Annex 1: List of Abbreviations of the Genera of Stingless Bees ...

271

Annex 1: List of Abbreviations of the Genera of Stingless Bees Used in the Book and Recognized Species for Mexico

Presently, there are two accepted systems of nomenclature used in stingless bees (Michener 2000; Camargo and Pedro 2007; Moure et al. 2007; Rasmussen and Cameron 2010). In the book, I preeminently use the genera proposed by Camargo and Pedro (2007) and Moure et al. (2007). Stingless bee genera appear abbreviated in the book; however, I use a non-conventional system of abbreviation when differ-ent genera start with the same letter. Here is the list of genera abbreviations used in the book:

Apis= A.Austroplebeia= Au.Cephalotrigona= Cph.Friesella= Frs.Frieseomelitta= Fr.Lestrimelitta= L.Melipona= M.Nannotrigona= N.Partamona= Pt.Plebeia= Pb.Scaptotrigona= Scp.Scaura= Scr.Schwarziana=Sch.Tetragonilla=Ttga.Tetragonisca= Ttr.Tetragonula= Ttgn.Trigona= Tr.Trigonisca= Tgca.

In Mexico in accordance to Camargo and Pedro (2007) and Moure et al. (2007) 16 genera of stingless bees are reported and 46 species are formally recognized (Ayala 1999):

© Springer International Publishing AG, part of Springer Nature 2018 J. J. G. Quezada-Euán, Stingless Bees of Mexico, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77785-6

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77785-6

272

1. Cephalotrigona eburneiventer 2. Cph. oaxacana 3. Cph. zexmeniae ** 4. Dolichotrigona schulthesi 5. Lestrimelitta chamelensis 6. L. niitkib ** 7. Melipona beecheii** 8. M. belizae. 9. M. colimana. 10. M. fasciata. 11. M. lupitae 12. M. solani 13. M. yucatanica** 14. Nannotrigona perilampoides** 15. Oxytrigona mediorufa 16. Paratrigona guatemalensis 17. Partamona bilineata** 18. Pt. orizabaensis 19. Plebeia cora 20. Pb. frontalis ** 21. Pb. fulvopilosa 22. Pb. jatiformis 23. Pb. llorentei 24. Pb. manantlensis 25. Pb. melanica 26. Pb. mexica 27. Pb. moureana** 28. Pb. parkeri** 29. Pb. pulchra** 30. Scaura latitarsis 31. Scaptotrigona hellwegeri 32. Scp. mexicana 33. Scp. pectoralis** 34. Frieseomelitta nigra** 35. Geotrigona acapulconis 36. Tetragona dorsalis 37. Tetragonisca angustula 38. Trigona corvina 39. Tr. fulviventris** 40. Tr. fuscipennis** 41. Tr. nigerrima 42. Tr. silvestriana 43. Trigonisca azteca 44. Tgca. maya** 45. Tgca. mixteca 46. Tgca. pipioli**

*Asterisks indicate species present in the Yucatan Peninsula

Annex 1: List of Abbreviations of the Genera of Stingless Bees Used in the Book…

273

Annex 2: Nectar- and Pollen-Producing Plants in the Yucatan Peninsula


274


275


276


277


278


279

Annex 3: Record Sheet Template, Nest Dimensions, and Hive Sizes for Stingless Bees from the Yucatan Peninsula

Annex 3.1: An Example Record Template for a Meliponario

Name of Meliponario: KanlolLocality: IzamalBee species: Melipona beecheii Date of record: 13/May/2017Colony/hive number

Queen presence Strength

New combs

Pupae combs Total

Number of pots

Phorids or pests Observations

2 Yes Strong 7 6 13 21 No No6 No Weak 0 3 3 10 A few Possibly

queenless, feed and provide phorid traps

9 Yes Medium 4 4 8 17 No Feed

Annex 3.2: Nest Dimensions of Stingless Bee Species from Yucatan


280

Spec

ies

Ent

ranc

eC

avity

Bro

od c

ham

ber

Com

bs

Len

gth

Dia

met

erL

engt

hD

iam

eter

Wal

l th

ickn

ess

Len

gth

Dia

met

ern

new

ScD M

ajor

D min

or

Mel

ipon

a be

eche

ii (

n =

15)

Mea

n ±

sta

ndar

d de

viat

ion

1.15

± 0

.18

59.0

7 ±

5.8

913

± 0

.18

4.02

± 1

.12

16.9

2 ±

3.5

712

.5 ±

1.3

88.

7 ±

2.5

93.

7 ±

1.4

80.

62 ±

0.1

79.

85 ±

2.8

5.2

± 2

.0

Ran

ge0.

9–1.

550

–69

10–1

5.5

2.5–

810

–21

8–14

.55–

132–

70.

6–0.

98.

0–17

.04.

0–6.

2

Scap

totr

igon

a pe

ctor

alis

(n

= 3

9)

Mea

n ±

sta

ndar

d de

viat

ion

1.24

± 0

.97

58.8

± 2

4.7

9.31

± 3

.13

16.4

7 ±

5.2

38.

18 ±

2.8

69.

59 ±

3.2

53.

75 ±

1.6

30.

34 ±

0.6

6.77

± 2

.91

4.51

± 2

.33

Ran

ge0.

46–1

.625

–126

4.5–

17.5

11–2

94.

25–1

53–

182–

80.

3–0.

44.

7–8.

332.

5–6.

5

Fri

eseo

mel

itta

nig

ra (

n =

4)

Mea

n +

sta

ndar

d de

viat

ion

0.52

± 1

.08

56.7

6 ±

13.

17.

06 ±

2.4

17.

87 ±

1.4

3

Ran

ge0.

4−0.

76−

10

Ple

beia

fron

tali

s (n

= 1

)

0.45

5014

110.

455

3

Cep

halo

trig

ona

zexm

enia

e (n

= 7

)

Mea

n +

sta

ndar

d de

viat

ion

0.61

± 0

.25

75.2

8 ±

17.

814

.71

± 1

.717

.4 ±

4.3

921

± 1

6.08

Ran

ge0.

6−0.

6560−

101

13−

1813−

2310−

52

Les

trim

elit

ta n

iitk

ib (

n =

3)

Mea

n +

sta

ndar

d de

viat

ion

7.6

± 2

.23

7 ±

1.4

110

3.3

± 4

.712

.3 ±

0.4

733

.3 ±

4.7

112

31 ±

11.

312

.5 ±

4.5

0.36

± 1

.69

± 0

.87

Ran

ge5.

5−8.

45−

810

0−11

012−

3030−

400

23−

478−

170.

3−0.

88−

100

Annex 3: Record Sheet Template, Nest Dimensions, and Hive Sizes…

281

Spec

ies

Cel

lsIn

volu

crum

Pots

Bitu

men

Gal

lery

Que

en c

ell

Hei

ght

Wid

thN

umbe

r of

la

yers

Thi

ckne

ssH

eigh

tW

idth

Thi

ckne

ssL

engt

hD

iam

eter

Hei

ght

Wid

th

Mel

ipon

a be

eche

ii (

n =

15)

Mea

n +

sta

ndar

d de

viat

ion

1 ±

0.0

20.

48 ±

0.3

51.

2 (1

− 2

)

± 0

.41

0.12

± 0

.85

3.38

± 0

.14

2.37

± 0

.21.

21 ±

0.9

14.0

5 ±

4.6

1.93

± 0

.57

––

Ran

ge1.

0–1.

10.

4–0.

51.

0–2.

00.

1–0.

153.

0–3.

52.

1–2.

70.

6–1.

57.

1–20

1.6–

2.5

Scap

totr

igon

a pe

ctor

alis

(n

= 3

9)M

ean

+ s

tand

ard

devi

atio

n0.

523

± 0

.52

0.30

6 ±

0.3

1.98

± 0

.79

1.54

± 1

.58

1.82

± 0

.41.

86 ±

.38

0.99

± 1

.57

9.14

± 3

.61.

3 ±

0.1

1.92

± 1

.09

2.85

+0

Ran

ge.5

–6.2

75–.

41–

41

1–8

4−19

11–

22.

85F

ries

eom

elit

ta n

igra

(n

= 4

)M

ean

+ s

tand

ard

devi

atio

n0.

5 +

00.

34 ±

0.2

91.

75 ±

0.2

71.

2 ±

0.1

3.67

± 1

.02

Ran

ge0.

3–0.

50.

32–0

.39

1.6–

1.8

2.2–

1.3

2.65

–4.7

Ple

beia

fron

tali

s (n

= 1

)M

ean

0.3

0.15

1.5

14.

56.

51

Les

trim

elit

ta n

iitk

ib (

n =

3)

Mea

n +

sta

ndar

d de

viat

ion

0.5

+ 0

0.3

+ 0

2.36

± 0

.18

1.76

± 0

.12

0.65

± 0

.50.

45 ±

0.5

Ran

ge0

02.

1–2.

51.

6–1.

90.

6–0.

70.

4–0.

5

D D

iam

eter

, Sc

Spac

e be

twee

n co

mbs

For

Cep

halo

trig

ona

zexm

enia

e (n

= 7

) a

mea

n of

125

2 (+

1828

) br

ood

cells

was

obt

aine

d an

d a

scut

ellu

m le

ngth

of

25.2

cm

(+

14.6

) an

d w

idth

of

11.6

(+

7) c

m w

ere

reco

rded


282

Recommended internal dimensions of wooden hives (wood thickness at least 2.5 cm) for stingless bees from the Yucatan. Volumes (V) were calculated from data on cavity size (diameter and length) in Annex 3.2 and using an approach to the cyl-inder volume

(V = π r2 length):

Horizontal model TIBGA (measures are for the brood chamber, the super should be half the height):

M. beecheii

Natural volume = 7.8 L9 cm height × 15 cm width × 55 cm length

Scp. pectoralis

Natural volume = 4 L9 cm height × 12 cm width × 40 cm length

Fr. nigra

Natural volume = 2.2 L9 cm height × 10 cm width × 30 cm length

N. perilampoides and P. frontalis

8 cm height × 9 cm width × 25 cm length

Vertical models as for Portugal Araujo-1:

M. beecheii

Brood chamber: 30 cm height × 16 cm width × 16 cm lengthSuper: 5 cm height × 16 cm width × 16 cm length

Scp. pectoralis


Fr. nigra


N. perilampoides and P. frontalis


It is important to note that the measures for horizontal hives are recommended based on measures taken from natural nests. Colonies may grow in the hives and

Annex 3: Record Sheet Template, Nest Dimensions, and Hive Sizes…

283

would need additional space. In such case supers with the same length and width dimensions but with half the height can be provided.

In the case of Cephalotrigona zexmeniae colonies generally do not adapt well to wooden hives unless wood of at least 4 cm thick is used. Styrene could also be used as an additional outer cover. Hive sizes for Scp. pectoralis or M. beecheii would be suitable for this species.


285

AAbdomen, 58, 60, 64–67Abdominal inflation, 135Achiote (Bixa orellana), 176–177Age polyethism, 92, 96Aggregation, N.perilampoides, 147Aggression, 105Aggressive response, 103, 106, 113, 114Agrochemicals, 222, 224, 229Ah-Mucen-kab, 248, 250“American” bee, 254Angiosperms, 171Anisopodal, 146Antennae, 58, 59, 61Ant nests, 46Api-botanical cycle

artificial feeding, 196blossoms, 196involucrum, 196management of colonies, 193nectar- and pollen-producing plants, 195nectar flow, 196nectar production, 196postharvest season, 196pre-harvest period, 194regions and geographic areas, 196resource scarcity, 193temperature, 194thermal isolation, 196Yucatan Peninsula, 194

Apiculture, 257Apidae

legs/abdomen, 1–2pollen-transporting apparatus, 1

Apiformes, 1

Apis queens, 80Army ants, 103, 219Arrhenotokous parthenogenesis, 75Artificial feeder, 215Artificial feeding, 196, 208–210, 220Artificial lodgings, 170Artificial queen rearing, 156Autogamy, 171, 176, 186Avocado, 173–176Azadirachtin, 228

BBagging experiment, 171Balam-kab, 250bitumen, 43Beans, 186Beekeepers, 262Bergmann’s rule, 52Biopesticides, 224, 227, 228Biting, 104Brood mortality, 48–51Buzz-pollination, 170, 176, 185

CCaste, 93, 115Caste production, 74–79Cattle ranching, 257Cephalotrigona zexmeniae, 28Cerumen, 215Chayotes, 181Chilam Balam, 254Chillies, 178–180Chlorpyrifos, 230

Index


https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-77785-6

286

Cleptobionts, 104, 114Cleptobiosis, 104Cleptobiotic bees, 103Coconut palm (Cocos nucifera), 187Coefficient of relatedness, 73, 81, 83, 84Coffee (Coffea arabica and C. canephora),

177–178Colel-kab, 254Colonies

age polyethism, 92behaviors, 95distortion, 96eusocial bees, 93, 95experience and learning, 96honey bee, 92integration, 92JH titers, 93Melipona specialization, 95nest activities, 92nestmates, 92non-Melipona species, 96physical characteristics, 95principles, 93, 94short-range flights, 95social bees, 93status of individuals, 93stingless bees, 92task allocation, 93tasks, 91time and frequency, 94type of activity, 95vitellogenin titers, 93well-developed wax glands, 95work allocation, 96worker body size, 96

Colony heating, 47Colony records, 198Colony reproduction

building materials, 150conservation, 152conservative system, 149eusocial insects, 149habitat alteration, 151individual progeny, 150natural density, 151nest and food, 151nest densities, 151philopatry, 150preserved forests, 151pristine forests, 151size of cavities, 151southern Mexico, 151stingless bee, 149

swarming, 149virgin queen, 149

Comb construction, 46Commercial pollination, 263Commercial reproduction

artificial queen rearing, 156colony numbers, 155factors, 157, 158food, 157larval food, 156mini-colonies, 155non-Melipona stingless bees, 156pupal stage, 158self-sufficient, 155surplus queens, 155temperature, 157

Complementary sex determination, 76Corbicula, 61Corbiculae, 57, 62Corbiculate bees, 2, 3Crypsis, 103Cryptic species, 12, 23–25Cucurbits, 180, 181Cuticular heterochrony, 74Cuticular hydrocarbons, 113, 114Cytogenetics, 77

DDefense

activities, 107antimicrobial properties, 108attacking, 103bacteria, 109bee’s digestive system, 108behavioral mechanisms, 109cappings, 110cleptobiotic Lestrimelitta, 104collectors, 107comb, 109corbiculate bees, 108crypsis, 103experimental manipulation, 108freeze-killed brood removal, 110genetic components, 106honey and pollen, 103hyaluronidase, 103hygienic behavior, 109hymenoptera, 103immune system, 108inter- and intraspecific coexistence, 108intraspecific differences, 110microbiota, 109

Index

287

microorganisms, 109natural enemies, 102pathogen management, 110pollen/nectar, 108pupa removal, 110resin, 107resin-derived compounds, 108social bees, 108sting and venom, 103strategies, 107under-relaxed selection, 103

Defensebiting, 104defeatist behavior, 106eusocial insects, 104hosts’ aggressions, 105intensity, 106mandibular teeth, 104meliponines, 103

Deforestation, 222Digestive tract, 65Diploid male, 76Diploid male vortex, 76Division of colonies, 204–207Drivers of colony density, 148

EEastern Caribbean Coast, 248Ecdysis, 72Ecdysteroids, 93Entomological sucking pumps, 203Eusocial bees, 95Eusociality, 3Eyes, 58, 59

FFemale relatedness, 73, 84Female reproductive parasitism, 136Fermentation, 212, 213, 228Fertilization, 171Flagellomeres, 59Floral constancy, 169, 170Floral specialization, 169, 170Food communication

alkenes and alkadienes, 113allomone, 114artificial feeders, 111chemical communication, 113chemical cues, 119chemical ecology, 111collection of food, 111

cuticular hydrocarbons, 113cuticular profile, 119cuticular similarities, 119espionage, 113eusocial insects, 110gynes and males, 113honey bee workers, 113internal recognition pattern, 114interspecific interactions, 111–112intra- or interspecific effects, 111isopropyl-hexanoate, 119location, 112mandibular glands, 113mandibular secretions, 113nestmate recognition, 113, 114, 119nestmates, 111, 112pheromones, 112, 119physical means, 119–121resin-derived terpenoids, 114scent marks, 112semiochemicals acting, 111signals/cues, 111stingless bees, 111tendon glands, 112trail pheromones, 112

Food communicationnestmates, 114social cleptobionts, 114

Food provisioning, 97, 99–101Food transference, 96Frieseomelitta nigra, 32

GGanglia, 66Ganglion, 66, 67Geitonogamy, 171, 173Genera of stingless bees, x, 272Genetic dispersal, 132Genetic lineages, 19, 23Genetically modified crops (GMC), 228Genital capsule, 144Geographic distribution, 10, 12, 16, 23, 25Guard bees, 114Gulf Coast of Mexico, 21Gymnopodium floribundum, 194Gyne sacrifice, 135

HHamuli, 58, 63, 64Harvest, 193, 194, 203, 210, 251Hass variety, 174

Index

288

Headantennae, 59frontal apex, 59hemolymph, 66interaction, 58mesosoma, 66metasoma, 65proboscis, 59thorax, 65

Heart, 66Hemolymph, 93Herbicide-tolerant (HT), 228Heterochrony, 74Hive boxes, 199–204Hobnil, 249Homeostasis

active and passive mechanisms, 53brood area, 49carbohydrates, 47endothermy, 47environmental temperature, 50–52environmental and internal nest

temperatures, 50eusociality, 47fluctuation, 50heat and humidity, 51heat production, 48inter- and intraspecific phenotypic

variation, 52inverse relationship, 53involucrum, 50meliponine colonies, 48microorganisms, 50nutritional value, 51optimal environment, 47passive and active mechanisms, 52scutellum, 50strategic places, 50subterranean species, 51temperature, 48, 51temperature control, 48temperature economy, 48, 49thermoregulation, 47, 50, 51

Honey preservingair-conditioned room, 213beekeeper, 212cerumen, 215damage, 210electric suction pump, 212electric vacuum pump, 211empty hive, 214fermentation, 212, 213hive boxes, 212honey pots, 211

human consumption, 210maturation, 213neutral detergents, 210pasteurization, 213phorid flies, 214pollen, 214pot-honey, 213pot packages, 215recovery, 210refractometer, 213resins, 216stingless bee pollen, 214sugars, type of, 213syringes, 212wax/bees, 212Yucatan Peninsula honey, 214

Honey stomach, 65Hyaluronidase, 103Hydroxymethyl furfural (HMF), 212Hygienic behavior, 108Hymenoptera, 1, 2, 75, 80, 103

IIleum, 66Immune system, 108Individual reproduction

abdominal inflation, 135aggregations, 147aggression, 136aggressive harassment, 135Apidae, 142average, 141bee colonies, 149behavior of males, 148behavior of workers, 134bumble bees, 138chemical attraction, 148compartments, 134confinement chambers, 148congregations, 143copulatory organ, 143development, 134egg production, 138empty boxes, 136eusocial bees, 142female reproductive parasitism, 136food exchange, 136genital ducts, 145gyne experiences, 136gyne production, 142hemolymph, 138honey bee males, 146honey bees, 138

Index

289

hymenopteran queens, 141insurance, 134intraspecific variation, 138male-biased production, 142male capsule, 137management, 136marked seasonality, 141mating flight, 137, 138maturation, 140Melipona gynes, 134meliponarios, 136molecular analyses, 147molecular markers, 147natal colony, 146ovarian development, 140ovaries of queens, 140ovarioles, 138panmixia, 148parthenogenesis, 141physical characteristics, 142physogastria, 138post-copulatory behavior, 145proteinic endochorion, 140queenless colonies, 136queen parasite workers, 136queen replacement, 136queen sacrifice, 135queen’s ovaries, 138reared males, 143resin and pollen, 146Scaptotriogna, 135sexual maturity, 145sexual offspring, 134social insects, 141speculation, 147, 148sperm migration, 146spermatheca, 141spermatozoa, 144stingless bees queens, 137strategies, 143swarming rate, 134trophallaxis, 136trophocytes, 140vitellogenin, 138worker-destined eggs, 141

Insect tolerant (IT), 228Intraspecific mass attack, 106Involucrum, 44Isopodal, 146

JJobon, 246–249, 251, 252Jobones, 247Juvenile hormone (JH), 72

KKeystone, 169, 260

LLactobacillus, 108, 109Legs, 60–62

coxa (the first segment attaching the leg to the mesosoma), 61

more proximal to more distal, 61Lestrimelitta, 220Lestrimelitta niitkib, 35Life span, 95, 107

MMadrid Codex, 249, 251Male aggregations, 147, 148Male dispersal, 148Malpighian tubules, 66Mating flights, 137Mating plug, 137, 138Matings, 80The Maya Chontal from Tabasco, 245Mayan jelly, 212Melikerria, 10–12, 16Melipona beecheii, 26Melipona yucatanica, 27Meliponario, 197, 198, 219–221Meliponiculture

adulteration, 262apiculture, 257archaeological remains, 244archaeological sites, 260beekeepers’ organizations, 262cattle ranching, 257ceramic piece, 247ceramic representation, 248Chilam Balam, 254commercial pollination, 263cultivation, 244cultivation of sisal, 257divisions, 245economic success, 257efficient methods, 263encomienda system, 253engraved rectangle, 253evidence, 244extension programs, 260goal, 261harvest, 251hollow logs, 246honey and cerumen, 253honey importance, 244honey of good quality, 245

Index

290

Meliponiculture (cont.)indigenous groups, 256, 258keystone, 260liters of honey, 262Madrid Codex, 249, 251management, 257market, 260Mayan medicine, 252Mayan mythology, 251Mayan women, 261medicinal properties, 263medicine and rituals, 253migration, 257national initiative, 266nonalcoholic drink, 252orientation and storage, 246popularity, 261pre-Columbian times, 258preserving pollinators, 263price of a colony, 260primitive type, 245problems and recommendations, 264–265Puebla and Veracruz, 255rational stingless beekeeping, 247repartimiento system, 253sacred nature, 250scheme, 261Spanish colony, 254sugarcane, 257systematic cultivation, 244traditional cultivation, 252traditional Mayan pattern, 246U hanli-kab ceremony, 252vision, 252vital fluid, 251Xunan kab, 251, 252Yucatan Peninsula, 254

Meliponiniabundance and diversity, 4biogeography, 7classification, 7, 10classification system, 4description, species, 13–14features, 3, 4fossil, 6geographic distribution, 10hypothesis, 6, 7molecular methods, 5molecular phylogeny, 7monophyletic, 10neotropical and Indo-Malayan regions, 6neotropical clade, 7Paleocene-Eocene, 6phylogenetic analysis, 7

phylogeny, 8, 10post-Gondwanian origin, 10primitive/ancestral characteristics, 6scythe-shaped gonostyle, 10septentrional parts, 6subgenera, 10subgenus, 10triangular shape, 8

Membrane-winged insects, 1Mesosoma, 60–64Metamorphosis, 72Metasoma, 64–68Mexican stingless bees

allopatric distribution, 25body size, 20continental ancestors, 22cryptic species, 23DNA microsatellite markers, 21fasciata group, 17genetic differentiation, 12genetic diversity, 19, 23genetic make up, 23geographic distribution, 12, 16, 23geometric morphometrics, 21honey-producing bee, 22hypothesis, 23integument, 17Mexican Pacific coast, 17mobilization, 20molecular comparison, 22morphological differentiation, 17morphometric analyses, 19multivariate comparison, 21nomenclature, 17northern distribution, 25patterns, 19phenotypic variation, 12pine forests, 25Plebeia, 25quantitative approach, 17relict populations, 12ribosomal DNA, 19Scaptotrigona, 23sequence analyses, 23size and color, 21specimens, 17subgenus Michmelia, 12subspecies, 17substantial differentiation, 12sympatric species, 22taxonomy, 17temperate forests, 25tropical and subtropical forests, 15Yucatan Peninsula, 17

Index

291

Microbiota, 109Monandry, 80

NNahil-kab, 246Nannotrigona perilampoides, 31Natural lodgings, 200Nectar- and pollen-producing plants, x,

273–278Neonicotinoids, 224, 227Neotropics, 8Nest dimensions, 279–283Nesting determinant, 43Nestmate recognition, 113, 114Nest type

adaptability, 42ant, 46bitumen, 44body size, 41brood cell arrangement, 45cells arrangement, 44cerumen threads, 44characteristics, 43cleptobiotic species, 44clusters/combs, 44colony, 41comb construction, 46determinants, 43dorsal abdominal glands, 43economic use, 45empty cells removal, 44entrance, 43flexibility, 42honey bees, 44interaction, 41involucrum, 44mean and range temperatures, 49propolis, 43pupal phase, 44scutellum, 45size and accessories, 43size, color and pilosity, 53specific requirements, 42stingless bee species, 42, 44strategies, 41

OOcelli, 59Ommatidia, 59Ontogenetic development, 72–74Oogenesis, 139Ostia, 66

Ovarioles, 133, 138, 139Oviposition, 97, 99–101Oxytrigona, 103, 113

PPalynology of honey samples, 168Parasites and predators control

acetic acid, 218adult female flies, 218adult flies and maggots, 217, 219Anolis, 221army ants, 218artificial feeding, 220attackers, 219cleptobiotic bees, 220disease transmission, 215environmental temperatures, 218food and building, 220hatching larva, 219hive beetle, 217humpback fly invasions, 218larval food, 219larval pheromones, 216Lestrimelitta, 220lizards, 221maggots, 217mammals, 221management, 217meliponarios, 219, 221neotropical forests, 219neotropical species, 220phorid flies, 219resin and cerumen, 219resistant, 216robber bees, 220traditional methods, 218Varroa mites, 216voracious maggots, 217

Partamona bilineata, 29Parthenogenesis, 75Pasteurization, 213Penicillum, 3Peppers, 178–180Perennial colonies, 170Permethrin, 230Philopatry, 12, 133, 150Phorid flies, 204, 214, 219Physic nut, 182–184Physogastria, 138Physogastric queen, 139Pinón Mexicano, 182–184Piscidia piscipula, 194Plebeia, 111

Index

292

Plebeia frontalis, 33Pleistocene, 11Pliocene, 11Pollen basket, 61Pollen rake, 61Pollen supplements, 197, 210Pollination efficiency, 169–173, 176, 177Pollination index, 172, 173Pollination of crops

achiote, 176–177adaptation, 170anthers to stigmas, 170attributes, 169avocado, 173–176bagging experiments, 171beans, 186chillies, 178–180coconut palm, 187coffee, 177–178conical/tubular anthers, 170cucurbits, 180, 181economic importance, 185efficiency, 169–171, 173floral visitors, 171frequencies, 169index, 172jicama, 186peppers, 178–180perennial colonies, 170physic nut, 182–184Pinón Mexicano, 182–184pitahaya, 186rambutan, 186regional importance, 170Sikil-té, 182–184specialization, 170tomato, 184–185valvular system, 186wild plant species, 169in Yucatan, 186

Pollination services, 187Polyethism, 93Postharvest, 193, 196Pot-Honey, 213Pots, 44Pre-harvest, 193, 196Proboscis, 58, 59, 65Propodeum, 60Prosoma, 58–60Protease inhibitors (PIs), 229Proventriculus, 65Provisioning and oviposition process (POP),

98, 99, 101Pseudohypocera kerteszi, 217Pterostigma, 4, 9

QQueen mating, 133, 137Queen sacrifice, 135

RRambutan (Nephelium lappaceum), 186Rastellum, 61Rational hive models, 199Record template, 279Rectum, 66Reproduction

biology, 133eusocial bees, 132gyne invasion, 132queen/workers, 132sexual offspring, 131social insects, 131

Reproductive conflicts, 80, 82, 83, 85Reproductive traits, 133–134Resin

body size, 95chemical mediators, 108collection, 94, 96, 108defense, 107microorganisms, 107plant’s chemical profiles, 108repellents, 108resin-derived compounds, 108

SSawing, 200Scaptotrigona pectoralis, 30Scent marks, 111, 112Scutellum, 45Semiochemicals, 111, 115, 119Semi-synchronic cell provisioning, 102Sensilla, 59Sensorial plates, 59Sex determination, 74–79Sex ratio, 142Sexual size dimorphism (SSD), 152, 153Sikil-té (Jatropha curcas), 182–184Single-locus complementary sex determiner

(Sl-Csd), 75Small hive beetle, 216, 217Social insects, 91Soldiers, 104Specialization

dehydration, 109eusocial honey bees, 95Melipona, 95morphological traits, 96task, 95

Index

293

Species complexes, 5, 12Spermatheca, 141Sperm production, 143Spiracles, 66Subcaste, 93, 96, 104Successive mode, 101Sugar cane, 257Sugar syrup, 196, 204, 208Suicidal bite, 107Surplus nutrition, 146Swarming, 132, 134, 149, 150

TTarsomeres, 61Task allocation, 93, 95Taxonomy, 17Termite, 46Thermoregulation, 47, 50–52Thorax, 58, 60, 62, 65, 66Threats and hazards

aerial control, 230agrochemicals, 224artificial nest sites, 223azadirachtin, 228beneficial insects, 223biopesticides, 228chlorpyrifos, 230commercial exploitation, 231conservation of habitats, 223Cry proteins, 229deforestation, 222detoxification, 230diversity and abundance, 232drivers, 232entomogenous fungi, 228exotic bees, 231fertilizers, 229GMC, 228habitat degradation, 223habitat loss, 222hemolymph, 230HT crops, 228innate/behavioral resistance, 231insecticides, 224integrated management, 231larvae to contaminated food, 230microsporidians, 231native bees, 221neonicotinoids, 224oil extracts, 228pathogens and parasites, 231permethrin, 230

pest and disease control, 223pesticides, 224, 231PIs, 229pollinator-friendly agriculture, 223pollinators, 221regional studies, 223sublethal effects, 229toxicity, 225–227tropical biodiversity, 222tropical species, 221urban developments, 222

Tomato, 184–185Tracheae, 66Trail pheromone, 115Transferring colonies

blade knives, 202brood chamber, 199, 200brood deaths, 199colony inspections, 204containers, 203entomological sucking pumps, 203food pots/combs, 199food reserves, 203hive box, 203larvae and eggs, 202manual/electric pumps, 203natural lodgings, 200nest and space, 203nest construction, 199passive mechanisms, 199phorid flies, 204position and height, 204queen, 202“rational” hives, 199resins and cerumen, 204sawing, 200sharp knife, 202spheres, 202TIBGA, 200wax/cerumen, 201, 202

Trigona, 7Trigona fulviventris, 36Trigonisca pipioli, 34Tro-Cortesianus/Madrid Codex, 249Trophic caste determination, 78Trophic eggs, 82, 95, 99, 100Trophocytes, 140Tropho-genetic caste determination, 78

VVarroa mite, 216Ventriculus, 65, 66

Index

294

Vertical models, 282Vestigial sting, 68Vicariance, 6, 20Viguiera dentata, 194Vitellogenin, 138, 140

WWaste management, 97Wings

cells, 62dorsoventral contraction, 62flight, 64hamuli, 63membranous structures, 62

pattern, 57venation, 57

Worker policing, 81Worker reproduction, 81, 83

XXenogamy, 171Xunan kab, 250–252, 254

YYard, 196–199Yucatan Peniínsula, 244, 246, 255

Index

Annex 1: List of Abbreviations of the Genera of Stingless Bees ...

Documents

Transcript of Annex 1: List of Abbreviations of the Genera of Stingless Bees ...