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INDEX

Page No.

Indian Culture 1–08

Religion and Philosophy 09–31

Language and Literature 32–50

Indian architecture and sculpture 51–96

Indian Painting 97–114

Indian Dance 115–129

Indian Music 130–142

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Indian Culture

The culture of India refers collectively to the thousands of distinct and unique culturesof all religions and communities present in India. India’s languages, religions, dance,music, architecture, food, and customs differs from place to place within the country,often labeled as an amalgamation of several cultures, spans across the Indiansubcontinent and has been influenced by a history that is several millennia old. Manyelements of India’s diverse cultures, such as Indian religions, philosophy, cuisine,languages, martial arts, dance, music and movies have a profound impact across theIndosphere, Greater India and world.

India is one of the world’s oldest civilizations and one of the most populated countriesin the world. The Indian culture, often labeled as an amalgamation of several variousgoolscultures, spans across the Indian subcontinent and has been influenced and shapedby a history that is several thousand years old. Throughout the history of India, Indianculture has been heavily influenced by Dharmic religions. They have been creditedwith shaping much of Indian philosophy, literature, architecture, art and music.

Greater India was the historical extent of Indian culture beyond the Indiansubcontinent. This particularly concerns the spread of Hinduism, Buddhism, architecture,administration and writing system from India to other parts of Asia through the SilkRoad by the travellers and maritime traders during the early centuries of the CommonEra. To the west, Greater India overlaps with Greater Persia in the Hindu Kush andPamir Mountains. Over the centuries, there has been significant fusion of culturesbetween Buddhists, Hindus, Muslims (Sunni, Shia, Sufi), Jains, Sikhs and various tribalpopulations in India.

India is the birthplace of Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism, collectivelyknown as Indian religions. Indian religions are a major form of world religions alongwith Abrahamic ones. Today, Hinduism and Buddhism are the world’s third and fourth-largest religions respectively, with over 2 billion followers altogether, and possibly asmany as 2.5 or 2.6 billion followers. Followers of Indian religions – Hindus, Sikhs, Jainsand Buddhists make up around 80–82% population of India.

Concept of Culture

Culture is the characteristics and knowledge of a particular group of people,encompassing language, religion, cuisine, social habits, music and arts.The Center for Advance Research on Language Acquisition goes a step further,defining culture as shared patterns of behaviours and interactions, cognitive constructsand understanding that are learned by socialization.

Culture & Civilization

civilization in theory is bigger than culture in which an entire civilization can encompassone single unit of culture. Civilization is a bigger unit than culture because it is a complexaggregate of the society that dwells within a certain area, along with its forms ofgovernment, norms, and even culture. Thus, culture is just a spec or a portion of anentire civilization. For example, the Egyptian civilization has an Egyptian culture in thesame way as the Greek civilization has their Greek culture.

A culture ordinarily exists within a civilization. In this regard, each civilization cancontain not only one but several cultures. Comparing culture and civilization is likeshowing the difference between language and the country to which it is being used.Culture can exist in itself whereas civilization cannot be called a civilization if it doesnot possess a certain culture. It’s just like asking how a nation can exist on its ownwithout the use of a medium of communication. Hence, a civilization will becomeempty if it does not have its culture, no matter how little it is.

Culture can be something that is tangible and it can also be something that isn’t.Culture can become a physical material if it is a product of the beliefs, customs andpractices of a certain people with a definite culture. But a civilization is something that


can be seen as a whole and it is more or less tangible although its basic components,like culture, can be immaterial.

Culture can be learned and in the same manner it can also be transmitted from onegeneration to the next. Using a medium of speech and communication, it is possible fora certain type of culture to evolve and even be inherited by another group of people.On the other hand, civilization cannot be transferred by mere language alone. Becauseof its complexity and magnitude, you need to transfer all of the raw aggregates of acivilization for it to be entirely passed on. It just grows, degrades and may eventuallyend if all its subunits will fail.

Cultural Heritage

Cultural Heritage is an expression of the ways of living developed by a community andpassed on from generation to generation, including customs, practices, places, objects,artistic expressions and values. Cultural Heritage is often expressed as either Intangibleor Tangible Cultural Heritage (ICOMOS, 2002).

As part of human activity Cultural Heritage produces tangible representations ofthe value systems, beliefs, traditions and lifestyles. As an essential part of culture as awhole, Cultural Heritage, contains these visible and tangible traces form antiquity tothe recent past.

Cultural Heritage is a wide concept. We prefer to concentrate on the similaritiesbetween the various heritage sectors, instead of on their differences.

Cultural Heritage types

Cultural Heritage can be distinguished in: · Built Environment (Buildings, Townscapes, Archaeological remains)· Natural Environment (Rural landscapes, Coasts and shorelines, Agricultural

heritage)· Artefacts (Books & Documents, Objects, Pictures)

Tangible &Intangable Heritage

Having at one time referred exclusively to the monumental remains of cultures, culturalheritage as a concept has gradually come to include new categories. Today, we findthat heritage is not only manifested through tangible forms such as artefacts, buildingsor landscapes but also through intangible forms. Intangible heritage includes voices,values, traditions, oral history. Popularly this is perceived through cuisine, clothing, formsof shelter, traditional skills and technologies, religious ceremonies, performing arts,storytelling. Today, we consider the tangible heritage inextricably bound up with theintangible heritage. In conservation projects we aim to preserve both the tangible aswell as the intangible heritage

Importance of Culture for an Individual and the Group

Participating in culture can benefit individuals in many different ways, some of whichare deeply personal. They are a source of delight and wonder, and can provide emotionallyand intellectually moving experiences, whether pleasurable or unsettling, that encouragecelebration or contemplation. Culture is also a means of expressing creativity, forgingan individual identity, and enhancing or preserving a community’s sense of place.

Cultural experiences are opportunities for leisure, entertainment, learning, and sharingexperiences with others. From museums to theatres to dance studios to public libraries,culture brings people together.

These benefits are intrinsic to culture. They are what attracts us and why weparticipate.

Improved learning and valuable skills for the future

In children and youth, participation in culture helps develop thinking skills, builds self-esteem, and improves resilience, all of which enhance education outcomes. For example,students from low-income families who take part in arts activities at school are three


times more likely to get a degree than those who do not. In the US, schools that integratearts across the curriculum have shown consistently higher average reading andmathematics scores compared with similar schools that do not. Many jurisdictions makestrong linkages between culture and literacy and enhanced learning outcomes, in bothpublic education and in the development of valuable workforce skills.

Cultural heritage broadens opportunities for education and lifelong learning, includinga better understanding of history. Ontario’s cultural heritage sector develops educationalproducts and learning resources in museums and designed around built heritage andcultural landscapes.

Better health and well-being

Participation in culture contributes to healthy populations in several ways. Creativityand cultural engagement have been shown to improve both mental and physicalhealth. Culture is being integrated into health care, notably in the UK, but also increasinglyin other jurisdictions, including Canada.

A growing body of research also demonstrates that the arts can improve the health andwell-being of older adults. Participation in the arts can relieve isolation and promoteidentity formation and intercultural understanding. Vancouver’s Arts, Health and SeniorsProject found that active participation in the arts had positive health benefits, such associal cohesion and emotional and physical well-being. Both the perceived health andchronic pain measures showed improvement over time.

Vibrant communities

The benefits of culture for individuals can spill over to society as a whole.Culture helps build social capital, the glue that holds communities together. By bringingpeople together, cultural activities such as festivals, fairs, or classes create social solidarityand cohesion, fostering social inclusion, community empowerment, and capacity-building,and enhancing confidence, civic pride, and tolerance. The social capital created throughculture increases with regular participation in cultural activities. Cultural engagementalso plays a key role in poverty reduction and communities-at-risk strategies.

Economic benefits of culture

The culture sector helps support the economy through direct and indirect job creation.It also helps spur innovation in other sectors in the form of productivity advancements,regional development, community branding, and increased local tourism.

Contribution to job creation

Economic opportunities created by culture have taken on greater importance aseconomies transition from the industrial model, and work based on physical labour, to anew model in which knowledge and creativity drive productivity and growth. Knowledge-based economies favour ideas to stimulate innovation, and they develop specializedservices and highly customized products to create value Information, technology, andlearning are central to their performance.

Material Culture

Material culture consists of man-made objects such as furniture, automobiles, buildings,dams, bridges, roads and in fact, the physical matter converted and used by man. It isclosely related with the external, mechanical as well as useful objects. It includes,technical and material equipment like a railways engines, publication machines, alocomotive, a radio etc. It includes our financial institutions, parliaments, insurancepolicies etc. and referred to as civilization.

Non-Material Culture

The term ’culture’ when used in the ordinary sense, means non-material culture’.This term when used in the ordinary sense, means non-material. It is somethingnonphysical ideas which include values, beliefs, symbols, organization and institutions


etc. Nonmaterial culture includes words we use, the language we speak, our beliefheld, values we cherish and all the ceremonies observed.

Expansion and Extension of Indian Culture

The Indian cultural expansion in S.E. Asia did not take place over a small period oftime. It was the culmination of a continuous process over a long period of time whichslowly spread over this region.

Of course, there were several agencies which helped this process of culturalinteraction. These agencies took the lead in spreading the cultural message of India tolarge parts of S.E. Asia.

China

The contact between India and China began around the 2nd Century B.C. Indianculture first entered China with two monk scholars—KashyapaMartanga andDharmarakshita who went to China in AD 67 on the invitation of the Chinese EmperorMing Ti. After KashyapaMartanga and Dharmarakshita, there was a continuous flowof scholars from India to China and from China to India. The Chinese were a highlycultured people. They listened to the thrilling stories of the Buddha with great attention.The Chinese who came in search of wisdom wrote about India and the Indian cultureto such an extent that today they are the most important sources of Indian history.Prominent teachers from the Indian Universities and monasteries became famous inChina.

For example, a scholar named Bodhidharma went to China from Kanchipuram.He went to Nalanda, studied there and left for China. He carried the philosophy ofYoga with him and popularized the practice of ‘dhyana’, (meditation), which was laterknown in China as ch’an. Bodhidharma became such an eminent figure that peoplebegan to worship him in China and Japan. The Buddhists philosophy appealed to theChinese intellectuals because they already had a developed philosophical school inConfucianism.

Korea

Korea is situated on the Northeast of China. Korea received Indian cultural elementsthrough China. Sundo was the first Buddhist Monk who entered Korea, carrying aBuddha image and sutras in AD 352. He was followed by Acharya Mallananda, whoreached there in AD 384. In AD 404, an Indian monk built two temples in the Pyongyangcity in Korea.

He was followed by a number of teachers from India. They brought philosophy,religion, the art of making images, painting, and metallurgy. Many scholars came toIndia from Korea in search of knowledge. They were trained in astronomy, astrology,medicine and in several other fields of knowledge. Monasteries and temples acted ascentres of devotion and learning all over Korea.

A large number of Buddhist texts were translated there. The philosophy of ‘dhyanayoga’ reached Korea in the eighth to ninth century AD. The kings and queens, princesand ministers, even warriors began to practise yoga to be brave and fearless. Out ofdevotion to wisdom, Buddhist texts were printed by the Koreans in six thousand volumes.Indian scripts had also reached Korea by than.

Japan

The story of Indian culture in Japan is believed to go back to more than fïfteen hundredyears. But the earliest historical evidence of Indian culture going to Japan is from AD552. At that time, the Korean Emperor sent a Buddhist statue, sutras, instruments forworship, artists, sculptors, painters and architects as gifts for the Japanese Emperor.Soon, Buddhism was given the status of State Religion. Thousands of Japanese becamemonks and nuns. Sanskrit was accepted as the sacred language in Japan. Monks weregiven special training to write the Sanskrit syllables and mantras. The script in whichall these are written is known as ‘Shittan’. Shittan is believed to be Siddham, the script


that gives ‘siddhi’ (accomplishment). Even today, there is a keen desire among theJapanese scholars to learn Sanskrit. As the language of Buddhist scriptures, it is acementing force between India and Japan. Buddhist sutras, translated into Chinese,were brought to Japan during the time of Prince Shotokutaishi in the seventh century,who was highly impressed by their philosophy.

Tibet

Tibet is situated on a plateau to the north of the Himalayas. The people of Tibet areBuddhists. The Tibetan king Naradeva is believed to have sent his ministerThonmiSambhot accompanied by sixteen outstanding scholars to Magadha where theystudied under Indian teachers. After sometime, ThonmiSambhot went to Kashmir. It issaid that he devised a new script for Tibet in the seventh century on the basis of Indianalphabets of the Brahmi script. Till today, the same script is being used in Tibet. It alsoinfluenced the scripts of Mongolia and Manchuria. It seems ThonmiSambhot carriedwith him a number of books from India. On going back to Tibet, he wrote a newgrammar for the Tibetans which is said to be based on the Sanskrit grammar written byPanini. The king was so attracted to the literature brought by him that he devoted fouryears to study them. He laid the foundation for the translation of Sanskrit books intoTibetan. As a result, from seventh to seventeenth century, there were continuous efforton translation. According to this tradition, ninety-six thousand Sanskrit books weretranslated into Tibetan.

Characteristics of Indian Culture

Indian culture is unique and variant. It includes intellectual and social aspects of anyhuman being. It also takes account of the aesthetic instinct as well as the spiritualimpulses of a human being. India is a vast country with a lot of diversity in her physicaland social environment. Its people speak in different dialects and follow different religions.

You can also see these diversities in their food habits and dress patterns. Besides,look at the myriad forms of dance and music in our country. But within all these diversities,there is an underlying unity which acts as a cementing force. The intermingling ofpeople has been steadily taking place in India over centuries. A number of people ofdifferent racial stock, ethnic backgrounds and religious beliefs have settled down here.

Continuity and change in culture

Many great cultures had developed in different countries and regions of the world.Many of them have perished or have been replaced by other cultures. However Indianculture has had an enduring character. Despite major changes and upheavals significantthreads of continuity can be traced throughout the course of Indian history right up tothe present day.

We have read about the Harappan civilisation which flourished in the Indiansubcontinent over 4500 years ago. Archaeologists have found evidences to show thatcultures existed here even before the matured phase of the Harappan civilisation. Thistells us that we have a very long history behind us. And yet what is amazing is thateven today the pattern of a house in an Indian village is not very different from that ofa Harappan house. Some aspects of Harappan culture are still practised, such as, theworshipping of Mother Goddess and Pashupati.

Similarly, Vedic, Buddhist, Jain and many other traditions continue to be followedeven today. At the same time one should not lose sight of the changes as are evident inthe multistoried buildings in the metropolitan cities like Mumbai and Delhi, quite unlikethe Harappan houses that had only one storey. Continuity and change in our civilisationhave gone hand in hand. Its people evolved with time, discarding what was irrelevantto adapt to the changes of the modern age.

In our long history, there have been periods of ups and downs. As a result,movements have grown and reforms have been brought about. The reform movementsin the Vedic religion brought about by Jainism and Buddhism in sixth century BC andthe religious and social awakening in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in modern


India are a few examples when revolutionary changes were brought about in Indianthought and practices.

Yet the thread of basic philosophy of Indian culture continued and still persists.Thus a process of continuity and change has always been a feature of Indian culture.This shows the dynamic character of our culture.

Variety and Unity

Indian culture, over the last three millennia, has successfully, but quietly, has integratedfrom time to time parts from other religions and cultures into itself. Indeed, few culturesin the world have such variety as the Indian culture. You may perhaps wonder why thepeople of Kerala use coconut oil while the people of Uttar Pradesh use mustard oil forcooking.

This is because Kerala is a coastal state and coconut grows here in plenty whileUttar Pradesh is a plain area which is favourable for the growth of mustard. What isthe similarity in the Bhangra dance of Punjab or the Pongal of Tamil Nadu or the Bihudance of Assam? Both are celebrated after a rich harvest of crops.

This wide variety has led to the making of Indian culture both composite one andrich and beautiful at the same time. Why is there so much variety in our culture? Thereare many reasons for this. The vastness of the country and variation in its physical andclimatic features is an obvious reason for the variety. The second important reason forthe variety in our culture is the intermingling among various ethnic groups.

Since time immemorial, people from far and near have been coming and settlinghere. We find people belonging to different racial stocks like the Proto-Australoids, theNegroids and the Mongoloids living in India. Various ethnic groups like Iranians, Greeks,Kushanas, Shakas, Hunas, Arabs, Turks, Mughals and Europeans also came to India,settled here and intermixed with the local population.

The people belonging to other cultures brought their cultural habits, thoughts andideas, which got amalgamated into the existing culture. You will be surprised to knowthat it was only around second century BC that stitched clothes such as salwars, kurtas,topees, etc. were brought to India, by the Kushanas, Shakas and Parthians. Prior tothat Indians wore clothes which were unstitched. The latest is the introduction of shirts,trousers, skirts, etc.

Which were brought by the Europeans in the eighteenth century. India through theages has shown a remarkable capacity for assimilation of ideas. This has contributedto the variety and richness of our culture. Along with contacts with outside cultures,cultural exchange between different regions of India has also continued. The Chikanwork of Lucknow, Phulkari embrodery of Punjab, Kantha embroidery of Bengal, Patolaof Orissa show a distinct regional flavour.

Although the centres in the South, North, East and West of India have theircharacteristic cultures, yet these did not develop in absolute isolation. Inspite of thephysical barriers, Indians used to travel from one part of the country to another fortrade or pilgrimage. Some regions were joined together through conquests or by alliance.As a result, people transmitted cultural habits and thoughts from one part of the countryto the other.

Despite geographical diversity and climatic variations India experiences an inherentunity. The system of monsoons is the most important component of the Indian climaticpattern and this gives unity to the whole country. The coming of the monsoon hasensured that agriculture remains the main occupation of the people of India.

Unity in diversity is reflected in our political forms as well. During the early Vedicperiod, society was pastoral, that is, people used to move from place to place in searchof pastures. But as these people started practising agriculture, they settled down. Thissettled life led to community development and growth of towns which needed rules andregulations, thus emerged a political organisation.

The period from sixth to fourth century BC is known as the age of mahajanapadasin India. In these kingdoms kings had more powers. Subsequently large empires were


also established with emperors exercising absolute powers. You may be aware of ancientrulers such as Ashoka, Samudragupta and Harshavardhana.

Cultural integration

“Cultural integration is a form of cultural exchange in which one group assumes thebeliefs, practices and rituals of another group without sacrificing the characteristics ofits own culture.”

As the definition of culture is clear we all know it is much more complicated when itcomes to real-life implementation. Most of the wars we witness are originated in differencesin cultures, most marriages break up because the 2 people have different norms andvalues. In business, we know the problem very well too. 2/3 of all mergers and acquisitionsfail to meet their original objectives due to cultural clashes. These cultural clashes arecaused by lack of cultural awareness and insufficient cultural integration.

Ethical Culture

Ethical Culture is a religion centered on ethics, not theology, whose mission is to encouragerespect for humanity and nature and to create a better world. Members are committedto personal ethical development in their relationships with others and in activities involvingsocial justice and environmental stewardship.

We believe all individuals have inherent worth and dignity, the potential to grow andchange, a responsibility to strive for ethical growth, and a responsibility to create abetter world.

As an Ethical Community we are all part of something that transcends the individualexperience and are enriched through our relationships with others. As such, we haveresponsibilities to each other, to the Society, and to the community.

Spiritual Basis of Indian Culture

Indian culture was, is, and will be spiritual for all eternity. Spirituality is the other side ofthe coin of Indian Culture and India is destined to maintain and preserve spirituality.The principles which form the foundation of India‘s cultural heritage are based onspirituality.

Spiritual life is the true genius of India. Those who make the greatest appeal to theIndian mind are not the conquerors, the rich merchants or the great diplomats; but theholy sages, the Rishis who embody spirituality at its finest and purest.

Universal culture

A universal culture would be a culture in which every human being participates.Some of the minimal things we need are food, shelter, water, air, reproductive

opportunities, and defense from dangers (other humans, wild beasts, diseases). Notethat this description is extremely general and unspecific. As soon as we put in moredetail, the generalities break down into multiple particulars.We need food, but what we eat, how we prepare it, and how we eat it variesgeographically.

We need shelter, but for some people it’s an igloo, while for others it’s the shade ofa bush. We need water. Do we have a well, or do we get it from the river or, maybeeven a faucet?

How does a person defend himself or herself? That depends on the location andthe specific dangers against which one needs protection. Weapons are going to vary.It is pretty sure that there is no such thing as a universal human culture. We all needsimilar things, but as soon as we talk about how those needs are met, we run intodifferences.

If wouldn’t be accurate, but one might want to say that “universal” human cultureis identical with “original” human culture. Regardless of how we may picture thatculture, we’re definitely past it, and if it was real in the first moments of the existenceof homo sapiens, I doubt that we are going to want to rehabilitate it.


Women in Indian Culture

Women were held in high esteem during Vedic age (1, 500 BC - 1, 000 BC). Theyenjoyed equally with men in every range in life. Without their presence, no religiousceremony could be performed. In the social and religious assembling, they possessedan important position. “There is no evidence in the ‘Rigveda’ of the seclusion of womenand the ladies trooped to the festal gathering.

We have been worshipping Shakti/Prakriti/Nature since long. We believe Prakritiwas always there, but during the slumber of Purush or Narayan, when he is not lookingat her, everything remains dissolved. Creation starts with awareness after Narayan isawaken and looks into Prakriti.

Unity in diversity

It means oneness in the varieties. India is a best country proving this concept for manyyears. India is a country where it is very clear to see unity in diversity because peopleof many religion, race, culture and tradition live together without affecting eachothersfeelings and believes to their religion. Unity in diversity focuses on the existenceof unity even after lots of differences of cultural, social, physical, linguistic, religious,political, ideological, psychological, etc. More number of diversities makes more complexunity. People in India are united in spite of the much diversity of races, religions, castes,sub-castes, communities, languages and dialects. People in India are highly spiritualand God fearing in nature so they give respect to everyone’s religion.

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Religion and Philosophy

Introduction

Religion is a word which refers to approaches to human spirituality which usually encompassa set of narratives, symbols, beliefs and practices, often with a supernatural or transcendentquality, which give meaning to the practitioner’s experiences of life through reference to ahigher power or truth. It may be expressed through prayer, ritual, meditation, music and art,among other things. It may focus on specific supernatural, metaphysical, and moral claimsabout reality (the cosmos and human nature) which may yield a set of religious laws, ethics,and a particular lifestyle.

Religion also encompasses ancestral or cultural traditions, writings, history, and mythology,as well as personal faith and religious experience. The term “religion” refers to both thepersonal practices related to communal faith and to group rituals and communication stemmingfrom shared conviction.

“Religion” is not something that some people practice and others do not, it is just your setof beliefs, whether that set of views has a name or not. Too many people confuse “religion”with “organized religion.

When lots of people get together with similar views, that association gains a name andends up being considered an “organized religion.” But when there is even one who holds aset of beliefs on such questions, it is already a “religion.”

Religions in India

India is a land of diversities. This diversity is also visible in the spheres of religion. The majorreligions of India are Hinduism (majority religion), Islam (largest minority religion),Sikhism, Christianity, Buddhism, Jainism, Zoroastrianism and Judaism. India is a landwhere people of different religions and cultures live in harmony. This harmony is seen in thecelebration of festivals. The message of love and brotherhood is expressed by all the religionsand cultures of India.

Whether it’s the gathering of the faithful, bowing in prayer in the courtyard of a mosque,or the gathering of lamps that light up houses at Diwali, the good cheer of Christmas or thebrotherhood of Baisakhi, the religions of India are celebrations of shared emotion that bringpeople together. People from the different religions and cultures of India, unite in a commonchord of brotherhood and amity in this fascinating and diverse land.


Hinduism

The word Hindu is derived from the Sanskrit name Sindhu for the Indus River. With around1 billion followers, Hinduism is the third largest religion in the world after Christianity andIslam. Hinduism is considered as the oldest religion of the World originating around 5000years ago. It is the predominant spiritual following of the Indian subcontinent, and one of itsindigenous faiths. Hinduism is a conglomeration of distinct intellectual or philosophical pointsof view, rather than a rigid common set of beliefs. Hinduism was spread through parts ofSouth-eastern Asia, China, Korea, and Japan. Hindus worship a god with different forms. Evolution The origin of Hinduism dates back toprehistoric times.

Some of the important evidences of prehistoric times

• Mesolithic rock paintings depicting dances and rituals gives evidence attesting toprehistoric religion in the Indian “subcontinent”.

• Neolithic pastoralists inhabiting the Indus River Valley buried their dead in a mannersuggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife and belief inmagic.

• Other Stone Age sites, such as the Bhimbetka rock shelters in central Madhya Pradeshand the Kupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art portraying religiousrites and evidence of possible ritualised music.

• The people of the Indus Valley Civilization, centered around the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river valleys, may have worshiped an important mother goddess symbolisingfertility.

• Excavations of Indus Valley Civilization sites show seals with animals and “fire-altars”,indicating rituals associated with fire. A linga-yoni of a type similar to that which is nowworshiped by Hindus has also been found.

• The earliest versions of the epic poems Ramayana and Mahabharata were writtenroughly from 500–100 BCE.

• After 200 BC, several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy,including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa and Vedanta.

• The 9th and 8th centuries BCE witnessed the composition of the earliest Upanishads.Upanishads form the theoretical basis of classical Hinduism and are known as Vedanta(conclusion of the Veda). In Hinduism, Brahman is the one supreme, universal Spirit thatis the origin and support of the phenomenal universe. Brahman is conceived as personal(“with qualities”), impersonal (“without qualities”) and/or supreme depending on thephilosophical school. Brahman should not be confused with Brahmin or Brahma.Hindu Denominations Hindu philosophy is traditionally divided into six âstika

(orthodox) schools of thought, or darúanam, which accept the Vedas as supreme revealedscriptures.

The âstika schools are

• Samkhya, an atheistic and strongly dualist theoretical exposition of consciousness andmatter.

• Yoga, a school emphasizing meditation, contemplation and liberation.

• Nyaya or logic, explores sources of knowledge (NyâyaSûtras).

• Vaisheshika, an empiricist school of atomism.

• MimâCsâ, an anti-ascetic and anti-mysticist school of orthopraxy.

• Vedanta, the last segment of knowledge in the Vedas, or the ‘Jnan’ (knowledge) ‘Kanda’(section). Vedanta came to be the dominant current of Hinduism in the post-medievalperiod.


What are the roots of Hinduism?

Hinduism developed over many centuries from a variety of sourcescultural practices, sacredtexts, and philosophical movements, as well as local popular beliefs. The combination ofthese factors is what accounts for the varied and diverse nature of Hindu practices andbeliefs.

The Indus Valley civilization, located in what is now Pakistan and northwestern India,which flourished between approximately 2500 and 1700 B.C.E., and persisted with someregional presence as late as 800 B.C.E. The civilization reached its high point in the cities ofHarrapa and Mohenjo-Daro. Although the physical remains of these large urban complexeshave not produced a great deal of explicit religious imagery, archaeologists have recoveredsome intriguing items, including an abundance of seals depicting bulls, among these a fewexceptional examples illustrating figures seated in yogic positions; terracotta female figuresthat suggest fertility; and small anthropomorphic sculptures made of stone and bronze. Materialevidence found at these sites also includes prototypes of stone linga (phallic emblems of theHindu god Shiva). Later textual sources assert that indigenous peoples of this area engagedin linga worship.

According to recent theories, Indus Valley peoples migrated to the Gangetic region ofIndia and blended with indigenous cultures, after the decline of civilization in the Indus Valley.A separate group of Indo-European speaking people migrated to the subcontinent from WestAsia. These peoples brought with them ritual life including fire sacrifices presided over bypriests, and a set of hymns and poems collectively known as the Vedas.

The indigenous beliefs of the pre-Vedic peoples of the subcontinent of India encompasseda variety of local practices based on agrarian fertility cults and local nature spirits. Vedicwritings refer to the worship of images, tutelary divinities, and the phallus.

Beliefs of Hinduism

Common to virtually all Hindus are certain beliefs, including, but not limited to, the following:

• a belief in many gods, which are seen as manifestations of a single unity. These deitiesare linked to universal and natural processes.

• a preference for one deity while not excluding or disbelieving others

• a belief in the universal law of cause and effect (karma) and reincarnation

• a belief in the possibility of liberation and release (moksha) by which the endless cycle ofbirth, death, and rebirth (samsara) can be resolvedHinduism is bound to the hierarchical structure of the caste system, a categorization of

members of society into defined social classes. An individual’s position in the caste system isthought to be a reflection of accumulated merit in past lives (karma).

Observance of the dharma, or behavior consistent with one’s caste and status, is discussedin many early philosophical texts. Not every religious practice can be undertaken by allmembers of society. Similarly, different activities are considered appropriate for differentstages of life, with study and raising families necessary for early stages, and reflection andrenunciation goals of later years.

Moksha is the ultimate spiritual goal of Hinduism. How does one pursue moksha? Thegoal is to reach a point where you detach yourself from the feelings and perceptions that tieyou to the world, leading to the realization of the ultimate unity of things—the soul (atman)connected with the universal (Brahman).

There are nine classes of realities: fourclasses of atoms (earth, water, light and air),space (akasha), time (kâla), direction (dik), infinity of souls (Atman), mind (manas).Individual souls are eternal and pervade material body for a time

There are seven categories (padârtha) of experience:substance, quality, activity,generality, particularity, inherence and non-existence. Although the Vaisheshika schooldeveloped independently from the Nyaya, the two eventually merged because of their closely


related metaphysical theories. In its classical form, however, the Vaisheshika school differedfrom the Nyaya in one crucial respect: where Nyaya accepted four sources of valid knowledge,the Vaisheshika accepted only two—–perception and inference.

Purva Mimansa

Objective

To establish the authority of the Vedas. Consequently, this school’s most valuable contributionto Hinduism was its formulation of the rules of Vedic interpretation. Its adherents propoundedunquestionable faith in the Vedas and regular performance of the yajñas, or fire-sacrifices.They believed in the power of the mantras and yajñas to sustain all the activity of the universe.In keeping with this belief, they placed great emphasis on dharma, which consisted of theperformance of Vedic rituals.

• The Mimamsa philosophers believed that the other schools of thought that aimed forrelease (moksha) were not allowed for complete freedom from desire and selfishness,because the very striving for liberation stemmed from a simple desire to be free. Accordingto Mimamsa thought, only by acting in accordance with the prescriptions of the Vedasmay one attain salvation. Although Mimamsa does not receive much scholarly attention,its influence can be felt in the life of the practising Hindu, because all Hindu ritual,ceremony, and law is influenced by this school.

Vedanta

• The Vedanta, or later Mimamsa school, concentrates on the philosophical teachings ofthe Upanishads rather than the ritualistic injunctions of the Brahmanas.

• These were mystical aspects of Vedic religion that focused on meditation, self-discipline,and spiritual connectivity, more than traditional ritualism.

• Vedanta means, the last segment of knowledge in the Vedas.

• While, the earlier segments of the Vedas are called ‘Karma Kanda’. Parts of Vedas thatfocus on spiritual practices such as worship, devotion and meditation are called ‘UpasanaKanda’. (Kanda = section).

• Vedantic thought drew on Vedic cosmology, hymns and philosophy. While thirteen or soUpanishads are accepted as principal, over a hundred exist. The most significantcontribution of Vedantic thought is the idea that selfconsciousness is continuous with andindistinguishable from consciousness of Brahman.

• The principles of the Vedanta sutras are presented in a cryptic, poetic style, which allowsfor a variety of interpretations. Consequently, the Vedanta separated into six sub-schools,each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own series of sub-commentaries.

Advaita

• This is the oldest and most widely acknowledged Vedantic school. Advaita means “non-duality.” Its first great consolidator was Adi Shankaracharya

• According to Advaita, Brahman is the only reality, and there exists nothing whatsoeverwhich is not Brahman. The appearance of dualities and differences in this world is asuperimposition on Brahman, called Maya. Maya is neither existent nor non-existent, butappears to exist temporarily.

• When a person tries to know Brahman through his mind, due to the influence of Maya,Brahman appears as God (Ishvara), separate from the world and from the individual. Inreality, there is no difference between the individual soul (Jivatma) and Brahman(Paramatma).


• The spiritual practices such as: devotion to God, meditation & self-less action etc. purifiesthe mind and indirectly helps in perceiving the real.

• The only direct cause of liberation is self-knowledge which directly removes the ignorance.After realization, one sees one’s own self and the Universe as the same (ii) Vishishtadvaita:

• Vishishtadvaita is means qualified non-dualism. Ramanujacharya was the foremostproponent of the philosophy of Vishishtadvaita.

• Vishishtadvaita advocated the concept of a Supreme Being with essential qualities orattributes. They are against the Advaitan philosophy of Brahman as an impersonal emptyoneness.

• They saw Brahman as an eternal oneness, but also as the source of all creation, whichwas omnipresent and actively involved in existence. To them the sense of subject-objectperception was illusory and a sign of ignorance. However, the individual’s sense of selfwas not a complete illusion since it was derived from the universal beingness that isBrahman. Ramanuja He saw Vishnu as a personification of Brahman.

Dvaita

• Dvaita Vedanta means the dualistic conclusions of the Vedas. This philosophy was foundedby Madhvacharya. It propagates the principle of dualism by theorizing the existence oftwo separate realities.

• The first and the more important reality is that of Vishnu or Brahman. Vishnu is thesupreme Self, God, the absolute truth of the universe, the independent reality.

• The second reality is that of dependent but equally real universe that exists with its ownseparate essence.

• The distinguishing factor of this philosophy as opposed to Advaita Vedanta (monisticconclusion of Vedas) is that God takes on a personal role and is seen as a real eternalentity that governs and controls the universe.

• Dvaita philosophy attempts to address the problem of evil with the idea that souls are notcreated. Because the existence of individuals is grounded in the divine, they are depictedas reflections of the divine, but never in any way identical with the divine. Salvationtherefore is described as the realization that all finite reality is essentially dependent onthe Supreme.

Dvaitadvaita

Dvaitadvaita was proposed by Nimbarka.

• According to this philosophy there are three categories of existence: Brahman, soul, andmatter. Soul and matter are different from Brahman in that they have attributes andcapacities different from Brahman.

• Brahman exists independently, while soul and matter are dependent yet seperate. Further,Brahman is a controller, the soul is the enjoyer, and matter the thing enjoyed.

• The highest object of worship is Krishna and his consort Radha, attended by thousandsof gopis, or cowherdesses; of the celestial Vrindavana; and devotion consists in self-surrender.

Shuddhadvaita

• Shuddhadvaita is the “purely non-dual” philosophy propounded by Vallabhacharya.

• The Shuddhadvaita principle sees equality in “essence” of the individual self with God.There is no real difference between the two. It does not deny God as the whole and theindividual as the part. The individual soul is not the Supreme (Satcitananda) clouded bythe force of avidya, but is itself Brahman, with one attribute (ananda) renderedimperceptible.


• Unlike Advaita, the world of Maya is not regarded as unreal, since Maya is nothing elsethan a power of Ishvara. He is not only the creator of the universe but is the universe itself.

• The followers of Shuddhadvaita are the worshipers of Krishna. They maintain that if onewants to obtain moksha and the bliss given by Krishna, the only path to do so is bhakti.

AcintyaBhedaAbheda

• This is the philosophy of “inconceivable oneness and difference” in relation to the powercreation and creator, (Krishna) and also between God and his energies within the GaudiyaVaishnava religious tradition.

• Chaitanya Mahaprabhu was the founder of this philosophy. He was stating that thesoul or energy of God is both distinct and non-distinct from God, whom he identified asKrishna, Govinda, and that this, although unthinkable, may be experienced through aprocess of loving devotion (bhakti). Three other nâstika (heterodox) schools don’t drawupon the Vedas as the sole primary authoritative text, but may emphasize other traditionsof thought. The nâstika schools are:

Cârvâka

Jainism, Buddhism While Charvaka is classified as a nâstika school, Buddhism and Jainismare also classified as nâstika religions since they do not accept the authority of the Vedas.

Carvaka school Hinduism, otherwise a highly theistic religion, hosted atheistic schools;the thoroughly materialistic and antireligious philosophical Cârvâka (Nastika) school thatoriginated in India around the 6th century BCE is probably the most explicitly atheistic schoolof Indian philosophy. It is not included among the six schools of Hinduism generally regardedas orthodox. Our understanding of Cârvâka philosophy is fragmentary, based largely oncriticism of the ideas by other schools, and it is no longer a living tradition. Academicscategorize contemporary Hinduism into four major denominations: Vaishnavism, Shaivism,Smartism and Shaktism.

The denominations differ primarily in the god worshipped as the Supreme One and in thetraditions that accompany worship of that god. Vaishnavas worship Vishnu as the supremeGod; Shaivites worship Shiva as the supreme; Shaktas worship Shakti (power) personifiedthrough a female divinity or Mother Goddess, Devi; while Smartas believe in the essentialoneness of five (panchadeva) or six (Shanmata, as Tamil Hindus add Skanda) deities aspersonifications of the Supreme.

Vaishnavism

• It is focused on worshiping of Vishnu. Vaishnavites lead a way of life promotingdifferentiated monotheism, which gives importance to Lord Vishnu and His tenincarnations.

• Its beliefs and practices, especially the concepts of Bhakti and Bhakti Yoga, are basedlargely on the Upanishads, and associated with the Vedas and Puranic texts such as theBhagavad Gita, and the Padma, Vishnu and Bhagavata Puranas.

• Awareness, recognition, and growth of the belief have significantly increased outside ofIndia in recent years. The Gaudiya Vaishnava branch of the tradition has significantlyincreased the awareness of Vaishnavism internationally, since the mid-1900s, largelythrough the activities and geographical expansion of the Hare Krishna movement foundedby A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada in New York City in 1966.

Shaivism

• Shaivism reveres the god Shiva as the Supreme Being. Shaivas believe that Shiva is Alland in all, the creator, preserver, destroyer, revealer and concealer of all that is.

• Devotees of Shiva wear Sacred ash as a sectarian mark on their foreheads and otherparts of their bodies with reverence. The Sanskrit words bhasma and vibhuti can both betranslated as “sacred ash”.


• Shaivism has a vast literature that includes texts representing multiple philosophical schools,including non-dualist (abheda), dualist (bheda), and non-dual-with-dualism (bhedâbheda)perspectives.

Shaktism

• Shaktism focuses focuses worship upon Shakti or Devi – the Hindu Divine Mother – as

the absolute, ultimate Godhead. Shaktism regards Devî as the Supreme Brahman itself,with all other forms of divinity, female or male, considered being merely her diversemanifestations.

• In the details of its philosophy and practice, Shaktism resembles Shaivism. However,

Shaktas focus most or all worship on Shakti, as the dynamic feminine aspect of theSupreme Divine.

• Shaktism is practiced throughout the Indian subcontinent and beyond, in numerous forms,both Tantric and non-Tantric; however, its two largest and most visible schools are theSrikula (lit., family of Sri), strongest in South India, and the Kalikula (family of Kali),which prevails in northern and eastern India.

Smartism

• Smartism is a liberal or nonsectarian denomination of the Vedic Hindu religion whichaccepts all the major Hindu deities as forms of the one Brahman.

• The term Smarta refers to adherents who follow the Vedas and Shastras. Only a section

of south Indian brahmins call themselves Smartas now.

• Smartas are followers and propagators of Smriti or religious texts derived from Vedic

scriptures. Smarta religion was practiced by people who believed in the authority of theVedas as well as the basic premise of puranas. As a consequence usually only a brahminpreferred to use this term to refer to his family tradition.

• It is most essential for Smarta Brahmins to specialize in the Karma Kanda of the Vedas

and associated rituals diligently, and to teach the subsequent generations.

Varnas Hindu society has been categorized into four classes, called varnas.

i. the Brahmins: Vedic teachers and priests;ii. the Kshatriyas: warriors, nobles, and kings;iii. the Vaishyas: farmers, merchants, and businessmen;iv. the Shudras: servants and labourers

Bhagavad Gita, the sacred text of Hindus, links the varna to an individual’s duty(svadharma), inborn nature (svabhâva), and natural tendencies (guGa).

Ashramas Traditionally the life of a Hindu is divided into four Ashramas(phases or stages)

• The first part of one’s life, Brahmacharya, the stage as a student, is spent in celibate,

controlled, sober and pure contemplation under the guidance of a Guru, building up themind for spiritual knowledge.

• Grihastha is the householder’s stage, in which one marries and satisfies kâma and artha

in one’s married and professional life respectively.

• Vânaprastha, the retirement stage, is gradual detachment from the material world. This

may involve giving over duties to one’s children, spending more time in religious practicesand embarking on holy pilgrimages.Finally, in Sannyâsa, the stage of asceticism, one renounces all worldly attachments to

secludedly find the Divine through detachment from worldly life and peacefully shed thebody for Moksha.


Hindu texts Hindu literature can be divided into two categories:

Shruti - that which is revealed and Smriti - that which is remembered. The Vedas comingunder the Shruti category are considered sacred scripture.

Later texts like the various

shastras and the itihaasas form Smruti. Holding an ambiguous position between the Upanishadsof the Vedas and the epics, the Bhagavad Gita is considered to be revered scripture by mostHindus today. All Shruti scriptures are composed in Sanskrit

Hindu Pilgrimage Important Pilgrimage sites of Hindu devotees are

• KumbhMela: One of the holiest of Hindu pilgrimages that is held every 12 years; thelocation is rotated among Allahabad, Haridwar, Nashik, and Ujjain. It is considered asone of the largest pilgrimage gathering in the world.

• Char Dham (Famous Four Pilgrimage sites): The four holy sites Puri, Rameswaram,Dwarka, and Badrinath compose the Char Dham (four abodes) pilgrimage circuit.

• Old Holy cities as per Puranic Texts: Varanasi formerly known as Kashi, Allahabadformerly known as Prayag, Haridwar-Rishikesh, Mathura-Vrindavan, Pandharpur, Paithanand Ayodhya.

• Major Temple cities:Puri, which hosts a major Vaishnava Jagannath temple and RathYatra celebration; Katra, home to the Vaishno Devi temple; Three comparatively recenttemples of fame and huge pilgrimage are Shirdi, home to Sai Baba of Shirdi, Tirumala -Tirupati, home to the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple; and Sabarimala, where SwamiAyyappan is worshipped.

• Shakti Peethas: Another important set of pilgrimages are the Shakti Peethas, wherethe Mother Goddess is worshipped, the two principal ones being Kalighat and Kamakhya.Shramana Traditions TheShramana movement was a Non-Vedic movement parallel to

Vedic Hinduism in ancient India. The Shramana tradition gave rise to Jainism, Buddhism, andYoga, and was responsible for the related concepts of saCsâra (the cycle of birth and death)and moksha (liberation from that cycle). Sramanism, emphasizing thought, hard work anddiscipline, was one of the three strands of Hindu philosophy. The other two includedBrahmanism, which drew its philosophical essence from Mimamsa. The third and most popularstrand of Indian philosophical thought revolves around the concept of Bhakti or Theism,based on the idea of God, as understood in most parts of the world. Philosophy ŒramaGasheld a view of samsara as full of suffering (Dukka). They practiced Ahimsa and rigorousascetism. They believed in Karma and Moksa and viewed rebirth as undesirable.

Vedics, on the contrary believe in the efficacy of rituals and sacrifices, performed by aprivileged group of people, who could improve their life by pleasing certain Gods.

Beliefs and concepts of ŒramaGa philosophies

• Denial of creator and omnipotent Gods

• Rejection of the Vedas as revealed texts

• Affirmation of Karma and rebirth, Samsara and transmigration of Soul.

• Affirmation of the attainment of moksa through Ahimsa, renunciation and austeritiesDenial of the efficacy of sacrifices and rituals for purification.

• Rejection of the caste system Jainism and Buddhism are the two main schools philosophiesthat have continued in India since ancient times.

JainismJainism is an ancient religion that has been in India for over 2000 years. So it has had a largeimpact on the culture in modern India. Jains have contributed philosophy, literature, architectureand art.


Philosophy

Jains have created a philosophy that is different but also similar to Hindu, Buddhist andBrahman philosophies. The most notable part of the Jain philosophy is their code of ethicscalled; ahimsa. Ahimsa is the believe that Jains should protect and not kill anything elsethat’s living because they believe that it brings karma. Jains divided every thing in theuniverse into two categories; jiva and ajiva. Jiva is the living substance (soul) that is foundin plants, animals, fire and wind. Ajiva is everything that’s not alive like space, time andmatter. Jains also believe in karma but in a different way the Hindus and Buddhist. Jainsbelieve that karma is a flowing substance that clogs and poisons jiva, which makes a personevil and the point of Jainism to remove as much possible karma from a persons karma aspossible. Jains believe that if they practice correct conduct and obey ahimsa they can getride of their karma and reach enlightenment. These ideals are also found in India, leads tovegetarians and can be found in Hindu and Buddhist traditions of nonviolence to livingthings.

Literature

Jains have been followers and contributors to Sramana culture opposed to Brahman culture.Jains have been the authors of many of the earliest writing about Sramana culture. Thestories written by Jains almost never tell about great Demi-Gods or even Gods. They generallyare tales of great warriors, merchants or kings. The stories are about suffering and strictadherence to ahimsa.They also write poetic narratives about ethics and about how to live inmonasteries and how to have correct jain discipline. They have also written many documentsthat affected Indian politics too this day, and they contributed mostly to philosophy and logic.

Architecture

Jains never created their own style of building, they adopted the styles of the local populations.However the Jains had a love for buildings anndarchitechture, and some of the most beautifulbuildings in India are Jain temples. They built their structures in the best locations that theycan find.

• Temples- Jain temples were mostly created by the rich and wealthy class, so they wereknown for their extreme detail. The Jains created temples in different regions usingmaterials that were common to the region. They also created temples that reflectedGreco-Roman architecture by using marble and pillars. Now in modern times you wontfind many Jain temples because they were similar in design to mosques, and when Islamcame to Indian many temples were converted to mosques.


• Temple Cities and Cave Temples- Jains liked to group their temples together to createtemple cities. They also liked to carve temples into the side of mountains. These templeswere much like Buddhist cave temples but much smaller.

• Stupas and Pillars- Like Buddhist, Jains created stupas to honor their dead and deities.The Jains also built pillars that they called Mana-stambhas. These pillars were elegantlybuilt, had many details and resembled Egyptian obelisks. Most of the pillars were destroyedby the Muslims.

• Sculptures- The Jains only did sculptures of the Tirthankaras and were similar in designthroughout all of Jain history. They created large sculptures out of whatever they hadand the smaller sculptures were created out rare minerals or metals. The styles were allsimilar throughout India.

Art

The Jains created their own art styles that reflected the beliefs and ethics they had. Thewould use many different materials to create their art. The Jain art has stayed similar towhen it was first created.

• Painting- Jain painting are just as old as Buddhist paintings and have been found onalmost any medium.

• Sculptures- The Jains only did sculptures of the Tirthankaras and were similar in designthroughout all of Jain history. They created large sculptures out of whatever they hadand the smaller sculptures were created out rare minerals or metals. The styles were allsimilar throughout India.

Jainism Tirthankaras – Symbols-Instruments of Knowledge

Doctrines (Panchmahavrata)

• Ahimsa Mahavrata: Don’t commit violence, walk, talk and eat carefully.

• Satya Mahavrata: Don’t tell a lie, think before you speak, don’t speak in anger.


• AsteyaMahavrata: Don’t steal.

• AparigrahaMahavrata: Don’t acquire property.

• BrahamcharyaMahavrata: Don’t talk, see or think about any women, don’t where

there are women, take simple food.

Diffusion of Jains

To spread his teachings, Mahavira created a group called the Sangha. The Sangha allowedmen, women, monks and nuns to join. In India, Jainism spread under the Shishunagus, Mauryas,Nandas, Guptas and the Chandelas. These dynasties built temples and shrines for the Jains.Jains also spread when droughts and famines hit the Ganges valley.


Buddhism

Introduction

The Buddha, known as Gautama Sakyamuni was regarded as an ideal human being whotaught that salvation could be achieved through an individual’s work and actions and byfollowing the eightfold path. After the death of the Master, Buddhism acquired greaterpopularity. It drew adherents from all sections of society and led to the development ofmonastic Buddhism. The stages of Buddha’s life has been delineated briefly in the sculptureswhich are being displayed at this exhibition.

Buddhism began in the sixth century BCE the oldest surviving artefacts are relativelymore recent - nothing in Buddhist archaeological record can be safely dated before the thirdcentury. The first independent evidence of Buddhism comes from the reign of the MauryanEmperor Asoka (273 - 232 BCE) whose stone inscriptions are the earliest Indian historicalrecords. These inscriptions make reference to the dhamma, recommend certain texts, theBuddha’s teaching in general and condemn schism. They record his visit to the Buddha’sbirth place (Lumbini), his restoration of the nearby stupa and indicate a visit to the Bodhi treeat Bodh Gaya, site of the Buddha’s enlightenment.

Buddhism in India was at the height of its influence from 250 BCE to around 500 CE.During this time an enormous amount of functional and devotional material was producedand the energy of the Buddha’s dispensation was changing the whole face of civilisation inCentral Asia and beyond. It was able to gather into itself all the intellectual and artisticcurrents of the age, uniting ideas from as far as the Greco-Roman world of the West andChina in the East. Indian artists and builders have until modern times always been anonymouscraftsmen and older works are never signed. The only record, if any, is of the sponsor whowould usually be a member of the local nobility or merchant class although there are regularreferences to monks or nuns providing funds (presumably either money relinquished onordination or passed on from lay supporters).


Although there were an enormous number of monasteries built around the time of theBuddha very little remains of these beyond the foundation stones. The style of these buildingswould have been according to local traditions - perhaps incorporating some of the earlyaniconic symbols as decoration. Excavation of rock monasteries started on a large scale inthe early 2nd century and provide a wealth of architecture, sculpture and paintings for study.The earliest specifically Buddhist monument is the stupa and the development of much Buddhistart has been in relation to the decorative and architectural evolution of this form. Theappearance of Buddha images was not until around the first century BCE and their functionwas originally similar to that of the stupa - relic containers in the first instance and thenbecoming ‘reminding relics’ in their own right.

The Buddha’s teachings remained an oral tradition for several centuries after his deathbut gradually written scripture evolved into a significant art form providing not only textualinformation but artistic and symbolic inspiration.

Gautama Buddha

Siddhârtha Gautama was born in Lumbini in modern-day Nepal, around the year 563 BCE,and raised in Kapilavastu. Young prince Gautama was kept away from seeing the sufferingsof normal people since an astrologer prophesied that he would renounce the material world ifsees the miseries of Life. In a series of encounters, known in Buddhist literature as the foursights, he learned of the suffering of ordinary people, encountering an old man, a sick man, acorpse and, finally, an ascetic holy man, apparently content and at peace with the world.These experiences prompted Gautama to abandon royal life and take up a spiritual quest.

For six years, Siddhartha submitted himself to rigorous ascetic practices, studying andfollowing different methods of meditation with various religious teachers. But he was neverfully satisfied. One day, however, he was offered a bowl of rice from a young girl and heaccepted it. In that moment, he realised that physical austerities were not the means toachieve liberation. From then on, he encouraged people to follow a path of balance ratherthan extremism. He called this The

Middle Way

At the age of 35, Siddhartha sat under the Bodhi tree, in the town of Bodh Gaya in India, andmeditated. He purified his mind of all defilements and attained enlightenment after manydays, thus earning the title Buddha, or “Enlightened One”.

Thereafter, he attracted a band of followers and instituted a monastic order. He spentthe rest of his life teaching the path of awakening he had discovered, traveling throughout thenorth-eastern part of the Indian subcontinent, and died at the age of 80 (483 BCE) inKushinagar, India.

Principles

Samsara is “the cycle of birth and death”. Sentient beings crave pleasure and are averseto pain from birth to death. Buddhists strive to end the sufferings by eradicating the causesand conditions, applying the methods laid out by the Buddha and subsequent Buddhists.

Karma in Buddhism is the force that drives saCsâra. Good, skillful deeds (kusala) andbad, unskillful (akusala) actions produce “seeds” in the mind that come to fruition either inthis life or in a subsequent rebirth. The avoidance of unwholesome actions and the cultivationof positive actions is called úîla.

Rebirth refers to a process whereby beings go through a succession of lifetimes as oneof many possible forms of sentient life, each running from conception to death. Buddhismrejects the concepts of a permanent self or an unchanging, eternal soul, as it is called inHinduism and Christianity. Each rebirth takes place within one of five realms according toTheravadins, or six according to other schools. These are further subdivided into 31 planes ofexistence.


Branches of Buddhism Two branches of Buddhism are generally recognized: Mahayana(“The Great Vehicle”) and Theravada (“The School of the Elders”)

MahayanaThe followers of Mahayana believe that Buddha taught universal salvation.One should not aim at personal nirvana and should help ease the suffering of humanity.Mahayana Buddhism is found throughout East Asia (China, Korea, Japan, Vietnam, Singapore,Taiwan etc.) and includes the traditions of Pure Land, Zen, Nichiren Buddhism, TibetanBuddhism, Shingon, and Tiantai (Tendai). In India, this form of Buddhism is followed inLadakh, Sikkim and Himachal Pradesh.

Theravada The Theravada Buddhism is better known as the earliest form of Buddhism.The ‘Thera’ means old and ‘Vada’ means school. The aim of this form of Buddhism is toattain personal nirvana through the triple recourse to ethical conduct, mental discipline andhigher knowledge or wisdom. It has a widespread following in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia(Cambodia, Laos, Thailand, Myanmar etc.). InIndia, this strain of Buddhism is representedby the followers of Dr B.R.Ambedkar known as the Ambedkar Buddhists, who are exclusiveto India.

In some classifications, Vajrayana practiced mainly in Tibet and Mongolia, and adjacentparts of China and Russia is recognized as a third branch. Hinayana is an ugly Mahayanapolemical term coined by Mahayanists to both classify and refer to those schools of Buddhismwith which the Mahayana disagreed.The Four Noble Truths The teachings on the Four Noble Truths are regarded as central tothe teachings of Buddhism. These four truths explain the nature of dukkha, its causes,and how it can be overcome.

They can be summarized as follows

• The truth of dukkha (suffering, anxiety, dissatisfaction): explains the nature of dukkha.

• The truth of the origin of dukkha: It says that the origin of dukkha can be known. Theorigin of dukkha is commonly explained as craving conditioned by ignorance. On a deeperlevel, the root cause of dukkha is identified as ignorance.

• The truth of the cessation of dukkha: It says that the complete cessation of dukkha ispossible.

• The truth of the path leading to the cessation of dukkha: It identifies a path tocessation of dukkha.Noble Eightfold Path The Noble Eightfold Path consists of a set of eight interconnected

factors or conditions, that when developed together, lead to the cessation of dukkha.

The Eight factors are

• Right View (or Right Understanding): Viewing reality as it is, not just as it appears to be

• Right Intention (or Right Thought): Intention of renunciation, freedom and harmlessness

• Right Speech: Speaking in a truthful and non-hurtful way

• Right Action: Acting in a non-harmful way

• Right Livelihood: A non-harmful livelihood

• Right Effort: Making an effort to improve

• Right Mindfulness: Awareness to see things for what they are with clear consciousness

• Right Concentration: Correct meditation or concentration, explained as the first fourjhânas Practices.

The foundations of Buddhist tradition and practice are the Three Jewels: the Buddha, theDharma (the teachings), and the Sangha (the community). Taking “refuge in the triple gem”has traditionally been a declaration and commitment to being on the Buddhist path, and ingeneral distinguishes a Buddhist from a non-Buddhist.

Other practices may include following ethical precepts; support of the monasticcommunity; renouncing conventional living and becoming a monastic; the development ofmindfulness and practice of meditation; cultivation of higher wisdom and discernment; study


of scriptures; devotional practices; ceremonies; and in the Mahayana tradition, invocation ofbuddhas and bodhisattvas.

The Buddhist place of worship is called a Vihara or Gompa, which usually houses one ormore statues of the Buddha. The five great events in Buddha’s life are represented bysymbols as under: i. Birth by Lotus and Bull ii. Great Renunciation by Horse iii. Nirvana byBodhi Tree iv. First Sermon by Dharmachakra or Wheel (v) Parinirvana or death by theStupa.

Dharmachakra

The Wheel of Law or dharmachakra, is the most important symbol of Buddhism. Accordingto the Buddha, dharma is the law that ensures the welfare of the greatest number of peopleif practicedfaithfully. The wheel symbolises the goodness in every person. The wheel haseight spokes representing the eight virtues enumerated by the Eight Fold Path, the path tosalvation.

Islam

The History of Islam

In the seventh century, Muhammad claimed theangel Gabriel visited him. During these angelicvisitations, which continued for about 23 yearsuntil Muhammad’s death, the angel purportedlyrevealed to Muhammad the words of Allah (theArabic word for “God” used by Muslims). Thesedictated revelations compose the Qur’an, Islam’sholy book. Islam means “submission,” derivingfrom a root word that means “peace.” Theword Muslim means “one who submits to Allah.”

The Doctrine of Islam

Muslims summarize their doctrine in six articles of faith

• Belief in one Allah: Muslims believe Allah is one, eternal, creator, and sovereign.

• Belief in the angels

• Belief in the prophets: The prophets include the biblical prophets but end with Muhammadas Allah’s final prophet.

• Belief in the revelations of Allah: Muslims accept certain portions of the Bible, such as

the Torah and the Gospels. They believe the Qur’an is the preexistent, perfect word ofAllah.

• Belief in the last day of judgment and the hereafter: Everyone will be resurrected for

judgment into either paradise or hell.

• Belief in predestination: Muslims believe Allah has decreed everything that will happen.

Muslims testify to Allah’s sovereignty with their frequent phrase, inshallah, meaning, “ifGod wills.”

The Five Pillars of Islam

• The testimony of faith (shahada): “la ilahaillaallah. Muhammad rasul Allah.” This means,“There is no deity but Allah. Muhammad is the messenger of Allah.” A person canconvert to Islam by stating this creed. The shahada shows that a Muslim believes inAllah alone as deity and believes that Muhammad reveals Allah.


• Prayer (salat): Five ritual prayers must be performed every day.

• Giving (zakat): This almsgiving is a certain percentage given once a year.

• Fasting (sawm): Muslims fast during Ramadan in the ninth month of the Islamic calendar.They must not eat or drink from dawn until sunset.

• Pilgrimage (hajj): If physically and financially possible, a Muslim must make the pilgrimage

to Mecca in Saudi Arabia at least once. The hajj is performed in the twelfth month of theIslamic calendar.A Muslim’s entrance into paradise hinges on obedience to these Five Pillars. Still, Allah

may reject them. Even Muhammad was not sure whether Allah would admit him to paradise

The Sufi Movement

The Sufi movement was a socio-religious movement of fourteenth to sixteenth century. Theexponents of this movement were unorthodox Muslim saints who had a deep study of vedanticphilosophy and Buddhism of India. They had gone through various religious text of India andhad come in contact with great sages and seers of India. They could see the Indian religionfrom very near and realized its inner values. Accordingly they developed Islamic Philosophywhich at last gave birth to the Sufi Movement.

The Sufi movement therefore was the result of the Hindu influence on Islam. Thismovement influenced both the Muslims and Hindus and thus, provided a common platformfor the two.Though the Sufis were devout Muslims, yet they differed from the orthodoxMuslims. While the former believed in inner purity, the latter believed in external conduct.The union of the human soul with God through love and devotion was the essence of theteachings of the Sufi Saints. The method of their realizing God was the renunciation of theWorld and Worldly pleasures. They lived a secluded life.

They were called Sufis as they wore garments of Wool (suf) as their budge of poverty.Thus the name ‘Sufi’ is derived from the word Suf. They consider love to be the only meansof reaching God. Historian Tara Chand says, “Sufism indeed was a religion of intense devotion,love was its passion; poetry, song and dance, its worship and passing away in God its ideal”.The Sufis did not attach importance to namaz, hajj and celibacy. That is why they weremisunderstood by orthodox muslims. They regarded Singing and dancing as methods of inducinga state of ecstasy which brought one nearer to realisation of God. There were some leadingSufi saints like KhwajaMuinuddinChisti, Fariuddin Ganj-i-Shakar, Nizam-ud-din Auliya etc.

Muslim Religious Movements

DawoodiBohras

• The word ‘Bohra’ is derived from the Gujarati word vohorvu or vyavahar meaning “to

trade”. The Muslim community of DaudiBohras traces its ancestry to early conversions toIsmaili Shiism during the reign of the Fatimid Caliph Imam, al-Mustansir (1036-1094 AD).

• When schisms occurred in the Ismaili dawah (mission) in the eleventh and twelfth centuriesin Egypt, the Ismailis in India followed the Fatimid Tayyibi dawah of Yemen.

• Subsequently, this community split a number of times to form the Jafari Bohras,

DaudiBohras, SulaymaniBohras, Aliyah Bohras and other lesser-known groups.

• The religious hierarchy of the DaudiBohras is essentially Fatimid and is headed by the

daimutlaq who is appointed by his predecessor in office. The dai appoints two others tothe subsidiary ranks of madhun (licentiate) and mukasir (executor). These positions arefollowed by the rank of

• shaikh and mullah, both of which are held by hundreds of Bohras. An Aamil leads thelocal congregation in religious, social and communal affairs. Each town has a mosqueand an adjoining jamaat-khanah (assembly hall) where socio-religious functions are held.


• The Bohras recognize the seven pillars of Islam. Walayah (love and devotion) for Allah,the Prophets, the imam and the dai is the first and most important of the seven pillars.

• The others are tahrah (purity & cleanliness), salat (prayers), zakat (purifying religiousdues), saum (fasting), haj (pilgrimage to Mecca) and jihad (holy war).

• The Bohras enjoy a great degree of social and religious cohesion. Every Bohra is requiredto take an oath of allegiance (Misaaq), which is a formal initiation into the faith. The oath,inter alia, commits a Bohra towards adherence to the Shariah and accepting the leadershipof the Sayyidna and the dai.

• The cult of Sayyidna, the high priest, and the Kothar, the clergy, is deeply ingrained in theBohra psyche. Every Bohra follows a system of tax payment to the Syedna, who alsoexercises a great control over the marriage and death rites. Another distinctive feature istheir use of a Fatimid lunar calendar which fixes the number of days in each month.

Wahabism

• Wahabism was the first great modern expression of the awakening of the Arab Islam inthe 18th century. Its founder was Muhammad Ibn Abd-al-Wahab. He preached andpropagated the “pure faith” based only on the Holy Quran and the Sunnah and criticisedthe loosening of moral standards under foreign influences. Wahabism led in 1932 to thecreation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The only other Wahabi state is Qatar.

• The Wahabis do not receive the decisions of the four orthodox sects, but say that any manwho can read and understand the Quran and the Ahadith can judge for himself in thematters of doctrine. They do not offer prayers to any prophet, wali, pir or saint. They do noteven perform any act of reverence at the Prophet’s mosque at Madina. They observe onlyfour main festivals, namely, Idul-Fitr, Idul-Azha, Yaum Al-Ashura and the Lailat-al Qadrand do not observe Prophet Muhammad’s birthday (Milad-un-Nabi) as a festival.

Christianity

• Christianity is the religion of the followers of the teachings of Jesus Christ. Christianityhas the largest adherents all over the world numbering more than 1.5 billion.

• Origin

• Jesus Christ was born as a Jew in Bethlehem in 4 BC. He was believed to have possessedsupernatural powers. He began travelling widely and preaching to people in various towns.

• Alarmed by the growing popularity of Jesus Christ and his preaching, some Jewishpriests conspired to kill him and succeeded in having him crucified. On the third day afterhis Crucifixion, Jesus was resurrected. He lived on earth for another 40 days and thenascended to heaven.

• The incidents preceding and succeeding his birth matched the prophesies of the OldTestament, according to which, the son of God would be born on the earth to rid humanityof its sins. The followers of Jesus formed a new faith, which was named as Christianity(after Christ) and its followers, Christians.

Fundamental principles of Christianity

• Christians are monotheists and insist that the originator and preserver of creation is onebut is represented in the Holy Trinity, as the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit. Christianssee God as the Lord of Israel and the father of the divine and human figure of JesusChrist.

• Jesus Christ, was the eternal word of God who assumed human form to serve humanityand to rescue the human beings. Jesus Christ suffered and died to redeem mankind fromsin. Christians also believe that Jesus Christ now sits at the right hand of God as the finaljudge of the dead, and that He will return again as prophesised.


• Christians believe that Jesus Christ chose 12 learned men as messengers and directedthem to spread his teachings and guide the populace. The 12 apostles are Peter (Simon);his brother Andrew; James; and his brother John; Philip and Bartholomew, the sons ofZebedee; Thomas and Matthew; James, son of Alphaaeus; Thaddaeus; Simon the Patriotand Judas Iscariot, who betrayed Jesus Christ Bible.The holy book of the Christians is the Bible.The Bible contains a collection of writings

dating from 9 BC to 1 AD written in Hebrew, Aramaic, Greek and English. The Bible isdivided into the

• Old Testament with 46 books and the New Testament with 27.

• The Old Testament is a Hebrew text, sacred to both the Jews and Christians and containsinformation about the creation of the world.

• The life and teachings of Jesus Christ, which form the centre of Christian belief, arerecorded in the New Testament.

Christian sects

Christianity became the formal religion of the Roman Empire after Constantine, the EmperorofRome, converted to Christianity in 313 AD. The religion was known as Catholic oruniversal,with the Roman Pope as its head.

By 1054 AD many differences arose and the Church formallysplit into the EasternOrthodox and the western Roman Catholic schools.

In the 15th century, a new school of philosophy began to question the supremacy of thePope. Inthe 16th century Martin Luther advocated many reforms in the Church, which led toyet anothersplit in the Christian community and the formation of Protestant churches acrossNortheastEuropeThe Protestants disapproved of the authority of the Pope and advanced thecause of theBible as the sole authority.

Christianity in India

• By tradition, Christianity is said to have arrived in South India with the arrival of St.Thomas, oneof the apostles of Jesus Christ, at the Malabar Coast in 52 AD. He spentsome years in South Indiaand died near Madras. However, others believe that the firstmissionary to arrive in the countrywas Saint Bartholomew. Historically, Christianmissionary activity started with the advent of St.Francis Xavier in 1544 AD.

• Throughout the 18th and 19th centuries Catholic as well as Protestant missionariespreachedChristian doctrines in India and also made important contributions to socialimprovement andeducation in India.


• The great period of expansion of Christianity in India began in 1858, when the Britishgovernmenttook over rule in India from the East India Company. Christians from manycountries came asmissionaries

• At present Christians are scattered all across India but most of them are concentratedin theNortheast and in Kerala and other southern states. Today, there are 23 dioceses inIndia with 11 ofthem being located in Kerala. A. The Syrian Church:

• The Christians belonging to the Syrian Church are found in South India and claim anapostolic foundationfor their Church.They believe that Christianity was introduced inIndia by St. Thomas in 52 AD at the Malabar Coast. He established seven Christiancommunities or churches in Kerala.

The Protestant Missions

• The first Protestant missionaries, German Lutherans, came to India in 1706 AD atTranquebar, near Tiruchinapally, under the protection of the King of Denmark.

• By the 19th century several other missions were established in different parts of SouthIndia.The North Indian Church

• Some consider that St. Thomas had travelled to North India and introduced Christianity.Others consider it to be the influence of merchants from the Persian Gulf and the ArabianSea.

• Under the influence of the Portuguese, several missionaries began to visit North Indiabetween 16th18th Centuries. The Jesuit missions were sent regularly to the MughalCourts from the time of Akbar to that of Aurangzeb.

• William Carey arrived in India in 1793 AD. Carey’s pioneering work in Bible translation,primary education and journalism had a profound influence in Bengal and other parts ofIndia. Numerous other missionaries began visiting India after the passing of CharterActs by the British Parliament in 1813 and 1833 AD.

SikhismA way of life and philosophy well aheadof its time when it was founded over 500years ago, The Sikh religion today has afollowing of over 20 million peopleworldwide. Sikhism preaches a messageof devotion and remembrance of God atall times, truthful living, equality ofmankind, social justice and denouncessuperstitions and blind rituals. Sikhism isopen to all through the teachings of its10 Gurus enshrined in the Sikh HolyBook and Living Guru, Sri Guru Granth Sahib.

Who and What is a Sikh?

The word ‘Sikh’ in the Punjabi language means ‘disciple’, Sikhs are the disciples of God whofollow the writings and teachings of the Ten Sikh Gurus. The wisdom of these teachings inSri Guru Granth Sahib are practical and universal in their appeal to all mankind.

“I observe neither Hindu fasting nor the ritual of the Muslim Ramadan month;Him I serve who at the last shall save. The Lord of universe of the Hindus, Gosain andAllah to me are one; From Hindus and Muslims have I broken free. I perform neitherKaaba pilgrimage nor at bathing spots worship; One sole Lord I serve, and no other.I perform neither the Hindu worship nor the Muslim prayer; To the Sole Formless Lordin my heart I bow. We neither are Hindus nor Muslims; Our body and life belong to the


One Supreme Being who alone is both Ram and Allah for us.” (Guru Arjan Dev, GuruGranth Sahib, Raga Bhairon pg. 1136)

Any human being who faithfully believes in

(i) One Immortal Being,(ii) Ten Gurus, from Guru Nanak to Guru Gobind Singh,(iii) The Guru Granth Sahib,(iv) The utterances and teachings of the ten Gurus and,(v) Yhe baptism bequeathed by the tenth Guru, and who does not owe allegiance to any

other religion is a Sikh.” (RehatMaryada, Sikh Code of Conduct)

Philosophy and Beliefs

There is only One God. He is the same God for all people of all religions.The soul goes through cycles of births and deaths before it reaches the human form. Thegoal of our life is to lead an exemplary existence so that one may merge with God. Sikhsshould remember God at all times and practice living a virtuous and truthful life whilemaintaining a balance between their spiritual obligations and temporal obligations.

The true path to achieving salvation and merging with God does not require renunciationof the world or celibacy, but living the life of a householder, earning a honest living andavoiding worldly temptations and sins. Sikhism condemns blind rituals such as fasting, visiting places of pilgrimage, superstitions,worship of the dead, idol worship etc.

Sikhism preaches that people of different races, religions, or sex are all equal in the eyesof God. It teaches the full equality of men and women. Women can participate in anyreligious function or perform any Sikh ceremony or lead the congregation in prayer.

History and Practices

The founder of the Sikh religion was Guru Nanak who was born in 1469. He preached amessage of love and understanding and criticized the blind rituals of the Hindus and Muslims.Guru Nanak passed on his enlightened leadership of this new religion to nine successiveGurus. The final living Guru, Guru Gobind Singh died in 1708.

During his lifetime Guru Gobind Singh established the Khalsa order (meaning ‘ThePure’), soldier-saints. The Khalsa uphold the highest Sikh virtues of commitment, dedicationand a social conscious. The Khalsa are men and women who have undergone the Sikhbaptism ceremony and who strictly follow the Sikh Code of Conduct and Conventions andwear the prescribed physical articles of the faith. One of the more noticeable being theuncut hair (required to be covered with a turban for men) and the Kirpan (ceremonialsword).

Before his death in 1708 Guru Gobind Singh declared that the Sikhs no longer needed aliving and appointed his spiritual successor as Sri Guru Granth Sahib, his physical successoras the Khalsa. Guru Gobind Singh felt that all the wisdom needed by Sikhs for spiritualguidance in their daily lives could be found in Sri Guru Granth Sahib, the Eternal Guru of theSikhs. Sri Guru Granth Sahib is unique in the world of religious scriptures because not only isit accorded the status of being the spiritual head of the Sikh religion, but besides the poetry ofthe Gurus, it also contains the writings of saints of other faiths whose thoughts were consistentwith those of the Sikh Gurus.

Sikhism does not have priests, which were abolished by Guru Gobind Singh. The Gurufelt that they had become corrupt and full of ego. Sikhs only have custodians of the GuruGranth Sahib (granthi), and any Sikh is free to read the Guru Granth Sahib in the Gurdwara(a Sikh temple) or in their home. All people of all religions are welcome to the Gurdwara. Afree community kitchen can be found at every Gurdwara which serves meals to all people ofall faiths. Guru Nanak first started this institution which outline the basic Sikh principles ofservice, humility and equality.


The most significant historical religious center for the Sikhs is Harmiandir Sahib (TheGolden Temple) at Amritsar in the state of Punjab in northern India. It is the inspirational andhistorical center of Sikhism but is not a mandatory place of pilgrimage or worship. All placeswhere Sri Guru Granth Sahib are installed are considered equally holy for Sikhs.

Parsi

Religious Beliefs

Parsis follow the religion of Zoroaster, a prophet of the seventh centuryB.C. from the regionbetween the Hindu Kush and Seistan. Their belief system includes ideas about a creator god,good and evil forces, individual choice, Heaven and Hell, the Last Judgment, and eternal life.These ideas are found in sacred texts that are fragmentary, IncludingtheAvestadating fromthe fourth or sixth centuryA.D. and attributed to the Prophet himself. This is supplementedby later Pahlavi texts written in Middle Persian, from around the ninth centuryA.D., whichconsist mostly of commentaries, interpretations, and selections. More modern sources arefrom India, written in Gujarati and English, beginning around the middle of the nineteenthcentury.

Zoroastrianism may be viewed as one of the earliest monotheisms, since it postulates asFirst Cause Ahura Mazda, the Creator. It then introduces a radical dualism in the form oftwo opposing spirits who are both the offspring of Ahura Mazda. The presence ofSpentaMainyu, the beneficent spirit, and AngraMainyu, the hostile spirit, explains the originsof good and evil; they are the prototypes of the choices between truth and lies that eachindividual must face in his or her own life. Human History then becomes a working out ofthese two antithetical principles in creation. Humans aid the victory of good over evil by thepursuit of good thoughts, good words, and good deeds. At the end of temporal existence evilwill be completely vanquished, and only truth and happiness will prevail. To this basic tenetwere added elements from the past, and we find other spiritual beings as well as ritual andmagical practices incorporated into the original basic monotheisticbelief.

Besides the above-mentioned Creator and his two off-spring, there are seven beneficentimmortals, which are entities as well as representations of Ahura Mazda’s virtues, such as“best truth” and “immortality.” Furthermore, Zoroastrianism absorbed some of the earlierIndo-Iranian gods who became Yazatas. The more important of these are seen to presideover aspects of the material world. Also considered worthy of reverence are the Fravashisor spirits of the soul, Together with deceased mortals who led exemplary lives. Fire is the mainsymbol of Zoroastrianism: it receives the offerings of the priests and the prayers of individuals.Every ritual and ceremony involves the presence of the sacred fire. The fire in the place ofworship called the fire temple is ritually consecrated and installed. Non-Zoroastrians are notpermitted to set eyes on such a fire. Offerings of sandalwood and frankincense are made to it


at least five times a day by ordained priests. It represents God’s splendor and divine grace. Asmaller ritual fire is also found in every Zoroastrian’s home.

Religious Practitioners

The hereditary clergy is divided into Dasturs (high priests) and Mobeds. There areno monastic orders, nor are there women functionaries. Priests can marry. Becoming a priestis a long and arduous process involving several purification rituals and the memorization oftexts. Sons of priests today prefer to enter the modern Economy, and the community is facinga critical shortage of qualified functionaries.

Ceremonies

The major events of the life cycle that are Ritually celebrated are birth, initiation, andmarriage. Of these, the initiation or naojot is of special importance. It is performed forboth boys and girls at about the age of 7, and consists of the investiture of the child withthe sacred and symbolic shirt,sadre,andthread,kasti,which is tied around the waist. AZoroastrian must always wear these two things, and the thread is to be untied and retiedmany times during the day as a prelude to prayers and meals and after bodily functions.The sadre is a shirt made of white muslin; its two halves, back and front, symbolize pastand future, respectively. It is the earthly version of the garment made of light worn bythe first creation of Ahura Mazda. The sadre has a small fold at the front neckline thatforms a pocket.

A Parsi child is exhorted to fill this purse with righteousness and good deeds. Thekasti, made of undyed wool, is a hollow tube made up of seventy-two threads, ending inseveral tassels, their numbers either symbolizing religious precepts or referring to theliturgical texts. Wearing it is a sign of consent and obedience to Ahura Mazda. Once achild has had the naojot performed, he or she is spiritually responsible for his or her ownsalvation through an observance of the morality and rituals of the religion. The marriageceremony is important in a Religious sense because it leads to procreation, which willincrease the number of soldiers in the cause of good. The Ceremony shows a number ofborrowings from Sanskritic Hinduism, as in the tying of the hands of the bride and groomand the recital of Sanskritshlokas(blessings) at the end of the ceremony. Certainpurification rituals and the segregation of impure persons and things echo the strict Hindudichotomy of pure and impure. Bodily substances like saliva, urine, and menstrual bloodare considered to be defiling, while death and corpses are considered impure as well asspiritually Dangerous. The practice of segregating menstruating and parturient femalesis falling into disuse in the urban setting, where space is at a premium. Daily worshipinvolves recital of the basic credo while untying and retying the kasti. There are seasonalfestivals known asgahambarscelebrated by the Community as a whole, which wereoriginally tied to the agricultural cycle. Commemorative ceremonies calledjashansmaybe held for family events or such historic occurrences as the death of a leader or the endof a war.

Arts

Parsi literature is to be found in languages that have been adopted, namely Gujarati andEnglish. There are no indigenous visual or performing arts, although some modern artistsfollow Western models. Parsis have in recent years made serious contributions to Westernclassical music. In addition to numerous pianists and violinists of professional caliber, thecommunity has produced Zubin Mehta, the internationally acclaimed conductor of the IsraelPhilharmonic, New York Philharmonic, and other orchestras. The composerKaikhosruShapurjiSorabji (1892-1991) may also be mentioned, if only because his 500-page


piano composition,SymphonieVariations,which takes six hours to perform, holds the distinctionof being the longest classical composition known.Medicine.There is no distinct Parsi medical system.

Death and Afterlife

Parsis expose their dead to vultures on Towers of Silence (dokhma), although if a persondies where no such tower exists, then burial or cremation is practiced. Usually built on ahilltop, the dokhma is a round stone or brick structure about 15 meters high and perhaps 100meters across, with an internal platform on which sit three ranks of stone slabs, for thebodies of men, women, and children, sloping down toward a central dry well. The bearersplace a body there and within an hour or so vultures reduce it to bones. Some days later thecorpse bearers return and throw the bones down the central well. It has sand and charcoal init, the purpose of the charcoal being to protect the earth from the pollution of death.

Zoroastrians believe in the immortality of the soul. It remains around the dead body forthree days, during which time ceremonies are performed for the dead. At the beginning ofthe third night the soul will be judged by the Spiritual judge Mitra at the Chinvat Bridgebetween this world and the next. If one’s good actions outweigh one’s evil actions one willproceed to Heaven; if they are equally weighted one will proceed to a place like Purgatory;and if one has been an evil person one will be cast down into Hell. At the end of timeZoroastrians believe that there will be a Last Judgment mediated by a future Savior, leadingto the Transfiguration of the Dead, who will be resurrected in bodies clad in glory.The eschatological faith of this doctrine is one component of Zoroastrianism that has exerciseda widespread and deep influence on other world religions.

B7/8 BHANDARI HOUSE, BEHIND UCO BANK, MUKHERJI NAGAR 32PH; 01142632053, 8586816870, 9711970358, 9711977277

Language and Literature

Language means system of sounds, words, patterns used by humans to communicate theirthoughts and feelings. So, language is the source of expression of thought by means of speechsounds. Language is the most powerful, convenient and permanent means and form ofcommunication.

Importance of Language in Communication

Any language can play a vital role in learning, it enables you to communicate andunderstand a subject. Following are reasons to understand language and develop yourlanguage skills whether in academic English or professional life.Understand how to use your study material most effectivelyLearn more and more about language and vocabulary relevant to the academics. Forexample, a study of Journalism and Mass Communication should develop skill relevant toJMC terminologies.When writing assignments, it should be well structured and coherentShare your thoughts and opinions with your colleagues, friends, and class fellows or inworkplace.

Indian Languages

The languages of India primarily belong to two major linguistic families IndoEuropean(whose branch IndoAryan is spoken by about 75 percent of the population) Dravidian (spokenby about 25 percent).

Other languages spoken in India come mainly from the Austro-Asiatic and Tibeto-Burman linguistic families, as well as a few language isolates. Individual mother tongues inIndia number several hundred, and more than a thousand if major dialects are included.

The SIL Ethnologue lists 415 languages for India 24 of these languages are spoken bymore than a million native speakers, and 114 by more than 10,000. Three millennia of politicaland social contact have resulted in mutual influence among the four language families in Indiaand South Asia. Two contact languages have played an important role in the history of India:Persian and English.

While Hindi is the official language of the central government in India, with English as aprovisional official sublanguage, individual state legislatures can adopt any regional languageas the official language of that state. The Constitution of India recognizes 23 official languages,spoken in different parts of the country, and two official classical languages, Sanskrit andTamil.

Official Languages

While Hindi is the official language of the central government in India, with English as aprovisional official sublanguage, individual state legislatures can adopt any regional languageas the official language of that state. In effect, there are “Official Languages” at the stateand central levels but there is no one “national language.”

Article 346 of the Indian Constitution recognizes Hindi in Devanâgarî script as theofficial language of central government India. The Constitution also allows for the continuationof use of the English language for official purposes.

Article 345 provides constitutional recognition as “Official languages” of the union to anylanguage adopted by a state legislature as the official language of that state. Until the TwentyFirst Amendment of the Constitution in 1967, the country recognized fourteen official regionallanguages. The Eighth Schedule and the Seventy-First Amendment provided for theinclusion of Sindhi, Konkani, Manipuri and Nepali, increasing the number of officialregional languages of India to 18. Individual states, whose borders are mostly drawnon socio-linguistic lines, are free to decide their own language for internal administration


and education. In 2004, the government elevated Tamil. To the newly created official statusof “Classical Language,” followed by Sanskrit in 2005

The Constitution of India now recognizes 23 languages, spoken in different parts thecountry. These consist of English plus 22 Indian languages: Assamese, Bengali, Bodo, Dogri,Gujarati, Hindi, Kannada, Kashmiri, Konkani, Maithili, Malayalam, Meitei, Marathi, Nepali,Oriya, Punjabi, Sanskrit, Santhali, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu. Hindi is a official languageof the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttaranchal, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,Chattisgarh, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana and the National Capital Territory of Delhi. Tamilis an official language of Tamil Nadu, Puducherry and Andamon Nicobar Islands. English isthe coofficial language of the Indian Union, and each of the several states mentioned abovemay also have another coofficial language.The following table lists the 22 Indian languages set out in the eighth schedule as of May2007, together with the regions where they are used:

No. Language Place(s)/Community

1. Assamese/Asomiya Assam2. Bengali/Bangla Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Tripura, West

Bengal,3. Bodo Assam4. Dogri Jammu and Kashmir5. Gujarati Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu,

Gujarat6. Hindi Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Arunachal

Pradesh, Bihar, Chandigarh, Chhattisgarh,the national capital territory of Delhi,Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand,Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradeshand Uttarakhand.

7. Kannada Karnataka8. Kashmiri Jammu and Kashmir9. Konkani Goa, Karnataka,10. Maithili Bihar11. Malayalam Kerala, Andaman and Nicobar Islands,

Lakshadweep12. Manipuri (also Meitei or Meithei) Manipur13. Marathi Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Daman and

Diu, Goa, Maharashtra14. Nepali Sikkim, West Bengal15. Oriya Orissa16. Punjabi Chandigarh, Delhi, Haryana, Punjab17. Sanskrit Listed as a Classical Language of India.18. Santhali Santhal tribals of the Chota Nagpur Plateau

(comprising the states of Bihar, Chattisgarh,Jharkhand, Orissa)

19. Sindhi Sindhi community20. Tamil Tamil Nadu, Andaman & Nicobar

Islands, Kerala, Puducherry . Listed as aClassical Language of India.

21. Telugu Andaman & Nicobar Islands, AndhraPradesh

22. Urdu Andhra Pradesh, Delhi, Jammu andKashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu


Various Indian languages and their literature

Sanskrit

Sanskrit is the Mother of all languages. About 97% of world languages have been directlyor indirectly influenced by this language. The language is rich in most advanced science,contained in their books called Vedas, Upanishads, Shruti, Smriti, Puranas, mahabharata,Ramayana etc.

Learning of Samskrit improves brain functioning. Students start getting better marks inother subjects like Mathematics, Science etc., which some people find difficult. It enhancesthe memory power.

Sanskrit is a standardized dialect of Old Indo-Aryan, having originated in the secondmillennium BCE as Vedic Sanskrit and tracing its linguistic ancestry back to ProtoIndoIranian and ProtoIndoEuropean. As the oldest IndoEuropean language for which substantialwritten documentation exists, Sanskrit holds a prominent position in IndoEuropean studies.Thebody of Sanskrit literature encompasses a rich tradition of poetry and drama as well asscientific, technical, philosophical and religious texts.

Vedas

The Vedas are a collection of hymns and other ancient religious texts written in India betweenabout 1500 and 1000 BCE. It includes elements such as liturgical material as well as mythologicalaccounts, poems, prayers, and formulas considered to be sacred by the Vedic religion.

Origin & Authorship of the vedas

The origin of the Vedas can be traced back as far as 1500 BCE, when a large group ofnomads called the Aryans, coming from central Asia, crossed the Hindu Kush Mountains,migrating into the Indian subcontinent. This was a large migration and used to be seen as aninvasion. This invasion hypothesis, however, is not unanimously accepted by scholars today.All we know for certain, mainly through linguistic studies, is that the Aryan language gainedascendency over the local languages in the Indian subcontinent. The language of the Vedasis Sanskrit, an ancestor of most of the modern languages spoken today in South Asia.

We do not know much about the authors of these texts: In Vedic tradition the focus tendsto be on the ideas rather than on the authors, which may allow one to look at the messagewithout being influenced by the messenger.

Vedic literature is religious in nature and as such tends to reflect the worldview, spiritualpreoccupations, and social attitudes of the Brahmans or priestly class of ancient India. TheVedas were first composed sometime around 1500-1000 BCE in the north-western regionof the Indian subcontinent - presentday Pakistan and northwest India and they weretransmitted orally over many generations before eventually being committed to writing. Likethe Homeric epics, parts of the Vedas were composed in different periods. The oldest ofthese texts is the RigVeda, but it is not possible to establish precise dates for its composition.It is believed that the entire collection was completed by the end of the 2nd millennium BCE.

Content & Structure

The basic Vedic texts are the Samhita “Collections” of the four Vedas:· RigVeda ”Knowledge of the Hymns of Praise”, for recitation.· SamaVeda ”Knowledge of the Melodies”, for chanting.· YajurVeda ”Knowledge of the Sacrificial formulas”, for liturgy.· AtharvaVeda ”Knowledge of the Magic formulas”, named after a kind of group of

priests.In general, the Vedas have a strong priestly bias, as the priestly class had the monopoly in theedition and transmission of these texts.


The RigVeda

It is the largest and most important text of the Vedic collection; it includes 1028 hymns and it isdivided into ten books called mandalas. It is a difficult text, written in a very obscure style andfilled with metaphors and allusions that are hard to understand for modern reader.

One of the earliest and most important religious texts of ancient India, the Rig-Veda isthe oldest of the four collections of hymns and other sacred texts known as the Vedas. Theseworks are considered the “sacred knowledge” of the Aryans, a people who invaded India inabout 1600 b.c. AS the Aryans settled in India, their beliefs developed into the Hindu religion,and the Rig-Veda and the other Vedas became the most sacred Hindu texts.

The RigVeda contains 1,028 mantras, or hymns, directed to the gods and naturalforces. The mantras are organized into ten books called mandalas, or circles. According toancient Hindu tradition, the mantras were based on divine revelations received by membersof a particular family. Several families put the mantras together to form the different mandalas.Within each mandala, the mantras are organized according to the deities with whom theyare associated.

SamaVeda

has verses that are almost entirely from the RigVeda, but are arranged in a different waysince they are meant to be chanted. The YajurVeda is divided into the White and Black

The Samaveda is the Veda of melodies and chants.It is an ancient Vedic Sanskrit text,and part of the scriptures of Hinduism. One of the four Vedas, it is a liturgical text whose1,875 verses are primary derived from the Rigveda. Three recensions of the Samaveda havesurvived, and variant manuscripts of the Veda have been found in various parts of India.

While its earliest parts are believed to date from as early as the Rigvedic period, theexisting compilation dates from the postRigvedic Mantra period of Vedic Sanskrit, c. 1200 or1000 BCE, but roughly contemporary with the Atharvaveda and the Yajurveda

YajurVeda

and contains explanatory prose commentaries on how to perform religious rituals and sacrifices.The Yajurveda is the Veda of prose mantras.An ancient Vedic Sanskrit text, it is a compilationof ritual offering formulas that were said by a priest while an individual performed ritualactions such as those before the yajna fire. Yajurveda is one of the four Vedas, and one of thescriptures of Hinduism. The exact century of Yajurveda’s composition is unknown, andestimated by scholars to be around 1200 to 1000 BCE, contemporaneouswith Samaveda and Atharvaveda.

The Yajurveda is broadly grouped into two – the “black” (Krishna) Yajurveda and the“white” (Shukla) Yajurveda. The term “black” implies “the unarranged, unclear, motleycollection” of verses in Yajurveda, in contrast to the “white” which implies the “well arranged,clear” Yajurveda.The black Yajurveda has survived in four recensions, while two recensionsof white Yajurveda have survived into the modern times.

The AtharvaVeda

It contains charms and magical incantations and has a more folkloristic style.Subsequently, they are divided into 20 books orkandas, having a total of 730 hymns or

suktas or a total of 5,987 verses or mantras. most of the mantras are metrical; About 80hymns are in prose.

About a hundred suktas have only one or two verses.They are all integrated to thedescendants or disciples of the singularity of the seers, Atharvan and Angiras. There exist anapprox twenty percent overlapping between Rigveda Samhita and Atharvaveda Samhita.

The Vedas present a multitude of gods, most of them related to natural forces such asstorms, fire, and wind. As part of its mythology, Vedic texts contain multiple creation stories,


most of them inconsistent with each other. Sometimes the Vedas refer to a particular god asthe greatest god of all, and later another god will be regarded as the greatest god of all.

Some elements of the religion practised by the natives of India before Vedic times stillpersist in the Vedas. The PreVedic religion, the oldest known religion of India, which wasfound in India before the Aryan migrations, was apparently an animistic and totemic worshipof many spirits dwelling in stones, animals, trees, rivers, mountains, and stars. Some of thesespirits were good, others were evil, and great magic skill was the only way to control them.Traces of this old religion are still present in the Vedas. In the AtharvaVeda, for example,there are spells to obtain children, to avoid abortion, to prolong life, to ward off evil, to woosleep, and to harm or destroy enemies.

The Upanishads

These are a collection of texts of religious and philosophical nature, written in India probablybetween c. 800 BCE and c. 500 BCE, during a time when Indian society started to questionthe traditional Vedic religious order. Some people during this time decided to engage in thepursuit of spiritual progress, living as ascetic hermits, rejecting ordinary material concernsand giving up family life. Some of their speculations and philosophy were compiled into theUpanishads.

There is an attempt in these texts to shift the focus of religious life from external rites andsacrifices to internal spiritual quests in the search for answers.

Etymologically, the name Upanishad is composed of the terms upa (near) and shad (tosit), meaning something like “sitting down near”. The name is inspired by the action of sittingat the feet of an illuminated teacher to engage in a session of spiritual instructions, as aspirantsstill do in India today.

The books, then, contain the thoughts and insights of important spiritual Indian figures.Although we speak of them together as a body of texts, the Upanishads are not parts of awhole, like chapters in a book. Each of them is complete in itself. Therefore, they representnot a consistent philosophy or worldview, but rather the experiences, opinions and lessons ofmany different men and women.

Themes and Contents

Although there are over 200 surviving Upanishads, only 14 are considered to be the mostimportant. The names of these Upanishads are: Isa, Kena, Katha, Prasna, Mundaka,Mandukya, Taittiriya, Aitareya, Chandogya, Brhadaranyaka, Svetasvatara, Kausitaki,Mahanarayana and the Maitri.

These texts provide the basic source for many important topics of Indian philosophy andall major philosophical themes are covered in their pages. In general, they remain neutralamong competing interpretations and they attempt to integrate most of the opposing viewsregarding philosophical and spiritual matters.

The purpose is not so much instruction as inspiration

They are meant to be expounded by an illuminated teacher from the basis of personalexperience. In fact, one of the first lessons that we learn in the Upanishads is the inadequacyof the intellect. Human intellect is not an adequate tool to understand the immense complexityof reality. The Upanishads do not claim that our brain is entirely useless; it certainly has itsuse. However, when it is used to unlock the great mysteries of life, the eternal, the infinite,then it simply is not enough. The highest understanding, according to this view, comes fromdirect perception and intuition.

Basic Principles

Even though the Upanishads do not offer a single comprehensive system of thought, they dodevelop some basic general principles. Some of these principles are samsara, karma, dharma


and moksha. These principles form a metaphysical scheme which was shared with varyingadjustments made by most Indian religions and philosophers.

The concept of Samsara is reincarnation, the idea that after we die our soul will bereborn again in another body. Perhaps in an animal, perhaps as a human, perhaps as a god,but always in a regular cycle of deaths and resurrections.

Another concept is Karma, which literally means “action”, the idea that all actions haveconsequences, good or bad. Karma determines the conditions of the next life, just like our lifeis conditioned by our previous karma. There is no judgement or forgiveness, simply animpersonal, natural and eternal law operating in the universe. Those who do good will bereborn in better conditions while those who are evil will be reborn in worse conditions.

Dharma means “right behaviour” or “duty”, the idea that we all have a social obligation.Each member of a specific caste has a particular set of responsibilities, a dharma. For example,among the Kshatriyas (the warrior caste), it was considered a sin to die in bed; dying in thebattlefield was the highest honour they could aim for. In other words, dharma encouragedpeople of different social groups to perform their duties the best they could.

Moksha means “liberation” or release. The eternal cycle of deaths and resurrectioncan be seen as a pointless repetition with no ultimate goal attached to it. Seeking permanentpeace or freedom from suffering seems impossible, for sooner or later we will be reborn inworse circumstances. Moksha is the liberation from this never ending cycle of reincarnation,a way to escape this repetition. But what would it mean to escape from this cycle? What isit that awaits the soul that manages to be released from samsara? To answer this question weneed to look into the concept of atman and Brahman.

The Upanishads tell us that the core of our own self is not the body, or the mind, but atmanor “Self”. Atman is the core of all creatures, their innermost essence. It can only be perceivedby direct experience through meditation. It is when we are at the deepest level of our existence.

Brahman is the one underlying substance of the universe, the unchanging “AbsoluteBeing”, the intangible essence of the entire existence. It is the undying and unchanging seedthat creates and sustains everything. It is beyond all description and intellectual understanding.One of the great insights of the Upanishads is that atman and Brahman are made of the samesubstance. When a person achieves moksha or liberation, atman returns to Brahman, to thesource, like a drop of water returning to the ocean. The Upanishads claim that it is an illusionthat we are all separate: with this realization we can be freed from ego, from reincarnationand from the suffering we experience during our existence. Moksha, in a sense, means to bereabsorbed into Brahman, into the great World Soul.

The Vedanga are six auxiliary disciplines in Vedic culture that developed in ancient times,and has been connected with the study of the Vedas.

Shiksha (œikcâ): phonetics, phonology, pronunciation. This auxiliary discipline hasfocussed on the letters of the Sanskrit alphabet, accent, quantity, stress, melody and rules ofeuphonic combination of words during a Vedic recitation.

Chandas (chandas): prosody. This auxiliary discipline has focussed on the poetic meters,including those based on fixed number of syllables per verse, and those based on fixed numberof morae per verse.

Vyakarana (vyâkaraGa): grammar and linguistic analysis. This auxiliary discipline hasfocussed on the rules of grammar and linguistic analysis to establish the exact form of wordsand sentences to properly express ideas.

Nirukta (nirukta): etymology, explanation of words, particularly those that are archaicand have ancient uses with unclear meaning. This auxiliary discipline has focussed on linguisticanalysis to help establish the proper meaning of the words, given the context they are used in.

Kalpa (kalpa): ritual instructions. This field focussed on standardizing procedures forVedic rituals, rites of passage rituals associated with major life events such as birth, weddingand death in family, as well as discussing the personal conduct and proper duties of an individualin different stages of his life.


Jyotisha (jyotica): Auspicious time for rituals, astrology and astronomy. This auxiliary Vedicdiscipline focussed on time keeping.

The character of Vedangas has roots in ancient times, and the BrihadaranyakaUpanishad mentions it as an integral part of the Brahmanas layer of the Vedictexts.Individually, these auxiliary disciplines of study are traceable to the 2nd millennium BCE,and the 5thcentury BCE scholar Yaska quotes the Vedangas. However, it is unclear whenand where a list of six Vedangas were first conceptualized.

The Vedangas likely developed towards the end of the vedic period, around or after themiddle of the 1st millennium BCE. These auxiliary fields of Vedic studies emerged becausethe language of the Vedic texts composed centuries earlier grew too archaic to the people ofthat time. The Vedangas were sciences that focused on helping understand and interpret theVedas that had been composed many centuries earlier.

Vedangas developed as ancillary studies for the Vedas, but its insights into meters, structureof sound and language, grammar, linguistic analysis and other subjects influenced postVedicstudies, arts, culture and various schools of Hindu philosophy. The KalpaVedanga studies,for example, gave rise to the Dharmasutras, which later expanded into Dharmashastras.

Aranyaka

The Aranyakasconstitutes the philosophy behind ritual sacrifice of the ancient Indian sacredtexts, the Vedas.They typically represent the earlier sections of Vedas, and are one of manylayers of the Vedic texts.The other parts of Vedas are the Samhitas (benedictions,hymns), Brahmanas (commentary), and the Upanishads (spirituality and abstract philosophy).Aranyakas describe and discuss rituals from various perspectives, but some includephilosophical speculations. For example, Katha Aranyaka describes rituals such asthe Mahavrata and Pravargya. AitareyaAranyaka includes explanation ofthe Mahavrata ritual from ritualisitic to symbolic metaritualistic points of view.[6] Aranyakas,however, neither are homogeneous in content nor in structure. Aranyakas are sometimesidentified as karma-kanda (0M. #M, ritualistic action/sacrifice section), while the Upanishadsare identified as jnana-kanda (“M>( #M!, knowledge/spirituality section).In an alternateclassification, the early part of Vedas are called Samhitas and the commentary are calledthe Brahmanas which together are identified as the ceremonial karma-kanda,while Aranyakas and Upanishads are referred to as the jnana-kanda.

In the immense volume of ancient Indian Vedic literature, there is no absolute universallytrue distinction between Aranyakas and Brahamanas. Similarly, there is no absolute distinctionbetween Aranyakas and Upanishads, as some Upanishads are incorporated inside afew Aranyakas.Aranyakas, along with Brahmanas, represent the emerging transitions inearly Vedic religious practices.The transition completes with the blossoming of ancient Indianphilosophy from external sacrificial rituals to internalized philosophical treatise of Upanishads

Sanskrit Literature

The Sanskrit is divided into the Vedic language and the classical language. The Dharmasutraswere compiled between 500 and 200 BC. These lay down duties for different varnas as wellas for the kings and their officials. Kautilya’sArthashastra is an important treatise of theMauryan times. During the classical period, language was

regulated by the rules of grammarians Panini. The greatest figure in the field of epicpoetry is Kalidasa (A.D. 380A.D. 415). He wrote two great epics, Kumarasambhava (thebirth of Kumar), and Raghuvamsa (the dynasty of theRaghus). Bharavi (550 A.D.), wroteKiratarjuniyam (Kirat and Arjun) and Magha (65700 A.D.) wroteSishupalavadha (the killingof Shishupal). There are several other poets like Sriharsha and Bhatti. Natyashastra writtenby Bharata (1st century B.C.1st century A.D.). Kalidasa is the most distinguished dramatisthis plays Malavikagnimitra (Malavika and Agnimitra), Vikramorvasiya (Vikram and Urvasi)and Abhigyana Shakuntala (therecognition of Shakuntala) isunparalleled.


The Mricchakatika (the claycart) by Sudraka(248 A.D.) presents a remarkable social dramawith touches of grim reality. The 13 playsof Bhasa (4th century B.C.2nd century A.D.) areaccepted as the most stagable plays ofSanskrit theatre.

The most popular is Swapnavasavadatta (Vasavadatta in dream)

Bhavabhuti (700 A.D.), another great dramatist, is well known for his play UttaraRamacharitam(the later life of Rama). Jayadeva (12 century A.D.) is the last great namein Sanskrit poetry,who wrote Gitagovinda.

Literature in Pali and Prakrit

After the Vedic period common language of Indian society is Pali and Prakrit. Prakrit inthewidest sense of the term, was indicative of any language that in any mannerdeviated from thestandard one, i.e. Sanskrit. Pali is archaic Prakrit. In fact, Pali is acombination of variousdialects. Buddhist and Jain adopted these languages. Buddha(500 B.C.) used Pali to give hissermons. All the Buddhist canonical literature is in Paliwhich includes Tipitaka (threefoldbasket). Vinaya Pitaka, contains the monastic rulesof the Order of Buddhist monks. SuttaPitaka, is the collection of thespeeches anddialogues of the Buddha. AbhidhammaPitaka,elucidates the various topics dealingwith ethics, psychology or theory of knowledge. In thejataka Kathas stories relating tothe former births of the Buddha (Bodhisattva or the wouldbe Buddha) are narrated.These stories propagate Buddhist religious doctrines and are availablein both Sanskritand Pali. Buddhist literature is also abundantly available in Sanskrit, whichincludes thegreat epic Buddhacharita by Aswaghosha (78 A.D.).The Jain texts were writtenin Prakrit and were finally compiled in the sixth century ADin Valabhi in Gujarat. The importantworks are known as Angas, Upangas, Prakirnas,Chhedab Sutras and Malasutras. Like theBuddhist stories, the Jain tales in general aredidactic in character. They are written in someforms of Prakrit. Hemachandra (1088A.D) is well known figure of Jain literature. Prakrit iswell known forGathasaptashati(700 verses) by Hala (300 A.D.), the best example of eroticliterature. The vast Katha(story) literature of Prakrit, written with a conspicuous religiousovertone, even by Jainsaints, is full of erotic elements. The author of the Vasudevahindiascribes this changedapproach of the Jain authors to the fact that it is easy to teach religioncloaked by eroticepisodes, like sugarcoated medicine. The characteristic of Prakrit poetry isits subtlety; the inner meaning (Hiyaali) is its soul. Jain literature is available in Sanskrit too,like theUpamitibhavaPrapancha Katha of Siddharasi (906 A.D.).

Early Dravidian Literature

Dravidian literature mainly consists of the four languages, Tamil, Telugu, KannadaandMalayalam. Out of these, Tamil is the oldest language which preserved itsDravidiancharacter the most. Kannada, as a cultured language, is almost as old as Tamil. Alltheselanguages have borrowed many words from Sanskrit and vice versa. Early classicalTamil literature is known as Sangam literature meaning ‘fraternity’, indicating mainlytwoschools of poets, aham (subjective love poems), and puram (objective, public poetryand heroic).Aham deals purely with the subjective emotions of the lover, and puramwith all kinds ofemotions, mainly the valour and glory of kings, and about good and evil. The Sangam classicsconsisting of 18 works, written by 473 poets, among whom 30were women, the famouspoetess Avvaiyar being one of them. Most of theseanthologies are of the 3rd century B.C.During this time, a Tamil grammarTolkappiyam, was written, to understand early Tamil poetry.The famous Thirukkuralby Thiruvalluvar (6th century A.D), serves as a manual of preceptsto guide one tonoble living. The twin epics, Silappadhikaram (the story of the anklet), writtenbyIlangoAdigal, and Manimekalai (the story of Manimekalai) by Chattanar, give vivid accountsof Tamil society during that period. In Manimekalai there is an elaborateexposition of thedoctrines of Buddhism. Nannaya (A.D.1100) was the first Telugu poet.


Tamil Literature

The name ‘Tamil’ is a little differently pronounced anglicized version of the three letter nativename of the Dravidian language spoken mainly by people of Tamilnadu, a state in the Indiansubcontinent. It belongs to the southern branch of the Dravidian languages. It is the officialand administrative language of the State of Tamilnadu and the Union territory of Puduchery.It is one of the twentytwo scheduled languages of India.

The earliest Tamil literature goes back to the Sangam period perhaps from 600 BC200AD. The compilation of the corpus of literature produced in this Congress (Sangam) is knownas the Sangam literature. Three sangams at Madura, Kapatapuram and northern Madurarespectively are believed to have existed. Most of the works relating to the first two sangamsdealt mainly with music and dance.

UnfortunatelyTolkappiyam is the only available work of these two Sangams. Tolkappiyamis a work on the grammar of the Tamil language and the earliest extant work of Tamilliterature.

It is written in the form of noorpaa (short formulaic compositions). A collection of lyrics,known as Ettuthokai or Eight Anthologies, and another one of longer poems, known asPattuPattu or Ten Idylls are the main literatures of the third Sangam. Sangam poetry is uniqueand unparalleled in terms of beauty and greatness.

Mahatma Gandhi, India’s father of the nation, said, I wanted to learn Tamil, only to enableme to study Valluvar’sThirukkural According to the Mahatma, “It is a treasure of wisdom.The Sangam literature, unlike the Rig Vedic texts, was secular in nature and revolved aroundthe themes of various heroes and heroines. The Sangam literature provides very valuableinformation on the social, economic and political life of the people living in deltaic Tamil Naduin the early Christian centuries.

The postSangam period (200600 AD) is notable for the composition of five great Tamilepics~ Silappadikaram, Manimekalai, Jivakachintamani, Valaiyapati and Kundalakesi.

The five minor works viz. Yasodharakaviyam, Chulamani, Perunkathai,Nagakumarakaviyam and Nilakesi are the contribution of some Jain authors.

Between 600900 AD, the Tamil literature came under the influence of Saiva and Vaishnavasaints called Nayanmars and Alvars respectively. The hymns of the Saiva saints were latercollected into twelve anthologies called Tirumuraikal. The Periya Puranam, also calledTiruttondar Puranam, composed by Sekkizhar in the 12th century AD , was considered as thetwelfth Tirumurai. The Vaishnavaite saint Nathamuni (824 924 AD) compiled the Vaishnavahymns into four books called NalayiraDivyaPrabandham. Periyalivar, Poigaialvar,Bhutattalvar,Andal are some other Vaishnavaite saints who have done a meticulous work tothe Tamil literature. Among them Andal is the only woman saint.

History of Tami Literature and Tamil Prose

One of the great Tamil poets, Kamban, belonged to this period. He was the greatest of thecourt poets of KulottungaChola III (11781218 AD). He adapted Valmiki’s Ramayana inTamil in his Kamba Ramayanam, which is very unique in its style and technique. He alsocomposed other works like Erelupadu and Sathakoparandadi. The other great poets of thisperiod include Ottakkuttan, Pugazhendi, Auvaiyar, Jayankondan, Iraiyanar, Kalladanar,Pavananti. Another important poet who flourished during the Chola period was Kuttan, whoauthored great works like Nalayirakkovai, Parani, Tukkayagapparani, Sarasvatiyandadi andArumbaittollayiram. Other noted scholars of the Chola period include Kuttan,TirutakadevaraTalamokti, and Venkatamadhava.

Vijayanagara literature in Kannada

It is the body of literature composed in the Kannada language of South India during theascendancy of the Vijayanagara Empire which lasted from the 14th through the 16th century.


The Vijayanagara empire was established in 1336 by Harihara I and his brother Bukka RayaI. Although it lasted until 1664, its power declined after a major military defeat by the ShahiSultanates in the battle of Talikota in 1565. The empire is named after its capital cityVijayanagara, whose ruins surround modern Hampi, now a World Heritage Site in Karnataka.Most of the Kannada literature published during Vijayanagara era, related to the Veerashaivismand Vaishnavism traditions, and to some extent that of Jainism. It was not just poets andscholars, many rulers of Vijayanagara empire, court nobles, soldiers too were equally greatwriters in their own way. Apart from the court literature, you had a vast body of folk literature,produced by travelling bards and saint poets too.

Most of the writing was in 3 categories, the 6 line verse called shatpadi, themusical compositions called Sangatya and the 3 line verse called tripadi. One of thestriking aspects of Kannada literature under Vijayanagara Empire was the growth ofVeer Shaivism and the vachana poetry, which till then was the domain of Jainism andtheir champu style of writing. The Jain school tried to challenge the rising popularity ofthe Veerashaivism and Vaishnavism literature, reinventing themselves, focusing on morecontemporary topics. One such author was Andayya, whose magnum opusKabbigaraKava( Poet’s Defender), tried to project the victory of Kama, the God of loveover Shiva, written in the typical champu style associated with Jain traditions. Champuis a style of writing that mixed prose with poetry, and it was pioneered by Adikavi Pampa,known as the first poet of Kannada literature.

Kannada literature

It was during this period consisted of writings relating to the socioreligious developmentsof the Veerashaiva and Vaishnava faiths, and to a lesser extent to that of Jainism. Writingon secular topics was popular throughout this period. Authorship of these writings was notlimited to poets and scholars alone. Significant literary contributions were made by membersof the royal family, their ministers, army commanders of rank, nobility and the varioussubordinate rulers. In addition, a vast body of devotional folk literature was written bymusical bards, mystics and saintpoets, influencing society in the empire. Writers of thisperiod popularised use of the native metres: shatpadi (sixline verse), sangatya (compositionsmeant to be sung to the accompaniment of a musical instrument), and tripadi (threelineverse).

The development of Veerashaiva literature was at its peak during the reign of King DevaRaya II, the bestknown of the Sangama dynasty rulers. The rule of King Krishnadeva Rayaof the Tuluva dynasty and his successors was a high point in Vaishnava literature. The influenceof Jain literature, which had dominated Kannada language in the previous centuries, was onthe wane with increasing competition from the resurgent Veerashaiva faith and Vaishnavabhakti movement (devotional movement of the haridasas).

Telugu literature

It can be broadly discussed in to six ages as mentioned below:1. PreNannaya period (up to 1000 A.D.)2. Age of Puranas (1000 A.D. 1400 A.D.)3. Age of Poet Srinatha (1400 A.D. – 1500 A.D.)4. Age of Prabandhas (1500 A.D. 1600 A.D.)5. Southern Region period (1600 A.D. 1800 A.D.)6. Modern Age (1800 A.D. – Till date)During the age of PreNannaya period, there were only inscriptions since 575 A.D.NannayyaBhattaraka (11th Century A.D.) translated the Sanskrit Mahabharata into Teluguand this can be quoted as the first best citation of Telugu literature. The diction was highlymastered by Nannaya that many historians’ school of thought says that there might have beenearlier works in Telugu, which base his major work.


Tikkanamatyulu (13th century) and Yerrana also called Yerrapragada (14th century)resumed the translation of the remaining portions of Mahabharata started by Adi KaviNannayaBhattaraka.

In the age of Srinatha Kavi Sarvabhowma (popular poet in 14th century) few poetstranslated Sanskrit slokas and dramas and others came out with native narrative poems. Thepopular Telugu literary form, Prabandha was evolved during this period.

The first Ramayana in Telugu is reffred as the Ranganatha Ramayanam, works done bybyGona Buddha Reddi. Later, the memorable religious poets such as Potan (14th Century), Jakkana(14th century) and Gaurana (first half of the 15th century) have done greatest works in these roots.

Golden period of Telugu literature was in between 16th 17th centuries when SriKrishnadevaraya has shown interest in Telugu Literature. Manucharitra by Peddana is anotheroutstanding Mahakavya other than Sri Krishna Devaraya’sAmukthamalyada. As the Teluguliterature flourished in the south in the Samsthanas like Madurai, Tanjavur etc., which renamedthis age as ‘Southern Period’.

Mughals conquered Deccan in 1687 A.D., with which the Telugu Literature lost its specialitygrowth. The period of transition emerged after a long gap of 200 years, when a memorableEuropeans, C.P.Brown played an important role in the development of Telugu language andliterature. Later the Telugu Literature was also influenced by the European literary formssuch as novels, short stories, dramas etc.

KandukuriViresalingamPantulu, the father of modern Telugu literature inspired by theVicar of Wakefield wrote a novel called RajasekharaCharitamu. He was the first and thegreatest among modern times, who used literature to suppress social evils and superstitions.The age was followed by other famous Telugu writers such as RayaproluSubba Rao,GurazadaAppa Rao, Viswanatha Satyanarayana, Jashuva, Devulapalli Krishna Sastry, SriSri, Puttaparty Narayana Charyulu and many others.

Malayalam literature

It has a rich tradition dating back to centuries. The oldest works founded so far in poetry andprose is ‘Vaishikathathantram’ and ‘BhashaKautiliyam’ respectively. And is a known factthat some of the famous ancient works of Tamil and Sanskrit were written by Keralites.In ancient times, Kerala was considered to be a part of Tamil Nadu. Scholars opine that thedevelopment, growth and transformation of the Dravidian Language gave way to the birth ofMalayalam Language. The works written during this period came to be known as Sanghomliterature. The renowned poet Elangovadikal composed his masterpiece, ‘Chilapathikaram’an epic poem at Mathilakom in Thrissur district.

Modern literary movements in Malayalam literature began in the late 19th century withthe rise of the famous Modern Triumvirate consisting of Kumaran Asan, Ulloor S. ParameswaraIyer and Vallathol Narayana Menon. Kumaran Asan was temperamentally a pessimist—adisposition reinforced by his metaphysics—yet all his life was active in promoting hisdowntrodden HinduEzhava community. Ullor wrote in the classical tradition, on the basis ofwhich he appealed for universal love, while Vallathol responded to the human significance ofsocial progress. Contemporary Malayalam poetry records the encounter with problems ofsocial, political, and economic life. The tendency of the modern poetry is often regarded astoward political radicalism

Medieval and Modern period language

Persian Literature

Persian literature is the jewel in the crown of Persian culture. It has profoundly influenced theliteratures of Ottoman Turkey, Muslim India and Turkic Central Asia and been a source ofinspiration for Goethe, Emerson, Matthew Arnold and Jorge Luis Borges among others. YetPersian literature has never received the attention it truly deserves.


Persian Literature under the Mughals in IndiaWith the coming of the Mughals, a new era in Persian literature started. Babur brought withhim poets and scholars like Abu’l Wahid Farighi, Nadir Samarquandi and Tahir Khwandi fromCentral Asia. Though Babur himself wrote in Turkish, his court provided forum to both Persianand Turkish writers.

Babur himself was a poet and great historian. According to T. Lanepool, ”In Persian,the language of culture—the Latin of Central Asia—he was an accomplished poet;and his native Turki, he was master of a pure and unaffected style alike in prose andverse.”

Babur was a great patron of literary persons and had great admiration for them. Forexample, he writes in his memoirs about Jami, “The all surpassing head of the poetband wasMaulana Abdur Rahman Jami. He was unrivalled in his day for esoteric and exotericknowledge. Famous indeed are his poems, The Mulla’s dignity it is out of my power to describe:it has occurred to me merely to mention his name and one atom of his excellence as a benedictionand good omen for this part of my humble book.”

Jami was the last great mystic poet and not the last great classical poet of Persianlanguage. He composed material versions and Sufism dominates his poetry. “In Persian, moreparticularly; his verses in elegance, style, and originality, are quite up to the level of the averagePersian mystic poets.”

Suleiman Shah, a cousin of Babur, also wrote verses both in Turkish and Persian. Theother prominent literary figures of Babur’s time were Shaikh Zainuddin, Mulla Shihab andKhwandamir. GulbadanBegam, the daughter of Babur was also a great scholar and she wroteHamayun Nama on the specific request of Akbar. Shaikh Zainuddin who was the Secretaryof Babar, was an accomplished scholar of Turki, Arabic and Persian.

According to Badauni, ”He was one of the greatest scholars of the age and was thefirst to translate into Persian the Turki memoires of Babur. He also commented onMabayyan ,a work which Babur had written on Hanafi jurisprudence. He was knownas ZainuddinKhawafi, although he wrote as ‘Wafai’. The important work which hewrote covers the whole history of the conquest of India by Babur.”

Commenting on the literary pursuits during the times of Babur, M.A. Ghani says “AmongBabur’s contemporaries there were many who came to India, and wrote their works hereunder the Indian patronage. No parallel instance is to be found in history of a period prior to hisin which poets and scholars of Persian language migrated to India in such large numbers. It ismostly from his regime or the advent of the Mughal rule that the Persian language in India hasacquired its own significance.”

Humayun, the next ruler was also a great patron of poetry as well as prose. Like Babur hewas also adept at writing poetry and wrote masnavi, rubai, diwan as well as ghazal. Accordingto M.A. Ghani, “From his own verses which include almost all principal kinds of poetry exceptqasida and gita, his position as a poet of the Persian language is clearly established.The Persian literature made a wonderful progress during the times of Akbar. A numberof outstanding works of literary and historical importance were produced during his time.Some of the prominent works of his time include TarikhiAlflofMullaDaud, the AiniAkbariand Akhamama by Abul Fazal, the Muntakhabut Twarikh the TabakatiAkbari of NizamuddinAhmed.

Akhamama of Faizi, the MasiriRahimi of Abdul Baqi. Abul Fazal apart from being agreat scholar was a personal friend and counselor of Akbar for almost 35 years. The quantumand quantity of his work has been greatly admired by the scholars. For example, V.A. Smithsays, “Abul Fazal alone among the historians aimed at producing a work worthy to be rankedas literature, but can hardly be said to have succeeded.”

SimilarlyBlochman says, ”there is no passage in his works where woman is lightlyspoken of, or where immorality is passed over with indifference.”


Abdul QadirBadaoni wrote MuntakhabulTawarikh which is also known as TarikhiBidauni,a general history from the times of Ghazanvides to the fortieth year of Akbar. This work isspecially useful in correcting fulsome eulogium of the Akbarnama.

It helps in forming correct impression of the character of the great Mughal ruler.Nizamuddin’s TabakatiAkbari is a chronicle of external events and completely ignores thereligious views of the Emperor.

TakmilaiAkbarnama of Inayatulla provides us with information regarding the four yearsof Akbar’s reign not covered by Abul Fazal in his Akbarrama. Faizi’sAkbarnama though notan original work and largely based on TabakatiAkbari provides us sufficient information ina straightforward manner.

Akbar had set up a special department for translation with a view to bring about fusion inHindu and Muslim cultures and to provide a common literature to the people of this country.Many notable works of Sanskrit, Arabic, Turkish and Greek were translated into Persian.ThusAbul Fazal translated many Sanskrit works like Kisan Joshi, the Gangadhar, the MaheshMahananda into Persian.

Jahangir was not only an intellectual like his father but he had a taste for literature. Heaccorded patronage to men of learning and his court was adorned with many literary figuressuch as Nasiri of Nishapur Ghiyas Beg, Naqib Khan, Mutamid Khan, NiyamatUllah andAbdul HaqDehlvi.

He wrote his own autobiography entitled TuzulciJahangiri in which he revealed hisdaily life with freshness and candor. Very few incidents of his life such as his revolt againsthis father, the circumstances leading to his marriage with Nur Jahan, the death of Khusrauhave been omitted.

According to Elliot and Dowson TuzlciJahangiri taken as a whole proves Jahangir tohave been a man of no common ability. He records his weaknesses and confesses his faultslike Babarj with candour and a perusal of this work would have a favourable impression bothof his character and talents.

Another historical work produced during Jahangir’s time was IqbalnamahiJahangiriby My amid Khan, which is considered to be a primary source for the history of his reign. Theother important historical works produced curing his time were Maasiri Jahangiri and ZubdutTuwarilch.

His reign also witnessed the production of outstanding poetry as well as commentaries onQuran. One thing which strikes most that the Department of Translation which had been verybusy under Akbar seems to have been disbanded by Jahangir.

Shah Jahan, the next ruler also continued to patronize men of learning. The prominentscholars who were patronized by Shah Jahan were Abu Zalih, Haji Muhammad Jan, ChandraBhan Brahman, Abdul Hamid Lahauri, AminaiQazwini, Inayat Khan and Muhammad Salih.Abdul Hamid Lahauri was the court historian of Shah Jahan and wrote PadshahNama.

Aurangzeb, though an orthodox Sunni, was a critical scholar of Islamic theology andjurisprudence. However, he was opposed to poetry and the writing of the history of his reign..No doubt, a number of histories were written about his time but they were not the outcome ofhis patronage. These works were produced by the scholars independently. ThusKhafi Khanwrote Muntakhabul Lubab, Mirza Muhammad Qasim wrote AlamgirNama, Ishwar DasNagar wrote MaasiriAlamgiri, Bhim Sen wrote NushkhaiDil Kasha and Sujan Rai wroteKhulasautTawarikh. Aurangzeb patronized a number of theologizes and directed them toproduce and elaborate digest of Muslim laws. This resulted in the production of FatawaiAlamgiri. Aurangzeb himself had mastery over Persian which is exhibited from the collectionsof his letters called Raqqati Alamgiri.

Under the successors of Aurangzeb Persian literature continued to be patronized. It wasonly during the times of Muhammad Shah (1713—1748), that Persian was neglected and attentionbegan to be paid to Urdu. However, even during the later Mughal period a number of worksboth on Sufism and history were produced in Persian by both Hindu and Muslim scholars.


These works were not of that high literary quality as those produced under the patronageunder the earlier Mughal rulers. Some of the local rulers however, continued to encourageproduction of historical works in Persian.

Some of the important chronicles produced during the later Mughal period were SairulMutakherin by Ghulam Husain, TarikhiMuzaffari by Muhammad Ali Ansari, TawarikhiChahari GulzariShujai by Hari Charan Das, ImadusSaadat by Ghulam Ali Naqvi, MaadanusSaadat by Sultan Ali Safawi, IbratNama by Khairuddin and HaqiqatulAqalim by MurtazaHusain Bilgrami.

In the South also the Persian literature continued to flourish and some of the outstandingworks in Persian were produced. In 1611 Farishta wrote the monumental work GulshaniIbrahimi which is regarded as the most compendious of chronicles produced during MedievalIndia.

Persian language made special progress under the patronage of Bahmani wazir MahmudGawan. He came to India from Persia in 1453 and ended his life as a result of murderousconspiracy in 1481. He made a collection of his letter entitled Riyazu’lInsha.

These letters were written to men of foremost ‘learning in Persia, and are a paragon ofthe ornate style, then in vogue in Persian language. Another outstanding work of MahmudGawan was Manaziru’lInsha, a book on art of diction in Persian.

In the States of Bijapur and Golconda, the Persian scholars were given every possibleencouragement. It is said that there was so much of influx of Persian historians, poets andother literary figures during the times of Ibrahim Qutb Shah that they could not beaccommodated in the walledcity of Golconda.

As a result Sultan had to found a new city of Hyderabad in 1592. It is not possible to givea list of all the poets, prose writers and other literary figures who enriched the Persian languageduring medieval times in India. But it is really noteworthy that the Persian learning attractedboth Hindus and Muslims all over the country.

Hindi Literature

It is usually held that the Hindi language was evolved during the period between 7th and 10thcentury A.D. But notable works in this language were produced only in the 11th century A.D.Popularity of this language was mainly due to the patronage extended to it by the provincial rulers.

The earliest work produced in Hindi was PrithvirajRaso written by Chand Bardai at thecourt of Prithviraj Chauhan of Delhi. In this book Chand Bardai describes the life of thewarrior king Prithviraj and gives an account of the war with Muslims. Another contemporaryof Chand Bardai was Jagnayak, the author of Alha Khand.

In this work Jagnayak describes in lyric deeds of love and war of two brave warriorsAlha and Udal of Mahoba. Another work of the same period is credited to Bhatt Kidarentitled JayachandParkash in which he has given the exploits of Jai Chand, the ruler of Kanauj.Sarangdhar wrote HamirRaso and Hamir Kavya in which he gives a glowing account of thebrave deeds of Raja Hamir Dev Chauhan of Ranthambor. Similarly works like VijaypalRasoby Nalh Singh, BimldevaRaso by Narpati Nath, KhumanRaso by an unknown bard, wereproduced. Thus we find that the Hindi literary activities were mainly confined to Rajasthan.The early Hindi works were mainly bardic or religious. This literature is also designated asheroic ballads because they dealt with brave deeds of Rajput Chiefs and warriors.

During Sultanate period, Hindi did not fully grow, although it was gradually becoming thelanguage of the people residing in Central India. With the spread of the Bhakti Movement thislanguage greatly flourished. Saints like Gorakhnath, Namadeva, Kabir, etc. composed Bhajans,Pads (Hindi verses).

It is said that Kabir alone wrote about twenty thousand verses. His compositions possessesa force and charm of its own which went a long way in forging a sense of unity amongst theHindus and the Muslims. His literature went a long way in popularizing Hindi. Guru Nanak,the founder of Sikhism, also rendered great service to the cause of Hindi literature.


He composed a number of verses which possess a poetic value of their own. OtherBhakti saints like DaduDayal, Sunder Das, Maluk Das, Sunder Vilas, Dharamdas also createdreligious literature in Hindi. But the most important compositions in Hindi were by Mirabai,famous melody singer from Rajasthan.

The Sufi saints also played an important role in popularizing Hindi literature. Sufi saintslike Mulla Daud composed Chandawat, Kutban wrote Mrigawat, Manzan wrote Madhu Maltiand Malik Muhammad Jayasi wrote famous Padmavat.

Jayasi, according to K.M. Ashraf, “was greater even than Amir Khusrau, for while thatlatter was more or less confined in his treatment to Muslim society and adhered to the orthodoxviews of Islam, the former had drunk deep at the springs of both Hinduism and Islam, andwas, as a matter of fact, more Hindu than Muslim in his outlook on life. He is the oldestvernacular poet of Hindustan of whose works we have any uncontested remains.”

These writers expounded the cardinal principles of Sufism in their works. But the mostimportant contribution to the growth of Hindi literature was made by Amir Khusrau. He wasa poet at the court of Khilji and Tughlaq rulers and was a writer of high order. He made useof simple Hindi language in his compositions, particularly in his riddles. The simplicity and thedirect appeal of his compositions became popular, with the general masses.

When the Mughals came to the scene, Hindi had already developed as a literary language.The first two Mughal rulers did not pay much attention to its promotion, however, Hindiliterature received new encouragement under Akbar.

Tulsi Das was without any doubt the most outstanding of these scholars. He spent mostof his time at Banaras and produced twentyfive works of high standard. The most outstandingwork of Tulsi Das was Ram CharitManas popularly known as the Ramayana.

Tuisi Das divided this epics into seven books and deals with the life of Ram Chandra andsings of the noble deeds of Rama. According to Grierson the Ramayana has become “the oneBible of a hundred millions of people”. Kissan Keane says, ”Ramayana as a creation inthe Hindi literature and as an expression of religion stands supreme.”

Sardar Panikkar says that “Tulsi Das saved Hinduism from schisms and cults; for thereligion of the Ram charitManas, in spite of the exaltation of Rama as the supreme being, wascatholic enough to hold all sects and provided the strong motive force of Bhakti which hassince then remained the basic factor of Indian popular religion.”

Sur Das was another important Hindi poet who wrote about Krishna in prolific style. Hewrote many inspiring songs about the early life of Lord Krishna as well as love of Krishna andRadha. He wrote in Brajbhasha as his most popular work is Sur Sugar.

The most outstanding and well known work of Keshva Das was Virshing Deva Charitraand Jahangir Chaodrikca. Jahangir’s own brother Danij al was also a noted poet of Hindi.

Shah Jahan continued the tradition of encouraging Hindi poets. It is on record that hehonoured two Hindi poets from Trihut by bestowing of them a grant of Rs. 1,600/ and a robeof honour. His court was also adorned by number of Hindi scholars like Sundar, Ravi Raj,Chintamani, Mali Ram, Bihari and Kavindra Acharya.

Urdu

Urdu started developing in north India around Delhi in about the 12th century. It was based onthe language spoken in the region around Delhi, and it was heavily influenced by Arabic andPersian, as well as Turkish.

Urdu shares its origins with Hindi, sometimes referred to as a ‘sister’ language of Urdudue to the similar grammar base that they share. However, Hindi went on to be written in‘Devanagri’, the same script as Sanskrit, and its vocabulary has more of a Sanskrit influencethan a Persian and Arabic influence.

During the 14th and 15th centuries, much poetry and literature began to be written in Urdu.More recently, Urdu has mainly been connected with the Muslims of the Indian subcontinent,but there are many major works of Urdu literature written by Hindu and Sikh writers.


After the creation of Pakistan in 1947, Urdu was chosen to be the national language ofthe new country. Today Urdu is spoken in many countries around the world, including Britain,Canada, the USA, the Middle East and India. In fact there are more Urdu speakers in Indiathan there are in Pakistan.

Urdu literature has a history that is inextricably tied to the development of Urdu, theregister of the Hindustani language written in the PersoArabic script. While it tends to bedominated by poetry, especially the verse forms of the ghazal and nazm, it has expanded intoother styles of writing, including that of the short story, or afsana. Urdu literature is mostlypopular in Pakistan, where Urdu is the national language. It is also a recognized officiallanguage in India. It is also widely understood in Afghanistan.

Origin

Urdu Developed in Malegaon. Urdu literature originated some time around the 14th centuryin presentday North India among the sophisticated gentry of the courts. The continuingtraditions of Islam and patronisations of foreign culture centuries earlier by Muslim rulers,usually of Turkic or Afghan descent, marked their influence on the Urdu language given thatboth cultural heritages were strongly present throughout Urdu territory. The Urdu language,with a vocabulary almost evenly split between Sanskritderived Prakrit and AraboPersianwords, was a reflection of this cultural amalgamation.

Marathi

Marathi is the language spoken primarily by the native people of Maharashtra, a state ofIndian sub continent. There are about 90 million people who speak Marathi worldwide. It isthe oldest of the IndoAryan regional languages. It is thought to be approximately 1300 yearsold and it is considered that this language evolved from Sanskrit and Prakrit (a group oflanguages spoken in ancient India), and its syntax and grammar, from Pali. Three Prakritlanguages, simpler in structure, emerged from Sanskrit.

These were Saurseni, Magadhi and Maharashtri. Marathi is said to be a descendent ofMaharashtri which was the Prakrit spoken by people residing in the region of Maharashtra. Itwas an official language of the Satavahana Empire. It had risen to a high literary level, and theliterary works like Karpurmanjari and Saptashati written in 150 BC speak volumes of the highprofile it held.

Maharashtri Prakrit was the most widely used Prakrit language in western and southernIndia, spoken from Malwa and Rajputana in the north to Krishna and Tungabhadra in thesouth. Today’s Marathispeaking and Kannada speaking parts of India spoke MaharashtriPrakrit for centuries. Maharashtri Prakrit was widely spoken in India till 875 AD.

Literature

Literature It is beyond the 10th centrury that the origin of Marathi literature is traced to.Around 983 C.E. the literary inscription discovered at the foot of the statue at Shravanabelgolain Karnataka around 983 C.E. is the earliest known Marathi literature.The Marathi literaturecan be grouped into two ages: Ancient or Old Marathi literature (10001800 AD) and ModernMarathi Literature (1800 onwards).

The old Marathi literature mainly consisted of devotional, narrative and pessimistic poetrieswithout satire, parody, irony and humor.The rise of the Yadava dynasty (11891320 AD) is thefirst significant event which paved way for the growth of Marathi literature. They adoptedMarathi as the court language and patronised Marathi learned men, contributed greatly towardsthe growth of Marathi literature.

The second event was the emergence of two religious sects known as MahanubhavPanthand WarkariPanth. Marathi literature in fact had begun with religious writings by the saintpoetsbelonging to these two sects who, respectively employed prose and poetry as their medium.Mukundaraj, Dnyaneshwar and Namdev are the three poets belonging to Mahanubhava sect.


Mukundaraj wrote Vivekasindhu which is considered as the first major work in Marathi.Dnyaneshwar created Bhawarthadeepikawhich is also popularly known as Dnyaneshwari,a 9000couplets on Bhagavad Gita. Amritinabhava is his other great work in Marathi. LilaCharitra (1273), GovindaPrabhuCharitra and Siddhanta Sutra Patha are considered as theother important works of Mahanubhava writers. Eknath is a great Warkarisaintpoet and hisEknath’sEkanathiBhagavata is a literary masterpiece of Marathi literature. Mukteswar, followingEknath’s trend, has translated Mahabharatha into Marathi. Christapurana, a work composedby the Christian missionary Father Stephens (15491619) is another masterpiece of Marathiliterature. Tukaram (16081651) was the greatest saintpoet of Marathi, who wrote over 3000abhangas. Poet Ramdas (16081681), in the footsteps of Tukaram has rendered, inspiringliterary works such as Dasabodh and ManacheShlok in an enriched literary language.

Bangla Literature

Bangla Literature

It dates back to the 7th century at least and it may be divided into three main periods: ancient,medieval, and modern. The different periods may be dated as follows: ancient period from6501200, medieval period from 12001800, and the modern period from 1800 to the present.The medieval period may again be divided into three periods: early medieval also known as theperiod of transition from 12001350; high medieval from 13501700, including the preChaitanyaperiod from 13501500 and the Chaitanya period from 15001700; and late medieval from17001800. The modern period begins in 1800 and can again be divided into six phases: the eraof prose from 18001860, the era of development from 18601900, the phaseof RABINDRANATHTAGORE (1861-1941) from 18901930, the postRabindranath phase from 1930to 1947, the postpartition phase from 1947 to 1970, and the Bangladesh phase from 1971 tothe present.

Ancient period

The conquest of Bengal by the Mauryas in the 3rd century BC led to the spread of Aryanlanguages in the Bengal delta. The BANGLA LANGUAGE, however, developed fromPRAKRIT, through APABHRAMSA and ABAHATTHA and outside the direct influence ofAryan languages. The earliest extant specimens of ancient Bangla are the 47 spiritual hymnsnow known as CHARYAPADA composed by Buddhist monks. Because the language ofthese hymns is only partly understood, it is called SANDHYA or twilight language. TheCharyapada hymns possess both linguistic and literary value. The Siddhacharya, or composersof the Charyapada hymns, include Luipa, Bhusukupa, KAHNAPA and Savarpa.

Early medieval: Period of transition (12011350)

The anecdotes, rhymes and sayings of DAK and KHANA may be dated to this period. TheApabhramsa of the Charyapada became more Bangla in character. Among the specimens ofthis period is Ramai Pandit’s narrative poem Sunyapurana (13th14th century). Anotherexample of early Bangla is a collection of lyrical poems in Apabhramsa entitled Prakrtapaingala.A Bangla song has also been found in HalayudhMisra’s SANSKRIT book sekhasubhodaya (c1203).

High medieval: PreChaitanya period (13501500)

During this period, Bangla literature developed in three main areas: vaishnavaliterature , Mangalaliterature and translation literature. This period also saw the beginning of Muslim Banglaliterature in the form of romantic and narrative poems.

The greatest of Vaishnava writers was the poet BaruChandidas (14th century) whorendered JAYDEV’s Sanskrit lyrics about radha and KRISHNA into Bangla. The names of several


poets who went by the name of CHANDIDAS have been found in the middle Ages: Adi Chandidas,Kavi Chandidas, DvijaChandidas and Dina Chandidas. The confusion about whether therewere one or several poets called Chandidas is known in Bangla literature as the ‘Chandidasriddle’. Chandidas has been credited with over a thousand lyrics. The introduction tosrikrsnakirtan edited by Basantaranjan Ray Vidvadvallabh and published in 1916 bybangiyasahityaparisat mentions the name of BaruChandidas. He was perhaps the originalChandidas who composed verses in 1350.

Odia

Odia language literature is the predominant literature of the state of Odisha in India. Thelanguage is also spoken by minority populations of the neighbouring states of Jharkhand, WestBengal, Chhattisgarh and Andhra Pradesh. The region has been known at different stages ofhistory as Kalinga, Udra, Utkala or Koshala.

Odisha was a vast empire in ancient and medieval times, extending from the Ganges inthe north to the Godavari in the south. During British rule, however, Odisha lost its politicalidentity and formed parts of the Bengal and Madras Presidencies. The present state of Odishawas formed in 1936. The modern Odia language is formed mostly from Pali words withsignificant Sanskrit influence. About 28% of modern Odia words have Adivasi origins, andabout 2% have Hindustani (Hindi/Urdu), Persian, or Arabic origins. The earliest written textsin the language are about thousand years old.The first Odia newspaper was Utkala Deepikafirst published on 4 August 1866.

Odia is the only IndoEuropean language of India other than Sanskrit and the sixth Indianlanguage that has been conferred classical language status and forms the basis of Odissidance and Odissi music. Historians have divided the history of the Odia language literatureinto five main stages: Old Odia (8th century to 1300), Early Middle Odia (1300 to 1500),Middle Odia (1500 to 1700), Late Middle Odia (1700 to 1850) and Modern Odia (1850 topresent). Further subdivisions, as seen below, can more accurately chart the language’sdevelopment.

Gujarati literature

Literature of the Gujarati language, a major tongue of India. The oldest examples of Gujaratiliterature date from the writings of the 12thcentury Jain scholar and saint Hemachandra. Thelanguage had fully developed by the late 12th century. There are works extant from the middleof the 14th century, didactic texts written in prose by Jain monks; one such text is the Balavabodha(“Instructions to the Young”), by Tarunaprabha. A nonJain text from the same period isGunavanta’sVasantavilasa (“The Joys of Spring”). Two Gujarati bhakti (devotional) poets, bothbelonging to the 15th century, are Narasimha Mahata (or Mehta) and Bhalana (or PurushottamaMaharaja). The latter cast the 10th book of the Bhagavatapurana into short lyrics.

By far the most famous of the bhakti poets is a woman, the saint Mira Bai, who livedduring the first half of the 16th century. Though married to a mortal, Mira Bai thought of thegod Krishna as her true husband. Her lyrics, telling of her relationship with her god and lover,are among the warmest and most moving in Indian literature.

One of the best known of the nonbhakti Gujarati poets is Premananda Bhatta (16thcentury), who wrote narrative poems based on Puranalike tales. Though his themes wereconventional, his characters were real and vital, and he infused new life into the literature ofhis language.

Punjabi

Punjabi literature refers to literary works written in the Punjabi language particularly by peoplesfrom the historical Punjab region of India and Pakistan including the Punjabi diaspora. Thelanguage is written in several different scripts, of which the Shahmukhi, the Gurmukhî scriptsare the most commonly used.


Early Punjabi Literature (1115th centuries)

Although the earliest Punjabi literature is found in the fragments of writings of the eleventhcentury yogis Gorakshanath and Charpatnah, the Punjabi literary tradition is popularly seen tocommence with FariduddinGanjshakar (1173–1266) whose Sufi poetry was compiled afterhis death in the Adi Granth.

The Janamsakhis, stories on the life and legend of Guru Nanak (14691539), are earlyexamples of Punjabi prose literature. Nanak’s own poetry was fused Punjabi, Khari Boli andBrajBhasha, with vocabulary from Sanskrit, Arabic and Persian as was much of the literatureof the later Sikh Gurus.


Indian architecture and sculpture

Introduction

One of the most enduring achievements of Indian civilization is undoubtedly its architecture.Indian architecture, which has evolved through centuries, is the result of socio-economicand geographical conditions. Different types of Indian architectural styles include a massof expressions over space and time, transformed by the forces of history considered unique toIndia. As a result of vast diversities, a vast range of architectural specimens have evolved,retaining a certain amount of continuity across history.

Indian architecture, belonging to different periods of history, bears the stamp of respectiveperiods. Though the cities of Indus Valley provide substantial evidence of extensive townplanning, the beginnings of Indian architecture can be traced back to the advent ofBuddhism in India. It was in this period that a large number of magnificent buildingscame up. Some of the highlights of Buddhist art and architecture are the Great Stupa atSanchi and the rock-cut caves at Ajanta.

With the establishment of Hindu kingdoms in South India, the south Indian school ofarchitecture began to flourish. The most notable achievements of the Pallava rulers werethe rock-cut temples of Mahabalipuram and the temples of Kanchipuram. The Chola,Hoyasala and Vijayanagar rulers also did remarkable job in the field of architecture.The temples at Thanjavur, Belur and Halebid bear testimony to the architecturalexcellence of the South Indian rulers.

In north India, there developed a new a different style of architecture. This was called asthe Nagara style architecture. In central India, the Chandela rulers built a magnificent templecomplex at Khajuraho. With the coming of the Muslim rulers, there developed a newarchitectural style in India- the Indo-Islamic architecture. The Indo-Islamic style was neitherstrictly Islamic nor strictly Hindu. The architecture of the medieval period can be divided intotwo main categories. They are the Delhi or the Imperial Style and the Mughal Architecture.

It was followed by a new style of architecture that developed as a result of colonizationof India. This style of architecture came to be called as Indo-Saracenic. The Indo-Saracenicarchitecture combined the features of Hindu, Islamic and western elements. The colonialarchitecture exhibited itself through institutional, civic and utilitarian buildings such as postoffices, railway stations, rest houses and government buildings.

Colonial Architecture

Like all other aspects, colonization of Indian also had an impact on architecture style. Withcolonization, a new chapter in Indian architecture began. The Dutch, Portuguese and theFrench made their presence felt through their buildings but it was the English who had alasting impact on architecture.

Indo Islamic Architecture

The medieval period saw great developments in the field of architecture. With the coming ofMuslims to India, many new features came to be introduced in buildings. The development ofMuslim Style of Architecture of this period can be called the Indo-Islamic Architecture or theIndian Architecture influenced by Islamic Art. The Indo-Islamic style was neither strictlyIslamic nor strictly Hindu.

Ancient Architecture

Indian architecture is as old as the history of the civilization. The earliest remains of recognizablebuilding activity in the India dates back to the Indus Valley cities. Among India’s ancientarchitectural remains, the most characteristic are the temples, Chaityas, Viharas, Stupas andother religious structures.


Cave Architecture

The cave architecture in India is believed to have begun in the third century BC. Thesecaves were used by Buddhist and Jain monks as places of worship and residence. Initially thecaves were excavated in the western India. Some examples of this type of cave structureare Chaityas and Viharas of Buddhists.

Rock Cut

The Rock-cut structures present the most spectacular piece of ancient Indian art specimen.Most of the rock-cut structures were related to various religious communities. In the beginning,remarkable Buddhist and Jain monuments were produced in areas such as Bihar in the eastand Maharashtra in the west.

Temple Architecture

In ancient India, temple architecture of high standard developed in almost all regions. Thedistinct architectural style of temple construction in different parts was a result of geographical,climatic, ethnic, racial, historical and linguistic diversities. Ancient Indian temples are classifiedin three broad types. This classification is based on different architectural styles, employed inthe construction of the temples.

Harappa architecture

Harappan architecture is the architecture of the Harappans, an ancient people who lived inthe Indus Valley from about 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE. The Harappans were advanced fortheir time, especially in architecture.


From the ruins of the Indus Valley Civilization, it can be deduced that the cities were incrediblywell-planned.

Drainage System

Mohenjo-Daro had the world’s first complex underground drainage system. Some drains broughtwater to houses while others carried waste material away.

Granary

An important public building was the granary. It is used to store grains such as barley, wheatand oat.

Citadel

The citadel was a striking feature of the city. This was a large fort where people could take

shelter if an enemy attacked the city.

The Great Bath

• This was a large bath that archaeologists believe was used for religious bathing.

• They were equally conscious of plant medicine since there was occasional warfare.

Houses

The houses varied in size. Some might have had two storeys. The houses were made of burnt

bricks. Most of the houses had a central courtyard, a well, a bathing area and a kitchen.

Fast Facts

It was the first Indus site to be discovered by Daya Ram Sahni in 1921.It is located on the banks of river Ravi.There are two rows of six granaries, these were the nearest buildings to the river.Barracks in the form of rows of single roomed habitations which housed labourers areseen.

Largest number of wheat grains are seen from Harappa.Red sandstone tarso of nude male seen.


Two types of burial practices one of typical R37 type and another of atypical cemetery Htype seen.

Lothal

It was an important trading centre of the Indus civilisation and situated near the bed of theBhogavo River at the head of the Gulf of Cambay in Gujarat. Lothal was excavated by S R.Rao which brought to light five period sequences of cultures.

It was one rectangular settlement surrounded by a brick wall. Along the eastern side ofthe town was a brick basin, which has been identified as a dockyard by its excavator.

Metal-workers, shell ornament makers and bead-makers shops have been discovered here.

The discovery of the Persian Gulf seal and the Reserved Slip Ware suggests that Lothalwas engaged in the maritime activities.

Fast Facts

Lothal in gujarat was excavated by S.R. Rao.Lothal is located on the books of river Bhagava in Gujarat.The only Indus site with an artificial dockyard. The world’s first tidal port at Lothal.Evidence of double burials from Lothal.Evidence of Cultivation of rice in Lothal and Rangpur.Beadmakers shop seen in Lothal, Chanhudaro.Lothal is known as Monchester of Harrappancivilisation for its cotton trade.Copper furnaces have been found.A circular button shaped seal called Persian gulf seal seen.Two terracotta models of Egyptian mummies found wrapped in muslim cloth. A sacrificial fire alter found both in Lothal and Kalibangan suggesting medical and surgicalskills.The game of chess seemed to have been played at Lothal.

Mohenjo-daro

Sindhi for Mound of the Dead Men is an archaeological site in the province of Sindh, Pakistan.Built around 2500 BCE, it was one of the largest settlements of the ancient Indus Valleycivilization, and one of the world’s earliest major cities, contemporaneous with thecivilizations of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Minoan Crete, and Norte Chico.

Mohenjo-daro was abandoned in the 19th century BCE as the Indus Valley Civilizationdeclined, and the site was not rediscovered until the 1920s.Significant excavation has sincebeen conducted at the site of the city, which was designated an UNESCO World HeritageSite in 1980Mohenjo-daro has a planned layout with rectilinear buildings arranged on a gridplan. Most were built of fired and mortared brick; some incorporated sun-dried mud-brickand wooden superstructures. The covered area of Mohenjo-daro is estimated at 300 hectares.

The sheer size of the city, and its provision of public buildings and facilities, suggests ahigh level of social organization.

The city is divided into two parts, the so-called Citadel and the Lower City. TheCitadel – a mud-brick mound around 12 metres (39 ft) high – is known to have supportedpublic baths, a large residential structure designed to house about 5,000 citizens, and two largeassembly halls. The city had a central marketplace, with a large central well. Individualhouseholds or groups of households obtained their water from smaller wells.

Waste water was channeled to covered drains that lined the major streets. Some houses,presumably those of more prestigious inhabitants, include rooms that appear to have been setaside for bathing, and one building had an underground furnace (known as a hypocaust),possibly for heated bathing. Most houses had inner courtyards, with doors that opened ontoside-lanes. Some buildings had two stories.


Notable artefacts

• Pashupati seal

• Priest-King

• Dancing Girl

• Seven-stranded necklace

Fast Facts

It was the second Indus site to be discovered by R.D. Banerjee in 1922.It is located on the banks of river Indus in Sind.Great granary- the largest building.Multi-pillared assembly hall and a big rectangular building.Another building, identified as the temples.First street located in Mohenjodaro.Pasupati seal from Mohenjodaro.Bronze image of a dancing girl with right hand on hip.Steatite image of a bearded man said to be of a priest.3 cylindrical seals of Mesopotamia.Bronze mirror, bronze needle, bronze saw seen in Mohenjodaro.Great both from Mohenjodaro has the largest brickwork.Skeletons are found on the stairs of a well indicating warfare and probably suggestsAryan invasion.Outbreak of Malaria.Settlement said to have declined due to floods.Mohenjodaro literally means ‘mound of the dead’.

Chanhudaro

AlsoChanhuDaro or Chanhu Dado is anarchaeological site belonging to the post-urban Jhukar phase of Indus valleycivilization. The site is located 130kilometers (81 mi) south of Mohenjo-daro,in Sindh, Pakistan. The settlement wasinhabited between 4000 and 1700 BCE,and is considered to have been a centrefor manufacturing carnelian beads.

Chanhudaro is one of the mostimportant sites of Indus Civilization.More than 2500 sites belonging to IndusCivilization are identified so far andChanhudaro is one of the bigger sites wherelot of scope is identified for excavation.However, of late, excavations in this site have not been in progress leading to a decline incontributions from this site. It is situated in a desert area, but it is believed that the SarasvatiRiver used to flow near this site. Sarasvati river is believed to have dried up during 2ndmillennium BC.

Town planning

For building houses, baked bricks were used extensively at Chanhudaro and Mohenjo-daro.Several constructions were identified as workshops or industrial quarters and some of thebuildings of Chanhudaro might have been warehouses.


Industrial activity

Evidence of shell working was found at Chanhudaro and bangles and ladles were made atthis site. Harappan seals were made generally in bigger towns like Harappa, Mohenjadaroand Chanhudaro which were involved with administrative network.

Artefacts found

Copper knives, spears, razors, tools, axes, vessels and dishes were found, causing this site tobe nicknamed the “Sheffield of India” by Earnest Mackay.Copper fish hooks were alsorecovered from this site. Terracotta cart models, a small terracotta bird which whenblown acts as a whistle, plates and dishes were found.Male spear thrower or dancer - a broken statue (4.1 cm) is of much importance, found atChanhudaro, is now displayed at Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, USA.Indus Seals are alsofound at Chanhudaro and Chanhudaro is considered as one of the centres where seals weremanufactured. The scale of craft production at Chanhudaro seems much greater than that atMohenjodaro, perhaps taking up half of town for this activity.

Bead making factory

An Impressive workshop, recognised as Bead Making Factory, was found at Chanhudaro,which included a furnace.Shell bangles, beads of many materials, stealite seals and metalworks were manufactured at Chanhudaro.

Cultivation

Sesame, which is a native of South Africa, is known from number of Harappan sites, includingChanhudaro, probably grown for oil. Peas are also grown at Chanhudaro.

Importance

In respect of Indus Script, ||/ sign is only found on inscriptions found at Chanhudaro. Itoccurred on eleven objects, (around one sixth of all inscribed objectes recovered fromChanhudaro) leading to suggestion by AskoParapola that it may represent town’s name.

Cotton cloth traces preserved on silver or bronze objects were known from Chanhudaro,Harappa and Rakhigarhi.

Objects of Iron were reported from Chanhudaro, Ahar, Rajasthan (India) and Mundigakand this gains importance as it has been claimed that Iron was produced in 3rd Millennium inSouth Asia Region.

Fast Facts

Chanhudaro was excavated by N.G. Majumdar in Sind.It is known as the Lancashire of India.It’s the only Indus city without a citadel.Like Mohenjodaro it was also flooded more than once.Discovery of a small pot with was probably an ink-well.Largest number of copper implements are found from chanhudaro.

SutkaganDor

It is the westernmost known archaeological site of the Indus Valley Civilization. It is locatedabout 480 km west of Karachi on the Makran coast near Gwadar, close to the Iranian border,in Pakistan’s Baluchistan Province. The site is near the western bank of the Dasht River andits confluence with a smaller stream, known as the Gajo Kaur. It was a smaller settlementwith substantial stone walls and gateways.


Architecture

This site measures approximately 4.5 hectares (300 × 150 m). Along with the typical “citadel”and “lower town”, there is a massive fortification wall of semi-dressed stones. This citadelwall varies in height and thickness due to the irregular contours of the natural rock foundation,but at one point about midway along the eastern wall, it is approximately 7.5 m thick at thebase. The inner face of the wall is slightly battered, whereas the outer face has a decidedslope, varying from 23° to 40°.

Coastal route

Though inland at present, the site may have been near navigable water in ancient times, on atrade route between other centers. A coastal route existed linking sites such as Lothal andDholavira to SutkaganDor on the Makran coast.It has been suggested that the site may wellhave been an important trading post, connecting seaborne trade from the Persian Gulf and theArabian Sea to the hinterland.

Findings

Stein recovered 127 flint blades without cores measuring up to 27.5 cm. Stone vessels, stonearrowheads, copper arrowheads, shell beads, pottery, and various other items were found. Acopper-bronze disc probably associated with the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex(BMAC) was also discovered there.

Fast Facts Of other civilizations

Kalibangan

The word kalibangan literally means black bangles.It was excavated by B.B. Lal and K. Ghosh.It is situated on the banks of Ghaggar river in Rajasthan.One of the two Indus cities which have both proto-Harappan and Harappan culturalphase.Discovery of platforms with five altars.Conspicuous absence of mother Goddess Figurines.Mud are found from every house in Kalibangan.6- patterns of pottery type are found from Kalibangan.Evidence of mixed cropping from Kalibangan.A cylindrical seal has been found Kalibangan.

Surkotada

It was excavated by Joshi and is located in Gujarat.There is evidence of bones of a horse.The only Indus city to have a stone wall as fortification.Evidence of Pot burial in Surkotada.

Dholavira

Dholavira in Gujarat was excavated by R.S. Bisht.Dholavira is the largest of all the Indus settlement.A middle town is seen only in Dholavira.Stone has been used in constructions.A 10- alphabet signboard indicating direction has been seen.A megalith burial has been seen from Dholavira.Evidences of irrigation, dams and embankments.


Dholavira is the warehousing settlement of Harappan civilisation.Well prepared gold rings have been seen in Dholavira, Mandi and Daimabad.Dholvira being located on a faultline might have been destroyed by an earthquake.

Banwali

Is located in Hissar district of Haryana on Ghaggar River.Evidence of largest number of barley grains.Oval shaped settlement. Banwali is the only Harappan city with Radial streets.

Daimbad

Excavated by Dhavalikar.Located on the banks of pravara river in Maharashtra.Largest number of bronze items.A bronze chariot, rhino, elephant, bull seen.

KotDiji

Located in Sind. Located on the banks of river Indus.Excavated by Ghurey.Kotdiji has been destroyed by fire.Largest number of stone implements are found from Kotdiji.Stone arrow heads have been seen from Kotdiji.

COINS

Coins in Mauryan Dynasty

Ancient Indian coins became popular in the Mauryan Dynasty and were described in thefamous Arthshastra by Kautilya. As per the Arthshastra, metals were first melted then purifiedwith alkali and beaten into sheets and finally minted (produced or made) into coins afterpunching with the symbols.

In the earlier periods before Mauryan times several punches were used on the coins butthe Mauryans, set the standard of the particular shape and size with fixed number of punchmarks. The coins of the Mauryan Dynasty were round, oval or square with symbols punchedon it. Various symbols used were of different floral patterns, with hills, birds, animals, reptiles,human figures where particular symbol represented particular place or area.

Mauryan Dynasty also introduced silver punch marked coins in four denominationsas ‘pana‘, ‘ardha-pana‘, ‘pada‘ and ‘asta-bhaga‘ or ‘ardhapadika‘. These coins werecirculated beyond Mauryan borders.Historical collections of the coins from Mauryan Dynasty also reveal few smaller coins whichare assumed to be the cut parts of the full coins. According to historians, these small coinswere considered half denominations and were accepted as legal tender. There were also


some minute coins weighing between 2 and 3 grains which were generally used for transactionsin the period. These minute coins were referred as ‘mashaka’ which was one sixteenth ofthe `pana`.

Coins in Post Mauryan Dynasties

The coins were square or rectangular in shape and were made by either Copper or Silver. Thecoins have uneven texture and were one and a half inches in length and three fourth incheswide. These coins were punched with five bold symbols on one side and four on the other.

As the successors of Pushyamitra Sunga shifted to Vidisha, the coins sized about an inchand bore four or five symbols on one side of the coin and the other side remained blank andunpunched. In some of the coins one of the symbols was replaced by a legend of the names oftheir issuers. Some of copper coin bore only one or two symbols. Inscription was done toknow the issuing authority. The later coins used animals in place of punch marked symbols.

The coins of the early tribal republics of the second century B.C bore the names of thetribes and the places on the coins in the Brahmi scripts. Tribal republic people issued coinsmainly in copper, though some issued coins in silver also. The later coins of Surasena rulersbore symbols and a figure of a standing female deity. The coins of Vatsa has a bull with asymbol on one side and a tree in railing with some other symbols on the other, with the nameof the king inscribed on it.

Coins in Kushan Dynasty

The Kushana Dynasty came up with therevolution in the coinage of the country as theywere the first to introduce gold coins with theimages of rulers of the time along with deities.The emperors of the dynasty believed that theyare ruling the subjects because of God’s wishesso started depicting figures of Gods whobestowed them. Prior to the origin of this type,there was the trend of punch marked silver coinswith just few symbols but no images of rulers ordeities.


One of the greatest ruler of the dynasty, emperor Kanishka minted coins during his reignwhich were distinct from the other earlier coins of dynasty in a way that he was the first oneto mint the coins with the effigies of Buddha. Coins of Kanishka got the place among the rarecoins of the world as only 5 gold coins exist all over the world with the portrait of Buddha.

The Kushna’s coins became very popular and the trend of showing ruler on front andHindu deities on reverse was followed for another 6 centuries by later Indian dynasties.

Coins in Gupta Dynasty

The Gupta Dynasty is considered the golden age in Indian history. First coins of theGupta Dynasty were minted by Samudragupta who is considered the father of Gupta monetarysystem. The first coins minted by him were called Dinara inspired by the Roman coins butlater the coins were minted in the Indian style with the weight standard of 9.2 gms of gold andcalled Suvarna.

Samudragupta minted eight distinct types of coins namely Standard, Archer, Battle Axe (refers tohis military activities), Chandragupta-I, Kacha, Tiger, Lyricist and Asvamedha type (commemoratingthe horse sacrifice ceremony). These coins depict lots of details about the Gupta Dynasty and its

economy.

Later all the successors of the dynasty minted the similar type of gold coins which depictedtheir technical and sculptural excellence. Almost all coins had front side showing King in theacts, revealing his royal status and heroism while Goddess Laxmi’s image on the reverse ofcoins with some phrases of Sanskrit legends.

Coins in Chola Dynasty

The coins issued during the reign of Chola Empire traced their roots back to Hindu Mythologyand were a perfect mirror to the socio-cultural aspects of society at that point. The emblem ofChola, which is defined by a standing tiger with its tail upraised on one side and an elephant onthe other side is inscribed on the coins.

The coins bore an ‘anushka‘ like symbol and the legend ‘Atinan etiran Chandan‘meaning Atinan, the son or the successor of Chanda on one side of the coin. The other sidebore the emblem of the Chola.

These coins were minted both in India and Sri Lanka. All metals like gold, Silverand Copper were used as Coin’s fabric. Some coins bore both the standing King and thesitting king on different sides of the coin. It was generally noticed that the coins contained theimage of the legends that were highly respected by the kings at that time.

Coins of Kadambas

The coins minted by the Kadambas always remained a center of attraction for the scholars ofNumismatics. Most of them were made of Gold or Copper. One characteristic feature of


these coins was that the punch used to inscribe images was sodeeply done that it almost appeared as a saucer. These coins arefondly remembered as Padmatankas (lotus coins).

Coins of Satavahana

The coins of Satavahana Dynasty were built invarious shapes, metals and weights. Lead, copper,potin, brass, bronze and silver were all the metals

used for these coins. As far as the techniques wereconsidered cast, die-struck and punch-marked coinswere all very famous. These coins also dominantlydisplayed symbols such as the hill, river, tree, GoddessLakshmi, lion, tiger, elephant, bull, horse, camel, wheel,

Ujjain symbol and ship. Brahmni and Prakrit werethe major scripts used for the coins.

Seals from the Indus Civilization

Discovery of seals is an outstandingcontribution of the Indus Civilization to ancientcraftsmanship. The large number of their

presence at Mohenjodaro and Harappaindicate their popularity. Generally, the seal

was of steatite material, square orrectangular in shape. Some seals were madeof copper or bronze Seals of clay and Terra

Cotta have also been found in round orcylindrical shape Wide range of animals

associated in all most every case with groupsof symbols in semi-pictographic script havebeen represented.

The animal frequently represented is anox-like beast with a single horn-popularly

nicknamed as UnicornThe significance ofthis animal is unknown. Whatever be the explanation,

the ritual character of the scene is emphasized by aremarkable seal-impression from Mohenjodaro showinga figure or a -Unicom- being carried in procession.

Other animals represented are sort of horned bull,buffaloes, the Brahamanical bull with hump, tiger,elephant, antelope, fish-eating crocodile andrhinoceros. Of special interest is another seal fromHarappa which bears on one side a cross and on the

other a splayed eagle with a snake above each wing.The motif is reminiscent of spread eagles found inMesopotamia Susa and Tell Brak in Syria Apart fromthese composite animals (admixture of different featuresof different animals in one animal) also appear.

The fine finishing of these seals eloquently speaksfor the workmanship of their makers.


Sculptures of the Indus Valley

The story of Indian art and sculpture dates back tothe Indus valley civilization of the 2nd and 3rdmillennium BCE.The bust of a priest in limestone and a bronze dancinggirl show tremendous sophistication and artistry.

Buddhist Sculptures - Sarnath and Sanchi, Gandharaand Mathura

The next golden chapter of Indian sculpture opens inthe 3rd century BCE, when the Mauryan Emperor Ashokaadopted Buddhism and set out on a mission to spread theteachings of the faith as far and wide as possible. He had85,000 stupas or dome-shaped monuments constructed withthe teachings of Buddhism engraved on rocks and pillars.These inscriptions, which served as edicts can be seen inBuddhist monuments in Gujarat, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh andTamil Nadu.

The famous Ashoka Pillar at Sarnath in Madhya Pradeshgleams in polished sandstone representing the hieratic art under the Mauryan Empire. Thelion capital of the pillar is now the official emblem of the Indian Republic and the sacredwheel of law or the dharmachakra is symbolic of the first sermon that Buddha delivered atSarnath.

The Great Stupa at Sanchi is perhaps the finest surviving relic of the Mauryan Empireand is a renowned Buddhist monument. Its finely carved gateways depict Buddhist legendsand lifestyles of two thousand years ago. The foundation of the Stupa was laid by Ashoka andhe set up monasteries here as a retreat for the Buddhist monks. The Great Stupa is fifty-four feet high and is surrounded by a stone railing and four elaborately carved gatewayson each side. The gateway reliefs depict tales of Buddha’s incarnations, his life as a prince,his moment of enlightenment, his sermons and his worshippers. This site at Sanchi also includesremains of smaller stupas, pillars and monasteries.


Buddha

In the 1st century AD, the position changed somewhatradically in art and sculpture. The human figure replaced thesymbolic representation of Buddha and his teachings. ThoughBuddha opposed the idea of idol worship, his cult image wasestablished and became essential for acts of worship. TheMathura and the Gandhara schools of sculpture impartedhuman form to Buddha’s image. To emphasise his divinity,this human form was depicted with features like a halo aroundthe head, the dharmachakra engraved upon his palms andsoles of his feet, and the lion throne representing his royalancestry. These early stone images of Buddha are awe-inspiring in terms of size and magnificence.

The Buddha statues of the 5th century exhibit a unique sensibility with human figures thatare meditative and serene, a body that is subtly modelled and a face that glows with enlightenment.Here, the ultimate definition of the divine is indicated in the soft folds of the dress, the exquisitecurvature of the hands and the half-closed eyes of the Buddha.

Buddhist influence on Indian sculpture

The 4th, 5th and 6th centuries AD witnessed a tremendous resurgence of Hinduism when itbecame the official religion of the Gupta Empire. Consequently, this era was also marked bythe emergence of innumerable images of popular Hindu Gods and Goddesses. Images ofVishnu, Shiva, Krishna, the Sun-God and goddess Durgaevolved in this period. The Udaigiricaves in Madhya Pradesh house a colossal image of Vishnu. Here he is presented as thegreat savior who rescued ‘mother earth’ from the depths of the ocean, in his incarnation as avarha (boar). Other statues of this period found in various temples and museums are indicativeof the various dimensions of early Hindu art and sculpture.CavesThe link between dance, drama, literature and art became crucial to aesthetic expressionismin centuries to come. This new era in art and sculpture witnessed a unique fusion, a synthesis


embodied in the caves at Ajanta and Ellora and the temples of central and South India.

Located north-east of Bombay, near Aurangabad, Ajanta and Ellora are two astonishingseries of temples carved out of living rock over the course of fourteen centuries.

Ajanta

During the 4th century AD. in a remote valley, work began on the Ajanta caves to create acomplex of Buddhist monasteries and prayer halls. They depicted the story of Buddhism,spanning the period from 200 BCE to 650 AD.

As centuries passed, numerous Buddhist monks and artisans excavated a set of twenty-nine caves, some cells, monasteries and Buddhist temples. All of these were carved from therock cliff at Ajanta. These caves are adorned with elaborate sculptures and paintings, whichhave withstood the ravages of time.

The 29 caves were built as secluded retreats of the Buddhist monks, who taughtand performed rituals in the Chaityas and Viharas, the ancient seats of learning, andnerve - centers of the Buddhist cultural movement.Using simple tools like hammer and chisel, the monks carved out the impressive figuresadorning the walls of these structures. Exquisite wall - paintings and sculptures speak volumesof the India of yore. Many of the caves house panels depicting stories from the Jatakas, a


rich mine of tales of the several incarnations of the Buddha. Images of nymphs and princessesamongst others are also elaborately portrayed. Amid the beautiful images and paintings aresculptures of Buddha, calm and serene in contemplation.

Ellora

Work started on the Ellora caves in the seventh century AD where another set of caves werecreated from living rock. Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism inspired these sculptors to createthese elaborate rock carvings. The Buddhist and Jain caves here are ornately carved yetseem quiet and meditative whereas the Hindu caves are filled with a divine energy and power.

The finest specimens of cave-temple architecture, they house elaborate facades andexquisitely adorned interiors. These structures representing the three faiths of Hinduism,Buddhism and Jainism, were carved during the 350 AD to 700 AD period. The 12 caves to thesouth are Buddhist, the 17 in the center dedicated to Hinduism, and the 5 caves to the northare Jain.

The sculpture in the Buddhist caves accurately conveys the nobility, grace and serenity inherentin the Buddha. Caves 6 and 10 house images from the Buddhist and Hindu faith, under thesame roof, the latter dedicated to Vishvakarma, the patron saint of Indian craftsmen. TheVishvakarma cave is both a Chaitya and a Vihara, with a seated Buddha placed in thestupa. Its two - storeyed structure sports a colorful pageant of dwarfs, dancing and makingmusic.


The most impressive and majestic creation at Ellora is the Kailasa Temple, a full-sizedfreestanding temple flanked by elephants carved out of solid rock. Pillars, podiums, spires andtowers combine to produce an awe-inspiring representation of Shiva’s Himalayan abode.

The Kailasa temple in Cave 16 is an architectural wonder, the entire structurehaving been carved out of a monolith, the process taking over a century to finish. Thismountain - abode of Lord Shiva, is in all probability, the world’s largest monolith, the gateway,pavilion, assembly hall, sanctum and tower, all hewn ou t of a single rock. What is amazingabout it is the fact, that unlike other temple structures, which are built base onwards, thesculptor or architect involved here, started carving from the very top and the sides. Gigantic,though it is, it remains one of the most delicate and intricate ancient works of art. The DumarLena cave resembles the famous cave - temple at Elephanta, and is dedicated to Lord Shiva.

The Jain cavesare about a mile away from the Kailasa temple, amongst which Cave 32,houses a beautiful shrine adorned with fine carvings of a lotus flower on the roof, and a yakshion a lion under a mango - tree, while Caves 32 and 34 contain grand statues of Parasnath.The other Jain caves sport the images of Tirthankaras, and one of them, also, has a seatedfigure of Mahavira.These cave shrines are memorable for their invaluable contribution to the enormous wealth ofIndian heritage.

Arts of the Mauryan Period

Sixth century B.C. marks the beginning of new religious and social movements in theGangetic valley in the form of Buddhism and Jainism (Sramana/Shraman Tradition).Magadha emerged as a powerful kingdom and consolidated its control over the otherreligions.By the third century, a large part of India was under Maurya control.Ashoka emerged as the most powerful king of the Maurya dynasty.Religious practices had many dimensions during this period.Worship of Yakshas and Mother Goddess was prevalent during that time.Yaksha worship was very popular before and after the advent of Buddhism and it wasassimilated in Buddhism and Jainism.Construction of stupas and viharas (dwelling place of monks) became part of the Buddhist tradition.However, in this period, apart from stupas and viharas, stone pillars, rock cut caves and

monumental figure sculptures were carved in several places.

Pillars

Even though constructing pillars are very old, Mauryanpillars are different from the pillars in the other parts of theworld (like Achaemenian pillars) as they are rock cut pillarsthus displaying the carver’s skills.Stone pillars were erected all over the Mauryan Empire.The uppermost elements of a pillar or column is known a capital.The top portion of the pillar was carved with figures like abull, lion, elephant, etc.


All the capital figures (usually animals) are vigorous and carved standing on a square orcircular abacus.Abacuses are decorated with stylized lotuses.Mauryan pillar capital found at Sarnath popularly known as the Lion Capital is the finestexample of Mauryan sculpture tradition.

Yakshas and Yakshinis

Large statues of Yakshas and Yakshinis are foundat many places like Patna, Vidisha and Mathura.They are mostly in the standing position.Their polished surface is distinguished element.Depiction of faces is in full round with pronouncedcheeks and physiognomic detail.They show sensitivity towards depicting the humanphysique.Finest example is Yakshi figure from Didarganj,Patna.

DidarganjYakshi

The life-size standing image of a Yakshi holding achauri (flywhisk) from Didarganj near Patna isanother good example of the sculpture tradition of Mauryan period.It is a tall well proportioned, free standing sculpture in round made in sandstone with apolished surface.The chauri is held in the right hand, whereas the left hand is broken.The image shows sophistication in the treatment of form and medium.The sculpture’s sensitivity towards the round muscular body is clearly visible.The face is round, fleshy cheeks, while the neck is relatively small in proportion; the eyes,nose and lips are sharp.Folds of muscles are properly rendered.The necklace beads are in full round, hanging the belly.The tightening of garments around the belly rendered with great care.Every fold of the garments on the legs is shown by protruding lines clinging to the legs,which also creates a somewhat transparent effect.Thick bell ornaments adorn the feet.Heaviness in the torso is depicted by heavy breasts.The hair is tied in a knot at the back and the back is clear.Flywhisk in the right hand is shown with incised lines continued on the back of the image.

Rock cut Architectures

Ashoka also patronized many rock cut architectures during his periodThe majority of these belongs to Buddhism.The rock-cut cave carved at Barabar hills is a good example of Mauryan rock cutarchitectures.

Lomus Rishi Cave, Barabar Hills

Rock-cut cave carved at Barabar Hills near Gaya in Bihar is known as Lomus RishiCave.It is patronized by Ashoka for Ajeevika sect.The facade of the cave is decorated with the semicircular Chaitya (worship place) archas the entrance.


An elephant frieze carved in high relief on the chaitya.The interior hall of this cave is rectangular with a circular chamber at the back.Entrance is located on the side wall of the hall.

Stupas and Chaityas

Stupa, chaitya and vihara are part of Buddhist and Jain monastic complex, but the largest

number belongs to the Buddhist religion.

One of the best examples of the structure of a stupa is in the third century B.C. at Bairat,

Rajasthan.

The Great Stupa at Sanchi was built with bricks during the time of Ashoka and later it

was stone and many new additions were made.

Subsequently, many such stupas were constructed which shows the popularity of Buddhism.

From second century B.C. onwards, we get many inscriptional evidences mentioningdonors and, at times, their profession.

The pattern of patronage has been a very collective one and there are very few examples

of royal patronage.

Patrons range from lay devotees to gahapatis (householders, ordinary farmers, etc.) and

kings.

Donations by the guild are also mentioned at several places.

There are very few inscriptions mentioning the names of artisans such as Kanha at

Pitalkhora and his disciple Balaka at Kondane caves.

Artisans’ categories like stone carvers, goldsmith, carpenters, etc. are also mentioned in

the inscriptions.

Traders recorded their donation along with their place of origin.

In the subsequent century (mainly 2nd century B.C), stupas were elaborately built with

certain additions like the enclosing of the circumbulatory path with railings and sculpturaldecorations.

Stupa consisted of a cylindrical drum and a circular anda with a harmika and chhatra

on the top which remains consistent throughout with minor variations and changes inshape and size.

Gateways were also added in the later periods.

Depiction of Buddha in Chaityas

During the early period, Buddha is depicted symbolically through footprints, stupas, lotus

throne, chakra, etc.

Gradually narrative became a part.

Thus, the events from life of Buddha, the Jataka stories, etc. were depicted on the

railings and torans of the stupas.

The main events associated with the Buddha’s life which were frequently depicted

were events related to birth, renunciation, enlightment, dhammachakrapravartana (firstsermon), and mahaparinirvana (death).

Among Jataka stories that are frequently depicted are Chhadanta Jataka, Ruru Jataka,

Sibi Jataka, Vidur Jataka, Vessantara Jataka and Shama Jataka.The stupa, an architectural structure usually housing the cremated remains or possessions

of important saintly figures, is considered to be the structural emblem and the most importanttype of monument of Buddhism. Most stupas have a very distinctive semi-spherical shape,often surrounded by a fence. As Buddhism was introduced in different regions, the basicarchitectural features of stupas were transformed into a variety of shapes reflecting theartistic expressions of those cultures.


Originofthestupainthe Buddhist tradition

The Mahaparinirvana Sutra (an ancient Buddhist text describing the last days of the Buddha)claims that after the Buddha passed away, his followers divided his cremated remains intoeight portions. Each of the eight kingdoms in which the Buddha had lived received one portionof the relics, and a stupa was erected in each kingdom in order to house the remains. Buddhistsources claim that during the 3rd century BCE, the Mauryan Emperor Ashoka theGreat ordered these eight stupas to be opened, further distributed the relics of the Buddhainto 84,000 portions, and had stupas built over them all over the expanding Buddhist world.

The relics of the Buddha were not merely considered a commemorative symbol by theBuddhist community; they were believed to be the living presence of the Buddha, a depositoryof his protective powers and living energy. Early in the Buddhist tradition, clergy and laityalike practiced the veneration of stupas and the relics in them in order to gain spiritual merit.The importance of the stupas gradually increased as a result of both the emphasis of theBuddhist relic-cult and their multiplication during the time of Ashoka. Stupas became a symbolnot only of Buddhism itself but also an architectural testimony to its expansion and strength.

It should be noted that the veneration of stupas is not unique to Buddhism. This practicehad its origin in Indian traditions pre-dating the emergence of Buddhism. From pre-historicaltimes, burial mounds containing the remains of the dead were a common funerary practice insome Indian societies: in these mounds, the living paid homage to their dead, just like Buddhistswould do for their saints centuries later.

Stupas and early Buddhism

The earliest archaeological evidence for the presence of stupas in North India dates to thelate 4th century BCE. These are all pilgrimage stupas, which means that they were builtoutside the domains of monastic complexes, at pilgrimage sites. Although we have no materialevidence of earlier stupas, Buddhist scriptures claim that stupas were built at least a centuryearlier. It is possible that before this time, stupas were built with non-durable materials such aswood, or even as burial mounds, in which case archaeological detection would be nearlyimpossible.

The earliest evidence of monastic stupas dates back to the 2nd century BCE. These arestupas that were built within Buddhist monastic complexes. It is possible that these stupasreplaced older stupas made of wood: some of their architectural components were shapedimitating wooden parts. Unfortunately, none of these left any visible trace.

The ‘Great Stupa’ at Sanchi

Architectural development of the Stupa

During early Buddhist times, stupas werecomposed of a semi-spherical dome with aparasol placed on top. The dome covered asquare base with a small receptacle in the centrecontaining relics, while a space forcircumambulation was defined around the dome.This basic format underwent changes as stupaswere introduced in other cultures.

In Sri Lanka, the stupa is known as dagoba.Different shapes of domes developed in SriLanka, and a very unique architectural expression also developed, in which the dagoba itselfwas enclosed by a large dome known as vatadage, supported by columns located around thedagoba. Among the many vatadages built in Sri Lanka, there is one of particular importancenamed Thuparama, which supposedly houses the collarbone relic of the Buddha.


In Myanmar, the stupa, known as the zedi, also went through a number of changes. Theparasol on top of the dome was elongated and resembled a cone, and the number of disksincreased and their size decreased, the higher they are on the dome. The square base wasalso modified following a complex geometry, including different levels with terraces, andresembled the shape of a pyramid.

Pagoda is the name for stupas found in China, where they are shaped like a tower. Here,the dome was eliminated, and the emphasis is on verticality. This architectural form travelledinto Korea, where it is known as Tap, and also into Japan, where it known as To.

The Importance of Stupas in Buddhism

As the importance of the stupa grew, so it did its functions and meanings. In addition tobeing considered the living presence of the Buddha, his protective powers, and living energy,they were also a site of rituals and ceremonies. Their presence eventually attracted otherconstructions including monasteries.

The pilgrimage activity around the stupa had an important impact on the social history ofBuddhism. Merchants, artisans, and monks alike enjoyed the benefits of the income generatedby the activity resulting from the emblematic stupas. The religious function of the stupa wasstill central, but market activity and social interactions revolving around it were equally importantfor the communities where stupas were present.

Types of stupas

Built for a variety of reasons, Buddhist stupas are classified based on form and function intofive types

Relic stupa, in which the relics or remains of the Buddha, his disciples, and lay saints areinterred.

Object stupa, in which the items interred are objects belonged to the Buddha or hisdisciples, such as a begging bowl or robe, or important Buddhist scriptures.

Commemorative stupa, built to commemorate events in the lives of Buddha or hisdisciples.

Symbolic stupa, to symbolise aspects of Buddhist theology; for example, Borobudur isconsidered to be the symbol of “the Three Worlds (dhatu) and the spiritual stages (bhumi) ina Mahayana bodhisattva’s character.”

Votive stupa, constructed to commemorate visits or to gain spiritual benefits, usually atthe site of prominent stupas which are regularly visited.

Symbolism

View of the Wat Phra Kaew complex from the northeast, temple complex of the EmeraldBuddha with stupas.

“The shape of the stupa represents the Buddha, crowned and sitting in meditation postureon a lion throne. His crown is the top of the spire; his head is the square at the spire’s base; hisbody is the vase shape; his legs are the four steps of the lower terrace; and the base is histhrone.

Five purified elements

Although not described in any Tibetan text on stupa symbolism, the stupa may representthe five purified elements

The square base represents earth

The hemispherical dome/vase represents water

The conical spire represents fire

The upper lotus parasol and the crescent moon represent air

The sun and the dissolving point represent the element of space


Construction

To build a stupa, Dharma transmission and ceremoniesknown to a Buddhist teacher are necessary. The typeof stupa to be constructed in a certain area is decidedtogether with the teacher assisting in the construction.Sometimes the type is chosen directly connected withevents that have taken place in the area.

The sharing of the relics of the Buddha. Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara, 2-3rd century CE. ZenYouMitsu Temple Museum, Tokyo.

Treasury

All stupas contain a treasury filled with various objects. Small clay votive offerings called tsatsasin Tibetan fill most of the treasury. Creation of various types of tsatsas is a ceremony itself.Mantras written on paper are rolled into thin rolls and put into small clay stupas.One layer oftsatsas is placed in the treasury, and the empty space between them is filled with dry sand. Onthe thus created new surface, another layer of tsatsas is made, and so on until the entire spaceof the treasury is full.

The number of tsatsas required to completely fill the treasury depends on its size and thesize of the tsatsa. For example, the Kalachakra stupa in southern Spain containsapproximately 14,000 tsatsas.

Jewellery and other “precious” objects are also placed in the treasury. It is not necessarythat they be expensive, since it is the symbolic value that is important, not the market price.Itis believed that the more objects placed into the stupa, the stronger the energy of the stupa.

Tree of Life

An important element in every stupa is the “Tree of Life”. This is a wooden pole coveredwith gems and thousands of mantras; it is placed in the central channel of the stupa.It ispositioned during a ceremony or initiation, where the participants hold colorful ribbons connectedto the Tree of Life. Together, the participants make their most positive and powerful wishes,which are stored in the Tree of Life. In this way the stupa is charged and starts to function.

Benefits

Building a stupa is considered extremely beneficial, leaving very positive karmic imprints inthe mind. Future benefits from this action result in fortunate rebirths. Fortunate worldlybenefits will be the result, such as being born into a rich family, having a beautiful body, a nicevoice, being attractive, bringing joy to others, and having a long and happy life in which one’swishes are quickly fulfilled. On the absolute level, one will also be able quickly toreach enlightenment, the goal of Buddhism.

Destroying a stupa, on the other hand, is considered an extremely negative deed, similarto killing.Such an action is said to create massive negative karmic imprints, leading to seriousfuture problems. It is said this action leaves the mind in a state of paranoia after death hasoccurred, leading to totally unfortunate rebirths.

Bharhut Stupa

The stupa of Bharhut is between Allahabad and Jabalpur situated in the erstwhile Nagod stateof Madhya Pradesh. It was probably built around 150 B.C. The site was discovered by sirAlexander Cunningham in 1873. there are hardly any remains at the site now. Some of theremains of this stupa are kept in the Indian Museum in Calcutta. The railings of the stupa are carved. These posts, railing, capping stones and gateways, allfashioned in deep red sandstone, once surrounded a stupa. The remarkable precision of the


carvings and liveliness of the figures, narrative scenes and decorative themes testify to thevitality of India’s early artistic traditions. Many of the Bharhut posts are carved with yakshiswhich protrude in past relief; they stand in attitudes of devotion upon ganas or clutch branchesof the tree. Here too are royal devotees, riders on horses and elephants, and even oneexample of a figure in foreign dress. Other carved panels depict Buddhist narratives, among them the dream of Maya; celestialscelebrating Buddha’s enlightenment, the wprship of Buddha’s throne and the Bodhi tree;elephants paying homage to the Buddha throne; Naga king worshipping the throne andadoration of the wheel; and stupa in worship. Railing medallions display a variety of lotusdesign, sometimes incorporating in yaksha busts; other themes include Lakshmi bathed byelephants, scenes of everyday village life, deer, elephants and peacocks.

Of particular interest are the illustration of Jataka legend, complete with identifying labels:for instance, the Mahakapi Jataka, in which the Bodhisattva as a monkey carries his followersacross the river. These and other scenes are characterized by dense compositions, withfigures and animals in a detailed landscape.

Amravati Stupa in Amravati

The Amravati Stupa is a famous specimen of the Buddhist art and architecture of ancientIndia. It is located at Amravati in Andhra Pradesh, which is around 65 kms from the city ofVijayawada. Amravati Stupa is visited by hundreds of tourists and pilgrims which makes itone of the popular tourist attractions in Andhra Pradesh.

The Amravati Stupa in Andhra Pradesh is located on the banks of the River Krishna andis a wonderful relic of the grand architecture of the Buddhist school of architecture. Amravati,which was the capital of the ancient Satavahana dynasty, came under influence of theBuddhist faith through the Kushanas of Mathura. There is also a 2000-year-old Buddhistsettlement and a Lord Amaresvara Temple adjacent the Stupa.

The Amravati Stupa, Andhra Pradesh dates back to around 2000 years and is as tall asthe Sanchi Stupa. It is also known as the Mahastupa or Deepaladinne and was made by arepresentative of Emperor Ashoka. It is made of brick and consists of a circular vedikawhich depicts Lord Buddha in a human form over an elephant. The Stupa has high platformsrising up to 95 feet which protrude in four directions. The Stupa is important specimen OfMauryan architecture in South India.

There are various representations of Lord Buddha in the form of sculptures in the AmravatiStupa. There are beautiful carvings and sculptures which interpret the life of Buddha and hisincarnations from the Jataka tales. Most of the archaeological specimens of the Stupa arerelated to the Vajrayana teachings of Kalachakra.

Dharmarajika Stupa

The DharmarajikaStupa also referred to as the Great Stupa of Taxila, is a Buddhist stupanear Taxila, Pakistan. It dates from the 2nd century CE,and was built to house small bonefragments of the Buddha.The stupa, along with the large monastic complex that later developedaround it, forms part of the Ruins of Taxila - which were inscribed as a UNESCO WorldHeritage Site in 1980

History

It has been claimed that that Dharmarajika Stupa was built over the remains of an even olderstupa that had been built by the Mauryan emperor King Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE,thoughother archeologists alternatively suggest that this is unlikely. Indo-Greek coins found at thesite date from the 2nd century BCE, suggesting earliest possible establishment of a religiousmonument at the site.

Small stupas that predate the main stupa are found throughout the Dharmarajikasite, andsurrounded an earlier core stupa in an irregular layout. It is known that the earlier core stupa


contained a pathway for circumabulation that was made of plaster and decorated with shellbangles in geometric patterns. The earlier stupa likely had four gates in axial directions.

The current stupa was believed to have been established in the 2nd century CE duringthe Kushan era in order to house relics of the Buddha,which may have been sourced fromearlier monuments, and originally buried at the site around 78 CE.Buddhist texts mention thatfrankincense was used during religious services at Dharmarajika, while the complex waspaved with colourful glass tiles.

The site came under control of Persian Sassanid rule, and suffered a period ofstagnation.Large-scale developments took place during the late Kushan and Kidarite erawhich added numerous monasteries and stupas to the site.

Barbara Caves

The Barabar Hill Caves are the oldest surviving rock-cut caves in India, mostly dating fromthe Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE), some with Ashokan inscriptions, located in theMakhdumpur region of Jehanabad district, Bihar, India, 24 km (15 mi) north of Gaya.

These caves are situated in the twin hills of Barabar (four caves) and Nagarjuni (threecaves); caves of the 1.6 km (0.99 mi)-distant Nagarjuni Hill are sometimes singled out as theNagarjuni Caves. These rock-cut chambers date back to the 3rd century BCE, Mauryaperiod,of Ashoka (reigned 273–232 BCE) and his grandson, Dasharatha Maurya.The sculptured surround to the entrance to the Lomas Rishi Cave is the earliest survival ofthe ogee shaped “chaitra arch” or chandrashala that was to be an important feature of Indianrock-cut architecture and sculptural decoration for centuries. The form was clearly areproduction in stone of buildings in wood and other plant materials.

The caves were used by ascetics from the Ajivika sect, founded by MakkhaliGosala, acontemporary of Gautama Buddha, the founder of Buddhism, and of Mahavira, the last and24th Tirthankara of Jainism. Also present at the site are several rock-cut Buddhist and Hindusculptures and inscriptions from later periods.Most caves at Barabar consist of two chambers, carved entirely out of granite, with a highlypolished internal surface and exciting echo effect.

Caves at Barabar Hill

• Barabar caves plans and sections, 1847 sketch

• Barabar Hill contains four caves: Karan Chaupar,Lomas Rishi, Sudama and Visvakarma. Sudamaand Lomas Rishi are the earliest examples of rock-cut architecture in India, with architectural detailingmade in the Mauryan period. Similar examplesinclude the larger Buddhist Chaitya, found inMaharashtra, such as in Ajanta and Karla Caves.The Barabar caves greatly influenced the traditionof South Asian rock-cut architecture.

• Lomas Rishi cave has an arch-like shape facadethat imitates contemporary timber architecture. Onthe doorway, a row of elephants proceed towardsstupa emblems, along the curved architrave.

• Sudama cave was dedicated by Mauryan Emperor,Ashoka in 261 BCE. The arches of Sudama cavehave bow shape. The caves consist of a circularvaulted chamber with a rectangular mandapa.

• Karan Chaupar (Karna Chaupar) consists of single rectangular room with polishedsurfaces, contains inscription which could be dated to 245 BCE.


• Visva karma cave, reachable by Ashoka steps hewn in the cliff, consists of two rectangularrooms.

Nagarjuni Caves

The nearby caves of Nagarjuni hill were built few decades later than the Barabar caves.

The three caves are

· Gopi (Gopi-ka-Kubha), on the southside of the hill, excavated by the king Dasharathagrandson of Ashoka, according to inscription.

· Vadithi-ka-Kubha cave, on the northside of the hill, which are located in a crevice.· Vapiya-ka-Kubha cave, on the northside of the hill, which is also devoted to Ajivika

followers by Dasharatha.

Mandapeshwar Caves

Forgotten as a result of the passage of time and rapid development of the city, these cavesare isolated between Dahisar and Borivali.

Mandapeshwar when translated means the hall of paintings of the lord. Builtapproximately around 1500 to 1600 years ago, these are the only caves which are dedicatedto Lord Shiva, unlike other caves which were predominantly dedicated to Buddhism. Thecaves were originally located on the banks of the Dahisar river, but later the river changed itscourse.

In the 17th century these caves were burnt down by the Marathas; at present the survivingcaves are preserved by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI).

Difference Between Vihara and Chaitya

Viharas and Chaityas are two words that are associated with the temple architecture inSouth Asia. It is very important to know about the difference between the two words. Chaityasnormally refer to the halls enclosing the stupas. As a matter of fact there were a number ofchaityas constructed by the kings and emperors of India that can be cited as examples.

The Sudama and the Lomas Rishi in the Barabar hills and the SitaMarhi in the Nagarjunihills can be cited as the best examples of the Chaityas. It is important to know that thechaityas are similar to the wooden buildings of the times they were built. When the dayspassed by more and more syles of chaityas developed such as rock-cut chaityas.It is very interesting to note that many rock-cut chaityas were developed from the earlierstyle and can be seen in other states of India such as Andhra Pradesh, Kathiawar in Gujaratand in Ajanta and Ellora.

Viharas on the other hands are constructions that were constructed in ancient India inorder to provide resting places for the wandering Buddhist monks. This is the main differencebetween viharas and chaityas. The first viharas were made of wood and many later stylesdeveloped later. Some of them appeared like thatched huts. It is interesting to note that manyviharas later turned into educational institutions meant for higher learning in Buddhism.

It is interesting to note that viharas were really made use of by the Buddhist monks asresting places in the early times. On the other hand the great place of learning called theNalanda was once believed to be a very famous vihara that was constructed mainly for thepurpose of providing dwelling to the wandering Buddhist monks.

Temples

A temple is a structure reserved for religious or spiritual rituals and activities such asprayer and sacrifice. It is typically used for such buildings belonging to all faiths where amore specific term such as church, mosque or synagogue is not generally used in English.These include Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism among religions with many modern followers,as well as other ancient religions such as Ancient Egyptian religion.


The form and function of temples is thus very variable, though they are often considered bybelievers to be in some sense the “house” of one or more deities. Typically, offerings ofsome sort are made to the deity, and other rituals enacted, and a special group of clergymaintain, and operate the temple. The degree to which the whole population of believers canaccess the building varies significantly; often parts or even the whole main building can onlybe accessed by the clergy. Temples typically have a main building and a larger precinct,which may contain many other buildings.The word comes from Ancient Rome, where a temple constituted a sacred precinct asdefined by a priest, or augur.It has the same root as the word “template”, a plan in preparationof the building that was marked out on the ground by the augur. Temple also became associatedwith the dwelling places of a god or gods. Despite the specific set of meanings associatedwith the word, it has now become widely used to describe a house of worship for anynumber of religions and is even used for time periods prior to the Romans.

Temple architecture in Gupta period

Architecture – own exalted place inIndian architectural treasurePermanent materials – bricks and dressedstone in place of wood or bamboo- religiousbuildingsBrick temples –Bhitari, Deogarh andBhitargaon

Stone Temple – Sanchi

Ornate pillars & bell-shaped capitalssurmounted by animal motifsEntrance –mythological scenes and figures

Deogarh temple

Small tower over Garbagriha with a portal Verandahall round the buildingIron dowels- hold the buildings together


Standard plan of Temple

Garbagriha – small room with chief icon

Mandapa – hall for worshippers joined by Antarala(vestibule)

Ardhamandapa – porch approaching the mandapa

Shikhara – tower on Garbagriha and represents Mt.Meru

Shilpasatras – texts for architecture and sculpture with Manasara being most important

Mode

Arches – cave temples and Kashmir – ignored in plains Corbelling-arches and domes Mortar-rarely used Heavy cornices, strong pillars and width in proportion to height- feeling of solidity

Development of temple architecture

Gupta age – origin and climax Development occurred in 5 stages

First Stage

Flat roof temples Square temples Shallow pillared approach at the front Low platforms Ex: temple no.17 at Sanchi(MP)

Second Stage

Continued- flat roof, square pillaredapproach(not shallow) High or upraised platforms Covered ambulatory around the sanctum Two storeyed temples Ex: Parvati temple at Nachnakuthara in MP

Third Stage

Continued – square temple pillared approach high platform covered ambulatory Flat roof not seen


Low and squared “shikhas”(curvilineartower)

Introduction of Panchayatan style of templemaking

Concept of Subsidiary shrines Main temple is rectangular Crucified ground plan Ex: Dashavatar temple at Deogarh(UP) Durga temple at Aihole, Karnataka Nagara style is a successor of 3rd stage of

temple making

Fourth Stage

Rectangular temples Rest all features continued Ex: Ter temple at Sholapur

Fifth Stage

Circular temples with shallow rectangularprojections

Rest all features continued Ex: Maniyar math at Rajgir The Shilpashastras or architectural texts

written in the early medieval period refer tothree major styles of temple architecture inIndia.

Note

All the three styles emerged from the earlier style known as the Panchayatana style ofarchitecture.

Nagara style emerged in the North. Dravida style evolved in South India and the Vesarastyle emerged as a combination of both the styles in the Karnataka peninsular region.

All three styles are on raised platforms, have exquisite carvings and are expansive instrength and expanse.

Basically, their development can be divided into three stages. First, there were simplepillars and structures. In the second stage, more carvings were added and the top partbecame heavy, so the pillars were also made more ornate. In the third stage, moredecorations were added to the Shikhar (top part) and also to the pillars. The trajectory ofgrowth was very complex in art.

Nagara Style

This style developed in the North of the country, i.e., the land lying between the Himalayasand the Vindhyas.


This has its origins in the Gupta period. The main features of the Nagara style are given in the following points. The shikhar or the topmost part was representative of Mount. Meru which had a lot of

significance. GarbhaGriha or the inner sanctum. This part was a small portion which symbolized a

personalized communication with the deity. Antaral or the vestibule. Kalash which is relevant even today. This is a symbolic water pot and it signifies fertility/

productivity/birth. Maha Mandap, Mandap, Ardh Mandap – the assembly halls. This was not as large as in

the South. Examples are Lingaraja temple (Bhubaneswar), dating from the 11th century; Kandariya

Mahadeva temple at Khajuraho.

Odisha (Kalingia Architecture)

The main architectural features of Odisha temples are classifiedin three orders a. Rekhapida/ Rekha deula/ rathakadeulaRekha means line and it is a tall straight building with a shape of a sugarloaf. It covers the garbhagriha.

b. PidhadeulaIt is a square building witha pyramid shaped roof andis mainly foundfor housing the outerdancing andoffering halls.

c. KhakradeulaIt is a rectangular buildingwith a truncated pyramid

shaped roof. Temples of the female deities are usually in this form (garbhagriha usually)and will have a resemblance with Dravidian temples of the south. Most of the ancient temples are located in ancient Kalinga – modern Puri district, including

Bhuvaneswar or ancient Tribhuvaneswar, Puri, and Konark. The temples of Odisha constitute a distinct sub-style within nagara order. In general, here the Shikhara called Deul in Odisha is vertical almost until

the top when it suddenly curves sharply inwards. Mandapas in Odisha are called Jagamohanas. The ground plan of the main temple is almost always square, which, in the upper reaches

of its superstructure becomes circular in the crowning The exterior of the temple is lavishly curved while their interiors are generally quite bare.

Odisha temples usually have outer walls.

Sun temple, Konark, Odisha

It is built around 1240 on the shores of the Bay of Bengal. The temple is set on a high base, its walls covered in extensive, detailed ornamental

carving. These include 12 pairs of enormous wheels sculpted with spokes and hubs, representing

the chariot wheels of the sun God who, in mythology, rides a chariot driven by 8 horses,sculpted here at the entrance staircase.


The whole temple thus comes to resemble a colossal processional chariot.

On the southern wall is a massive sculpture of Surya carved out of green stones. It is said that there were 3 such images, carved out of a different stone placed on the

three temple walls, each facing different directions. The fourth wall had the doorway into the temple from where the actual rays of the sun

would enter the garbhagriha.

Jagannatha temple, Puri, Odisha

It is also located on the eastern coast, at Puri, Odisha. The temple is a part of Char Dham (Badrinath, Dwaraka, Puri, Rameswaram)

pilgrimages that a Hindu is expected to make in one’s lifetime. When most of the deities in the temples of India are made of stone or metal, the idol of

Jagannatha is made of wood which is ceremoniously replaced in every twelve or nineteenyears by using sacred trees.

The temple is believed to be constructed in the 12th century by KingAnatavarmanChodaganga Deva of the Eastern Ganga Dynasty.

The temple is famous for its annual Ratha Yatra or Chariot festival.

The Hills

A unique form of architecture developed in the hills of Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal andKashmir.

Kashmir’s proximity to Gandhara site (such as Taxila, Peshawar and northwest frontier)left the region a strong Gandhara influence by the 5th century CE.

This began to mix with the Gupta and post-Gupta traditions that brought to it from Sarnath,Mathura, and even centres in Gujarat and Bengal.

Both Buddhist and Hindu traditions began to intermingle and spread in the hills. The hills also had their own tradition of wooden building with pitched roofs and as a

result, while the main garbhagriha and shikhara are made in latina/rekha-prasada type,the mandapa is an older form of wooden architecture.

Sometimes, the temple itself takes on a pagoda shape. The Karkota period of Kashmir is the most significant in terms of architecture. The most important temples of these regions are Pandrethan, Laksna-devi Mandir,

Jageswar near Almora, Chambavat near Pithoragarh, etc.

Khajuraho/Bundelkhand/Chandella school temple architecture

10th to 11th century AD


Chandellas Kandariyamahadeva and viswanatha mandir of khajuraho Whole length of shikara curves inward with miniature shikaras Ardhamandapa, mandapa and garbagriha- one element Inside, outside carved Sculptures – erotic themes on walls of temples-kamasutra No boundary walls 3 elements– garbagriha, assembly hall & portico varanda surrounded by pillars Shikaras– subsidiary shrines(impression of mountain range) Platform relatively high

Dravida Style

This style was seen in South India. Its origins can also be traced to the Gupta period. Pillars and pilasters are used extensively in this style. The top part is a bit more curved. There is a pyramidal elevation of the tower with a progression of stories each one smaller

than the one below. The gateways were called Gopurams. This was a later addition to the style. The Dravidian temples had boundary walls, unlike their northern counterparts. Examples include the Brihadeeshwara temple at Thanjavur; Kailasanatha temple at

Kancheepuram.

Pallavas

The Pallavas were one of the ancient south Indian dynasties that were active in Andhraregion from the 2nd century onwards and moved south to settle in Tamil Nadu.

Their history is better documented in the inscriptions in stone and several monuments. Although they were mostly Shaivites, several Vaishnava shrines also survived from the

reign, and there is no doubt that they were influenced by the long Buddhist history of theDeccan.

The early buildings of Pallavas were rock-cut; while the later ones were structural(structural buildings were well known to them when rock cut ones being excavated).


The early buildings are generally attributed to Mahendravarman I, contemporaryof Chalukya king, Pulikeshi II of Karnataka.

Narasimhavarman I, who was also known as Mamalla, acceded the throne around640 CE.

He expanded the empire and also inaugurated most of the building work at Mahabalipuramwhich is known after him as Mamallapuram.

The shore temple at Mahabalipuram, Tamil Nadu It is a structural temple and was built during the reign of Narasimhavarman II, also

known as Rajasimha. The temple is facing east towards the sea and has three shrines – east and west to Shiva

and the middle for Vishnu (Anantashayana). This is unusual because temples generally have a single main shrine and not three areas

of worship. This shows that it was probably not originally conceived like this and differentshrine may be added at different times.

In the compound, there is an evidence of a water tank, an early example of a gopuram,and several other images.

Sculpture of the bull, Nandi, Shiva’s mount, lines the temple walls. The temple has suffered severe disfiguration due to erosion by salt water laden air over

the centuries. The Pallava temple architecture can be classified into four groups according to the rulers

and the features of temples they constructed.

Mahendravarman Group

Early temples of the Pallavas belong to King Mahendravarman I (7th century). They were rock-cut temples (may be influenced by rock-cut architecture). Manndagapattu, Mahendravadi, Tircuchirapally, etc.

Narasimha/Mamalla Group

It is the second stage of Pallava architecture which started when Narasimhavarman I(Mamalla) came to the throne.

The architecture is represented by Monolithic rocks. The monolithic rathas and mandapas of Mamallapuram are examples. The five rathas are popularly known as Panchapandava rathas.


Rajasimha Group

The group was under Narasimhavarman II who was also known as Rajasimha. He introduced the structural temples and Gopura style in Pallava architecture. The Kailasnath temple at Kanchi and the Shore temple at Mahabalipuram are examples.

Nandivaram Group

Architecture mainly under the Pallava king, Nandivaram Pallava. They also represented structural temples. The temples were generally small compared to the other groups. The Vaikundaperumal temple, Tirunelveli and Mukteswara temple are examples.

Cholas

The best example of Chola temple architecture is the Brihadeswara temple at Tanjore. The temple is also known as Rajarajeswara temple. It was completed around 1009 by RajarajaChola and is the largest and tallest of all

Indian temples.

The temples pyramidal multi-storeyed Vimana rises a massive seventy metres, toppedby a monolithic shikhara, and the kalasha on top by itself is about three metres and eightcentimetres in height.

The main deity of the temple is Shiva, who is shown as a huge lingam set in a twostoreyed sanctum.

Painted Murals and sculptures decorate the walls surrounding the sanctum.

The Vesara or the Deccan Temple Architecture

The buildings in the Deccan region are hybridized style, which contains both elementsfrom nagara and Dravida architectural styles and is known in some ancient texts asthe Vesara style (not all temples of Deccan are the vesara type).The vesara style became popular after the mid 7th century.

Chalukyas

Ravan Phadi cave, Aihole, Karnataka

The Ravan Phadi cave at Aihole is an example of the early Chalukya style which isknown for its distinct sculptural style.

One of the most important sculptures at the site is of Nataraja, surrounded by a largedepiction of saptamatrikas: three to Shiva’s left and four to his right.


Lad Khan Temple at Aihole, Karnataka

The temple is dedicated to Shiva and is one of the oldest Hindu temples. Built in the 5th century by the Kings of the Chalukya Dynasty. It seems to be inspired by the wooden – roofed temples of the hills except that it is

constructed out of stone. The temple is named after a person named Lad Khan, who turned this temple into his

residence for a short period.

Durga Temple at Aihole, Karnataka

The temple is built in between 7th and 8th century. The architecture of the temple is predominantly Dravida with Nagara style also in certain

areas. The temple is considered as a unique and magnificent temple of the Chalukya period. The Lad Khan Temple of Aihole is located to its South.

Temples at Pattadakkal, Karnataka

There are ten temples at Pattadakkal including a Jain temple and is a UNESCOworld Heritage Site.

A fusion of various architectural styles can be seen here. Out of ten temples, four are in Dravida style, four are in nagara style and one is a Jain

temple, while the Papanatha Temple is built in a fusion of both nagara and Dravidastyles.

The Jain temple (Jain Narayana temple) was built by Rashtrakutas in the 9th

The Virupaksha temple at Pattadakkal is also known as Sri-Lokeswar-Maha-Sila-Prasad,was built by Loka Mahadevi, the Queen of the Chalukya king Vikramaditya II (733-44).

It was probably built around 740 CE to commemorate her husband’s victory over thePallavas of Kanchipuram.

It closely resembles the Kailasnath temple at Kanchipuram on plan and elevation. It represents a fully developed and perfect stage of the Dravida architecture.

Rashtrakutas

By about 750 CE, the early western Chalukya control of the Deccan was taken by theRashtrakutas.

Their greatest achievement in architecture is the Kailasnath Temple at Ellora. The Jain temple at Pattadakkal was also built by Rashtrakutas.

Hoyasalas

With the waning Chola and Pandya power, the Hoyasalas of Karnataka grew intoprominence in south India and became the most important patrons centred at Mysore.

The three main temples of Hoyasala are the temples at Belur, Halebid andSomanathpuram.

The most characteristic feature of these temples is that they grow extremely complexwith so many projecting angles emerging from the previously straightforward squaretemple so that the plan of these temples starts looking like a star.

As the plan looks like a star, it is known as stellate plan. They are usually made out of soapstone.

Temples at Halebid, Karnataka

The temple is also known as Hoyasaleswara temple. Built in dark schist stone by the Hoyasala king Vishnuvardhan in 1150. Dedicated to Shiva as Nataraja and contains a large hall for the mandapa to facilitate

music and dance.


In the bottom frieze of the temple featuring a continuous procession of hundreds ofelephants with their mahouts, no two elephants are in the same position.

Vijayanagara

The Vijayanagara Empire, which was founded in the 14th century, attracted a number ofinternational travelers such as the Italian, Nicoclo di Conti, the Portuguese DomingoPaes, FernaoNuniz and DuarteBarbosa and the Afghan Abd, al- Razzaq, who have leftvivid accounts of the city.

Architecturally, Vijayanagara synthesizes the centuries old dravida temple architecturewith Islamic styles demonstrated by the neighbouring Sultanates.

Their sculptures too, which were consciously seeking to recreate Chola ideals, occasionallyshows the presence of foreigners.

Buddhist and Jain Architectural Developments

The period of 5th to 14th centuries was not only the period of the development of Hindutemples but also were the equally vibrant period for the Buddhist and Jain architectures.

Buddhist Architecture When the Gupta empire crumbled in the 6th century CE, the eastern region of Bihar and

Bengal, historically known as Magadha, appears to have remained unified whilst numeroussmall Rajput principalities sprang up to the west.

In the 8th century, the Palas came to power in the region. The 2nd Pala ruler, Dharmapala, became immensely powerful and established an empire

by defeating the powerful Rajput Pratiharas. Dharmapala consolidated an empire whose wealth lay in a consolidation of agriculture

along the fertile Ganges plain and international trade.

Bodhgaya, Bihar

Bodhgaya became a pilgrimage site since Siddhartha achieved enlightenment here andbecame Gautama Buddha.

The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodhgaya is an important reminder of the brickwork of thattime.

The first shrine here, located at the base of the Bodhi Tree, is said to have been constructedby King Ashoka.

The vedika (fence) around it is said to be Post-Mauryan, of about 100 BCE. Many sculptures in the temple are dated to the 8th century Pala period.


The actual Mahabodhi temple as it stands now is largely a colonial period reconstructionof the old 7th

The design of the temple is unusual and is neither Dravida nor nagara style.

Nalanda, Bihar

The monastic University of Nalanda is a Mahavihara as it is a complex of severalmonasteries of various sizes.

Only a small portion of this ancient learning centre has been excavated till date, as mostof it lies buried under contemporary civilization, making further excavations almostimpossible.

Most of the information about Nalanda is based on the records of Xuan Zang/HsuanTsang (Chinese traveller).

It states that the foundation of the monastery was laid by Kumaragupta I in the 5th centuryCE.

All three Buddhist doctrines – Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana – were taughthere.

Monks came to here from the different regions of the world such as China, Sri Lanka,Thailand, Burma, etc.

Monks and pilgrims who came here take back small sculptures and illustrated manuscriptsto their homeland, which resulted in a decisive impact on the arts of the Buddhist countriesin Asia.

The sculptural art of Nalanda was developed out of a heavy dependence on the BuddhistGupta art of Sarnath.

The Sculptures were mainly made in stucco, stone, and bronze.


By the 9th century, Nalanda school of sculpture was formed which was characterized bydistinctive facial features, body forms, and treatment of clothing and jewellery.

The Nalanda sculptures initially depict Buddhist deities of the Mahayana tradition, suchas standing Buddhas, bodhisattvas, etc.

During the 11th and 12th centuries, Nalanda emerged as an important tantric centre andthe sculptures during that period dominated by deities of Vajrayana tradition, such asVajrasharada (a form of Saraswati), Khasarpana, Avalokiteswara, etc.

Various Brahmanical images have also been found at Nalanda.

Jain Architecture

Jains were also prolific temple builders like Hindus and their sacred shrines and pilgrimagespots can be found across the country.

The oldest Jain pilgrimage sites are to be found in Bihar. In the Deccan, some of the most architecturally important Jain sites can be found at

Ellora and Aihole. Karnataka has a rich heritage of Jain shrines and the SravanaBelagola, the famous

statue of the Gomateswara, the granite statue of Lord Bahubali which standseighteen metre, is the world’s tallest monolithic free-standing structure.

Ganga Kings of Mysore. Gujarat and Rajasthan have been strongholds of Jainism since early times. The Jain temples at Mount Abu (Dilwara Temples) were constructed by Vimal

Shah. One can see a complex of temples carved of white marble The temples are famous for its unique patterns on very ceilings, and graceful bracket

figs along the domed ceiling.

Vesara Style

It is a hybrid of Nagara and the Dravida styles. It emerged during the early medieval period.


This style developed under the Chalukya Kings of the Karnataka region. In this style, the Shikhar part is like a pagoda. The height of the temple is slightly reduced in this style. Examples of the Vesara style include the Papanatha temple at Pattadakal; the Hoysala

temples at Belur, Halebidu and Somnathpura.

The Delhi Sultanate

The Delhi Sultanate refers to the five short-lived Muslim kingdoms of Turkic and Pashtun(Afghan) origin that ruled the territory of Delhi between 1206 and 1526 CE. In the 16thcentury, the last of their line was overthrown by the Mughals, who established the the MughalEmpire in India.

Architecture under the Delhi Sultanate

The early rulers of the Delhi Sultanate are often viewed as iconoclastic pillagers, best knownfor their indiscriminate destruction of Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain temples. They enacted Islamicprohibitions of anthropomorphic representations in art, which had been common at the time.However, the fusion of indigenous and Muslim customs and styles under the Delhi Sultanategave rise to the beginnings of Indo-Islamic art and architecture, which reached its zenith inlater years under the Mughal emperors. The Sultanate’s greatest contribution to the fine artsof India lies in their advances in architecture.

The QutbMinar

Qutb-ud-din Aibak, the governor of Delhi and,subsequently, the first sultan of the Delhi Sultanate(ruling from 1206–1210 CE), started the construction ofthe QutbMinar in 1192, which was completed after his deathby his successor Iltutmish. Made of fluted red sandstoneand marble, the QutbMinar is the tallest minaret in India,standing at a height of 238 feet. It comprises severalsuperposed flanged and cylindrical shafts , separated bybalconies supported by Muqarnas corbels (an architecturalornamentation reminiscent of stalactites employed intraditional Islamic and Persian architecture). The walls ofthe minaret are covered with Indian floral motifs and versesfrom the Quran.


The QutbMinar and the Alai Darwaza: One of the earliest and best known of theDelhi Sultanate architectural monuments, and also the tallest minaret in India. Its accompanyinggateway, the Alai Darwaza, bears the first surviving true dome in India.

The QutbMinar is located in Mehrauli Archeological Park, which also contains other fineexamples of Delhi Sultanate architecture, including the tomb of the sultan Balban (who reignedfrom 1266–1287 CE), the first known building in India to feature a true arch. Another buildingof historical importance in the development of Indo-Islamic architecture is the Alai Darwaza,the main gateway on the southern side of the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in the Qutb complex.Built in 1311 CE by the second Khilji sultan of Delhi, Ala-ud-din Khilji, it features the earliestsurviving true dome in India.

The Tomb of Mohammad Shah

There is little architecture remaining from the Sayyid and Lodi periods, but a few fine examplessurvive in the Lodi Gardens in Delhi, including the tomb of Mohammad Shah, the last sultanof the Sayyid Dynasty, built in 1444. It is characterized by an octagonal main chamber withIslamic pointed arches, stone chhajjas (projecting eaves supported by carved bracketsborrowed by Muslim empires from Hindu architecture), and guldastas (ornamental flower-shaped pinnacles) on the roof, both of which would eventually become common features ofMughal architecture.

Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque

Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque (Might of Islam) (also known as the Qutub Mosque or the GreatMosque of Delhi) was built by Qutb-ud-din Aibak, founder of the Mamluk or Slave dynasty.It was the first mosque built in Delhi after the Islamic conquest of India and the oldestsurviving example of Ghurids architecture in Indian subcontinent the construction of this JamiMasjid (Friday Mosque), started in the year 1193 AD, when Aibak was the commander ofMuhammad Ghori’s garrison that occupied Delhi.

Adhai Din Ka Jhopra

It is a mosque that has an interesting talebehind it. It’s believed that the structurewas built in just two and a half days. Thebuilding was originally a Sanskrit collegewhich was converted into a mosque byMohammad Ghori in 1198 A.D. Themosque is surrounded by a wall having 7arches on which verses from the Quranhave been inscribed. Designed by AbuBakr of Herat, the mosque is an exampleof early IndoIslamic architecture. Laterin 1230 AD, a jali (screen) was addedunder a raised arch by Sultan Altamush. A gateway in the north serves as the entrance to themosque. The front facade is decorated by a number of arches built from yellow sandstone.

Sultan Ghari

Sultan e Garhi was the first Islamic Mausoleum (tomb) built in 1231 AD for Prince Nasiru’d-Din Mahmud, eldest son of Iltumish, in the “funerary landscape of Delhi” in the NangalDewat Forest, Near Nangal Dewat Vasant Kunj).

Iltumish was the third Sultan of the Slave Dynasty who ruled in Delhi from 1210 to 1236AD. The area where the Ghari (meaning: cave) tomb is situated, was part of medieval Delhiknown as the Slave Dynasty that ruled during the period 1206 CE to 1290 CE, pre-existed as


a Hindu temple from Gurjara-Pratihara era (700 to 1100 CE). This area is now part of theQutb complex.

The Slave Dynasty was the forerunner under the early Delhi Sultanate that ruled from1216 CE to 1516 CE. This dynastic city was followed by creation of other five cities of Delhiruled by different dynastic rulers of the Delhi Sultanate, namely, the Khalji dynasty (1290–1320), the Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1413 CE), the Sayyid dynasty (1414–51 CE), and the Lodidynasty (1451–1526 CE). The rule of the Mughal Empire then followed and lasted from 1526CE to 1857 CE.

Alai Darwaza

The Alai Darwaza is a perfect specimen of architecture belonging to the period of the DelhiSultanate. It was built in 1311, by Ala-ud-din-Khilji, of the Khilji dynasty (which ruled theDelhi Sultanate from AD 1290 to AD 1316). The Alai Darwaza was a part of Ala-ud-din-Khilji’s extension of the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque. It was one of the four grand gateways;the other three could not be completed because of the death of Ala-ud-din in AD 1316.

The main structure of the Alai Darwaza consists of a single hall 34½ feet on the insideand 56½ feet on the outside. The domed ceiling rises to a height of 47 feet. The threedoorways on the east, west, and south are lofty pointed arches, in the shape of a horseshoe,which rise above the flanking side bays. The entrance to the north is of an indigenous character,as its arch is semi-circular in shape. The overall outlook and proportions of the Alai Darwazais pleasing to the eye. The recessed corner arches of the attractive horseshoe forms, supportinga simple spherical dome on top of the square chamber, are an especially happy solution to theperpetual problem of supporting a good dome. It would be well worth noting that the earlierattempts at raising the dome, particularly the tomb of Iltutmish, had been unsuccessful. Thedome of the Alai Darwaza, in this respect, is a notable achievement.

Architecture During Tughlaq Dynasty

Architecture during Tughlaq dynasty flourished in India when Ghazi Tughlaq came topower in 1321 in Delhi defeating the Khalji rulers. The period of Tughlaq dynasty inhistory has been marked as the time of elation and rediscovery for Islamic architectures.Master builders were hired for a new Sultan to construct a new empire full of creativity inIndo-Islamic style. The Indo-Islamic style dominated the pattern of architecture during Tughlaqdynasty. The Indo-Islamic style of architecture was the amalgamation of Islamic architectureas well as Hindu style of architecture. This amalgamation happened during the invasionperiod of the Muslim rulers; they used to build their mosques with the ruined materials of theHindu or Jain temples and few temples itself were modified into mosques. The fusion createdthe new Indo-Islamic style of architecture in India that gradually developed into a greatarchitectural significance during the Tughlaq dynasty.

The Tughlaqs belonged to the Turkish origin of Muslim family and were in power at Delhifor nearly a hundred years. Architecture during Tughlaq dynasty was flourished in the handsof three rulers. They were the founder of the dynasty, Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq who ruled from1320 to 1325, his son, Mohammed Shah Tughlaq, ruled from 1325 to 1351, and the mostcreative of all in his building projects, Firoz Shah Tughlaq who ruled Delhi from 1351 to 1388.Feroz Shah Tughlaq was a great patron of Islamic architecture. He built the fifth city of Delhi,named as FerozshahKotla. Apart from FerozshahKotla, several building arts like Tughlaqabadthe third city of Delhi, the Tomb of Ghiyas-ud-Din and Khirki Masjid represents the majordevelopment of architectures during the Tughlaq dynasty.

Each ruler added architectural creativity to his own capital city whilst makingarchitecture during the Tughlaq dynasty to stand apart. The influence of the three abovementioned rulers in the Islamic architecture is therefore noteworthy. Ghiyas-ud-Din Tughlaq’sTughlaqabad depicts the saga of the glorious days of architectural developments of the Tughlaqdynasty. The great palace was made of golden bricks. The architecture of the Tughlaqabad


city was based on Roman fashion and was divided into two parts, one part consisted of thefortress corresponding to the castle of the Occident and the other part was the city, whichextended out for the residential and military requirements of the times. The walls were madeup of sun-dried bricks. The huge outer walls had sloping, extended to the large area of thesouthern Delhi ridge. Semi-circular bastions with eyelets were present at regular intervals tolook down at the enemies.

Among the major architectures during the Tughlaq dynasty, the tomb of Ghiyas-ud-Din is almost perfectly preserved. Originally the tomb was constructed in an artificiallake, which was connected with the citadel by an eminent path. However, at present thearched causeway has been replaced. The Ghiyas-ud-Din’s tomb is in the form of a self-contained fortress in miniature with the sloping walls of circular bastions with eyelets forarchery; on the other hand it may also have been intended as a fortified central tower. Mughal Architecture

Indo-Muslim architecture got striking improvement with the arrival of Mughals, as hadbeen declined significantly during the Lodi’s period. Unlike Delhi Sultanate Sultans, Mughalsmixed and mingled with the local population & Rajput provinces. Akbar followed the policy ofconciliation to live in peace with his Hindu subjects. He founded Din-i-illahi religion collectinggood points of all prevailing religions

Jahangir was half Hindu by blood, his mother, Jodhabai, being a Rajput princess. Shahjahantoo continued this policy of tolerance and respect for the Hindus. The Mughal empire, as wellas Mughal architecture, flourished and rose to great heights under their benign rule, but all thisended abruptly under the last of the great Mughals, Aurangzeb, a puritanical Muslim, whotried to reverse the entire conciliatory policy of his ancestors.

He looked upon art, music, dance, painting and even architecture as an evil born ofworldly desire

There was an abrupt decline and eventual downfall in aesthetic appreciation andarchitectural enterprise.

Babar

Babar, the founder of the Mughal Empire, was a man of culture and exceptional aesthetictaste.

For 4 years he ruled in India most of his time was spent in war. However, he was fond of formal gardens and a couple of gardens are ascribed to him. Ascribed to him are mosque of Kabuli Bagh at Panipat and Jami Masjid at

SambhalnearDelhi

Humayun& Sur interregnum After Babar’s death, his son, Humayun, succeeded him but he was driven out of India by

Sher Shah Suri and after taking asylum in Iran, he eventually returned and overthrewSher Shah Suri, and regained his throne.

Sher Shah’s own tomb (mausoleum), at Sasaram, in Bihar

Was made by modifying Lodi octagonalpattern with a verandah around it

Each side pierced by arches and the hallssurmounted by a large and wide dome.

Surs made use of red and dark greystone latticed screens, decorativeturrets, painted ceilings and colored tiles

Mausoleum of Sher Shah

The Purana Qila and the QuilaKohnaMasjid inside, are also ascribed to SherShah Suri.


Completed 6th historical city of Delhi called the Shergarh or Dilli Sher Shai around thePurana Qila area in 1540s

Humayun Tomb

The first distinct example of proper Mughal architecture is the tomb of Humayun, inDelhi, built by his widow, Begha Begum.

Provided the prototype for Mausoleum of Jahangir at Shahdara, Lahore Known as precursor of Taj Mahal, AgraHumayun’s tomb Although Sikander Lodi’s tomb as the first garden tomb built in India, it is Humayun’s

tomb which strikes a new note. The tomb proper stands in the centre of a square garden, raised on a vast platform Garden is divided into 4 main parts by causeways (Charbagh), in the centre of which ran

shallow water-channels. The square, red, sandstone, double storeyed structure of the mausoleum rises over a high

square terrace, raised over a series of cells. The octagonal form of the central chamber containing the cenotaph is inspired by Syrian

and earlier Islamic models. First time that red sandstone was used along with white ’! the white is used cleverly to

emphasise, surround & underline doors and windows, strengthening the design. The mausoleum is a synthesis of Persian architecture and Indian traditions, in the arched

alcoves, corridors and a high double dome as well as the kiosks (chhatris) which give ita pyramidal shape from a distance.

Humayun’s tomb

Akbar

Akbar’s made Agra his seat of power. His architecture reflects a blend of the Hindu andIslamic creation

Agra Fort

Made of red sand-stone On the banks of the river Yamuna Begun in 1565 and completed in 1574 The city of Fatehpur Sikri was founded as a token of gratitude to Sheikh Salim Chisti

who had foretold that Akbar would have three sons who would survive after the saddemise of many children in infancy.

Fatehpur Sikri was begun in 1569 and completed in 1574, the same year in which the fortat Agra was completed.


Fatehpur Sikri was a town planned as an administrative unit consisting of public buildingsas well as private residence in close proximity.

The city is a modest township, consisting of halls, palaces, offices, gardens, pleasure-resorts, baths, mosques, & tombs

Almost all the structures are based on trabeate construction Prominent Structures ’! BulandDarwaza, PanchMahal , Dargah of Saleem Chisti, Diwan-

i-Khas, Diwan-i-Am, Jodha Bai Palace, Jama Masjid, IbadatKhana

Panch Mahal

The highest and the most impressive structure, called the palace of five stories withopen terraces on each story

Based on the Hindu system of trabeate structure, consisting of pillared verandas,architrave, and brackets

Build on the pattern of a Buddhist Vihara is the topmost domed pavilion, purposefullythrown out of the centre that crowns the entire building.

The tower was perhaps used for recreation by the emperor and members of the royalhousehold.

Diwan-i-Khas

A complex structure, also known asHall of Private Audience

It is a square chamber with threeopenings on each side and a richlycarved column in the center supportinga magnificent flower shaped capital.

Thorough ventilation is provided byplacing on all sides perforated windowsopposite each other on every wall.

The charming balcony supported by acircular top capital, runs round the hallswhole length of the four sides on thefirst floor level, supported by brackets.

It is believed that the central place wasoccupied by the Emperor’s thronewhile his Ministers sat at the corners or on the peripheral passage.


Jahangir

Ascribed with Shalimar Bagh on the banks of Dal Lake inKashmir Built Akbar’s Tomb at Sikandra near Agra, which was completed in 1613. Jahangir’s Tomb at Shadera near Lahore, built by hiswife Nur Mahal

Shahjaha

Erected the most romantic building, Taj Mahal, the tomb of his beloved wife, MumtazMahal

Tajmahal is a square tomb built on a raised terrace, with graceful tall minarets at its fourcomers.

As in Humayun’s tomb, the tomb chamber is octagonal, with subsidiary chambers at the angles The tomb is surmounted by a graceful double dome & made of white marble (Substitution

of red sandstone) There is profuse carving and beautiful inlay work with precious multicolour stones (Pietra

dura style) in its floral and arabesque pattern, Inscriptions in black marble, delicate traceries and trellis work are executed superbly

against the background of white marble.

Taj Mahal Shahjaha also constructed a number of elegant, lavishly decorated buildings viz. Khas

Mahal, Diwan-i-Khas, Moti Masjid, & Jama Masjid in Delhi Built Jami Masjid at Agra in 1648 in honour of his daughter Jahanara Begum & Wazir

Khan’s mosque in Lahore, 1634

Red Fort (Lal Quila)

In 1638 Shahjahan shifted his capitalfrom Agra to Delhi and laid thefoundation of Shahjanabad, theSeventh City of Delhi, containing hisfamous citadel, the Red-Fort, whichwas begun in 1639 and completedafter 9 years.

Red Fort is an irregular octagon withits walls, gates, and a few otherstructures constructed in red sandstone, and marble used for the palaces.


It consists of a Diwan-i-Am, containing the marble canopy ornamented with beautifulpanels of pietra dura work showing a few paintings.

Diwan-i-Khas (In Red Fort)

It is a high ornamented pillaredhall, with a flat ceilingsupported on engraved arches.

Its pillars contain pietra duraornamentation and the upperportion was originally gildedand painted.

It is also said that its marbledais once supported the famousPeacock Throne.

Consists of the exquisite marblescreen containing arepresentation of the scales ofjustice

Walls of this marble palace is ascribed with the famous couplet claiming that “If there bea paradise on earth it is this, it is this, it is this”.

Aurangzeb

The love of constructing magnificent buildings came to an end rather abruptly with thelast of the great Mughals, Emperor Aurangzeb.

Built Bibi-ki-Maqbara (tomb of his wife Begum RabiaDurani) ’! a poor replica of the TajMahal

Mughal architecture in Bengal

It was a domain, which had entirely rested in the primary necessity to consolidate this easternIndian region, considered to hold huge significance since the times of Akbar. Emperor Akbaris legendary to have served a role suitable as a Mughal with much well-judgement andrighteous judicial opinion. It was precisely during his period that the special and meritoriousdomain of ‘Mughal Architecture’ had begun to flourish to its fullest. Previously, during thetimes of Babur or Humayun, the Persian and Timurid traditions derived from the legendaryand notorious Mughal forefather Timur, was very much evident in all the architecturalendeavours that were finished in the Mughal capitals Delhi and Agra and its northern Indianfringes. With north India being anchored as the solid base for the spreading Mughal Empire,parts like western or eastern India were areas, which were taken into consideration in muchlater times. Thus, it was incumbent on a man like Emperor Akbar the Great, who wouldrealise to extend the supremacy and hold of the Mughal Dynasty to places like Bengal,where, such basis could be established through only splendid and exquisite instances ofmonumental and over-the-top Mughal architecture. As such, with the intelligent assistancefrom ministers and nobility from the Mughal court, architecture in Bengal by the Mughalswas established in a smooth and skilled manner, as was witnessed in periods of Akbar,Jahangir and Shah Jahan. Mughal architecture in Bengal, as an instance of Indo-Islamicarchitecture, with special stress upon the indigenous architectural pattern of Bengal, wasentirely embraced by the nobles residing there and acting on behalf on the central administrationin Delhi/Agra.

As a commencing factor, Mughal architecture in Bengal was primarily based in the tradecardinal centres like Burdwan, Malda or Dhaka (then coming under the purview of Bengaland its administration), with these places facilitating in all kinds of routes facilitating as businesstransactions. Bengal, during the times of Akbar was yet to come into an Islamic Mughal


prominence, with the Hindu or indigenous other architectural kinds dominating the far easternIndian scenario. As a consequence, it was firstly necessary for the Mughal royal householdto consolidate and strengthen the regions, prior to grounding immemorial creations. Bengal’sscenario and its association with Mughal architecture during Akbar’s rule from 1556 to 1605,was primarily dominated by the Afghan rebel forces, who were primarily intimidated to riseup against the ruling clan of India, thus giving birth to a class of thoroughly new kind ofarchitecture. Architecture in Bengal during Akbar, all throughout was thus a witnessing of aperfect amalgamation of Mughal architecture and the idiom of Afgani troops in assaying tocreate a masterwork in the form of tombs and mosques. However, in the form of Raja ManSingh, a wise Hindu noble from Mughal times, Hindu-Mughal architecture in Bengal wasgoverned mostly in the arena of Rajmahal, the Bengal capital. The facia and expression ofmosques and tombs in full forms of stone was one divergence which is noticed in architecturein Bengal under Akbar.

With the advent and crowning of Jahangir to the Mughal throne, Mughal architecture inBengal was somewhat changed in the above mentioned facia and expressionistic medium.Mughal architecture in Bengal during Jahangir however also had to forcefully contend andcompete with the Afghan petty rebel forces, though with a lesser intensity as compared tothe times of his father, Akbar. Yet, the overriding factor in association with Bengal’s ‘Mughal-ish’ architecture under Jahangir had not turned out to be that much fruirful under HisHighness’s stellar presence. Rajmahal here too had gained prominence, however with anincreased graph of patronaged works by nobility taking up the place in stead of the emperorhimself. The only authenticated extant of Mughal architectural remains in Bengal underJahangir, is the Jami mosque at Atiya in Tangail District (in present-day Bangladesh), whichcan somewhat speak about the emperor’s prowess in Bengal’s Mughal architectural potentialand its usage of locally-available raw materials.

It was precisely during Jahangir’s time that Shah Jahan as a prince had already begun tomuster the art of Mughal excellency and brilliance in architecture, displaying signs of zealousand ardent interest to pursue as the heir apparent to the Delhi throne. However, Shah Jahanis not much of prominence and distinction in relation to Mughal architecture in Bengal, withhis time mostly being centred upon the much loftier monuments in Delhi and Agra. However,under the locally hired or already-established patronised noblemen in Bengal, architecture of


Bengal during Shah Jahan did become successful enough to leave a mark in areas movedaway from the central business capital, Calcutta. As a result, the task of refreshing andrefurbishing Bengal and its Mughal architecture was thus gladly taken up by the next heir toMughal Empire, Emperor Aurangzeb. Architecture of Bengal during Aurangzeb hadsignificantly moved from the erstwhile capital of Rajmahal, moving forward towards Dhaka,which once more had gained prominence in the late Mughal period. The ministers fromDhaka as a result had well ahead begun to plan for the mosques which had seized prominence,with the most striking being the Lalbagh Fort. Indeed, besides the establishments of Jamimosque - an insignia of Mughal architecture in practically every part of India that they hadcovered also had made its presence in Bengal.

Mughal architecture in Bengal during Aurangzeb however had dared to look fartherfrom Jami mosques, standing in the unusual building structure and framework of the LalbaghFort and its usage of locally made raw materials.


Indian Painting

Indian painting has a very long tradition and history in Indian art. Painting as an art form hasflourished in India from very early times as is evident from the remains that have beendiscovered in the caves, and the literary sources.The history of art and painting in India begins withthe prehistoric rock painting at Bhimbetka caves(5500 BC, M.P.) where we have drawings andpaintings of animals.

The cave paintings of Narsinghgarh(Maharashtra) show skins of spotted deer leftdrying. Thousands of years ago, paintings anddrawings had already appeared on the seals ofHarappan civilization. India’s Buddhist literature isreplete with examples of texts which describepalaces of the army and the aristocratic class embellished with paintings, but the paintings ofthe Ajanta Caves are the most significant of the few survivals.

Mughal painting represented a fusion of the Persianminiature with older Indian traditions, and from the 17thcentury its style was diffused across Indian princelycourts of all religions, each developing a local style.Company paintings were made for British clientsunder the British raj, which from the 19th century alsointroduced art schools along Western lines, leading tomodern Indian painting, which is increasingly returningto its Indian routes.

Origins of Art in India

The art of India begins way back in the Paleolithicculture of the Stone Age, with the famous Bhimbetkapetroglyphs at the Auditorium Cave, Bhimbetka,Madhya Pradesh, as well as other petroglyphs atDarakiChattan, a narrow, deep rock shelter in theIndragarh Hill, near Tehsil Bhanpura, Madhya Pradesh.These primitive cupules and instances of rock art havebeen dated to as far back as 290,000700,000 BCE.(For other prehistoric artworks in the Far East, see also: Chinese Neolithic art.) Later,

Buddhists were associated with many instances of cave art, which was imitated in the seventhcentury by Hindus at Badami, Aihole, Ellora, Salsette, Elephanta, Aurangabad andMamallapuram. In addition, Buddhist literature is full of descriptions about late Iron Age royal


palaces in India being decorated with a variety of religious art including frescoes and panelpaintings but no such works have survived. The best early frescoes to have emerged arethose from the Brihadisvara Temple at Chola, and the murals on temple walls inPundarikapuram, Ettumanoor, Aymanam and Trivandrum.

Genres of Indian painting

Indian paintings can be broadly classified as murals and miniatures. Murals are large worksexecuted on the walls of solid structures, as in the Ajanta Caves and the Kailashnathtemple. Miniature paintings are executed on a very small scale for books or albums onperishable material such as paper and cloth. The Palas of Bengal were the pioneers ofminiature painting in India. The art of miniature painting reached its glory during the Mughalperiod. The tradition of miniature paintings was carried forward by the painters of differentRajasthani schools of painting like the Bundi, Kishangarh, Jaipur, Marwar and Mewar. TheRagamala paintings also belong to this school, as does the Company painting produced forBritish clients under the British Raj.

Ancient Indian art has seen the rise of the Bengal School of art in 1930s followed bymany forms of experimentations in European and Indian styles. In the aftermath of India’sindependence, many new genres of art developed by important artists like Jamini Roy, M. F.Husain, Francis Newton Souza, and Vasudeo S. Gaitonde. With the progress of the economythe forms and styles of art also underwent many changes. In the 1990s, Indian economy wasliberalised and integrated to the world economy leading to the free flow of cultural informationwithin and without. Artists include Subodh Gupta, Atul Dodiya, Devajyoti Ray, BoseKrishnamachari and JitishKahllat whose works went for auction in international markets.Bharti Dayal has chosen to handle the traditional Mithila painting in most contemporary wayand created her own style through the exercises of her own imagination, they appear freshand unusual.


Jogimara Cave Paintings

These beautiful caves are one of the most precious ancient treasures of India. These beautifulcaves are situated at Amarnatha near the region of Narmada in Sarguja, Chattisgarh.

Apart from inscriptions, there are paintings on the Circa 1st century BC walls and ceilingof the cave. Some of them have been faded with times and some are well preserved. Somepaints of the cave are attractive and some seem incomplete. Painting was done in two layers– some were done by expert painters and some by novice painters.

At the beginning of the cave, travellers can explore 7 rich quality paintings of fish, elephantand human. The painting seems to be depicted on a dance group at that time. Each paintinghas a red outline. Black, yellow, white and red colours were used to make beautiful paintings.

Ajanta cave painting

The artists applied mud plaster in two coats the first was rough to fill in the pores of therocks & then a final coat of lime plaster over it.The painting was done in stages. They drewthe outline in red ochre, then applied the colours& renewed the contours in brown, deep red orblack. The attenuated poses, supple limbs, artisticfeatures, a great variety of hair styles, all kindsof ornaments & jewellery indicate skilledartisans. In a mural in Cave 10, some 50elephants are painted in different poses bringingout the skill of the artist in handling these bulkyforms in all perspective views, with erected tails& raised trunks, depicting sensed danger. Thestyle of the later murals reveals a merging oftwo streams of art, Satavahana of Andhra &Gupta art of North India. There are 30 caves chiseled out of the rock in a semicircular fashion, executed

between 2nd century B.C. and 7th century A.D. 9, 10 painting are of Surga period, other are of Gupta inspiration, subject relate to

decoration figure portraiture and topical narration. Scene of life of Buddha. Compositions of these paintings are large but the majority of the figures are smaller

than life size. Principal characters are in heroic proportions


No frame divides a scene from the next but blends into the other, there is no perspectivebut an illusion of depth is given by placing the background figures Somewhat abovethose in foreground

Decorative design include pattern & scrolls and figures of animals, flowers & trees. Mythical king freely used to fill the space. Painting of ‘Dying Princess”

ELLORA

Mural paintings in Ellora are found in 5 caves, but only inthe Kailasa temple, they are somewhat preserved. Thepaintings were done in two series the first, at the time ofcarving the caves & the subsequent series was doneseveral centuries later. The earlier paintings show Vishnu& Lakshmi borne through the clouds by Garuda, withclouds in the background.

The sinewy figures have sharp features & pointed noses.The protruding eye typical of the later Gujarathi styleappears for the first time in Ellora. In the subsequentseries, the main composition is that of a procession ofSaiva holy men. The flying Apsaras are graceful . Veryfew murals in the Jain temples are well preserved.

Bagh Cave Painting

Caves are group of nine rockcut monuments, situated on the slopes of the Vindhyasin Madhya Pradesh (Dhar district).

They are Buddhist in inspiration, all the caves are viharas Same stylistic form as Ajanta, but Bagh figures are more tightly modelled, and are

stronger in outline. They are more earthly and human than those at Ajanta. Unfortunately, their condition

is now such that they can only be appreciated at the site.

BADAMI CAVE

Earliest Brahmanical paintings so far known, belonging to 6th century A.D. The technique follows that of Ajanta and Bagh, the modelling is much more sensitive

in texture and expression and the outline soft and elastic. Badami Painting (6th Century) In the 6th century a power grew up in the Deccan which was to rule Southern India for

the next two hundred years. These were the first western Chalukyas. They made theircapital at Badami, where, as at Pattadakal, Aihole and Mahakuteshvara, they constructedmany fine temples. The Badami site is very beautiful: cliffs and imposing monoliths of


pink stone tower above a blue lake. In a Badami cavesanctuary dedicated to Vishnu(second in the Brahman trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva), built in 578, we find ourfirst example of Brahman painting.

Of the frescoes which once covered the walls of this grotto, only a fragment remains; itoccupies the concave surface of a heavy cornice which shelters the entrance to theverandah. It is hard to tell what the actual subject of the composition was, but thosefigures, which are still distinguishable, are exquisitely graceful. The rounded heads insoft relief are sketched in fine, delicate lines. This delicacy probably stems from theSouthern Indian technique of applying the colours a fresco secco. The tenderness andsuave and almost friendly charm which emanate from this painting are characteristic ofall works of the Chalukya period: elegant, restrained, humane. Their sweet faces, halferased by time, are identical to the beautifully sculptured pairs which decorate the interiorof the Malikarjuna temple at Pattadakal.

Panamalai and Sittanavasal Painting (8th Century - 9th Century)

The reign of the first western Chalukyas was noted for the long struggle they had againstthe Pallavas, who from the 6th century were the suzerains of India, south of theToungabhadra. Until the 9th century, the Pallavas dotted their territory with many templesand bequeathed to art the marvellous complexes of Mahavalipuram and Kantchipuram.Only tiny fragments of their painting remain at Kantchipuram, and sixtytwo somewhatlarger pieces at Panamalai and Sittanavasal.

At Panamalai on one of the walls in the temple, Talagirishvara, there is a ravishingfemale figure; the delicate, sharp outline, the fluidity of colours give us an idea of thetechnical perfection reached by these southern people. The position of the young woman,one knee bent and the body graciously leaning backwards, is identical to that of theprincess at Ajanta, next to the scene of the birth of Buddha in Cave No. 2. It is a posturewhich we also find in the Kajurao sculptures of the 12th century and is, in all probability,one of the characteristic poses of the heroines of Sanskrit literature.

The second group of paintings, and the most important of those of the Pallava period,are to be found in a Jainist temple, cut out of the side of a hill near the village ofSittanavasal. The frescoes, which may date from the first half of the 9th century, arein fairly good condition. On the verandah pillars there are paintings of two dancers infine and delicate silhouette and a group of three other persons. The drawing, as atPanamali, is firm, precise and elegant; it is done in brownish red, and stands outbeside the pale yellow of the lightly modelled bodies. The ceiling of this verandah isdecorated with a very remarkable composition representing three youths about topick lotus flowers in a pond where elephants, buffaloes and birds are coming todrink. This interweaving of animals and plants, in greens and browns, is admirablycadenced and the stylisation of the whole painting takes away nothing from itsfreshness and grace. The charming, youthful bodies of the young men are hardlyfilled out at all, but the drawing is very sure. The lotus, some in bud and some inflower, haloed by huge rounded leaves, and with their long sinuous stalks, is thecentrepiece of this obviously symbolic group.


Ellora Painting (8th-9th centuries) In the second half of the 8th century the first western Chalukyas were wiped out by a

new dynasty, the Rashtrakutas, who controlled the northern Deccan for more than acentury. It is to these princes that we owe one of the most beautiful monuments, andcertainly the most extraordinary, in India, the Kailasha of Ellora. It is an immense monolithictemple, entirely sculptured out of the massive rock. Of the thirtyfour caves at Ellora,twelve are Buddhist, seventeen Brahman and five Jainist. They issue from an abrupt,vertical cliff above the horizontal sweep of a natural platform and dominate the northernpart of the vast Deccan plateau. In this huge group, containing the most beautiful piecesof Indian stone sculpture, we have only two examples of painting, in the Kailasha and inthe Jainist grotto called Indra Sabha.

The Kailasha frescoes are to be found on the ceiling of the western porch. They arecovered by three successive layers of paintings, and are now in process of renovation.The oldest must date from the time the temple was built in the second half of the 8thcentury. Here we see gods and goddesses in flight, dwarfs and a mythological beingastride a monster. The technique is the same as that at Badami, but here the drawing ismore important than the modelling. Brahman rhythm grows more and more definite asBuddhist borrowings become less. Shiva is dancing, and meditation is replaced by acosmetic jubilation.

This intensity, this acceleration of movement, is even more striking in the very lovely fragmentsfrom the Jainist cave, which date from the middle of the 9th century and show gods in flightand Shiva dancing with an astonishing virtuosity. One character flies in the sky, revealinghis back and curved buttocks, his hands joined above his head; it is startling in the perfectionof its technique and its sure brilliance. Here bodies have the elegance, the slimness and thelight angularity of the female figure at Panamalai, but there is a great degree of stylisation.The artist has freed himself from the conventions of Ajanta. Brahmanism is never didacticlike Buddhism; there is no attempt to convince or persuade but one is carried away by theexcitement of the scene. Naturalism is too heavy, and is rejected in favour of schematisation,a neater way of expressing the symbolic geometry of shapes.

Tanjore Painting (11th century) While the Rashtrakutas were ruling in the north of the Deccan a new dynasty, the Cholas,

took over the waning power of the Pallavas in the south and held it from the middle of the9th century to the beginning of the 13th century. The very special temple architecture ofthe south developed in the Chola period, the most perfect example being the great Shivatemple at Tanjore.

In six of the rooms at the base of the great tower of this sanctuary, frescoes dating fromthe construction of the building (early 11th century) have been discovered underneathpaintings of the 17th and 18th centuries. Restorers are now at work on the importantpaintings. On the whole the paintings depict scenes about the god Shiva. Most remarkableare the dancers; with their prodigious expressive strength they convey a feeling oftriumphant joy. Although they may resemble the flying genies of Ellora, here somethingmore carnal animates their being, swells their bodies and gives greater curve to theirform. Their elan, much more violent here, is reflected in the twisting of the dancer’schest. The colours from mineral pigments seem to be freely applied. According to recentstudies, they were applied to the fresco on wet plaster. Like all Indian painting, thecontours are etched in red and black, and figures are only lightly filled out. New frescoeshave been found in an ambulatory, and once this group has come to light we shall haveone of the most important examples of Indian classical painting.

Late Classical Buddhist Art in Bengal and Sri Lanka (11th-12th Century) In the 5th century Buddhism was born on the borders of Nepal, and it was in this

northeastern corner of India that the Buddhist faith, hunted from the peninsula by atriumphant Brahmanism, was to find its last refuge.


Pali Illuminated Manuscripts (11th-12th Century) The Pali dynasty, rulers from 750 until the middle of the 12th century, were patrons of an

intense, artistic and religious movement, with Brahmanism and Buddhism standing sideby side, although the Palis always had a clear predilection for the latter faith. Pali art wasfounded on the ruins of the Gupta empire, whose style it continued, although in a moreprecious and affected way. Its greatest successes were in the field of architecture. Paliwallpaintings have all practically disappeared, but some illuminated manuscripts remain.They were carried out in the great Buddhist monasteries, the most famous of which,Nalanda, was the resort of countless pilgrims from SouthEast Asia.

The manuscripts were executed on palm leaves, long and narrow in format and kepttogether by threads running through the pages, the whole bound between two pieces ofwood. The illustrations are scanty and are done in small frames 3inches by 2inchesinset within the text. As in wallpaintings, the outlines of this book illustration are done inred or black and colours are filled in afterwards; the colours are white, red, yellow, greenand indigoblue. The composition is simple and usually includes a god (Buddha or aBodhisattva) surrounded by pupils, or their female alter ego (shakti); the latter sometimestake pride of place in the paintings. Here we touch on Tantric Buddhism, and while thesepaintings do give an impression of calm and dignity, there is a hint of this Mahayanatendency towards eroticism and magic.

The manuscripts, the oldest of which, as far as is known, do not go back further than the11th century, are of great interest, since they reveal the final outcome of classical Buddhistpainting in India. (For more about illuminated texts, see: History of Illuminated Manuscripts 6001200).

In the second half of the 12th century, Islam conquered Bengal, and razed the monasteriesto the ground. Buddhism was now finally wiped out in the peninsula and was forced toseek refuge in Nepal and Tibet, where there developed an extremely complex iconography,though in style it remained faithful to its Pali origins.

BHITTI CHITRA-WALL PAINTING

TRADITIONALLY,theMatheran or Mahatma commmunity were renowned for their mineralpainted elaborate depictions of religious themes on painstakingly prepared walls of housesand temples.In some of the temples thus ornamented,images of the patrons and their familieswere also included as were the names of the painters.The paintings of the matherans alsoutilize the embossing techniques of the Usta;thus gold and silver is occasionally used toenhance a painting.In order temples such as the Madan Mohan Mandir,the 200yearoldpaintings.1 An intricately painted ceiling;the bands of floral border painted on the series ofarches separate the various segments of the composition.At the far end is a doorway overwhich are positioned Krishna and Radha flanked by two chieftains.2 Frescoed walls at theMadan Mohan Mandir depict the many patrons of the temple;the composition of the firstsimulates the manner in which members of court and the royalty are depicted in Rajasthaniminiatures while that of the second displays a tangible western influence in the use ofperspective devices and portraitlike rendering of the patrons‘ faces. reveal theaesthetic sensibilities of this community and the religious context of their work in spite oflayers that were later retouched.Today the Matherans reside in Jodhpur,Mewar andGodvard(in Pali district) and are known for their skills painting Gangaur idols.

Regional Painting Styles in India

Paintings In Gujarat

Art in Gujarat is famous for its variety. From ancient forms of art, traditional fabric basedpaintings, and decorative folk art, to modern art forms such as photography, Gujarat’s art hasa lot to offer to connoisseurs as well as ordinary art lovers. Art serves decorative, utilitarian,


as well as spiritual functions. The art of Gujarat is varied not only in terms of media, patterns,themes, intensity of colours, but also from a stand point of history and development. There isa fascinating story associated with how each type of art form developed. Even the techniquesused to create varied types of paintings, engravings, and decorative motifs are very different.All of them blend to form the rich tapestry that is art in Gujarat.Gujarat is also famous for dyeing, printing, wood carving, stone carving, and mirror work.Other types of traditional art include Bandhini and Patola, which are hand woven fabric.

Apbhransh style of Painting, 15th Century A.D.

In 1451 A.D., Basant Vilas painted in the Apbhransh style, whose famous background scriptwas compiled by Acharya Ratnagiri in Ahmedabad, makes special mention of the origin ofRajasthani painting. Up to the 15th century this style of painting flourished in Rajasthan.Using Jain and later Jain texts as the basis on which the painting was done, this may betermed the Jain style, Gujarat style, Western India style or Apbhransh style.Undoubtedly, the period from the 7th century to the 15th century saw an era of impressivegrowth of painting, iconography and architecture in Rajasthan devel¬oped from the synthesisof original art and the traditions of AjantaEllora. From this point no distinction had ever beenmade between the Rajasthan and Gujarat styles. In these paintings faces are savachashma,noses resembling that of Garuda, tall but stiff figures, highly embossed breasts, mechanicalmovements and poses, clouds, trees, mountains and rivers are depicted. Red and yellowcolours have been used frequently.

Jains Style of Painting

The earliest Jain illuminated manuscripts are inscribed and painted on prepared palmleavesand bound with cords passing through holes in the folios. The folios are encased in woodencovers that are often decorated with religious or historical themes. Book covers continued tobe made in later centuries.After the introduction of paper into western India from Iran around the 12th century, Jaintexts were increasingly written on this new and more versatile medium. The use of paperpermitted larger compositions and a greater variety of decorative devices and borders, althoughthe format of the palmleaf manuscript was retained. By the end of the 14th century, deluxemanuscripts were produced on paper, brilliantly adorned with gold, silver, crimson and a richultramarine derived from imported lapis lazuli.

The major centres of Jain manuscript production were Ahmedabad and Patan in Gujarat.Other centres included Jaisalmer, Gwalior and Delhi. The patrons were mainly Svetambara


Jains, who considered the commissioning of illustrated books and their donation to Jain templelibraries (bhandars) to be an important meritmaking activity.Most of the Jain paintings and illustrations depict historical events, knownas PanchKalyanaka, from the life of the Tirthankaras. Rishabha, the first Tirthankara, isusually depicted in either the lotus position or kayotsarga, the standing position. He isdistinguished from other Tirthankara by the long locks of hair falling to his shoulders. Incidentsof his life, such as his marriage and Indra marking his forehead, are often depicted in paintings;other paintings show him presenting a pottery bowl to his followers, painting a house, weaving,and being visited by his mother Marudevi. Each of the 24 Tirthankara is associated withdistinctive emblems, which are listed in texts such as Tiloyapannati, Kahavaali, andPravacanasaarodhara.Rajasthan and Rajput Style of PaintingRajput style of PaintingSome scholars recognise the Gujarati style as the mother of Rajasthani painting and its guidingspirit. Gujarat was a principal centre where Rajasthani painting acquired its prominent status.The Gujarat style gave birth to the Rajput style, that rare beauty visible in drawings of mountain,river, sea, fire, cloud, tree in the Rajput style originated from the Gujarat style. In regard to theimpact of Jain art, many scholars stress the view that it made a significant contribution to thegrowth of HinduRajput art. Jain art was responsible for incorporating creeper foliage inIndian painting. Later, having surrendered the traditional heritance to the Rajput style, Jain artwas lost in oblivion. Jain art does not represent the best art of its period. Hence it is arguedthat it might have surrendered its traditions to the Rajput style, but it would be a great blunderon our part to admit this view.Rajasthani painting in 18th Century A.D.The Rajasthani style of painting reached its zenith during the second half of the 18th century.Many styles vied with each other to attain the honour of being crowned as national but it wasthe fortune of Rajasthani style that it achieved this enviable position. The centres furtheringand dealing with the Rajasthani style sprang up in many parts of the country. The MughalSchool itself had been absorbed by it. In the Deccan, the Rajasthani school had travelled toMaharashtra in the last quarter of the 18th century and thence to Mysore, Tanjore andRamesvaram.’’ In the 19th century because of many reasons the Rajasthani style lost itsoriginal glory and degenerated into a coarse art devoid of vitality, vigour and harmony.Classification of Painting SchoolsThe distinct characteristic of painting are termed the style of that particular region. In thisway, several styles came into prominence in Rajasthan, notably the Mewar, Marwar,Kishangarh, Bundi, Kota, Jaipur, and Alwar schools had achieved great ascendancy. Rajasthanipainting may be studied in four parts. In actual practice it has four principal schools in whichmany styles and sub styles flourished and influenced each other (1) The Mewar school, comprising Chavand, Udaipur, Devgarh, Nathdwara, Sawar stylesand sub styles. (2) The Marwar school, comprising Jodhpur, Bikaner, Kishangarh, Jaisalmer, Pali, Nagaur,Ghanerao styles and sub styles.(3) The Hadoti school, comprising Bundi, Kota, Jhalawar styles and substyls. (4) The Dhundar school, comprising Amber, Jaipur, Shekhawati, Uniara, Alwar styles andsub styles.In the medieval age it was quite natural for the small and big states of Rajasthan and theneighbouring states to influence each other in the domain of culture.MALWAOne of the most conservative Rajput Painting Schools of the 17th century, Malwa was highlyinfluenced by Chaurpanchasikastyle.The typical characteristics of the painting are the use of


contrasting colours, refinement of drawing due to the influence of theMughal painting andornaments and costumes consisting of black tassels and stripedskirts.

MEWAR

Mewar school of Rajput paintings concentrated on its conservative style, trying to avoidthedominance of the Mughals. The earliest example of Mewar painting is a series of theRagamalapainted in 1605 A.D. at Chawand, a small place near Udaipur, by Misardi.Most of the paintings of this series are in the collection of shri Gopi Krishna Kanoria.Towardsthe end of the 17th century and the early 18th century, Mewar style sawrevival and late 18thcentury again witnessed its decline. From mid 19th century to mid20th century, it continuedas a court art.

BUNDI

Rajput paintings started originating in Bundi around the late 16th century and reflectedheavyMughal influence. The Bundi style of painting is very close to the Mewar style,but the formerexcels the latter in quality. The peculiar characteristics of the Bundipainting, as evident in thisminiature, are the rich and glowing colours, the rising sun ingolden colour, crimsonred horizon,overlapping and seminaturalistic trees. TheMughal influence is visible in the refined drawingof the faces and an element ofnaturalism in the treatment of the trees.

KOTAH

Kota paintings look very natural in their appearance and are calligraphic in theirexecution. A style of painting very much akin to the Bundi style also prevailed in Kotah.Themes of tiger and bear hunt were very popular at Kotah. In Kotah paintings, most ofthespace is occupied by the hilly jungle which has been rendered with a unique charm.

AMBER – JAIPUR

The paintings of Amber and Jaipur show strong Mughal influence. However, at thesametime, the bold compositions and use of abstractions reflected regionalcharacteristics. The 18th and early 19th century saw Rajput paintings illustratingepisodes from the life of Krishna. The other popular themes of the 19th century wereRagamalaand devotional subjects.

MARWAR

The miniatures are executed in a primitive and vigorous folk style and arecompletelyuninfluenced by the Mughal style. A large number of miniatures comprisingportraits,court scenes, series of the Ragamala and the Baramasa, etc. were executed fromthe 17thto 19th centuries at several centres of painting like Pali, Jodhpur and Nagour etc.inMarwar.

BIKANER

Bikaner was one of the States which had close relations with the Mughals. Rajasthanipaintingsof Bikaner were also based on Mughal tradition. Apart from the Mughal style,the paintings ofBikaner also reflect marked influence of Deccan paintings. During thelate 18th century, thecity started showing conservative Rajput styles with smoothnessand abstractions. However,they were devoid of any pomposity and flamboyance.

KISHENGARH

Kishangarh style of painting was basically a fusion of Mughal and regional style. Themostcommon theme of this style consisted of the depiction of the love between Krishnaand Radha.During the second quarter of the 18th century, there developed the mostcharming school ofRajasthani painting in Kishengarh under the patronage of RajaSavant Singh. The artist hasexecuted types of human figures, delicately drawn, withslender bodies and uptilted eyes.Kishangarh School is best known for its Bani Thanipaintings.


The Sultanate painting shows an attempt to arrive at a fusion of the newlyintroduced Persianand Indian traditional styles. The illustrated manuscript of Ni’matNamat of the early 16thcentury, for instance, shows the fusion of Persian and Jaina styles. Many of the illustratedmanuscripts show the influence of Jain and Rajasthani painting styles. Out of the Sultanatepainting tradition emerged three major substylesMughal, Rajasthani and Deccani schools,all of which displayed an individuality while bearing some common elements.

Styles of Sultanate Painting

The illustrated manuscripts made for Muslim patrons between 1450 and 1550 vary considerablyin style, as there was no unifying force in the production of these works. Some of the earlyworks were heavily reliant on Turkman prototypes, namely paintings made in Shiraz in easternIran, or in Herat in Central Asia. It appears that the painters themselves were typicallyIndian, trained in the stylized and highly conservative indigenous styles exemplified byilluminations of devotional manuscripts commissioned especially by Jains in western India,but also by Buddhists in eastern India, and by Hindus. These Indian artists were apparentlycharged with adopting the Turkman style, and different artists produced works with greateror lesser fidelity to their foreign sourcesMost of the surviving examples of fifteenthcenturySultanate painting are significant more for historical than aesthetic reasons. Among the morevisually engaging works is a Shah Nāma of about 1450, now dispersed primarily amongmuseum and private collections in Europe. The manuscript is arranged in a vertical formatwith horizontal illustrations and four columns of Persian text. The paintings are closely relatedto the indigenous western or central Indian styles of paintings in nonMuslim sacred texts ofthe time.

A remarkable manuscript called the Ni’matNāma, painted in Mandu in central India around1500, is a book of recipes, which shows the sultan surrounded by attendants preparing foods,medicines, and aphrodisiacs. The painters of the pictures were Indian, but they drew heavilyfrom Shirazi models, with much use of thick green swards, pastel background colors, andprovincial Persian figural types. Indian elements are especially noticeable in the renditions ofthe Indian ladies, who were part of his extensive, multicultural harem.

By the midsixteenth century a harmonious fusion of Persian and Indian styles was achieved,seen especially in the paintings illustrating the adventures of the lovers Chandā and Laurak inthe Chandāyana of about 1540. The text was composed by a Muslim poet in India, written inthe northeastern dialect of Hindi known as Avadhi, in Persian script, and the paintings werepainted by a Hindu artist. Artists working in this unique hybrid style, characterized by brightpastel colors, repeated ground patterns, delicate line drawing, and exquisite arabesques, wereparticularly influential in the early decades of the imperial Mughal atelier.

THE MUGHAL SCHOOL

The origin of the Mughal School of Painting is considered to be a landmark in the history ofpainting in India. With the establishment of the Mughal Empire, the Mughal School of painting


originated in the reign of Akbar in 1560 A.D. The Mughal style evolved as a result of a happysynthesis of the indigenous Indian style of painting and the Safavid school of Persian painting.The Mughal style is marked by supple naturalism based on close observation of nature andfine and delicate drawing. It is of a high aesthetic merit. It is primarily aristocratic andsecular. The Mughal style was influenced by the Rajasthan painting, deccani painting andfinally by European paintings which came in the Mughal court and absorbed some of theWestem techniques like shading and perspective. Under Jahangir, painting acquired greatercharm, refinement and dignity. He had great fascination for nature and took delight in theportraiture of birds, animals and flowers. Aurangzeb was a puritan and therefore did notencourage art. Painting declined during his period and lost much of its earlier quality. A largenumber of court painters migrated to the provincial courts. After 1712 A.D. the Mughalpainting again started deteriorating under the later Mughals. Though retaining the outer formit became lifeless and lost inherent quality of the earlier Mughal art.

Mughal painting reflects an exclusive combination of Indian, Persian and Islamic styles.As the name suggests, these paintings evolved as well as developed during the rule of MughalEmperors in India, between 16th to 19th century. The Mughal paintings of India revolvedaround themes, like battles, court scenes, receptions, legendary stories, hunting scenes, wildlife,portraits, etc. The Victoria and Albert Museums of London house a large and impressivecollection of Mughal paintings.

History of Mughal Painting

Indian Mughal paintings originated during the rule ofMughal Emperor, Humayun (15301540). When he cameback to India from the exile, he also brought along twoexcellent Persian artists, MirSayyid Ali and Abdussamad. With time, their art got influenced by the localstyles and gradually; it gave rise to the Mughal painting ofIndia. The earliest example of the Mughal style is theTutinama (‘Tales of a Parrot’) Painting, now in theCleveland Museum of Art. Then, there is the ‘Princess ofthe House of Timur’, a painting redone numerous times.

Growth of Mughal Painting

Mughal paintings of India developed as well as prospered under the rule of Mughal Emperors,Akbar, Jahangir and Shah Jahan.


Under Akbar

Mughal painting experienced largescale growth under the reign of Emperor Akbar. Duringthat time, hundreds of artists used to paint under the direction of the two Persian artists.Since the Emperor was fond of tales, one can see the paintings mainly being based on theMahabharata, Ramayana and Persian epics. Mughal paintings also started illustrating anenhanced naturalism, with animal tales, landscape, portraits, etc.

Under Jahangir

Emperor Jahangir reigned from 1605 to 1627 and extended great support to various artforms, especially paintings. This period saw more and more refinement in brushwork,along with the use of much lighter and subdued colors. The main themes of the Mughalpaintings revolved around the events from Jahangir’s own life, along with portraits,birds, flowers, animals, etc. One of the most popular examples of Mughal paintings ofthis time include the pictorial illustrations of the Jehangirnama, the biography ofEmperor Jahangir.

Under Shah Jahan

The grace and refinement of the Jahangir period was seen at the time of Emperor ShahJahan (16281658). However, the sensitivity of the paintings was replaced by coldness andrigidity. The themes of that time revolved around musical parties, lovers on terraces andgardens, ascetics gathered around a fire, etc.

Decline of Mughal Painting

The trend that was seen during the time of Shah Jahan was also found under the rule ofAurangzeb (16581707). However, the emperor did not pay too much attention on the growthof the Mughal paintings. Still, the art form continued to survive with the support receivedfrom its other patrons. However, gradually, because of diminishing support, a declining trendset in. The time of Muhammad Shah, (17191748), did experience a brief revival of theMughal paintings. Nonetheless, with the arrival of Shah Alam II (17591806), the art almostbecame extinct and another school of painting, known as Rajput paintings, started evolving.Features of the Mughal Paintings in India

Confined to Mughal court

Mughal painting remained confined to the Mughal court and did not reach the people. A synthesis of Indian and Persian elements:The Mughal rulers brought Persian painters with them. At the same time they patronizedIndian painters and the collaboration between these two schools of painters resulted in thesynthesis.

Main themes of painting

Apart from Persian books of fables, themes from Mahabharata were also selected. Indianscenes and landscapes came into vogue.4. Abundant use of colours:Golden colours considered to be the symbolsof prosperity of the Mughals began to be usedincreasingly.

Pahari Paintings

Pahari painting is the name given to Rajputpaintings, made in Himachal Pradesh andJammu & Kashmir states of India. Thesepaintings developed and flourished during theperiod of 17th to 19th century.


Indian Pahari

Pahari paintings of India can be divided into two distinct categories, on the basis of theirgeographical range, namely: Basohli and Kulu Style (Influenced by Chaurpanchasika style) Guler and Kangra Style (Based on cooler colors and refinement)

History of Pahari Painting

Pahari paintings have been widely influenced by the Rajput paintings, because of the familyrelations of the Pahari Rajas with royal court at Rajasthan. One can also see strong influenceof the Gujarat and Deccan paintings. With the emergence of Bhakti movement, new themesfor Indian Pahari paintings came into practice. The ShaivaShakta themes were supplementedby argot poetry and folk songs of Lord Krishna and Lord Rama. At the same time, thethemes of the paintings revolved around love and devotion also. There was also illustrationof great epics, puranas, etc. The depiction of Devi Mahatmya manuscript painted at Kangra,in 1552, has been much acclaimed.

Types of Pahari Paintings

Basohli Paintings

The town of Basohli is situated on the bank of the Ravi River in Himachal. This town hasproduced splendid Devi series, magnificent series of the manifestations of the SupremeGoddess. Apart from that, it is also known for the magnificent depiction of the Rasamanjaritext. Artist Devidasa painted it under the patronage of Raja Kirpal Pal. Gita Govinda of 1730is also believed to have Basohli origin. Geometrical patterns, bright colors and glossy enamelcharacterize Basohli paintings.

Bilaspur Paintings

Bilaspur town of Himachal witnessed the growth of the Pahari paintings around the mid17th century. Apart from the illustrations of the Bhagavata Purana, Ramayana and Ragamalaseries, artists also made paintings on rumal (coverlets) for rituals and ceremonies.

Chamba Paintings

Chamba paintings are quite similar in appearance to Mughal style of paintings, with stronginfluences of Deccan and Gujarat style also. The late 17th century witnessed Chamba paintingsof Himachal being dominated by Basohli style, which ultimately gave way to Guler paintingtradition.

Garhwal Paintings

Garhwal Paintings originated in Himachal and were first dominated by the Mughal style.Later, it started reflecting the cruder version of Kangra traditions.

GulerKangra Style Paintings

The nature GulerKangra style of Himachal developed somewhere around the year 1800. Itwas a more naturalized version of painting, with visible difference in the treatment of eyesand modeling of the face. Landscapes were also commonly used as themes. Along with that,this style also accentuated the elegance and grace of the Indian women.

Jammu Paintings

Jammu paintings of the late 18th and early 19th century bear a striking similarity to theKangra style. Shangri Ramayana of the late 17th and early 18th century was produced inJammu itself.

Jasrota Paintings


Jasrota paintings are mainly found in Jammu and Kashmir and revolve around court scenes,events from the life of the kings, allegorical scenes, etc.

Kulu Paintings

The paintings of Kulu style include a Bhagavata Purana, two Madhumalati manuscripts, etc.

Mandi Paintings

Mandi, situated in Himachal, witnessed the evolution of a new style under Raja Sidh Sen(16841727). During that time, the portraits depicted the ruler as a massive figure with overstatedhuge heads, hands and feet. Other works were characterized by geometric compositions anddelicate naturalistic details.

Mankot Paintings

Mankot paintings of Jammu and Kashmir bear a resemblance to the Basohli type, with vividcolors and bold subjects. In the mid17th century, portraitures became a common theme.With time, the emphasis shifted to naturalism and subdued colors.

Nurpur Paintings

Nurpur paintings of Himachal Pradesh usually employ bright colors and flat backgrounds.However, in the later periods, the dazzling colors were replaced by muted ones.

MODERN PAINTING

The essential characteristics of the modern or contemporary art are a certain freedom frominvention, the acceptance of an eclectic approach which has placed artistic expression in theinternational perspective as against the regional, a positive elevation of technique which hasbecome both proliferous and supreme, and the emergence of the artist as a distinct individual.

Modern Indian art movement in Indian painting is consider to have begun in Calcutta in thelate nineteenth century. The old traditions of painting had more or less died out in Bengal andnew schools of art were started by the British. Initially, protagonists of Indian art such as RajaRavi Varma drew on Western traditions and techniques including oil paint and easel painting. Areaction to the Western influence led to a revival in primitivism, called as the Bengal school ofart, which drew from the rich cultural heritage of India. It was succeeded by the Santiniketanschool, led by Rabindranath Tagore’s harking back to idyllic rural folk and rural life.

Oil and easel painting In India began in the eighteenth century. The courts of the princelystates of India were an important draw for European artists due to their patronage of thevisual and performing arts and also their need for European style of portraits. The merchantsof the East India Company also provided a large market for native art. A distinct genredeveloped of watercolour painting on paper and mica in the later half of the 18th Centurydepicting scenes of everyday life, regalia of princely courts, and native festivities and rituals.Referred to as the “Company style” or “Patna style”, it flourished at first in Murshidabad andspread to other cities of British suzerainty.

Indian Painters

Indian subcontinent is famous for being the home country of a large number of exceptionallybrilliant artists, including painters, writers, singers, etc. The art of painting in India dates backto the ancient times, as is evident from the cave paintings of Ajanta and Ellora. Many paintersof India have received global recognition also and their paintings have fetched millions ofdollars in international auctions. From the paintings revolving around religious topics to theabstract ones, Indian painters have covered almost each and every arena. In the followinglines, we have provided information about the famous painters of India:


Abanindranath Tagore

Abanindranath Tagore, the nephew of Rabindranath Tagore, wasborn on 7th August 1871. He was one of the most prominent artistsof the Bengal school of painting, along with being the first majorsupporter of swadeshi values in the Indian art.

Amrita Shergill

Amrita Shergill, one of the most famous painters of India, was born on30th January 1913 in Budapest city of Hungary. Her father, UmraoSingh ShergillMajithia was a Sikh aristocrat, who was a scholar inSanskrit. Her mother was a Hungarian singer, Marie AntoinetteGottesmann.

F.N. Souza

Francis Newton Souza was born in the year 1924 in Saligao, a small town in the state of Goa.Tragedy struck him at a very young age, when he lost his father. He was also bogged down by aserious attack of small pox. Such incidences provoked him to create his own niche in this world.

Jamini Roy

Jamini Roy was one of the greatest painters of the 20th century. He was born in the year1887, at Beliator village in Bankura district of Bengal. His father, Ramataran Roy, was amiddle class man who resigned from government service to pursue his interest in art.

Jatin Das

Jatin Das was born in the year 1941 in the Mayurbhanj district of Orissa. He is countedamongst the most creative artists of India and is proficient in painting, graphic art, sculpture,murals and even poetry. Jatin Das received training in the field of art at Sir J. J. School of Artin Bombay.

M.F. Hussain

M.F. Hussain, or Maqbool Fida Hussain, was born on 17thSeptember 1915 in Pandharpur town of Maharashtra. He isone of the most famous artists of India, both at the national aswell as the international level.

Nandlal Bose

Nandlal Bose was born in December 1882 in Bihar. A protégéof Havell and Abanindranath, he is today regarded as one ofthe most prominent artists of the modern India. Nandlal Bose attended Calcutta GovernmentCollege of Art between 1905 and 1910.

Rabindranath Tagore

Rabindranath Tagore was a multitalented personality. He was a Bengali poet, a BrahmoSamaj philosopher, a visual artist, a playwright, a novelist, a painter and a composer, allcombined into one. Rabindranath Tagore started composing art works at a very tender age.

Raja Ravi Varma

Raja Ravi Varma was born on 29th April 1848, in Kilimanoor, a smalltown of Kerala. He is known for his amazing paintings, which revolvemainly around the great epics of Mahabharata and Ramayana.

Satish Gujral

Satish Gujral is one of the greatest as well as the most versatile artists of the Indiansubcontinent. He is known for making some of the most exquisite paintings, graphics, muralsand sculptures, apart from indulging in architecture and interior designing.


S.H. Raza

S.H. Raza was born as Syed Haider Raza in the year 1922, in the state of Madhya Pradesh.One of the most distinguished artists of the Indian subcontinent, Raza has been settled inFrance since 1950. However, his ties with India remain as strong as ever.

Tyeb Mehta

One of the internationally recognized artists of India, Tyeb Mehta is a multitalented individual.Apart from being an exceptionally good painter, he is also a brilliant filmmaker.

OTHER NOTABLE PAINTING STYLE

MYSORE PAINTING

Mysore Painting is a form of classical South Indian painting, which evolved in theMysore cityof Karnataka. During that time, Mysore was under the reign of theWodeyars and it wasunder their patronage that this school of painting reached itszenith. Quite similar to the TanjorePaintings, Mysore Paintings of India make use of thinner gold leaves and require much morehard work. The most popular themes ofthese paintings include Hindu Gods and Goddessesand scenes from Hindu mythology.The grace, beauty and intricacy of Indian Mysore Paintingsleave the onlookersmesmerized.

MADHUBANI PAINTING

Madhubani painting originated in a small village, known as Maithili, of the Bihar.Initially, thewomenfolk of the village drew the paintings on the walls of their home, asan illustration oftheir thoughts, hopes and dreams. With time, the paintings startedbecoming a part of festivitiesand special events, like marriage. Slowly and gradually,the Madhubani painting of India crossedthe traditional boundaries and startedreaching connoisseurs of art, both at the national as wellas the international level. Thetraditional base of freshly plastered mud wall of huts has nowbeen replaced by cloth,handmade paper and canvas. Since the paintings have been confinedto a limitedgeographical range, the themes as well as the style are, more or less, the same.IndianMaithili paintings make use of threedimensional images and the colors that are usedarederived mainly from plants. The themes on which these paintings are based includenatureand mythological events. The first reference to the Maithili painting of Bihardates back to thetime of Ramayana, when King Janaka ordered the paintings to becreated for his daughter,Sita’s, wedding.Themes of the Maithili painting of Bihar revolve around Hindu deities likeKrishna,Rama, Lakshmi, Shiva, Durga and Saraswati. The natural themes that are usedincludethe Sun, the Moon and the religious plants like tulsi. One can also find paintingsbasedon scenes from the royal courts and social events, like weddings. If any empty spaceisleft after painting the main theme, it is filled up with the motifs of flowers, animals andbirdsor geometric designs.

KALAMKARI PAINTING

The literal meaning of Kalamkari is a painting done by kalam (pen). This art gotenriched asit came down from one generation to another. These paintings are made inAndhra Pradesh.It is hand painted as well as block printing with vegetable dyesapplied on cloth. Vegetabledyes are used for colour in the Kalam Kari work. A smallplace SriKalahasti is the bestknown centre of Kalamkari art. This art is mainly relatedto decorating temple interiors withpainted cloth panels, which was developed in thefifteenth century under the patronage ofVijaynagar rulers. Subjects are adopted fromthe Ramayana, the Mahabharata and Hindureligious mythology. This art form is acontinuous legacy from father to son. After decidingthe subject of the painting, scèneafter scene is painted. Every scene is surrounded by floraldecorative patterns. Thesepaintings are made on cloth. Figures of deities have a very rich


border embellishmentsand were created for the temples. Owing to Muslim rulers in Golconda,theMasulipatnam kalamkari was widely influenced by Persian motifs and designs. Theoutlinesand main features are done using hand carved blocks. The finer details are laterdone usingthe pen. This art was started on garments, bed covers and curtains. Theartists use a bambooor date palm stick pointed at one end with a bundle of fine hairattached to the other end toserve as brush or pen. The kalamkari dyes are obtained byextracting colours from plantroots, leaves, along with salts of iron, tin, copper, alumetc.

ORISSA PATCHITRA

The Orissa patachitras, mostly painted on cloth are more detailed and more colourfulandmost of these depict stories of Hindu gods and goddesses.

PHAD PAINTINGS

Phad is a type of scroll painting. The paintings depicting exploits of local deities areoftencarried from place to place and are accompanied by traditional singers, whonarrate thetheme depicted on the scrolls. This type of painting is a most famouspainting of Rajasthan,mainly found in the Bhilwara district. Phad painting depicts theheroic deeds of a heroicfigure, the daily life of a peasant, rural life, animals and birds,flora and fauna. These paintingsare created using bright colours and subtle colours.The outlines of the paintings are firstdrawn in black and later filled with colours.

Themain themes of the phad paintings depict the deities and their legends and the storiesoferstwhile Maharajas. Raw colours are used for these paintings. The unique features ofphadpaintings are the bold lines and a two dimensional treatment of figures with theentire compositionarranged in sections. The art of painting the phads is approximately700 years old. It is saidthat it was originated in Shahpura, some 35 kms from Bhilwarain Rajasthan. The continuousroyal patronage gave a decisive impetus to the art whichhas survived and flourished forgenerations.

GOND ART

The Gond tribe of the Godavari belt who are as old as the Santhals produce figurativeworks.

BATAK PRINT

This folk arts is not Indian in their origin. But these have now been Indianised andIndianBatik is now a matured art, immensely popular and expensive.

WARLI PAINTING

Warli painting derives its name from a small tribe inhabiting the remote, tribal regionsofMaharashtra. These are decorative paintings on floors and walls of ‘gond’ and ‘kol’tribes’homes and places of worship. Trees, birds, men and women collaborate to createa compositewhole in a Warli painting. These paintings are made mostly by the womenas part of theirroutine at auspicious celebrations. Unlike other tribal art forms, Warlipaintings do not employreligious iconography and is a more secular art form.

KALIGHAT PAINTING

Kalighat painting derives its name from its place of origin Kalighat in Kolkata. Kalighatis abazaar near the Kali temple in Kolkota. Patua painters from rural Bengal came andsettled inKalighat to make images of gods and goddesses in the early nineteenthcentury. These paintingson paper made with water colours comprise clear sweepingline drawings using bright coloursand a clear background. Kalighat paintings are oftenreferred to as the first works of art thatcame from Bengal.


6. Indian Dance

Origin of Dance in India

In Hindu mythology, dance is believed to have beenconceived by Brahma. Brahma inspired the sage BharataMuni to write the Natya Shastra, a treatise on performingarts, from which a codified practice of dance and dramaemerged. He used pathya (words) from the Rigveda,abhinaya (gestures) from the Yajurveda, geet (music)from the Samaveda and rasa (emotions) from theAtharvaveda to form the Natyaveda (body of knowledgeabout dance). The best-known of Hindu deities-Shiva,Kali and Krishna-are typically represented dancing.Shiva’s cosmic dance, tandava, Kali’s dance of creationand destruction and Krishna’s dance with the gopikas(cow-herd girls)-Rasa Lila-are popular motifs in Hindumythology.

In ancient India, there were no dedicated auditorium halls or theaters, and dance wasusually a functional activity dedicated to worship, entertainment or leisure. Dancers usuallyperformed in temples, on festive occasions and seasonal harvests. Dance was performed ona regular basis before deities as a form of worship. Even in modern India, deities are invokedthrough religious folk dance forms from ancient times. Classical dance forms such as BharataNatyam use mudras or hand gestures also to retell episodes of mythological tales such as theslaying of Kaliya by Krishna.

Gradually dancers, particularly from South India, moved from temples to houses of royalfamilies where they performed exclusively for royalty.

India offers a number of classical Indian dance forms, each of which can be traced todifferent parts of the country. Classical and folk dance forms also emerged from Indiantraditions, epics and mythology. There are many Indian folk dances such as Bhangra, Bihu,Ghumura Dance, Sambalpuri, Chhau and Garba and special dances observed in regionalfestivals such as Lohri and Navratri.

The Indian dances are broadly divided into Classical dances and folk dances. The Classicaldances of India are usually spiritual in content. Though the folk dances of India are alsospiritual and religious in content but the main force behind the folk dances of India is thecelebratory mood. Dances are a form of coherent expression of human feelings. Like theIndian culture, Indian classical dances are equally diverse in nature. There are numerousclassical dance forms in India and innumerable folk dances. Each dance form can be tracedto different parts of the country. Each form represents the culture and ethos of a particularregion or a group of people

The most popular classical dance styles of India are Bharatnatyam of Tamil Nadu,Kathakali and Mohiniattam of Kerala, Odissi of Orissa, Kathak of Uttar Pradesh, Kuchipudiof Andhra Pradesh and Manipuri of Manipur.

Major Dance forms in India

Bharatnatyam Dance is considered to be over 2000 years old. Several texts beginning withBharata Muni’s Natya Shastra (200 B.C.E. to 200 C.E.) provide information on this danceform. The Abhinaya Darpana by Nandikesvara is one of the main sources of textualmaterial, for the study of the technique and grammar of body movement in BharatnatyamDance. There is also a great deal of visual evidence of this dance form in paintings and stoneand metal sculptures of ancient times. On the gopurams of the Chidambaram temple, one


can see a series of Bharatnatyam poses, frozen in stone as it were, by the sculptor. In manyother temples, the charis and karanas of the dance are represented in sculpture and onecan make a study of the dance form.

According to the Hindu tradition the name of the dance form was derived by joining twowords, ‘Bharata’ and Natyam’ where ‘Natyam in Sanskrit means dance and ‘Bharata’ is amnemonic comprising ‘bha’, ‘ra’ and ‘ta’ which respectively means ‘bhava’ that is emotionand feelings; ‘raga’ that is melody; and ‘tala’ that is rhythm. Thus, traditionally the wordrefers to a dance form where bhava, raga and tala are expressed. The theoretical base ofthis dance form, which is also referred as Sadir, trace back to ancient Indian theatrologistand musicologist, Bharata Muni’s Sanskrit Hindu text on the performing arts called ‘NatyaShastra’. The text’s first complete version was presumably completed between 200 BCE to200 CE, however such timeframe also varies between 500 BCE and 500 CE. According tolegends Lord Brahma revealed Bharatanatyam to the sage Bharata who then encoded thisholy dance form in Natya Shastra. The text that consists of thousands of verses structuredin different chapters divides dance in two specific forms, namely ‘nrita’ that is pure dancecomprising of finesse of hand movements and gestures, and ‘nritya’ that is solo expressivedance that comprises of expressions. According to Russian scholar Natalia Lidova, ‘NatyaShastra’ elucidates several theories of Indian classical dances including that of Tandavadance, standing postures, basic steps, bhava, rasa, methods of acting and gestures.

There are three elements of Bharatanatyam called Nritta, Nritya andNatya

Nritta :The emphasis is on pure dance movements, creating patterns in space and time,mostly along straight lines, triangles, circles and semicircles~ without any specific intentionof projecting any emotion.Nritya: Combination of Rhythm with Expression. The dancer conveys the meanings of alyrical passage set to music, through stylised hand gestures, facial expressions and bodilymovements.Natya: Dramatic Element. Performing for a theme like Ramayana, Mahabharata etc.The repertoire of Bharatnatyam is extensive, however, a performance follows a regularpattern. At first there is an invocation song. The first dance item is the alarippu, literallymeaning - to adorn with flowers. It is an abstract piece combining pure dance with therecitation of sound syllables.

Angika AbhinayaThe next item, the jatiswaram is a short pure dance piece performedto the accompaniment of musical notes of any raga of Carnatic music. Jatiswaram has

no sahitya or words, but is composed of adavus which are pure dance sequences - nritta.They form the basis of training in Bharatnatyam dance.As a solo dance, Bharatnatyamleans heavily on the abhinaya or mime aspect of dance - the nritya, where the dancer


expresses the sahitya through movementand mime. Shabdam follows thejatiswaram in a Bharatnatyam danceperformance. The accompanying song isgenerally in adoration of the Supreme

Being.After the shabdam, the dancerperforms the varnam. The varnam whichis the most important composition of theBharatnatyam repertoire, encompassesboth nritta and nritya and epitomises the

essence of this classical dance form. The dancer here performs complicated well gradedrhythmic patterns in two speeds showing the control over rhythm, and then goes on to depictin a variety of ways, through abhinaya the lines of the sahitya. This portrays the dancer’sexcellence in abhinaya and also reflects the endless creativity of thechoreographer. The varnam is by far one of the most beautiful

compositions in Indian dance.Shringar-rasaKaruna-rasaVeer-rasaAfter the strenuous varnam, the dancer performs a

number of abhinaya items expressing a variety of moods.The bhava or rasa is woven into the sahitya and then expressed

by the dancer. The common pieces are keertanam, kritis, padams and javalis. In the keertanam, the text is importantwhereas kriti is a composition in which the musical aspect is

highlighted. Both are usually devotional in character and representepisodes from the lives of Rama, Siva, Vishnu, etc. Padams and

javalis, are on the theme of love, often divine.A Bharatnatyamperformance ends with a tillana which has its origin in the tarana of Hindustani music. It isa vibrant dance performed to the accompaniment of musical syllables with a few lines

of sahitya. The finale of the piece is a series of well designed rhythmic lines reaching aclimax. The performance ends with a mangalam invoking the blessings of the Gods.The

accompanying orchestra consists of a vocalist, a mridangam player, violinist or veena player,a flautist and a cymbal player. The person who conducts the dance recitation is the Nattuvanar.

Popular dancers

Bharatanatyam has evolved from a temple dance to an art form that enjoys popularity as oneof the most respected classical dance styles in India. The most renowned and highly trained

classical dancers from India, such as Srekala Bharath and Resmi Girish, have introduced thetraditional dance form to stages outside of India and delighted audiences around the world

with their Bharatanatyam performances.Today Bharathantiyam in India is one of the most popular and widely performed dance

styles and is practiced by male and female dancers all over and even around the world. Dueto its wide range of movements and postures and the balanced melange of the rhythmic andmimetic aspects lends itself well to experimental and fusion choreography. Degree and Post

Graduate courses covering the practice and theory of Bharatanatyam as well as the languagesassociated with its development are available at major universities in India.

Kathakali

Kathakali evolved from earlier temple art forms in the 17th century, is based on Hinduismand is a highly charged powerful drama that combines devotion, drama, dance, music, costumesand make up to produce one of the most impressive forms of sacred theatre in the world.


Kathakali is ancient and classical in nature and holds centuries of tradition and culture. Itis not simply a dance-drama but an act of devotion featuring the universal struggle betweengood and evil.

Kathakali provides a window into the past and an opportunity to understand the ancientheritage that has been preserved for centuries in the Kathakali plays.The Hindu epic stories in India were often told through a language the local people couldunderstand – theatre. The stories were passed from one generation to the next as they wereperformed in the heart of their rural communities.

Famous Exponents

KavungalChathunniPanicker, a celebrated and veteran performer of this field, is a scion ofthe famous Kavungal family associated with ‘Kathakali’ for six generations. KalamandalamGopi, a renowned name in ‘Kathakali’ with a career of over 30 years, is one of the mosteminent representatives of the Kalluvazhi School of Kerala. Another famed ‘Kathakali’ actorKottakkalSivaraman, who portrays feminine characters emotes different nayika bhavas suchas lasya nayika and vasakasajjika with great élan. KalamandalamRamankutty Nair is a seasoned‘Kathakali’ performer who not only earned fame for portraying negative characters likeRavana and Duryodhana but also proved his mettle in characterising Lord Hanuman. Otherimminent ‘Kathakali’ performers include Kalamandalam Krishna Prasad, KalamandalamVasu Pisharody, KalamandalamKesavanNamboodiri and Kalanilayam Balakrishnan to namea few.

Mohiniattam

Originating from Kerala in South India, this is a dance style exclusively performed by women.‘Mohini’ means a seducing woman and ‘attam’ means dance. So this dance is enchantinglyfeminine with wave-like body movements. The theme of the dance is generally ‘sringara’ orlove. Delicate themes of love are performed with suggestive gestures, rhythmic footworkand lyrical music.


There are many stories, the most popular one being the myth of the churning of theocean. Once upon a time the gods and the demons churned the milky ocean to get the nectarof immortality. When the deity holding the jar of nectar appeared, the demons managed tosnatch it first, creating fear among the gods. Lord Vishnu appeared in the form of Mohini, anenchanting woman. Mohini entranced and distracted the demons so that the Gods were ableto take the nectar away.

Similarly Mohini helped Lord Shiva in destroying a demon named Bhasmasura. Mohinientranced him by her beauty into a dance-step which caused his destruction.

Accordingly the dance of Mohiniattam symbolizes a dance of protection and enchantment.There are references to Mohiniattam as early as the 18th century. The great poet scholarking Swathi Thirunal (19th century) encouraged musicians to compose songs for this artform. After his reign, the dance was largely ignored. The great poet Vallathol revivedMohiniattam with the founding (1930) of Kerala Kalamandalam, an institute of Kerala dances.Since then, Mohiniattam has been taught in Kalamandalam and today has its place amongother classical dance styles of India.

Accompaniments

The accompaniments for Mohiniattam are: Vocal support (Carnatic classical), Cymbals, Violinand Indian musical instruments such as Mridangam (a percussion instrument), Maddalam(another percussion instrument) and Edakka (an hour-glass shaped percussion instrumentplayed with a stick).

Kuchipudi

Kuchipudi is one of the classical styles of Indian dance. Aroundthe third and fourth decade of this century it emerged out ofa long rich tradition of dance-drama of the same name.

In fact, Kuchipudi is the name of a village in the Krishnadistrict of Andhra Pradesh. It is about 35 km. fromVijayawada. Andhra has a very long tradition of dance-drama which was known under thegeneric name of Yakshagaana. In 17th century Kuchipudi style of Yakshagaana was conceivedby Siddhendra Yogi a talented Vaishnava poet and visionary who had the capacity to giveconcrete shape to some of his visions. He was steeped in the literary Yakshagaana traditionbeing guided by his guru Teerthanaaraayana Yogi whocomposed the Krishna-Leelatarangini. a kaavya inSanskrit.· Kuchipudi dancers earlier wielded a lot of power, and a

play/ social commentary was performed to highlight theunfair treatment of a king in 1502, against abusivepractices. The dancers succeeded and even got the helpof the army.

· On December 26, 2010, over 2,800 dancers including200 plus dance teachers, created a Guinness World record at Hyderabad. This amazingevent was performed by dancers in over 15 countries and was for 11 minutes.

· This is a unique dance form as it makes use of four Abhinayas namely, Angika, Vachika,Aharya and Satvica respectively.

· RumyaSreePutcha, a scholar provides an analysis of this traditional dance in Indiancinema, in her doctoral dissertation ‘Revisiting the classical: A critical history of Kuchipudidance’.

Odissi

It is one of the famous classical Indian dances of Orissa.This dance format is almost twothousand years old.


Odissi is a highly inspired, passionate, ecstatic and sensuousform of dance. This dance ischaracterised by various Bhangas(Stance), which involves stamping of the foot andstrikingvarious postures.

Odissi dance is accompanied by Odissi music. The jewellerypieces are an important partof the female Odissi dancer’scostume.Like most of the South Indian classical dances ofIndia Odissitoo had its origin in the Devadasi tradition.

Odissi closely follows the tenets laid down by the Natya Shastra. Facial expressions,hand gestures and body movements are used to suggest a certain feeling, an emotion or oneof the nine rasas.

The techniques of movement are built around the two basic postures of the Chowkandthe Tribhanga. The chowk is a position imitating a square - a very masculine stance withthe weight of the body equally balanced. The tribhanga is a very feminine stance where thebody is deflected at the neck, torso and the knees.

Kathak Dance

The word Kathak has been derived from the word Katha which means a story. Kathakars orstory-tellers, are people who narrate stories largely based on episodes from the epics, mythsand legends. It probably started as an oral tradition. Mime and gestures were perhaps added

later on to make the recitation more effective. Thus evolved a simple form of expressionaldance, providing the origins of what later developed into Kathak as we see it today.

The Vaishnavite cult which swept North India in the 15th century. and the resultantbhakti movement contributed to a whole new range of lyrics and musical forms. The Radha-Krishna theme proved immensely popular alongwith the works of Mirabai, Surdas, Nandadasand Krishnadas.

The emergence of Raslila , mainly in the Braj region (Mathura in Western U.P.) was animportant development. It combined in itself music, dance and the narrative. Dance in Raslila,however, was mainly an extension of the basic mime and gestures of the Kathakars orstory-tellers which blended easily with the existing traditional dance.


With the coming of the Mughals, this dance form received a new impetus. A transition fromthe temple courtyard to the palace durbar took place which necessitated changes inpresentation. In both Hindu and Muslim courts, Kathak became highly stylised and came tobe regarded as a sophisticated form of entertainment. Under the Muslims there was a greaterstress on nritya and bhavagiving the dance graceful, expressive and sensuous dimensions.The nineteenth century saw the golden age of Kathak under the patronage of Wajid Ali Shah,the last Nawab of Oudh. He established the Lucknow gharana with its strong accenton bhava, the expression of moods and emotions. The Jaipur gharana known forits layakari or rhythmic virtuosity and the Benaras gharana are other prominent schools ofKathak dance. The technique of movement in Kathak is unique to it.

Manipuri

Manipuri, one of the main styles of Indian Art or Classical Dancesoriginated in thepicturesque and secluded state of Manipur in the north-eastern corner of India. Because ofits geographical location, the people of Manipur have been protected from outside influences,and this region has been able to retain its unique traditional culture.

The origin of Manipuri dance can be traced back to ancient times that go beyond recordedhistory. The dance in Manipur is associated with rituals and traditional festivals, there arelegendary references to the dances of Shiva and Parvati and other gods and goddesses whocreated the universe.

Sattriya dance

The Sattriya dance form was introduced in the 15th century A.D by the great Vaishnavasaint and reformer of Assam, MahapurushaSankaradeva as a powerful medium for propagationof the Vaishnava faith. The dance form evolved and expanded as a distinctive style of dancelater on. This neo-Vaishnava treasure of Assamese dance and drama has been, for centuries,nurtured and preserved with great commitment by the Sattras i.e. Vaishnava maths ormonasteries. Because of its religious character and association with the Sattras, this dancestyle has been aptly named Sattriya.

Sankaradeva introduced this dance form by incorporating different elements from varioustreatises, local folk dances with his own rare outlook. There were two dance forms prevalentin Assam before the neo-Vaishnava movement such as Ojapali and Devadasi with manyclassical elements. Two varieties of Ojapali dances are still prevalent in Assam i.e. Sukanannior Maroi Goa Ojah and Vyah Goa Ojah. SukananniOjapaali is of Sakti cult and Vyah GoaOjapaali is of Vaishnava cult. Sankaradeva included Vyah Goa Ojah into his daily rituals inSattra. Till now Vyah Goa Ojah is a part of rituals of the Sattras of Assam. The dancers in a


Ojapaali chorus not only sing and dance but also explain the narration by gestures and stylizedmovements. As far as Devadasi dance is concerned, resemblance of a good number ofrhythmic syllables and dance postures along with footwork with Sattriya dance is a clearindication of the influence of the former on the latter. Other visible influences on Sattriyadance are those from Assamese folk dances namely Bihu, Bodos etc. Many hand gesturesand rhythmic syllables are strikingly similar in these dance forms.

Chhau dance

Chhau dance is a tradition from eastern India that enactsepisodes from epics including the Mahabharata andRamayana, local folklore and abstract themes. Its threedistinct styles hail from the regions of Seraikella, Purulia andMayurbhanj, the first two using masks. Chhau dance is

intimately connected to regional festivals, notably the springfestival Chaitra Parva. Its origin is traceable to indigenousforms of dance and martial practices. Its vocabulary of movement includes mock combattechniques, stylized gaits of birds and animals and movements modelled on the chores ofvillage housewives. Chhau is taught to male dancers from families of traditional artists or

from local communities. The dance is performed at night in an open space to traditional and

folk melodies, played on the reed pipes ‘’mohuri’’ and ‘’shehnai.’’ The reverberating drumbeatsof a variety of drums dominate the accompanying music ensemble. Chhau is an integral partof the culture of these communities. It binds together people from different social strata and

ethnic background with diverse social practices, beliefs, professions and languages. However,increasing industrialization, economic pressures and new media are leading to a decrease in

collective participation with communities becoming disconnected from their roots.

Yakshagana

Yakshagana, dance-drama of South India, associated most strongly with the state

of Karnataka. Elaborate and colourful costumes, makeup, and masks constitute some of themost-striking features of the art form. Traditionally, yakshagana was performed in the openair by all-male troupes sponsored by various Hindu temples. Since the mid-20th century,

however, many performances have been held on indoor stages, and women began to train inthe tradition in the 1970s.

With roots in Sanskrit literature and theatre, yakshagana emerged as a form of dance-drama in the 16th century. During the following 500 years, the yakshagana corpus grew to

include hundreds of plays, most written in Telugu or in the Kannada language, but only aboutfive dozen of the works were actively performed in the 21st century. The narratives aredrawn primarily from the great Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata as well as fromthe tales of the youthful god Krishna as recounted in the Bhagavata-purana. Historically,the cities of Tanjore (now Thanjavur) and Madura (now Madurai), both in the state of Tamil

Nadu, and Mysore, in Karnataka, were centres of yakshagana composition. Among themost-notable texts are the Telugu Sugriva vijayam (“Sugriva’s Victory”; c. 1570) byKandukur Rudra Kavi and the Kannada works of PartiSubba (fl. c. 1800), who is known for

his moving episodes and songs from the Ramayana.Yakshagana performances use standard character types that are readily identifiable by

the colour and design of the actors’ costumes and makeup. Red and black makeup, forexample, would signal a demonic figure, while a pinkish yellow face, a prominent mark on theforehead, and a large teardrop-shaped turban would indicate a heroic character. There is,

however, some regional variation in such costume codes.


Kudiyattam

Kudiyattam, probably the oldest living continuous theater tradition in the world, is atraditional art form of Kerala and the last surviving form of classical Sanskrit drama. Itblends powerful aesthetic and poetic means with ritual and philosophical elements, andwith creative improvisation. In 2001, Kudiyattam was officially recognized by UNESCOas a ‘masterpiece of the oral and intangible heritage of humanity’. We are proud topresent a full-scale performance of Toranayuddham, one of the masterpieces of thistradition, taking place over 6 nights (3 to 4 hours each night). To witness a completeKudiyattam performance is by now a rare event that produces an aesthetic climax withoutparallel in artistic experience.

This performance is by the Nepathya troupe – one of the prime centers ofKudiyattam since 1998.

Ottamthullal Dance

Ottamthullal is a type of performing art in Kerala State of India. Legendary Malayalampoet KalakkaththuKunchan Nambiar created this dance form in 18th century.Inthullal theperformer himself sings and says the story. The troop which accompanies the main artistrepeats the same when each sentence is completed.Ottamthullal TypesOttamthullal is of three types-

• Parayanthullal

• Ottanthullal

• Seetankanthullal.The precise interpretation of the labels Seethankan, Parayan and Ottan is not clear, but thedifference in the styles relates mainly to the meter of the poetry, the place of the singing, andthe costume and adornment of the performer.

Ottamthullal Dance Forms and Elements

Ottamthullal, over the centuries, has a (mostly) single actor, donning a green make-up andwearing colorful costumes and reciting the thullal lyrics (dance songs), all the while actingand dancing himself.Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru once remarked that Ottamthullal is “poorman’s Kathakali”. The art form has of late found practitioners from among women too, andis occasionally staged as a group dance form with each artiste representing a character in thestory play.Ottamthullal is very satirical touch. Ottamthullal performing artist has the freedomto improvise and incorporate humour. For Ottamthullal, the instruments used are the cymbalsand the Maddalam.

Folk dances

Folk dances are performed for every possible occasion - to celebrate the arrival of seasons,birth of a child, a wedding and festivals, which are a plenty. The folk dances are extremelysimple with minimum of steps or movement. Indian folk dances are full of energy and vitality.Some dances are performed separately by men and women while in some performancesmen and women dance together. On most occasions, the dancers sing themselves, accompaniedby artists with instruments. Each form of folk dance has a specific costume and rhythm.Most of the costumes, worn for folk dances, are colorful with extensive jewels and designs.Let’s have a look at folk dances of India.

North India

· Dumhal -This age-old dance is still kept alive by the Rauf tribe of Jammu & Kashmirand is performed by men who wear long and colorful robes, accompanied by tall conicalcaps. The performers place a banner into the ground at a fixed location, and the dance isperformed around this banner.


· Hikat - Performed in groups, the dancers hold each other’s hand and go around dancingin circles. The pace of their movement is adjusted according to the tempo of the musicbeing played. Usually, it all begins slowly and the pace gradually picks up until the womengain full momentum.

· HurkaBaul - This dance form is associated with the state of Uttarakhand. Performedduring maize and paddy cultivation in the state, this dance form is more of a storytelling.While a singer incorporates heroic stories of battles in his song, the dancers enact thestories with the help of their moves.

· Chholiya - ‘Chholiya’ dance form is practiced in the Kumaon region in the state ofUttarakhand. It is traditionally performed in wedding processions. Sword wielding mendancers are seen dancing spiritedly and hence ‘Chholiya’ is often referred as ‘sworddance’.

· Bhangra - ‘Bhangra’ is one of the most popular andenergetic dances of Punjab. The origins of this impressivedance form remains speculative. While it is widely believedthat ‘Bhangra’ is a martial dance form, it is also said that itwas started by farmers to celebrate the harvest season.No celebration in the Punjab and surround areas is completewithout a Bhangra performance.

· Dhamyal - ‘Dhamyal’ or ‘Dhuph’ is one of the most popular folk dances of Haryana.‘Dhuph’ is a circular drum and is played by male dancers. The dance is performed as apart of celebration after a long day’s work in the fields.

· Mayur Nritya - This dance form is prevalent in the state of Uttar Pradesh. Also knownas peacock dance, ‘Mayur Nritya’ is performed by dancers who wear specially designedclothes so as to resemble a peacock. It is performed while worshipping Lord Krishna.

· Charkula - It is a dance performed in the Braj region of Uttar Pradesh. ‘Charkula’ isbasically a multi-tiered circular pyramid and it’s believed that Goddess Radha’sgrandmother announced the birth of her granddaughter while balancing a ‘Charkula’ onher head. Hence women dancers carry huge ‘Charkulas’ which in turn holds manylighted oil lamps.

· Rasa Lila - It is a divine form of dance performed in several parts of India. This particulardance form is considered very important by the devotees of Krishna as it has a mythologicalsignificance. It is believed that the dance was performed by Krishna along with Radhaand her friends.

· Giddha - This dance form is performed in the state of Punjab. Giddha is the femaleversion of ‘Bhangra’. The dance aims at expressing the feminine grace. The womenwear colorful clothes while performing. Giddha is usually accompanied by ‘Bolliyan’, acollection of couplets.

Central India

· Gaur Dance - This dance is associated with the tribal people in the state of Chhattisgarh.In this dance, men don colorful head-dresses and hats adorned with peacock plumes.


Women, beautified by tattoos and ornamented with fillets made out of brass and necklacesmade out of beads, also join the gathering.

· Muria Dance - This dance is associated with the tribal people of the Bastar district ofChhattisgarh. It usually begins with an invocation to the phallic deity of the tribe. TheMuria people also perform ‘Hulki’ dance and ‘Karsana’ dance. While ‘Hulki’ dance isconsidered the most attractive of all dance forms, ‘Karsana’ is seen as a recreationalactivity.

· Saila Dance - This dance form is associated with Bastar district in the state ofChhattisgarh. Saila is a unique dance in which the dancers use sticks for rhythmic purpose.The dancers are seldom seen forming a circle, each standing on one leg and supportingthemselves by holding on to the dancer in front. Then they all hop together round andround.

· Karma Dance - Karma dance is performed by the tribes of Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand,Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar and other regions of India. The dance is associated withthe fertility cult and is related to the Karma festival that falls in the month of August. Thedancers form a circle by placing their arms on the waist of the adjacent dancer anddance in a rhythmic manner.

· Kaksar Dance- Kaksar dance is popular among the Abhujmarias of Bastar. It isperformed in hope of reaping a rich harvest. To invoke the blessings of the deity, youngboys and girls perform Kaksar. An interesting trivia about the Kaksar dance is that itallows its dancers to choose their life partners from the same dance troupe.

· Jhumar - This dance form originated in the Multan and Balochistan region ofPakistan. Jhumar is slower and more rhythmic. Often performed by men, ‘Jhumar’ marksthe beginning of the harvest season and portrays the happiness of people.

· Jawara Dance - It is associated with the state of Madhya Pradesh. The dance not onlyinvolves rapid feet movement but also difficult acts of balancing. The women perform abalancing act by carrying a basket full of the harvested crop on their head.

· Bhagoria Dance - This is performed by the tribal people of Madhya Pradesh. Thoughthe dance is part of a unique festival, which allows young men and women to elope, ithas its own agricultural significance – completion of the harvest season.

· Suwa Dance - It is performed by tribes in the state of Chhattisgarh. Also known as‘parrot dance’, this unique dance gets women to act like parrots! It is usually performedonly by women and girls while men get to play musical instruments of their choice.

· Tertali Dance - It is performed by the Kamar tribe of Chhattisgarh. The dance isperformed only by women who start by squatting. A musical instrument called ‘Manjira’is tied all over their body – most commonly to their legs and the same is played by theperformers throughout the ritual.

· Grida Dance - Grida dance is performed in the state of Madhya Pradesh during winterwhen the rabi crop is ready to be harvested. The dance marks the success of farmerswhich is celebrated among the villagers in a grand manner.

East India

· Chhau - This dance form traces its roots to Odisha, Jharkhand and West Bengal but itis popular in other parts as well. As masks form an important feature of this dance it iscalled ‘Chhau’, which literally translates to ‘mask’. The performers wield weaponssuch as swords and shields while dancing.

· Brita Dance -‘Brita’ or ‘Vrita’ dance is one of the most prominent dances of WestBengal. The dance is usually performed to thank the local deity after recovering from acontagious disease – usually small pox.

· Dalkhai - This dance is popular in parts of Odisha. The dance is performed by youngwomen who are later joined by men, playing drums and other instruments. Interestingly,the men address the women as their girlfriends throughout the play.


· Gotipua - It is performed in the parts of Odisha. ‘Gotipua’ is a unique dance form sincethe performers are dressed as women. The dance form is taken seriously by the boys somuch so that they don’t cut their hair just to look like women.

· BardoChham - It is performed by Sherdukpens, a small community living in the WestKameng District of Arunachal Pradesh. The Sherdukpen tribe believe that every monthan evil force appear to mar the good qualities of humans. Thus to ward off those evilforces, they wear masks representing different animals and dance together.

North East India

· Bihu - This dance form forms the most attractive part of the Bihu festival celebrated bythe people of Assam. Bihu is celebrated at the beginning of the harvest season and goeson for nearly 30 days.

· Hojagiri - This dance is performed in the state of Tripura. Women and young girlsbalance bottle and earthen lamps on their head and move their lower body so as to makesure the bottles or lamps don’t fall. Men are involved in the act by singing and playingmusical instruments.

· Nongkram Dance - Performed by the Jaintia Hill inhabitants of Meghalaya, the‘Nongkram’ dance is a colorful event. The dance form is a way of paying respect to thelocal deity.

· Bagurumba - It is performed mainly by the Bodo tribe in Assam. Usually performed bythe women, the dance is accompanied by instruments like drums and flutes. Bagurumbadance has a rich history and is believed to be inspired by nature.

· Bhortal Dance - It is a folk dance of Assam. Performers wield cymbals and dance ingroups, with each group consisting of six or seven dancers. Dancers come up with aunique beat known as ‘7hiya Nom’ and engage in rapid feet movements.

· Jhumur - This dance is performed in the states of Assam, Jharkhand, West Bengal, andOdisha. The dance is performed by young girls while men take care of the musical part.The dancers place their arms around the waist of the adjacent dancer and sway to andfro in a synchronized manner.

· Cheraw Dance - It is performed in the Indian state of Mizoram. While the men movehorizontally and vertically held bamboo staves, women dance in between them so as toavoid their legs getting caught in between the staves. The beats are formulated when thebamboo staves are moved at rapid pace.

· Chang Lo - This dance is performed by Chang tribe of Nagaland. Since the dance istraditionally performed to celebrate the victory over their enemies on a battle field, dancersdon costumes worn by warriors and display war tactics in the form of dance.

South India· Padayani - It is performed in the central part of Kerala. Padayani is not only popular but

is also pleasing to the eyes as colors form an important aspect of the dance. The dancerswear massive masks which often represent deities.

· Kummi - ‘Kummi’ is a popular folk dance in Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Since this danceform originated when there were no musical instruments, it just involves women singingand clapping.

· Kolannalu - It is performed in the state of Andhra Pradesh. Popularly known as the‘stick dance’, ‘Kolannalu’ involves group of dancers forming two circles. While theinner circle receives a strike on their sticks, the dancers forming the outer circle deliverthe strike.

· ParaiAttam - It is a special type of dance in Tamil Nadu. Men folk play a percussioninstrument called ‘Parai’ and dance to the rhythm they come up with. Traditionally, thedance was performed for various reasons and is one of the oldest dance forms of India.


· Karagattam - It is an ancient folk dance of Tamil Nadu. Karagattam is performed whileworshipping the goddess of rain. Dancers balance huge pots on their head and dance tothe tunes of musicians.

· MayilAttam - It is performed in the temples of Tamil Nadu and kerala. This dance issimilar to the ‘Mayur Nritya’ of Uttar Pradesh. Young girls are dressed to look likepeacocks and perform to the beats of the musicians. The dancers often imitate themoves of peacock.

· PaampuAttam - It is performed in Tamil Nadu. This dance is performed whileworshipping snakes as snakes are considered divine in this part of the country. Younggirls wear clothes that resemble the skin of snakes and go about moving like snakes!

· PoikalKudiraiAttam - ‘PoikalKudirai’ literally means ‘horse with fake legs’. The dancersare made to look like they are riding a horse with just two legs! This is one of the mostpopular folk dances in Tamil Nadu.

· Theyyam - It is performed in the Malabar region of kerala. Theyyam is an age-olddance, performed to praise Goddess Kali and hence it is also known as ‘Kaliyattam.’The dancers paint their faces with vibrant colors which add to the overall effect.

South West India

· DolluKunitha - It is performed in the state of Karnataka. DolluKunitha is a populardrum dance. Large drums are hung around the necks of men. The songs used in thisdance usually have religious and battle fervor.

· Ghodemodni - It is performed in the state of Goa and the adjoining areas. Ghodemodniis also called as ‘warrior dance’as the performers are dressed as warriors and wieldswords. The dance portrays a war since the village in which the dance form originatedwas once captured by a king.

· Lava Dance - This art form is performed in one of the islands of Lakshadweep. It’sperformed by the men inhabiting the island. The dance is based on folk songs and rhythmicmovements.

· Fugdi - It is a Goan dance performed in the Konkan region. Performed by women, thisdance form is given life during Hindu festivals.The dancers make different formationslike circles or rows and go about singing and dancing. The dance begins slowly and gainspace gradually.

· Veeragase - Veeragase is one of the prominent dances of Karnataka as it’s performedduring Dasara celebrations in Mysore. Performed only by men, this dance form is intenseand involves energy-sapping movements.

West India

· Dandiya - This is very popular dance form in the states of Gujarat and Rajasthan. Dandiyais a dance form which requires its dancers to wield sticks and wear colorful costumes.Much like the ‘Saila’ dance, sticks here are used for rhythmic purpose.

· Garba - This dance form originated in the state of Gujarat. Garba is traditionally performedduring the nine-day Hindu festival ‘Navaratri’. The dance is performed around a lamp.Often the lamp is replaced with a picture or statue of Goddess ‘Shakti’.


· Koli - Koli is performed in Maharashtra. Since the dance is performed by fishermen, itinvolves elements of fishing and sea. Both men and women are involved in this interestingdance form which is a treat to watch.

· Tippani Dance - Performed during weddings and festivals in Saurashtra region ofMaharashtra, this dance is performed only by women. Shehnai and percussions like

Major dance in Indian Tribes

Santhal Dance

Santhal community performs the Santhaltribal dance. The name of this performingart is named after the performing community.This is one of the most prominent indigenousdance forms of West Bengal. Both men andwomen are allowed to dance on the tunecreated mainly with dhols and flutes.Wearing white sarees with red borders isperhaps the never changing and so theflagship dress code for santhal dancing. Menare allowed to wear white dhoti. Women deck up their hair with the local flowers as well.

Mainly the dance is performed after a steady harvest. The step of the dance is simpleyet enticing. They follow the footsteps holding each other’s hands creating a horizontal row.The movement and the steps of the dance resemble the harvesting actions.KaadarNritham is a type of ribal dance in which Only women partake.It is a primitivedance of the Kaadar tribes of the forest of Kochi area. The performers arrange themselvesin a semicircle. They hold the tip of their cloths in their hands to the level of the waist andwave it to various rhythms of the dance. It is a very simple but elegant tribal dance in slowsteps.

Elelakkaradi is a highly heroic group - dance in which almost the whole community ofmen, women and children participate. The dance is very common with the tribal called Irularof Attappadi in Palakkad district. The dance brings out the fight of the people against thewild bears which often attack their tribal hamlets. Hear the dancers move out in rhythmicsteps, with vociferous shouts and war cries and keep time to the beatings of the primitivedrums. The various stages in the fight against the wild beasts are very well presented.

KaanikkarNritham is a group dance of the kanikkar tribes. The dance is performed asa ritual offering. The steps of the dancers perfectly synchronise with the waving of thehands and beating of drums.

Paravalli Kali is a mixed dance of the aboriginals of dense forest of Travancore area inwhich both men and women participate. They dance holding arms together, or shoulder toshoulder, linked in a backlock posture. The dance develops into variety of pleasing pattern, inwhich the men and women change their positions which amazing speed. The entire group ofdancers sing songs and move swift rhythm in a circle. The linked arms swing to the rhythmin a fascinating wavelike movement.

Man Kali is a tribal dance. It is mainly of two kinds. In one version, the Ramayanaepisode in which Sita is being enchanted by Maricha in the guise of a golden deer is enactedin graceful movements. In the second type, one man takes the role of a deer while anotherthat of a hunter. The deer hopes about and jumps around. The hunter follows in close stepsand his movements and gestures suggest drawing the bow, aiming it, hurling the spear,brandishing some wooden log, etc. the whole dance is performed to the rhythm of wildpercussion instruments.

PANIYAR KALI are another set of tribel inhabiting the hilly forests of Wayand district.Their dance is highly masculine and only men participate. Hear the dancers numbering about


eight or ten stand in a circle with hands linked together. They have around with rhythmicflexions of the body and while moving stamp the ground in perfect rhythm to the loud beat ofthe primitive percussion instruments called Karu, Para, Udukku, etc. As the dance gathersmomentum the circle is swiftly expanded and contracted and the dancers utter peculiar crieswhich gradually run up to a high pitch.THAVALA KALIThavalakali is a tribal dance in which a number of participants, usually boys, jump one abovethe other in succession, imitating the leaps of the frog.

EDAYA NRITHAM EdayaNritham is the dance of the tribal shepherds. Both men and women participate. One ofthe shepherds sing. This is repeated in chorus by all the rest. As the singing is going in, one ofthem imitate the special sounds of shepherds driving their sheep. The dance as such consistsof someone of the group crying successively to imitate the wild animals that try to attack thesheep and also the thief who tries to robe them while the other members of the group veryadeptly bring out the terror on the faces of the lamps and their mournful walings.


7. Indian Music

Early History of Indian Music

Classical Indian music evolved from the Vedas, the sacred Hindu chants of ancient India.The ancient Indians believed in the divine origin of music. The purest form of sound wasconsidered equal to cosmic energy. As a result music and religion were always closelyintertwined. Classical Indian music probably evolved from the religious poems and chants ofthe Vedic period. One of the four main Vedic texts, called the Samaveda, written possiblybefore 1000 B.C., is the source of many musical forms. Music was later codified by BharataMuni. [Source: Rough Guide of World Music]

The Karntak style of southern India isclosest to music of the vedas. Speculating on thefirst Indian music, musicologist S.D. Pillai told AP,“People used clay pots that stored water asmusical instruments. Drums were used to sendmessages during war. String instruments camelater with devotional music played in temples.”

As Indian music developed over time, itabsorbed musical style forms around south andcentral Asia, particularly from various locationsaround India, Persia, and the Mughal homeland in

presentday Uzbekistan and Afghanistan. The Hindustani music of northen India is the resultthe fusion of the Hindu music of the Veda and Muslim influences from the west. AmirKhusrau (12531325) is regarded the father of Hindustani music. He melded Persian, Hindu,Sanskrit and Islamic influences and is regarded as the founder of qawwalki and khayal andthe inventor of the sitar.

Later History in the Middle Ages

During the Mughal era and the feudal era, Indian classical music thrived in the courts ofkings, maharajahs, princes and wealthy noblemen, who often tried to outdo each other in thepatronage of the arts. Many people regarded music as an entertainment form reserved forthe wealthy. In Mughal times a performances sometime lasted all day and all night. It wasdesigned to be performed for a relatively small group of people in a relatively small luxuriouschamber room not among a large audience in a concert hall. [Source: Rough Guide ofWorld Music]

The most famous singer was Tansen, a Rajput princess married to the Mughal EmperorAkbar. It was said that her voice was so beautiful and powerful it could ignite oil lamps. The


Mughals never conquered the south and Hindu Veda music remained alive there in templesand villages and has endured as Karnatak music. While Hindustani music was a court musicfor elites, Karnatak flourished as a music close to the people. Much of it was never writtendown until recently. Instead it was passed on using a system the defined rhythmic units usingmathematics.

Europeans were enchanted by some of the music they heard from India. According tolegend one Indian musician ripped open his instruments at Queen Victoria’s coronation toprove that the “seemingly superhuman sounds he produced didn’t come from a concealedmechanical device.” The greatest impact of European music on India was the introductionof brass bands by the British. Brass band music is very much alive today. Most towns haveseveral competing bands, Brass bands are fixtures of wedding processions.

With the decline of Indian nobility patronage of classical Indian music has been takenover by wealthy members of the Indian community in India and abroad and by the payingpublic.

Raga

Raga, literally interpreted as “that which colors the mind,” is the fundamental structurewithin Indian Classical Music. The easiest way for westerners to conceive of a raga is as adistinct melodic form containing certain key movements, each embodying a particularpersonality of their own. The primary aspects of these movements, the standardized notes(swara) and the rhythm and time (laya), are combined to create unique musical possibilities,each personalized by their own embellishment techniques. To complete a structuralcomposition, two more essential qualities are included: the tala, which refers to the cyclicalsystem of beats and sahitya, the lyrics, which could be sung vocally or played on instrumentsthrough a nonverbal language.

Understanding raga composition

A composition of Hindustani Classical Music is known as a bandish, which literally means‘binding’. Each bandish consists of a unique blend of the five central elements in Indianclassical music: notes (swara) time (laya) rhythm (tala) structure (raga) lyrics (sahitya)The composition is the face of the raga, defining its essence by bringing together all of itsmovements, parts and subtleties. There are two parts to a bandish, each containing two orthree lines and lasting only around one to two minutes each within an extended performance(anywhere from twenty minutes to an hour). The majority of the performance is left primarilyfor improvisation, which is based off the compositional foundation exhibited in the composition.There are countless compositions in Indian Classical Music, each showcasing certaincharacteristics, phrases and musical personalities but no raga performance will be played orheard exactly the same. They might have similar compositional structures; however, theywill always be played differently due to improvisation methods and the moods that effecthow the musician performs.Today, there are around 500 known ragas that exist in the world. About 150 arevery common and played regularly and the rest are not so known or even notpublished at all. List of ancient ragas Bhairav Kaushik Hindola


Deepak Shriraga Megha

Notes

In music, a note is the pitch and duration of a sound, and also its representation in musicalnotation (j&, i&). A note can also represent a pitch class. Notes are the building blocks ofmuch written music: discretizations of musical phenomena that facilitate performance,comprehension, and analysis.[1]

The term note can be used in both generic and specific senses: one might say either “thepiece ‘Happy Birthday to You’ begins with two notes having the same pitch”, or “the piecebegins with two repetitions of the same note”. In the former case, one uses note to refer toa specific musical event; in the latter, one uses the term to refer to a class of events sharingthe same pitch. (See also: Key signature names and translations.)Two notes with fundamental frequencies in a ratio equal to any integer power of two (e.g.,half, twice, or four times) are perceived as very similar. Because of that, all notes with thesekinds of relations can be grouped under the same pitch class.

Naad

Naad means ‘The essence of all sound’, it is a perticularvibration, a fundamental frequency that comes from one common source or sound current. Thesound , which can be used for music is called naad and the sound which cann’t be used for music callednoise . The sound that comes in use of Music with sounds melodious to ears and gives joy to our soul. Thereare two types of Naad “Ahata” and “Anahata”.

Taal

The main percussion instruments used in Hindustani classical music are the tabla and (thesomewhat less common) pakhaavaj. The tabla is a set of two kettledrums of different sizesand timbers that are played simultaneously by tapping on them with the hands in variousways to produce different kinds of sounds. These sounds are then strung together in sequencesto create different rhythm patterns (taal) to accompany musical performances.

In the hands of an expert tabla player, the tabla can make all kinds of fantastic sounds,but there are a couple of dozen commonly produced sounds dhaa, ga, ge, gi, ka, ke, dhi, dhin,tin, tun, tit, ti, te, Ta, tr, naa, ne, re, khat, taa, dhaage, tiTa, tirikiTa. Of course, these are justvocalizations of the actual sounds produced by the tabla. They are called bol, and it isthese bols that are combined in various ways to get many interesting rhythms (taals).

LAY (LAYA) - THE TEMPO

Lay is the tempo, or speed of a piece. The Hindi term for tempo is ”lay” and is derivedfrom the Sanskrit term ”laya”. It is a very simple concept, but its application is sometimescomplicated.

It goes without saying that there have to be some practical limit to usable tempi. Onebeat every ten minutes would be so slow as to be musically useless. At the other end of thespectrum we can see that 100 beats per second would be so fast that it would be perceivedas a tone and not as a rhythm. A general breakdown of Indian lay is shown in the followingtable:

Lay (tempo)atiatidrut 640 beatspermin


atidrut 320 beatspermindrut 160 beatsperminmadhya 80 beatsperminvilambit 40 beatsperminativilambit 20 beatsperminatiativilambit 10 beatspermin

The table is an idealised breakdown of lay; however, the real world is considerablymore complex. For example the designations of atidrut, ativilambit, etc. are seldom heardamong practicing musicians. This tends to stretch the previous table so that there is nolonger a 21 relationship between the various designations. To make matters even morecomplex, it has been observed that vocalists use a slower definition of timethan instrumentalists (Gottlieb 1977a:41). Furthermore the rhythmic concepts of the lightand film musicians run at a higher tempo but show a peculiar compression of scale.

The lay or tempo usually changes throughout the performance. These changes in tempoare inextricably linked to the various musical styles. In general we can say that onlyvery short pieces will maintain a fairly steady pace. Most styles will start at one tempo andthen increase in speed.

Carnatic musicCarnatic music, KarnāmakasaCgīta or KarnāmakasaEgītam is a system of musiccommonly associated with southern India, including the modern Indian states of AndhraPradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu, as well as Sri Lanka. It is one oftwo main subgenres of Indian classical music that evolved from ancient Hindu traditions, theother subgenre being Hindustani music, which emerged as a distinct form because of Persianor Islamic influences from Northern India. The main emphasis in Carnatic music is on vocalmusic; most compositions are written to be sung, and even when played on instruments, theyare meant to be performed in gāyaki (singing) style.

Although there are stylistic differences, the basic elements of śruti (the relative musicalpitch), swara (the musical sound of a single note), rāga (the mode or melodic formula),and tala (the rhythmic cycles) form the foundation of improvisation and composition in bothCarnatic and Hindustani music. Although improvisation plays an important role, Carnaticmusic is mainly sung through compositions, especially the kriti (or kirtanam) – a form developedbetween the 14th and 20th centuries by composers such as PurandaraDasa and the Trinityof Carnatic music. Carnatic music is also usually taught and learned through compositions.

Carnatic music is usually performed by a small ensemble of musicians, consisting of aprincipal performer (usually a vocalist), a melodic accompaniment (usually a violin), a rhythmaccompaniment (usually a mridangam), and a tambura, which acts as a drone throughoutthe performance. Other typical instruments used in performances may includethe ghatam, kanjira, morsing, venu flute, veena, and chitraveena. The greatest concentrationof Carnatic musicians is to be found in the city of Chennai.[3] Various Carnatic music festivals


are held throughout India and abroad, including the Madras Music Season, which has beenconsidered to be one of the world’s largest cultural events.

In Carnatic music there is a very highly developed theoretical system. It is based upon acomplex system of Ragam (Raga) and Thalam (Tala). Raga is basically the scale and theseven notes of this scale are Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha and Ni. Though unlike a simple scalethere are definite melodic restrictions and compulsions. The Ragams are classified into variousmodes. These modes are referred to as mela, which are 72 in number. The Tala (thalam) isthe rhythmic foundation of the Carnatic music.

Hindustani Music

Hindustani classical music is an Indian classical music tradition. It originated in North Indiaaround 13th and 14th centuries. In contrast to Carnatic music, the other main Indian classicalmusic tradition from South India, the Hindustani classical music was not only influenced byancient Hindu musical traditions and Vedic philosophy but also by the Persian elements.Hindustani classical music is the most popular stream of Indian music.

Hindustani music is based on the ragasystem. The Raga is a melodic scale,comprising of notes from the basic sevenSa, Re, Ga, Ma Pa, Dha and Ni. On the basisof notes included in it, each raga attains adifferent character. The form of the raga isalso determined by the particular pattern ofascent and descent of the notes, which maynot be strictly linear.

Hindustani classical music is primarilyvocalcentric. The major vocal formsassociated with Hindustani classical musicare the khayal, Ghazal, dhrupad, dhammar,tarana and thumri. Dhrupad style of singingis traditionally performed by men with a tanpura and pakhawaj. The lyrics sung in Dhrupadare in a medieval form of Hindi and typically heroic in theme, or in praise of a particular deity.A more adorned form is called dhamar. The place of dhrupad has been taken by somewhatless austere and more freeform khayal.

Khayal consists of about 48 lines of lyrics set to a tune. The performer uses these fewlines as the base for improvisation. The Khayal form of Hindustani classical music is ascribedto Hussain Shah Sharqui, the 15th century ruler of the Sharqui dynasty. It was made popularby the 18th century rule of Mohammed Shah. Some of the modern day vocalists are BhimsenJoshi, Nagraj Havaldar, KishoriAmonkar, Ulhas Kashalkar, Ajoy Chakraborty, PrabakarKarekar, Pandit Jasraj, Rashid Khan, Aslam Khan, Shruti Sadolikar, Chandrasekhar Swamiand Mashkoor Ali Khan.

Another vocal form of the Hindustani music is Tarana. Tarana are songs that are used toconvey a feel of joy and are usually performed towards the end of a concert. Thumri is aninformal vocal form of Hindustani classical music and is said to have begun with the court ofNawab Wajid Ali Shah, the Nawab of Oudh.

Originally, a Persian form of vocal music, Ghazal is an important part of HindustaniClassical music. Ghazal exists in multiple variations, including folk and pop forms. Somenotable Ghazal performers include Ghulam Ali, Jagjit Singh, Mehndi Hassan and PankajUdhas. The themes of Ghazals range from love, joy and piety.

Similarities

(i) Although there are stylistic differences, the basic elements of swara, raga and tala asfoundation of both Carnatic and Hindustani are same.


(ii) Hindustani music originated in the Vedic period, while Carnatic music originated duringthe Bhakti movement. Thus both are having great association with religion.

(iii) Carnatic is one of two main subgenres of India classical music that evolved from ancientHindu traditions, the other subgenre being Hindustani music, which emerged as a distinctform due to Persian and Islamic influences in North India.

(iv) Both the music evolved with Sanskrit language scripts in itself and through Vedic traditions.(v) The central notions in both these system is that of a melodic mode or raga, sug to a

rhythmic cycle or tala.

Differences

(i) Origin of Hindustani music is earlier than Carnatic music. It synthesizes with Vedicchants, Islamic traditions and Persian MusiqueAssil style. Carnatic is Comparativelypure and was developed in 15th 16th century during Bhakti movement and also get boostin 19th 20th century.

(ii) Main emphasis in Carnatic music is on vocal music and most compositions are to besung, involving gayaki style. In Hindustani music vocal centric group is required. Manyinstruments are designed to accompany the singer.

(iii) The major vocal forms of Hindustani music are Dhrupad, khayal, Tarana, Thumri, Dadraand Gazals. While Carnatic music embraces several varieties of improvisation consist ofAlpana, Niraval, kalpnaswaram and Ragam Thana pallavi.

Additionally

Hindustani Classical Music: Indian classical music found throughout North India. Thestyle is sometimes called North Indian classical music or ShāstriyaSangīt. It is a tradition thatoriginated in Vedic ritual chants and has been evolving since the 12th century CE, in NorthIndia and to some extent in Nepal and Afghanistan.Carnatic music (Karnataka Sangita): A system of music commonly associated with thesouthern part of the Indian subcontinent, with its area roughly confined to four modern statesof India: Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. It is one of two main subgenres of Indian classical music that evolved from ancient Hindu traditions; the other subgenre being Hindustani music, which emerged as a distinct form because of Persian andIslamic influences in North India.

Major forms of Hindustani Music

Dhrupad

Dhrupad is an old style of singing, traditionallyperformed by male singers. It is performedwith a tambura and a pakhawaj asinstrumental accompaniments. The lyrics,some of which were written in Sanskritcenturies ago, are presently often sung inbrajbhasha, a medieval form of North andEast Indian languages that was spoken inEastern India. The rudra veena, an ancientstring instrument, is used in instrumental musicin dhrupad.Dhrupad music is primarily devotional intheme and content. It contains recitals inpraise of particular deities. Dhrupadcompositions begin with a relatively long andacyclic alap, where the syllables of thefollowing mantra is recited:


“Om Anant tam TaranTariniTwam Hari Om Narayan, Anant Hari Om Narayan”.The alap gradually unfolds into more rhythmic jod and jhala sections. These sections are

followed by a rendition of bandish, with the pakhawaj as an accompaniment. The greatIndian musician Tansen sang in the dhrupad style. A lighter form of dhrupad, called dhamar,is sung primarily during the festival of Holi.

Dhrupad was the main form of northern Indian classical music until two centuries ago,when it gave way to the somewhat less austere khyal, a more freeform style of singing.Since losing its main patrons among the royalty in Indian princely states, dhrupad riskedbecoming extinct in the first half of the twentieth century. However, the efforts by a fewproponents, especially from the Dagar family, have led to its revival and eventual popularizationin India and in the West.

Some of the best known vocalists who sing in the Dhrupad style are the members of theDagar lineage, including the senior Dagar brothers, Nasir Moinuddin and NasirAminuddinDagar; the junior Dagar brothers, Nasir Zahiruddin and Nasir FaiyazuddinDagar;and Wasifuddin, Fariduddin, and SayeeduddinDagar. Other leading exponents include theGundecha Brothers and Uday Bhawalkar, who have received training from some of theDagars. Leading vocalists outside the Dagar lineage include the Mallik family of Darbhangatradition of musicians; some of the leading exponents of this tradition were Ram ChaturMallick, Siyaram Tiwari, and Vidur Mallick. At present Prem Kumar Mallick, Prashant andNishant Mallick are the Dhrupad vocalists of this tradition.

A section of dhrupad singers of Delhi Gharana from Mughal emperor Shah Jahan’s courtmigrated to Bettiah under the patronage of the Bettiah Raj, giving rise to the Bettiah Gharana.Bishnupur Gharana, based in West Bengal, is a key school that has been propagating thisstyle of singing since Mughal times.

Khyal

Khyal is the more modern Hindustani form ofvocal music. Khyal, literally meaning “thought”or “imagination” in Hindustani and derived fromthe Arabic term, is unusual as it is based onimprovising and expressing emotion. A Khyal isa two to eightline lyric set to a melody. Khyalcontains a greater variety of embellishments andornamentations compared to dhrupad. Khyal’sromanticism has led to it becoming the mostpopular genre of classical music.

The importance of the Khyal’s content is for the singer to depict, through music in the setraga, the emotional significance of the Khyal. The singer improvises and finds inspirationwithin the raga to depict the Khyal.

The origin of Khyal is controversial, although it is accepted that this style was based onDhrupad and influenced by outside musical influences. Many argue that Amir Khusrau createdthe style in the late 14th century. This form was popularized by Mughal Emperor MohammadShah through his court musicians; some wellknown composers of this period were Sadarang,Adarang, and Manrang.

Tarana

Another vocal form, taranas are medium to fastpaced songs that are used to convey amood of elation and are usually performed towards the end of a concert. They consist of afew lines of poetry with soft syllables or bols set to a tune. The singer uses these few lines asa basis for fast improvisation. The tillana of Carnatic music is based on the tarana, althoughthe former is primarily associated with dance.


Tappa

Tappa is a form of Indian semiclassical vocal musicwhose specialty is its rolling pace based on fast,subtle, knotty construction. It originated from thefolk songs of the camel riders of Punjab and wasdeveloped as a form of classical music by MianGhulam Nabi Shori or ShoriMian, a court singerfor AsafUdDowlah, the Nawab of Awadh. “NidhubaburTappa”, or tappas sung by NidhuBabuwere very popular in 18th and 19thcentury Bengal. Among the living performers of this styleare Laxmanrao Pandit, Shanno Khurana, Manvalkar, Girija Devi, IshwarchandraKarkare,Jayant Khot and MeetaPandit.

Thumri

Thumri is a semiclassical vocal form said to have begunin Uttar Pradesh with the court of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah,(r. 1847–1856). There are three types of thumri: poorabang, Lucknavi and Punjabi thumri. The lyrics are typicallyin a protoHindi language called Brij Bhasha and areusually romantic.

Some recent performers of this genre are Abdul Karim Khan, the brothers Barkat AliKhan and Bade Ghulam Ali Khan, Begum Akhtar, Girija Devi, Prabha Atre, SiddheshwariDevi, and Shobha Gurtu.

Ghazal

In the Indian subcontinent, Ghazal became the most common form of poetry in the Urdulanguage and was popularized by classical poets like Mir Taqi Mir, Ghalib, Daagh, Zauq andSauda amongst the North Indian literary elite. Vocal music set to this mode of poetry ispopular with multiple variations across Central Asia, the Middle East, as well as other countriesand regions of the world. Ghazal exists in multiple variations, including semiclassical, folkand pop forms.

Singers and musicians

1. MianTansen (1506 – 1589) : One of the nine jewels (navaratnas) at Mughal emperorAkbar’s court — MianTansen is considered to be a pioneer of Indian classical music.His ragas are an important part of Indian culture and many of them contain the prefix,“mianki”. For example, “MiankiTodi” or “MiankiMalhar”. Here is Pt. Shivkumar Sharma’srendition of the raga, “MiankiMalhar”.

2. Rabindranath Tagore (1861 – 1941) : Amongst several other things, Tagore was also acelebrated musician. He has to his credit 2,230 compositions. He created his songs fromscratch — the tune, the lyrics, et al. Rabindrasangeet is almost a genre on its own andthe diversity in his music is beyond remarkable.

3. M. S. Subbulakshmi (1916 – 2004) :Subbulakshmi was a legend. She was only 13when she gave her first performance at the Madras Music Academy and stunned theaudience present. She would go on to create ripples across seven seas. She was the firstmusician to be awarded the prestigious Bharat Ratna, India’s highest civilian honour.

4. Pt. Ravi Shankar (1920 – 2012) : His music cannot bepenned down, for its impact has been so vast that itencompasses audiences across the world. Amongst hisardent admirers and students were The Byrds and GeorgeHarrison of The Beatles. If one were to begin naming theawards he won during his lifetime, one would not stop.


From the Bharat Ratna to the Honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the BritishEmpire to three Grammy awards. He saw it all, he won it all.

5. S. Balachander (1927 – 1990) : This Padma Bhushan awardee was no less than amagician and his wand was his veena. He is credited with contemporarising the veenaand boldly changing the grammar of instrumental music. His are indeed the strings ofenigma. Prepare to be enthralled.

6. Pt. Shivkumar Sharma (1938 – ) : A wonderful santoor player. Shivkumar Sharma is aoneofhiskind musician. There is so much depth, so much playfulness, so much beautyin his music. He has been the recipient of Padma Shree and Padma Vibhushan and haswon accolades around the world.

7. Lata Mangeshkar (1929 – ) : She has been revered in the Indian music industry for overseven decades. Very few singers have such range and sweetness in their voices. AfterSubbulakshmi, she is the second vocalist ever to have been awarded the Bharat Ratna.

8. Mohammad Rafi (1924 – 1980) : Let’s face it. Bollywood would not have been thesame without him….his music understood what Bollywood was about! It did what noone else has been able to do with as much flawlessness – it brought outthe ada and captured the nuances of Bollywood moments.

9. Begum Akhtar (1914 – 1974) : A Padma Shree and a Padma Bhushan (posthumous)awardee, Akhtar was titled MallikaeGhazal, so beautiful were her ghazals. Her musicis achingly soulful and expresses a deep yearning.

10. HariprasadChaurasiya (1938 – ) : An Indian classical flutist of utter brilliance, Chaurasiya,a Padma Shree and a Padma Vibushan recipient, creates wonders when he plays theflute. He has been bewitching audiences the world over with the new emotional ambiencehe’s brought to classical music.

11. Ilayaraja (1943 – ) : Ilayaraja is one of finest composers India has today. Although mostof his work is in South Indian languages, his influence is spread all over India. The rangeof music he has composed is mindboggling.

12. Zakir Hussain (1951 – ) : Padma Bhushan and Padma Shree recipient, Hussain is theyoungest percussionist to have been awarded such high honours. This tabla maestro iscapable of putting a beat to every millisecond of passing moment. Listening to him is purebliss.

13. Bismillah Khan (1913 – 2006) : The spectacular shehnai player,Bismillah Khan, was a musician who managed to grasp the essenceof Indian culture through his music. He was a Bharat Ratna as wellas a Padma Vibhushan recipient.

14. A. R. Rahman (1987 – ) : This man is a living legend. His music hasthe potential to reach corners of your emotions you did not knowexisted. From National recognition with a Padma Bhushan and fourNational Awards in his pocket, he is internationally recognised also,having won two Grammys.

15. Master Madan (1927 – 1947) : He died young at the age of 15, leaving behind just eightsongs of exquisite beauty. He was a child prodigy, a ghazal singer par excellence.

16. Bhimsen Joshi (1922 – 2011) : This Bharat Ratnarecipient was a Hindustani classical vocalist and abreathtaking one at that. Every nuance in his songswas profoundly clear and poignant.

17. Ustad Amjad Ali Khan (1945-) : This phenomenalsarod player is considered to be one of the greatestsarod players of the twentieth century. His music is asrenowned internationally as it is on a national level and he considers his audience to be hismotivation. He refuses to discriminate between genres and chooses to play “just music”.


18. R. D. Burman (1939 – 1994) : He was the man who brought in western tunes to theHindi film industry and experimented with several other genres. He thought outside thebox and broke the Bollywood music scene, marking his own niche. He is still a majorinfluence on budding as well as established artistes of the industry.

19. Kadri Gopalnath (1949 – ) : Kadri Gopalnath is a Padma Bhushan winning saxophoneplayer and a pioneer of Carnatic music on the instrument. The kind of music he plays hasa melodic richness and the amount of effort he puts in is beyond phenomenal.

20. Dr. L. Subramaniam (1947 – ) :This violinist makes music of sheer class. A violinist ofspectacular stature, Subramaniam has numerous awards to his name, including the PadmaBhushan.There is just something about music reaching that corner of your emotional high, one

which the mundane cycle of every day separates from your active conscience, that makes itso special. Do yourself a little justice – widen your range, strengthen that high.Indian classical drama

The term Indian classical drama refers to the tradition of dramatic literature andperformance in ancient India. The origin of dramatic performance in Indian subcontinent canbe traced back to as early as 200 BCE. Its drama is regarded as the highest achievementof Sanskrit literature. Buddhist philosopher Asvaghosa who composed Buddhacarita isconsidered to have been the first Sanskrit dramatist.

Beginnings

The earliestsurviving fragments of Sanskrit drama date from c.600 BCE. The wealth ofarcheological evidence from earlier periods offers no indication of the existence of a traditionof theatre. The Vedas (the earliest Indian literature, from between 1500 and 600 BCE) containno hint of it; although a small number of hymns are composed in a form of dialogue, the rituals ofthe Vedic period do not appear to have developed into theatre. The Mahābhācya byPatañjali contains the earliest reference to what may have been the seeds of Sanskritdrama. This treatise on grammar from 140 BCE provides a feasible date for the beginningsof theatre in India.

However, although there are no surviving fragments of any drama prior to this date, it ispossible that early Buddhist literature provides the earliest evidence for the existence ofIndian theater. The Pali suttas (ranging in date from the 5th to 3rd centuries BCE) refer tothe existence of troupes of actors (led by a chief actor), who performed dramas on a stage.It is indicated that these dramas incorporated dance, but were listed as a distinct form ofperformance, alongside dancing, singing, and story recitations.

Since the time of Alexander the Great, the Indian subcontinent came into direct contactwith Greek culture. This has led to a scholarly debate about how much influence AncientGreek drama had upon the development of Indian theater.

Theory

Natya Shastra

Major source of evidence for Sanskrit theatre is A Treatise on Theatre (Nātyaśāstra), acompendium whose date of composition is uncertain (estimates range from 200 BCE to 200CE) and whose authorship is attributed to Bharata Muni. The Treatise is the most completework of dramaturgy in the ancient world. It addresses acting, dance, music, dramaticconstruction, architecture, costuming, makeup, props, the organisation of companies, theaudience, competitions, and offers a mythological account of the origin of theatre. In doingso, it provides indications about the nature of actual theatrical practices. Sanskrit theatre wasperformed on sacred ground by priests who had been trained in the necessary skills (dance,music, and recitation) in an hereditary process. Its aim was both to educate and to entertain.


Under the patronage of royal courts, performers belonged to professional companiesthat were directed by a stage manager (sutradhara), who may also have acted. This taskwas thought of as being analogous to that of a puppeteer—the literal meaning of “sutradhara”is “holder of the strings or threads”. The performers were trained rigorously in vocal andphysical technique. There were no prohibitions against female performers; companies wereallmale, allfemale, and of mixed gender. Certain sentiments were considered inappropriatefor men to enact, however, and were thought better suited to women. Some performersplayed characters their own age, while others played characters younger or older thanthemselves. Of all the elements of theatre, the Treatise gives most attention to acting(abhinaya), which consists of two styles: realistic (lokadharmi) and conventional(natyadharmi), though the major focus is on the latter.

The theory of rasa described in the text has been a major influence on the modern theatreof India as well as Indian cinema, particularly Bollywood.

Plays

Mricchakatika (The Little Clay Cart)

One of the earliest known Sanskrit plays, this play was composed by Śudraka in the 2ndcentury BC. Rife with romance, sex, royal intrigue and comedy, the juicy plot of the play hasnumerous twists and turns. The main story is about a young man named Charudatta, and hislove for Vasantasena, a rich courtesan or nagarvadhu. The love affair is complicated by aroyal courtier, who is also attracted to Vasantasena. The plot is further complicated bythieves and mistaken identities, and thus making it a greatly hilarious and entertaining play. Itinvited widespread admiration when staged in New York in 1924. The play was made into a1984 Hindi movie Utsav, directed by Girish Karnad. The Indian play depicted in the 2001film Moulin Rouge! may have been based on The Little Clay Cart.

Bhasa

The plays written by Bhāsa were only known to historians through the references of laterwriters, the manuscripts themselves being lost. Manuscripts of 13 plays written by him werediscovered in an old library in Thiruvananthapuram (Trivandrum) in 1913 by thescholar Ganapati Sastri. A 14th play was later discovered and attributed to Bhāsa, but itsauthorship is disputed.

Bhasa’s most famous plays are SvapnaVasavadattam(Swapnavāsadatta) (“Vasavadatta’s dream”), Pancharātra, and PratijnaYaugandharayaanam (“The vows of Yaugandharayana”). Some other playsbeing Pratimanātaka, Abhishekanātaka, Bālacharita, Dūtavākya, Karnabhāra,Dūtaghatotkacha, Chārudatta, Madhyamavyāyoga and ŪrubhaEga.

Karnabhara is a critically acclaimed play and it is being subjected to lot of experimentationby the modern theatre groups in India.

Bhasa is considered to be one of the best Sanskrit playwrights, second only to Kalidasa.He is earlier than Kalidasa, and is dated to the 3rd or 4th century CE.

Kâlidâsa

Kālidāsa (4th5th century CE) is easily the greatest poet and playwright in Sanskrit, andoccupies the same position in Sanskrit literature that Shakespeare occupies in English literature.He deals primarily with famous Hindu legends and themes; three famous plays by Kālidāsaare Vikramōrvaśīyam (“Vikrama and Urvashi”), Mālavikāgnimitram (“Malavika andAgnimitra”), and the play that he is most known for: Abhijñānaśākuntalam (“TheRecognition of Shakuntala”). The last named play is considered to be greatest play in Sanskrit.More than a millennium later, it would so powerfully impress the famous Germanwriter Goethe that he would write:


“Wouldst thou the young year’s blossoms and the fruits of its decline And all by whichthe soul is charmed, enraptured, feasted, fed, Wouldst thou the earth and heaven itselfin one sole name combine? I name thee, O Shakuntala! and all at once is said.”

Kālidāsa also wrote two large epic poems, RaghuvaCśa (“The Genealogy of Raghu”)and Kumārasambhava (“Birth of Kumara”), and two smaller epics, ZitusaChāra (“Medleyof Seasons”) and Meghadūta (The Cloud Messenger), another ‘perfect’ work.

Kālidāsa’s writing is characterized by the usage of simple but beautiful Sanskrit, andby his extensive use of similes. His similes have earned him the saying, Upama

Kalidasasya (Kālidāsa owns simile). The full śloka reads: ”upamāKālidāsasya,Bhāraverarthagauravam | DaG

inahpadalālityam, MāghesantitrayoguGah ||”

Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadatta

Amongst Sanskrit plays, the historical play Mudrarakshasa is unique because it containspolitical intrigue and is full of life, action and sustained interest. The time period of compositionis prior to 800 C.E. In the play, Chandragupta Maurya is ruling from Pataliputra, havingdeposed the last of the Nanda kings. Rakshasa the minister of Nanda, attempts to avengehis late master. Chanakya, the minister of Chandragupta succeeds in winning over Rakshasato his master’s side.

Other major plays

Other great plays include Ratnavali, Nagananda and Priyadarsika by Sri Harsha (7thcentury CE), Mahendravikramavarman’s MattavilasaPrahasana, Shaktibhadra’sĀścaryacū āmaGi, Kulasekhara’s Subhadradhananjaya and Tapatisamvarana,Neelakantha’s KalyanaSaugandhika and Sri Krishna Charita.

Sanskrit theatre

The earliestsurviving fragments of Sanskrit drama date from the 1st century CE. The wealthof archeological evidence from earlier periods offers no indication of the existence of atradition of theatre. The Vedas (the earliest Indian literature, from between 1500 and 600BCE) contain no hint of it; although a small number of hymns are composed in a formof dialogue), the rituals of the Vedic period do not appear to have developed into theatre.The Mahābhācya by Patañjali contains the earliest reference to what may have been theseeds of Sanskrit drama. This treatise on grammar from 140 BCE provides a feasible datefor the beginnings of theatre in India.

However, although there are no surviving fragments of any drama prior to this date, it ispossible that early Buddhist literature provides the earliest evidence for the existence ofIndian theater. The Pali suttas (ranging in date from the 5th to 3rd centuries BCE) refer tothe existence of troupes of actors (led by a chief actor), who performed dramas on a stage.It is indicated that these dramas incorporated dance, but were listed as a distinct form ofperformance, alongside dancing, singing, and story recitations

The major source of evidence for Sanskrit theatre is A Treatise on Theatre (Nātyaśāstra),a compendium whose date of composition is uncertain (estimates range from 200 BCE to200 CE) and whose authorship is attributed to Bharata Muni. The Treatise is the most completework of dramaturgy in the ancient world. It addresses acting, dance, music, dramaticconstruction, architecture, costuming, makeup, props, the organisation of companies, theaudience, competitions, and offers a mythological account of the origin of theatre. In doingso, it provides indications about the nature of actual theatrical practices. Sanskrit theatre wasperformed on sacred ground by priests who had been trained in the necessary skills (dance,music, and recitation) in a [hereditary process]. Its aim was both to educate and to entertain.


An appreciation for the stagecraft and classic Sanskrit drama was seen as an essential partof a sophisticated world view, by the end of the seventh century. Under the patronage ofroyal courts, performers belonged to professional companies that were directed by a stagemanager (sutradhara), who may also have acted. This task was thought of as being analogousto that of a puppeteer—the literal meaning of “sutradhara” is “holder of the strings orthreads”. The performers were trained rigorously in vocal and physical technique. Therewere no prohibitions against female performers; companies were allmale, allfemale, and ofmixed gender. Certain sentiments were considered inappropriate for men to enact, however,and were thought better suited to women. Some performers played characters their ownage, while others played ages different from their own (whether younger or older). Of all theelements of theatre, the Treatise gives most attention to acting (abhinaya), which consistsof two styles: realistic (lokadharmi) and conventional (natyadharmi), though the majorfocus is on the latter.

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