non-traditional, that

is justifying this reason, until the present day, the use

of stereotypes by advertisers (Pereira and Verissimo, 2008,

p. 283).

According to Craig (1992), the use of gender stereotypes in

advertising would leave people more comfortable for the act

of consumption itself, since that is more familiar to them

as a sire of social realities. This is, after going to the

commonplace to portray himself as a professional man in his

14

work to publicize financial products, or the woman at home

to advertise products for the home, this is still the

safest way to achieve business objectives of the

advertiser.

In fact, advertising uses stereotypes of both verbal and

visual stereotypes in order to implement its business

purpose. But the readability and argumentative

effectiveness of advertising depends on the recognition

system it uses stereotypy, otherwise it does not work."It

is through the recognition and identification that

stereotypes present in society that will provide the

advertising message is perceived and to act with your

target audience (Lysardo days, 2007, p.26).

In this sense, one can say that the stereotypes and

advertising that play serve an ideological and also,

somehow, does it become difficult to conceive of

advertising without the use of stereotypes and clichés (cit

in Conde Garrido and Hurtado , 2006).

Undoubtedly, the interaction between advertising and

society happens. The advertising is to convey new ways of

life. A multiplicity which allows the cohabitation old and

new, giving rise to the emergence of an increasing

fragmentation of Western societies (Garboggini, 2005,

p.112).

15

The key to successful advertising is to know the routes to

be used to reach consumers and show how the benefits of the

product / service being sold can be enjoyable. It is

therefore crucial to choose the simplest and quickest way

to achieve much of the audience and that can capture the

desired message. By making use of existing stereotypes,

advertising eventually upgrade them and circulate them,

often giving the impression that she is responsible for

such conventional representations (Lysardo days, 2007,

p.28).

According Cabecinhas (2002, p.410), on the one hand

stereotypes are tools that help to simplify the individual,

organization, and prediction of a world too complex, on the

other hand, stereotypes can also have adverse consequences

in terms of intergroup relations.

According Lysardo-days (2007, p.26), the stereotype

functions as a widespread social discourse that is renewed,

updated and solidified the status of each use. The fact

that the term be taken as an idea that has solidified over

time and therefore may have distanced themselves from

reality, made it understood as an element distortive and

harmful to social relations.Thus, the term takes on a

pejorative stereotype as it refers to a false concept, a

belief devoid of any sense they contained a simplification

or an unfounded generalization, which helps explain the

negative aura that covers it.

16

According Citelli, (1993, p.47) in advertising the great

feature of the stereotype is that it prevents any

questioning of what is being advertised as it is something

the public domain, a true to form. "However, advertising

can contribute to both maintenance and for the

deconstruction of stereotypes. In some cases, advertising

can use stereotypes not only to strengthen them and

reaffirm them, but also to differentiate the product from

competitors advertising, promoting the disruption and

subversion of certain stereotypes, such as has been

happening, for example, with newly developed advertising

campaigns for cosmetics brand Dove.

In 2006, the Dove brand, belonging to Unilever launched the

'Campaign for Real Beauty'. His advertisements contained

women of all colors, sizes, races and generations, showing

that they can have imperfections and still be beautiful,

attractive and safe. Going against the traditional recipe

and in direct line with the consumer, the Dove brand has

dared to work outside the standards of beauty imposed by

the media. The result was a 33% increase in sales of

products after the launch of the campaign (Melo and

Sanematsu, 2006, p.81).

This is a strategy used to capture the audience through the

strangeness that calls attention to the presence of the

unusual, the shock caused by what escapes the expectations

17

imposed by prevailing standards. However, it is important

to say that "anyway, when advertising deconstructs a

stereotype, it is not far completely broken the model

because it preserves elements that let you see through one

another" (Lysardo days, 2007, p.34 ).

In cases of stereotyping of women, the female image is

often judged from the set of beliefs that surround the

female world, mainly because its function as a mother and

mistress of the house, the position of weaker sex, shown as

a sex object, submissive or servant.

 The conquest of the female audience by means of

stereotypes is a major ideological tasks of advertising,

because the recipient belongs to a community that has

cultural values, needs and tastes, and the construction of

consumer disclosure is made by repeated and consistent

models consumptive behaviors that tend to go changing the

daily life and worldview of this woman (Fairclough, 1989).

4- Women and their stereotypes

The conquest of the female audience by means of stereotypes

is a major ideological tasks of advertising, because the

recipient belongs to a community that has cultural values,

18

needs and tastes, and the construction of consumer

disclosure is made by repeated and consistent models

consumptive behaviors that tend to go changing the daily

life and worldview of this woman (Fairclough, 1989).

In cases of stereotyping of women, the female image is

often judged from the set of beliefs that surround the

female world, mainly for its role as a mother and mistress

of the house, the position of weaker sex, shown as a sex

object, submissive or servant.

“Los contenidos media, particularly advertising them, proposing Representaciones that her

image devalúan del género femenino. El television environment for these mujeres es a espacio y

generan from which it is refuerzan tradiconal as gender stereotypes;  coisificácion la de las

mujeres claim as advertising, una relacion Cierto natural between las mujeres y el del cuerpo y

su careful aesthetic y Representaciones del universe with el sexo femenino y as decorative

objects "

(Martinez and Munoz, 2009, p.155).

Factors such as technology evolves, the urbanization rate,

the inclusion of women in the labor market, new consumer

habits (which also turned to the products distributed by

advertising), and thus began to propagate revolutionary

ideas about the feminine gender in the media. Citing such

developments, we can say that mass culture and the media

used the female image, one of the main responsible for the

transformation of women in society.

Guilhardi-Lucena (2003) argues that the woman has a socio-

historical trajectory marked by many struggles and great19

dreams.For her, the source of these problems lies in the

relationships established and historically created by the

patriarchal system that values far more masculine than

females, leading to social inequalities, economic and

cultural relations between men and women.

In the late '50s, with the technological evolution and

spread the idea of integration of women into the labor

market, women have claimed their rights and the mass media,

among them, have been the main radio and cinema, began to

propagate ideas about the feminine gender, reinforcing

ideas feminists and accelerating the process of changing

its image, because the woman herself felt the need to leave

the situation submissive to live her own life with more

dignity and occupation. With the media inserted in the

society, imposing lifestyles and exploring sexuality, women

began bolder "to smoke, read forbidden things, invest in

future work, disagree with the parents and secretly or

openly challenge the sexual morals" (Del Priore, 1997).

For Marcondes (in 2002, p.33-35), advertising in the '50s

produced faithfully the values of women of that decade,

underscoring the stereotype of the recipient. The version

of the modern woman of the day was that he knew the shop,

dominated the use of new appliances and updated about the

news. The '50s were indeed the heyday of women stay-at-home

female image that epitomized the values and mores of the

decade, making this stereotype has been the most used,

20

which had as its principal function to sell products to

make life those who were concerned with household

management and welfare of the family, which is perfumed to

wait for her husband and kept the children clean and

behaved.

But why exactly the stereotype of woman of the house was so

widespread publicity in the '50s? In this case we must go

back in time and investigate the feminist movement.And in

this case, we based the book "What is Feminism" by Branca

Moreira Alves and Jacqueline Pintaguy.

According to the authors, in the years 1930 and 1940, based

on countries like the United States and England, the woman

had already achieved some rights arising from certain

claims, such as: voting, enrollment in schools and it could

also participate in the labor market. Thus, women were

recognized for their citizenship.

In those decades, there is the rise of Nazi fascism, a

period marked by the outbreak of World War II. Equality

between the sexes helped the woman to have a stake in the

sphere of work, because when the men were being released to

the battlefronts.

According to the authors, with the end of the war came the

return of working men, causing women to be reconditioned

for household work in order to get them out of the labor

market and lead to men. During this period, the

21

advertisements aired in the media emphasize the woman with

"the queen of the home," the housewife ", wife and mother.

Thus, women's work is supplementary to the man, become

devalued.

Feminism was born with modernity, in protest against the

confusion and exclusion of women's awareness of

citizenship. It was during the nineteenth century that the

rights of women assumed forms of expression organized in

France, England and the United States. "But there are many

continuities that characterize feminism, from its founding

until the present and one, perhaps the main one is the

critical reflection and its sensitivity to the

contradictions of modernity. And the contradiction founder

of modernity was forged precisely in the exclusion of women

"(Amancio, 2004, p.27).

It is undeniable that in recent times there has been a

major transformation in the system of values related to

women, especially after the second wave of feminist

movements in the 60s.The woman was freed, he went to work,

took to the streets, began to require assistance and

convenience for domestic functions, because no longer

wished to be just a housewife copy (Old and Bacellar, 2003,

p.5)

The employment liberated women? According Amancio and Carmo

(2004), the answer is no. The women were subjected to a

22

double day of work (housework and paid) and have become

sexual commodities in big cities of competition and

unemployment. However, it was the entry into mass wage

labor that allowed women to leave the private space into

public space. "It was in this new situation that allowed it

to cease to exist" the woman ", an organization for the

domestic space for wife and mother, to be a human being

with different characteristics of man, which could be a

story as an individual as a citizen ( Amancio and Carmo,

2004, p.23).

By winning the male space in the working world, women began

an unstoppable process of independence. Movements and

organizations have mobilized and created a new scenario

feminine and feminist for the times that came with the

postwar period. The '50s, '60s and '70s marked the

"liberation" of the woman, the mistress of his desires,

their decisions, their bodies and their power in the labor

market. The '80s and '90s brought a new woman, the mistress

of his career, director of major projects and personal

social and independent of man emotionally and financially.

(Cabral, 2007, p.1)

Women of the 90s onwards, according to Carvalho (1998,

p.25), can no longer be seduced by domesticity and want to

be portrayed in advertisements for its audacity and

independence. According Lysardo-days (2007, p. 30) the

current advertisements for the female audience exploit

23

basically two stereotypes, which are interrelated: the

first is relative to the standard of beauty: the beautiful

woman is a thin woman. The second stereotype refers to

youth: we need to be / look young to be happy.

"If you believe a las mujeres más emotional, sensibles, Dependientes, poco interesados

 in her technical aspect of super careful, los hombres, por el contrario, if perciben

how are aggressive independientes, al-oriented world, competitive, self-assured mismo,

poco emotional. Esto observed in las noticias, publicidad en la labor en el mundo ...

y hombres son shared by both as a mujeres (Mazzara, 1999, p.22).

In modern times, the female image is being portrayed in

advertising based on this ideal of beauty, where the

transition from woman to woman fascinating home is

efficiently translated, since the priorities of women have

household chores to the constant preoccupation with the

preservation of beauty . According to Vestergaard and

Schroder (2000, p.83-88), this became the new women's

struggle, forcing them to fit the mold of advertising of

the 90s, where the woman be happy and successful, it should

be fair, following a model of unquestionable beauty.

For some authors (Nishida, 2006 Baudrillard, 2007), the

beauty of women represented in the ads are presented to be

admired by women. That is, the female image reproduced by

the media functions as a real sweet spot purely feminine.

"Sold woman to woman, in short, she is consumed, because

his relationship is fueled by signs, signs that constitute

the female model who, in turn, emerges as the true subject

24

of consumption. Is it the woman consumes, to customize

itself "(Baudrillard, 2007, p.96).

The cult of beauty for modern women has detached itself

from the traditionalism marked by submission to the role of

procreation and the fate of a woman of purpose. Today, she

aspires to meet the beauty itself. In this respect, the

media and advertising meet its social and ethical to

associate with the pursuit of beauty for its own interests

of women (Nishida, 2006, p.05).

According Lipovetsky (in 2000, p.288/289, cit in Nishida,

2006, p.02) the conception of woman as the protagonist of

his own life came from a "new culture" which "focused on

pleasure and sex, leisure and free personal choice, a

devalued female life model more geared to the family to

herself, legitimized the desire to live more for themselves

and for themselves. "

Belela (2003) says that the woman is still being exploited

by advertising that is appealing to the natural shape or

shapes to be produced. Instead of praising a man a good

dinner, and in advertisements of the 50s, now he praises

the woman's body.

Previously, the company demanded the woman she always took

care to stay beautiful for ensuring and maintaining a good

marriage, and over time, the event came from the feminist

25

movement and the woman must be beautiful to achieve

professional success and luck in love. But even with all

the events of the feminist movement, women still let

themselves be treated as an object of consumption,

pleasure, finally accepting all the stereotypes that

society imposes and advertising.

Although conquering its space in the public sphere, in the

street, our culture is far from off the woman's private

domain, the "home". However, given the new situation, the

creators of advertising agencies have increasingly been

concerned with this issue in order to communicate the

launch of products for the home (appliances, cleaning

supplies, etc.) to this new woman, unless she feel victim

to some sort of prejudice or sexism. "Instead, these

products should be presented as true saviors of the nation,

magical products that will finally free her from the"

slavery of home "(Old and Bacellar, 2003, p.8).

To Amancio (1994, p.72), the multiplicity of roles has the

same consequences for men and women, since women still are

much requested by the family, whether domestic or working,

and still no widespread sharing of household chores and

care children, for example.

According to Mota-Ribeiro (2002, p.7 / 8) there will be no

significant change advertising in coming years. Although it

is recognized that the ads can get some change in the

26

sexual hierarchy, it is clear the trend in advertising

reproduction of most of the core values of a society. Some

superficial changes can always come to dawn, but there are

profound changes in the relationship between the sexes.

"There are still that so subtly hidden, stereotypes and

traditional images related to the place of women in

society."

For Santis (2005, p.6 / 7), is clear is that the woman has

become a production vehicle for profit. In the view of some

advertising agencies, the dignity of women and the human

person does not take precedence over profit. Some ads come

to insult, disrespect, insult the dignity and consciousness

of women. They are ads that use stereotypes of skinny

women, beautiful, impeccably dressed and makeup and, of

course, always young and endangering the balance of the

psycho-social individual.

Several polls over the image of women in advertising show

that women believe that is the dominant representation of

"sexual woman." And this sexualized image is the most

strongly rejected by women themselves. In 2004, the agency

Leo Burnett has promoted a research titled Miss Understood,

which promoted discussion groups in seven countries:

Brazil, Mexico, United States, Britain, India, Japan and

China.180 women were heard, the upper and middle classes-

high, 16 to 40 years, and according to the results, women

do not support a lack of clarity and objectivity, hate to

27

be portrayed through stereotypes and appreciate, above all,

mood and emotion (Melo and Sanematsu, 2006, p.77).

Some advertisers still insist on using the archetype of a

woman subject, femme fatale to lure the recipients of

advertising messages. What causes a question about why some

advertisers and advertisers still insist on producing ads

that portray women as an object, once it became clear that

this stereotype does not convince contemporary women?

(Nishida, 2006, p.14).

For Cabral (2007, p.6), this happens because women today,

the fruit of the conquests feminists who broke the model

imposed so far, has not yet set a new standard of behavior.

Just as in male stereotypes, it is known that the old model

no longer fits, but there is a new model to be followed.

"Which leads us to believe that women today can make use of

many different archetypes to suit the situations which

oblige it every day."

5 - A retrospective study of advertising in a cross

cultural perspective

The content analysis of advertisements has been subject of

several studies in recent years. These investigations, as

well as fundamental to a better understanding of how to

28

conduct research with advertisements served as the basis

for the development of our methodology.

The work of Fahad and Karanda (2000) attempted to explain

the differences in magazine advertisements between the U.S.

and the Arab world. The methodology was a comparative

analysis between 1064 ad ads with 540 Arab Americans, both

with content of interest, family and women's magazines. The

items discussed were the information content, price

information, comparison and use of men and women in ads.All

differences were explained using the cultural factor as the

main argument.

The study by Royo-Vela et al. (2007) examined the profile

of men and women in Spanish advertising. The methodology

used was content analysis of television commercials in

Spanish and the results highlight a social reality that is

going towards gender equality.

In search of Ganahl, Prinzen and Netzley (2003) method was

used content analysis of advertisements in prime time from

three major American networks (ABC, CBS, and NBC). Among

the issues discussed were gender, age, social role and the

advertised product. The results showed that women are still

underrepresented with preexisting stereotypes.

The study by Furnham and Imadzu (2002) was on cultural

differences in gender portrayal in TV commercials British

and Japanese. The analysis showed that the ads use less

29

British stereotypes than before, while the Japanese have

shown a high level of gender stereotypes due to sexism in

Japanese culture.

Pereira and Verissimo (2005) conducted a study on

discrimination against women in Portuguese society. The

method of research involved a qualitative and quantitative

analysis. The results show us that gender stereotypes are

still in advertising and that recipients perceive some

stereotypes in advertising.

The study by Queiroz (2007) used content analysis to

identify the stereotypic biases in television advertising

channels in Portuguese: RTP, SIC and TVI. The items

analyzed were: gender, race and age and the results showed

that more women are portrayed in ads related to body

products, toys and household, while men appear in ads for

cars, sports and food products.

6 - Research methodology

The methodology used in this research was a content

analysis.Several authors like Bardin (1988), Krippendorff

(1990), Marconi and Lakatos (1990) define content analysis

as a research technique for describing objective,

systematic and quantitative content manifest in

communication.

30

Our research was guided by a general starting point: To

investigate whether television advertising today

corresponds to the current image of the woman or if it is

still attached to female stereotypes of the past.

The methodology used was the quantitative method of content

analysis.A capture was made at random from these videos on

the internet - more specifically in Youtube site - during

the first week of January of 2010.

The commercials showed how the presence of mandatory item

female protagonists, and have aired in Brazil and / or

Portugal in two specific periods: 50/60 (Brazil); years

57/67 (Portugal) and 2000/2010 (both countries). The choice

of this particular period was performed since these are the

early years of television broadcasting in each country.

From this collection we made a selection of advertisements

for analysis. This selection process reject all the ads

that did not present the perfect conditions for viewing and

rating. Selected ads with a minimum of five seconds, which

were in good technical condition and that advertised brand

name products and services.

After this first selection we get a sample of 85 different

commercials (35 Portuguese and 50 Brazilians). The content

of the advertisements were analyzed through a framework of

analysis, which presented as basis for verification of the

presence of stereotypes and the use of elements that

31

comprise the creative advertising strategy, and items such

as the duration of the ad, product category, using

voiceover and soundtrack, among others.

In the process of content analysis performed, the scale was

tested and revised through the viewing and a previous

classification and experimental content.After corrections

and adjustments the final grid was finally applied to all

listings in the study. After the data were collected in the

application SPSS - Statistical Package for Social Sciences

(17.0) to be analyzed.

7 - Analysis of Results

7.1 Type of Advertisement

Quadro 1 - Type of Advertisement

Period

Country

TotalBrasil

Portug

al

50/60’s Type Produt 25 25

100,0% 100,0%

Total 25 25

100,0% 100,0%

57/67’s Type Produt 10 10

100,0% 100,0%

32

Total 10 10

100,0% 100,0%

2000/2010’s Type Instituc

ional

4 2 6

16,0% 8,0% 12,0%

Produt 21 17 38

84,0% 68,0% 76,0%

Service 0 6 6

,0% 24,0% 12,0%

Total 25 25 50

100,0% 100,0% 100,0%

As you can see, either in Brazil or Portugal in the 50s or

today, the use of female protagonists was used to advertise

products, mostly. There were very few spots or

institutional services that used women, making them more

use of male image in their representations.

7.2 Target

Quadro 2 - Target

Period

Coutnry

TotalBrasil

Portug

al

50/60’s Target Male 2 2

8,0% 8,0%

Female 18 18

33

72,0% 72,0%

Both 5 5

20,0% 20,0%

Total 25 25

100,0% 100,0%

57/67’s Target Female 9 9

90,0% 90,0%

Both 1 1

10,0% 10,0%

Total 10 10

100,0% 100,0%

2000/2010’s Target Male 2 1 3

8,0% 4,0% 6,0%

Female 18 11 29

72,0% 44,0% 58,0%

Both 5 13 18

20,0% 52,0% 36,0%

Total 25 25 50

100,0% 100,0% 100,0%

In the old ads, the target audience of the ads using women

protagonists was the Female. Already nowadays, Portugal is

different to using female protagonists products for both

public (52%), while Brazil (72%) continues, mostly using

34

the female protagonists in want ads when approaching women

exclusively .

7.3 Appeals

Quadro 3 - Appeals

Period

Country

TotalBrasil

Portug

al

50/60’s Appe

al

Raciona

l

5 5

20,0% 20,0%

Emotion

al

20 20

80,0% 80,0%

Total 25 25

100,0% 100,0%

57/67’s Appe

al

Raciona

l

5 5

50,0% 50,0%

Emotion

al

5 5

50,0% 50,0%

Total 10 10

100,0% 100,0%

2000/2010’s Appe

al

Raciona

l

0 5 5

,0% 20,0% 10,0%

Emotion

al

25 20 45

100,0% 80,0% 90,0%

Total 25 25 50

35

100,0% 100,0% 100,0%

Ads with emotional appeals were the majority in Brazil

(80%) of 50 years. The woman was portrayed in order to

establish an emotional connection with consumers. In

Portugal (50/50%) was not possible to obtain a more

accurate data because the low amount of ads. However in the

current year, it is again this tendency toward emotional

appeal in both countries (Brazil - 100%, Portugal - 80%).

That is, the intention is to establish an emotional bond

with consumers is the frequent use of female protagonists

in the ad.

7.4 Type Stereotypes

Quadro 4 - Type Stereotypes

Period

Country

TotalBrasil

Portug

al

50/60’s Type Queen's household

14 14

56,0% 56,0%

Seductive 8 8

32,0% 32,0%

Both 1 1

4,0% 4,0%

Others 2 2

36

8,0% 8,0%

Total 25 25

100,0% 100,0%

57/67’s Type Queen's household

6 6

60,0% 60,0%

Seductive 2 2

20,0% 20,0%

Others 2 2

20,0% 20,0%

Total 10 10

100,0% 100,0%

2000/2010’s Type Queen's household

7 2 9

28,0% 8,0% 18,0%

Seductive 7 10 17

28,0% 40,0% 34,0%

Others 11 13 24

44,0% 52,0% 48,0%

Total 25 25 50

100,0% 100,0% 100,0%

During the 50s, the dominant stereotype was the Queen's

household. Brazil had 56% of ads with this stereotype and

Portugal 60%. In the current ads, Brazil lowered the

stereotype of Queen's Home for Portugal and 28% to 8%.

37

However, Portugal had an increase of 40% in the stereotype

seductive, before 20%. Brazil fell to 28% before 32%. Both

countries had high numbers in other stereotypes (Slave

beauty). Brazil and Portugal with 44% to 52%.

7.5 Personality of the female protagonist

Quadro 5- Personality of the female protagonist

Period

Country

Total

Brasi

l

Portu

gal

50/60’s Personality Funny 3 3

12,0% 12,0%

Domestic 14 14

56,0% 56,0%

Soft 3 3

12,0% 12,0%

Sexy 3 3

12,0% 12,0%

Diverses

personalities

2 2

8,0% 8,0%

Total 25 25

100,0

%

100,0

%

57/67’s Personality Domestic 5 5

50,0% 50,0%

Soft 3 3

38

30,0% 30,0%

Sexy 1 1

10,0% 10,0%

Romantic 1 1

10,0% 10,0%

Total 10 10

100,0

%

100,0

%

2000/2010

’s

Personality Funny 6 2 8

24,0% 8,0% 16,0%

Domestic 5 2 7

20,0% 8,0% 14,0%

Smart 2 1 3

8,0% 4,0% 6,0%

Soft 4 6 10

16,0% 24,0% 20,0%

Sexy 5 8 13

20,0% 32,0% 26,0%

Professional 1 1 2

4,0% 4,0% 4,0%

Romantic 0 3 3

,0% 12,0% 6,0%

Desportiva 0 2 2

,0% 8,0% 4,0%

Diverses 2 0 2

39

personalities 8,0% ,0% 4,0%

Total 25 25 50

100,0

%

100,0

%

100,0

%

In terms of personality presented by the protagonists of

the old ads, in both countries was the Domestic - facing

the household / family which prevailed (Portugal - 50% and

Brazil - 56%).

In the current ads, Brazil presented a nice personality -

fun-oriented (24%), and Seductive - facing seduction / sex

and Domestic tied at 20%. Portugal had already Seductive

personalities from 32% to 8% Domestic and Suave - -24%

focused on appearance. In both countries, the Executive

personality - facing the job market had only 4%.

7.6 Age Group of Female Protagonist

Quadro 6 - Age Group of Female Protagonist

Period

Country

TotalBrasil

Portug

al

50/60’s Age Group 16/20 years 1 1

4,0% 4,0%

21/25 years 8 8

32,0% 32,0%

40

26/30 years 7 7

28,0% 28,0%

31/35 years 1 1

4,0% 4,0%

Diverses ages 8 8

32,0% 32,0%

Total 25 25

100,0% 100,0%

57/67’s Age group 21/25 years 6 6

60,0% 60,0%

26/30 years 1 1

10,0% 10,0%

39/40 years 1 1

10,0% 10,0%

41/45 years 1 1

10,0% 10,0%

Diverses ages 1 1

10,0% 10,0%

Total 10 10

100,0% 100,0%

2000/2010’

s

Age group 16/20 years 0 2 2

,0% 8,0% 4,0%

21/25 years 4 10 14

16,0% 40,0% 28,0%

26/30 years 8 5 13

41

32,0% 20,0% 26,0%

31/35 years 5 1 6

20,0% 4,0% 12,0%

Diverses ages 8 7 15

32,0% 28,0% 30,0%

Total 25 25 50

100,0% 100,0% 100,0%

In the old ads, Brazil prefers actors in 21/25 (28%) and

26/30 years (32%), while in Portugal 21/25 (60%) In today's

Brazil prefer women a little older, 26 / 30 years (32%) and

31/35 (20%), while Portugal still prefer younger women,

21/25 (40%) and 26/30 (20%).

8 – Conclusion

Since this is a survey of exploratory nature, the findings

presented here should be seen as a first test on the

differences and similarities in gender stereotypes in

television advertising in countries like Brazil and

Portugal.

42

The idea of doing a job on a topic little explored in

Portugal and Brazil presented both as a motivating factor

but at the same time, as an added responsibility. Assumed

this, there are certain conclusions that seem to be valid,

not as definitive answers, but as proposals for research to

be conducted in the future.

We believe that, undoubtedly, in general, the role of women

in society has changed. Women are following permanent

careers away from home and affirming itself in jobs and

professions that were unique fields of men, with

characteristics of distancing themselves from the manner in

which they played and creating a new behavioral model.

Women present, the fruit of the conquests feminists who

broke the model imposed so far, has not yet set a new

standard of behavior. It is known that the old model no

longer serves, however, there is a new model to be

followed. Which leads us to believe that women today can

make use of many different archetypes to suit the

situations which oblige it daily.

It is striking that in the XXI Century, with all

technological and scientific advances achieved by human

beings, still need to enhance human dignity as a

fundamental principle of harmonious coexistence between

people.

43

The first step is to register men and women are equal,

simply because they are people, have equal dignity.

Advertising, which in itself is neutral, should be used in

accordance with the highest values of society, especially

with respect to human dignity and strong sense of social

responsibility.

It is important that the recipients of the advertisements

must maintain a critical and conscious, using reason and

discernment, do not keep in a position of inertia or

indifference to the content they are intended by the

various media channels. Also it is the duty of governmental

entities, civil society and especially of all individuals,

to combat the depersonalization of women waged so

outrageous and insistent advertising segments and served by

various media.

The simple act of not consuming products that exploit the

image of women in order to depersonalize it is a small

example of conduct that can be done by all. Thus, indeed,

the publicists and the media will have to rethink the way

of marketing the image of women.

It is noticed that despite all the struggle, women still

internalize - subjected - the stereotypes of 50 years ago,

but now also carry the exacerbated sexuality, one of the

burdens of post-sexual revolution, which freed the chains

44

desires female, but brought to the fore the female body, in

advertising and media in general.

Women have achieved a certain freedom in relation to the

stereotype of woman and wife. However, it turned into a

being sexually exploited by the media, which limit the

exposure of women to their bodies. These representations

must be deconstructed so that women are respected as

individuals irrespective of their gender and their time.

9 - Bibliography

Alves, B. e Pitanguy, J.(1982). O que é Feminismo, São Paulo:Editora Brasiliense.

Al-Fahad, F. e Karande, K. (2000). ‘A Content Analysis ofMagazine Advertisements from the United States and the ArabWorld’. Journal of Advertising, 29: 69-83 .

Amâncio, L.(1994). Masculino e Feminino. A construção social dadiferença. Porto: Edições Afrontamento.

Amâncio, L e Carmo, I. (2004). Vozes insubmissas – A história dasmulheres e dos homens que lutaram pela igualdade dos sexos quando eracrime fazê-lo, Lisboa: Dom Quixote.

Baccega,M. (1998). ‘O Estereótipo e as diversidades’,Revista Comunicação e Educação, 13:.07-14.

Bardin, L. (1988). Análise de Conteúdo, Lisboa: Edições 70.Baudrillard, J. (2007). A Sociedade de Consumo, Lisboa:Edições 70.

Beleli, I. (2005). Marcas da diferença da propaganda brasileira.Tese de Doutorado na área de Comunicação do Instituto deFilosofia e Ciências Humanas, Universidade Estadual deCampinas. São Paulo.

45

Brochand, B. Lendrevie, J. Rodrigues, J. e Dionísio, P.(1999). Publicitor. Lisboa: Publicações Dom Quixote.

Cabecinhas, R.(2002). ‘Media, etnocentrismo e estereótipossociais’, in As Ciências da Comunicação na Viragem do Século. Actasdo I Congresso de Ciências da Comunicação. Lisboa: Veja,pp.407-418.

Cabecinhas, R.(2004). ‘Processos cognitivos, cultura eestereótipos sociais’, in Actas do II Congresso Ibérico de Ciências daComunicação, Universidade da Beira Interior, Covilhã, pp.1-18.

Cabral, M. (2007). Deixe a vida te despentear: Representações dofeminino na publicidade. VII Seminário Mídia, Educação eLeitura, S/L, USP – SP.

Carvalho, N. (1998). Publicidade: a linguagem da sedução, SãoPaulo: Ática.

Cerqueira, C, Ribeiro, L e Cabecinhas, R. (2009). ‘Mulherese Blogosfera: Contributo para o estudo da presença femininana rede’. Ex Aequo, 19: 111-128.

Citelli, A. (1993). Linguagem e persuasão. São Paulo: Ática.

Conde, M. e Hurtado, M.(2006). ‘La mujer y el hombre en lapublicidad televisiva: imágenes y estereotipos’, Zer - Revistade estudos de Comunicación , 21: 161-175.

Côrrea, L. (2008). Quem sempre troca a Maria? ComunicaçãoMidiatica - Instituições, valores e cultura, UFMG, pp.1-12.

Craig, R. S. (1992). ‘The effect of television day part ongender portrayals in television commercials: A contentanalysis’. Sex Roles, 26: 197-211.

Dantas, B. (1997). O Masculino na Mídia – Repertórios sobre aMasculinidade na Televisão Brasileira. Dissertação de Mestrado –Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São Paulo.

Davis, S. (2003). ‘Sex stereotypes in commercials targetedtoward children: a content analysis’. Sociological Spectrum,23: 407- 424.

46

Del Priore, M.(1997). A Mulher na História do Brasil, São Paulo:Contexto.

Diniz, M.(2000). Estereótipo na mídia: doxa ou ruptura, 3º Jornadamultidisciplinar O Futuro: continuidade/ruptura,Unesp/Bauru, pp.137-145.

Durkin, K. (1985). ‘Television and sex role acquisition 1:Content’, British Journal of Social Psychology, 24: 101-113.

Espíndola, P.(2008). Estereótipos na comunicação intercultural: o casodo intercâmbio cultural universitário na PUCRS, III Mostra de Pesquisade Pós-graduação, PUCRS.

Fairclough, N. (1989). Language and Power. London: Longman.

Fonseca, W. (2005). ‘Análise de Conteúdo’ in Duarte, J eBarros, A.(eds.) (2005) Métodos e Técnicas de Pesquisa emComunicação. São Paulo: Editora Atlas. pp. 280-304.

Furnham, A. e Imadzu, E.(2002). ‘Gender portrayal in Britishand Japanese TV advertisements’. Journal Communications. 27: 319- 348.

Ganahl, D., Prinzen, T. e Netzley, S. (2003). ‘A contentanalysis of prime time commercials: a contextual frameworkof gender representation’. Journal Sex Roles, 49: 545-590.

Garboggini, F. (2003). ‘Era uma vez uma mulher margarina’,in Ghilardi – Lucena, M. (org.) (2003) Representações dofeminino. Campinas: Átomo, pp. 141-157.

Garrido, L.(1993): Las biografías de la mujer en España. Madrid:Instituto de la Mujer.

Ghilard- Lucena, M.(2003). Representações do Feminino, Campinas:Átomo.

Joannis, H. (1998). O Processo de Criação Publicitária. Portugal:Edições CETOP.

Krippendorff, K. (1990). Metodologia de Análisis de Contenido,Barcelona: Paidós.

47

Lima, J. (2008). A Imagem do Feminino na Publicidade Contemporânea:Estudos de Casos, Monografia do curso de Publicidade ePropaganda, Faculdade 7 de Setembro. Fortaleza.

Lippmann, W. (1922). Public Opinion, New York: Harcourt,Brace.

Lysardo-dias, D. (2007). ‘A Construção e a desconstrução deestereótipos pela publicidade brasileira’, Stockholm Rewiew ofLatin American Studies. 2: 25 – 35.

Marcondes, P. (2002). Uma história da Propaganda Brasileira, Rio deJaneiro: Ediouro.

Marconi, M. e Lakatos, E. (1990). Técnicas de Pesquisa, SãoPaulo: Editora Atlas.

Martinez, L. Munoz, N. (2009). ‘El consumo femenino da laimagem de la mujer en la publicidad. El sexismo en lascampanas publicitárias rechazadas por la audiência’,Tripodos, 24: 149-159.

Mazzara, B. (1999). Estereotipos y prejuicos, Madrid: AcentoEditorial.

Melo, J. e Sanematsu, M. (2006). ‘Fragmentos da mulher napublicidade: um corpo sem cabeça e sem alma’, RevistaDemocracia Viva, 31:76-81.

Mota-Ribeiro, S. (2003). ‘Corpos visuais – imagens dofeminino na publicidade’ in Macedo, A & Grossegesse, O(eds.) Re-presentações do Corpo, Braga: Colecção Hispérides,pp.115-132.

Mota-Ribeiro, S. (2002) ‘Corpos Eróticos – imagens damulher na publicidade da imprensa feminina portuguesa’.Cadernos do Noroeste - “olhares sobre mulheres”, 17(1-2) pp.145-164.

Neto, A., Cid, M. Pomar, C., Peças, A., Chaleta, E., eFolque, A. (2000) Estereótipos de Género, Lisboa: ColeçãoCadernos Coeducação.

Nishida, N. (2006). A mulher e a ética da responsabilidade napublicidade: postura tradicional x postura contemporâneas. UNESCOM –

48

Congresso Multidisciplinar de Comunicação para odesenvolvimento regional, S/L,Universidade Metodistas deSão Paulo.

Pereira, F. e Veríssimo, J. (2005). ‘A Mulher naPublicidade e Estereótipos de Género’, Jornal Observatório, 5:280-296.

Pereira, M. (2002). Psicologia Social dos Estereótipos, São Paulo:E.P.U.

Queiroz, J (2007). Ideologia: os enviesamentos estereotípicos napublicidade televisiva, em Portugal, em 2003, Lisboa: Universidade deLisboa.

Royo-vela, M. Aldas-manzano,J., Kuster, I. e Vila, N.(2007). ‘Adaptation of Marketing Activities to Cultural andSocial Context: Gender Role Portrayals and Sexism inSpanish Commercials’. Journal Sex Roles. 58: 379-390.

Ruiz, E. (2006). ‘Imágenes y estereotipos de género en laprogramación y en la publicidad infantil análisiscuantitativo’.Revista latina de comunicacion social, 61: 1-21.

Santis, H. (2005) A responsabilidade da publicidade na (des)contruçãoda imagem da mulher. Conselho Municipal dos Direitos da Mulherde Marília, S/L, São Paulo.

Sherman, J. W.(1996). ‘Develpment and mentalrepresentations of stereotypes’. Journal of Personality and SocialPsychology, 70(6): 1126-1141.

Six, B. e Eckes, T. (1989). ‘Gender Stereotypes: arepresentative design for analyzing cognitivecategorizations of men and women’ in Forgas, J.P. & Innes,J.M. (eds.) (1989), Recent advances in social psychology: Aninternational perspective Vol.I, Amsterdam: Elsevier SciencePublishers B.V, pp.287-296.

Tajfel, H. (1981/1982). Grupos Humanos e categorias sociais (2volumes). Lisboa: Livros Horizonte.

Velho, B. e Bacellar, F. (2003). Algo de novo no ar. Arepresentação de homens e mulheres na propaganda. Intercom - XXVI

49

Congresso anual em Ciência da Comunicação, Belo Horizonte -MG.

Veríssimo, J. (2005). ‘A mulher ‘objecto’ na publicidade’,Livro de Actas - 4º SOPCOM, Aveiro, pp.1701-1721.

Vestergaard, T; Schroder, K. (2000). A Linguagem da Propaganda,São Paulo: Martins Fontes.

50