Annette Kramer, Felix Bittmann & Daniel Nösler (2013), New insights into vegetation dynamics and...

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

New insights into vegetation dynamics and settlement historyin Hummling, north-western Germany, with particular referenceto the Neolithic

Annette Kramer • Felix Bittmann • Daniel Nosler

Received: 2 October 2012 / Accepted: 6 June 2013

� Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

Abstract Palynological investigations on two well-dated

peat profiles provide insights into Neolithic vegetation and

settlement history from Hummling in north-western Ger-

many. The site selections allow comparisons between local

and regional vegetation changes and are used to estimate

the extent of Neolithic influence on the vegetation. The

interpretation of the fossil spectra relied on radiocarbon

dating, evaluation of pollen indicator taxa, non-pollen

palynomorphs and multivariate techniques. During the late

Mesolithic the vegetation was dominated by mixed oak

forests while openings in forest cover were detected, with a

decline in elm reflected in the regional pollen record

around 4250 cal. B.C. The presence of humans is shown by

settlement indicators that are first recorded at ca. 3800 cal.

B.C. Vegetation changes were small between 4300 and

3600 cal. B.C. This suggests that regional vegetation was

relatively resilient to small-scale disturbances. Possible

indications of grazing were recorded in the spectra of the

local pollen profile but there is no clear-cut evidence for

Neolithic activity. Between 3520 and 2260 cal.

B.C. decreases in forest cover were inferred from both

profiles and increases in settlement indicators reflect

farming activity. These changes coincide with the emer-

gence in the area of the Funnel Beaker Culture and the

subsequent Single Grave Culture. Both profiles suggest that

settlement probably ceased between ca. 3230 and 3050 cal.

B.C. This lull or cessation in activity was probably regional

in character. After 2260 cal. B.C. human impact on the

vegetation decreases and woodlands regenerate. The

longevity of the regeneration phase—ca. 690 years—was

probably connected with the low resilient capability of the

vegetation on the poor soils.

Keywords Neolithic � Pollen analysis � Human impact �Northern Germany � Funnel Beaker Culture �Single Grave Culture

Introduction

Today, the Hummling, an old morainic ridge in the Emsland,

is characterised by cultivated land and parcels of semi-nat-

ural mixed oak–birch forests. This is largely the result of

prolonged farming activity. Farming was introduced by

Neolithic settlers in northern Germany ca. 4100 cal.

B.C. (Kalis and Meurers-Balke 1998; Hartz et al. 2000;

Muller et al. 2010) while intensification of farming took

place between ca. 3600 and 3400 cal. B.C. during the phase of

megalithic tomb construction (Hartz et al. 2007; Kirleis et al.

2012). The megalithic tombs of the Hummling are assignable

to the west group of the Funnel Beaker Culture (Trich-

terbecherkultur, TRB), the earliest Neolithic culture known

from north-western Germany. These peoples occupied the

area during the middle Neolithic (EN II–MN V according to

the Northern European Plain chronology) between 3400

and 2800 cal. B.C. and were subsequently displaced by

representatives of the Single Grave Culture (SGC;

Communicated by M. O’Connell.

A. Kramer (&) � F. Bittmann

Lower Saxony Institute for Historical Coastal Research,

Viktoriastr. 26/28, 26382 Wilhelmshaven, Germany

e-mail: [email protected]

F. Bittmann


D. Nosler

Landkreis Stade Archaologische Denkmalpflege, Schloss

Agathenburg, Hauptstraße 45, 21684 Agathenburg, Germany


123

Veget Hist Archaeobot

DOI 10.1007/s00334-013-0409-z

ca. 2800–2200 cal. B.C.) (Brindley 1986; Muller et al. 2010).

Little is known about the Neolithic peoples who settled in

Hummling and the way they used and influenced their

environment. Limited information about settlement pattern,

houses and related features is provided by investigations on a

few domestic sites (Nosler et al. 2011). Macrobotanical data

from domestic sites that might be expected to contribute to

our knowledge of subsistence strategies are hence scarce.

Most of the available information from the wider region

relates to the Elbe-Weser area where charred cereal remains,

mainly Hordeum vulgare, Triticum dicoccum and T. mono-

coccum, have been recorded in the TRB settlement Flogeln

(ca. 3050 cal. B.C., details in Behre and Kucan 1994).

The present perception of the Neolithic in north-western

Germany differs from that in neighbouring regions such as

the Netherlands and Schleswig–Holstein in that these

regions have evidence for Neolithic cultures that predate the

middle Neolithic (Raemaekers 1999; Out 2009, 2012; Out

and Verhoeven 2013; Hartz et al. 2007; Muller et al. 2010).

This is not easily explained given that present-day political

boundaries can have had no bearing on these prehistoric

cultural developments (Raemaekers 2013). Preservation

may be important insofar as the sandy soils of north-western

Germany do not favour preservation or indeed detection of

Neolithic sites (Nosler et al. 2011). The study of vegetation

change as detected by pollen analysis, on the other hand, can

be a powerful tool in that pollen data give clear insights into

human impact and especially farming activity (Behre and

Kucan 1994; Kalis and Meurers-Balke 1998; Bakker 2003).

Palynological investigations to date in the Emsland, how-

ever, have rather poor sample resolution and chronological

control is often inadequate or indeed unsatisfactory (Koch

1934; Jonas 1935, 1941, 1943; Kramm 1981) and so the

available data are insufficient to enable a critical and reliable

reconstruction of early prehistoric farming impact. Investi-

gations at the Dummer Lake, ca. 60 km to the south-east,

show early human impact in connection with archaeological

finds at the settlement site Hude I and a wooden trackway

dated to ca. 4800 cal. B.C. (Schutrumpf 1988; Bauerochse

2003; see Kampffmeyer 1991 for further consideration of

the function and chronology of the site). Detailed palyno-

logical investigations in the Elbe-Weser area (Dorfler 1989;

Behre and Kucan 1994; Heider 1995) have provided evi-

dence for Neolithic settlement periods that parallel trends

observed in other parts of northern Europe (Troels-Smith

1954; Iversen 1941; Rasmussen 2005; Wieckowska et al.

2012) though here also some aspects of the chronology

might be further refined. These investigations show the

crucial importance of short distances between coring loca-

tion and Neolithic settlement sites for the reflection of

human activity in pollen spectra (Behre and Kucan 1986).

In this study, two well-dated peat pollen profiles from

Hummling are presented with a focus on reconstructing

Neolithic impact. Holschkenfehn, that is expected to reflect

mainly local vegetation development and farming activity,

was selected because of its close proximity to several

megalithic tombs and two possible settlement sites

(Fig. 1c). The pollen profile from Bockholter Dose, on the

other hand, is expected to provide information on vegeta-

tion development and Neolithic impact at a regional level.

Study sites

Hummling, the study area, is in Emsland, Lower Saxony,

between the river Ems and its tributaries Hase and Ohe

(Fig. 1). The landscape is largely defined by an east–west

orientated morainic (Geest) ridge formed during the Saale,

i.e. the penultimate glaciation (Hauschild and Luttig 1993).

The landscape is also influenced by later geological

Fig. 1 Maps relating to the study area and the wider region:

a overview of north-western Germany showing location of the study

area and Flogeln (indicated by rectangles with non-dashed and

dashed boundaries, respectively). NL, Netherlands; LS, Lower

Saxony; SH, Schleswig–Holstein: b map of Hummling showing

main features including relevant archaeological sites. Hatching

indicates present-day bog distribution. 1 Bockholter Dose, 2

Holschkenfehn; c Detailed map of sampling site Holschkenfehn.

Grey shading indicates afforestation. Mapping of megalithic tombs

and settlement sites based on current knowledge based on ongoing

research


123

developments. Melting of ice sheets after the last glacial

maximum led to a sea-level rise that resulted in a higher

groundwater-table. This, in turn, favoured the development

of fens and reed swamps in low-lying areas (Behre 2007).

At the same time, the progressively advancing North Sea

shoreline resulted in a more oceanic climate that favoured

the formation of ombrotrophic bogs (raised bogs) on the

sandy soils after ca. 6000 cal. B.C. (Petzelberger et al.

1999). Expansion of bog resulted in part displacement of

the dominant oak-rich forests that included Betula, Tilia,

Ulmus and Acer. The climate is humid (rainfall 815 mm/

year), summers are relatively cool and winters are mild

(mean annual temperature 9.0 �C; meteorological data

relate to the meteorological station at Loningen, Deutscher

Wetterdienst 1996).

The present-day woodlands consist mainly of birch and

oak (Betulo-Quercetum roboris). In areas with podsols and

acid gley soils, Pinus sylvestris is more common on drier

stands but also grows on peatlands, while Alnus glutinosa

is common on water-saturated mineral soils. On fertile (but

podsolised) luvisols, mixed-oak forests are dominated by

Fagus sylvatica (Fago-Quercetum petraeae; Pott 2002).

F. sylvatica occupies the niche filled by Tilia cordata in the

former Atlantic forests and hinders the spread of weak

competitors such as Carpinus betulus which is generally

pushed to the limit of its ecological range on water-satu-

rated soils that are unsuitable for beech (Pott 2002).

Today, areas no longer suitable for farming due to soil

degradation and leaching carry heathlands with Juniperus

communis or heather-rich communities with Calluna

vulgaris and Erica tetralix (Menke 1963). This process of

degradation probably started during the Neolithic when

there was substantial activity. More than 80 megalithic

tombs are known from the area which, in itself, points to a

substantial Neolithic TRB population (Fig. 1b). Heede is

the only Neolithic settlement site investigated in Emsland

that can with certainty be ascribed to the Neolithic (Froh-

lich 1991). It is situated west to Hummling and the river

Ems and has been dated by archaeological finds to TRB

and SG cultures. Based on surface finds, five areas with

potential settlement sites have recently been identified in

Hummling (Fig. 1b). The small number of possible

domestic sites is possibly due to destruction by deep

ploughing (Kramer et al. 2012).

Holschkenfehn is a nature reserve characterised by

birch-pine woodlands that include oak and heaths that are

dominated by Calluna vulgaris (Fig. 1). Within a wood-

land area, an ephemeral pond (52�46055.500N,

7�30049.1400E; Fig. 1c; dimensions: *300 m 9 80 m) was

sampled. The pond today lacks open water but local people

are aware of ice skating taking place there as late as the

1990s. Within 100–250 m of the sampling site, seven

megalithic tombs and two chambered graves, attributable

to TRB, West Group (Schlicht 1972), have been recorded.

In the vicinity of the sampling site, two potential TRB

settlement sites had been identified based on find scatters

(Fig. 1c). Features to the south of the site were originally

regarded as evidence for a TRB house (Kaltofen 1991) but

this is now regarded as unlikely (Nosler et al. 2011).

Peat from the nature reserve Bockholter Dose was used

as source for a regional pollen diagram (52� 510 5900 N, 7�440 5500 E). Today, this bog occupies about 130 ha but was

much more extensive prior to drainage in the context of

intensive agriculture (LBEG 2012). The area today sup-

ports heath with C. vulgaris and M. caerulea and is the

subject of restoration by raising the prevailing water-table.

Materials and methods

Sampling and dating

At the Holschkenfehn a 1.5 9 2 m2 pit was trenched after

several test drillings to locate an appropriate sampling

point. A 1.40 m-long peat profile was recovered in over-

lapping segments at the deepest point within the former

pond from a clean profile wall, using three zinc boxes

(50 9 10 9 5 cm3). Beneath the top soil, highly decom-

posed peat was recovered with some sand in the deeper

parts. The base of the profile (below 108 cm) consisted of

humic sand.

At the Bockholter Dose, a 3.50 m-long peat core was

collected using a Russian corer (chamber dimensions:

50 9 4 cm). The core was recovered close to the northern

border of the nature reserve. In the present study the

interval 66–220 cm, consisting of low to medium-decom-

posed peat, was analysed.

Seven AMS 14C dates were obtained for the profile from

Bockholter Dose and eleven from Holschkenfehn. The

samples from Holschkenfehn were soaked in KOH (5 %).

Macro-remains suitable for dating were picked from the

material, retained by a 200 lm-mesh sieve. Samples from

Bockholter Dose yielded insufficient macro-remains for

dating. Bulk peat samples were therefore used, rootlets

having been removed with the help of a binocular

microscope.

Age-depth models were constructed using OxCal 4.1

(Ramsey 1995) based on IntCal09 (Reimer et al. 2009).

The programme uses Bayesian statistics that incorporate

the prior model (depth and deposition order) and the 14C

dating information for the construction of the age-depth

model. The applied P_Sequence approaches the unknown

deposition rate by introducing the parameter k which rep-

resents the number of accumulation processes per depth

unit. The parameter was set to 1 deposition unit per cm to

avoid circular reasoning and in cognizance of the


123

randomness in deposition processes (Ramsey 2008). In the

Holschkenfehn profile, the increase of Secale pollen to

more than 1 % was used as an additional date for the

construction of the age-depth model. This implies that the

upper two samples relate to the Roman Iron Age or are

somewhat younger (cf. Behre and Kucan 1994).

Palynology, macro-remains and charcoal

The Holschkenfehn core was sampled continuously using

1 cm-thick samples in the interval relating to the Neolithic

(each sample is estimated to represent *40 years). Else-

where, the sampling interval was 2–5 cm. The uppermost

15 cm was highly decomposed and was therefore not

analysed. In total, 66 samples were analysed. The Bock-

holter Dose core was sampled at 2–5 cm intervals giving a

total of 39 samples and a time resolution of 40–100 years.

The pollen samples (1 cm3) were processed using the

standard protocol that includes treatment with KOH

(10 %), HCl (10 %), sieving using a 200 lm mesh, HF

(40 %) and acetolysis (2.5 min) (Fægri and Iversen 1989).

Lycopodium tablets (Batch No. 177745, Lund University)

were added at the start of the preparation procedure to

enable subsequent calculation of sporomorph and charcoal

(size range: 10–200 lm) concentrations (Stockmarr 1971).

The samples were mounted in glycerine and analysed using

a light microscope at 9400 magnification. A magnification

of 91,000 and phase contrast was used where it was

desirable to see the detailed structure and surface pattern of

specific pollen grains. Identification and nomenclature of

pollen types mainly follow Beug 2004, and in a few

instances (Moore et al. 1991). Non-pollen palynomorphs

(NPPs) are after van Geel (1978), algae and fungi follow

van Geel et al. (1980/1981) and for testate amoebae the

publication by Charman et al. (2000) was used.

At least 800 arboreal pollen grains (AP; Corylus

excluded) per sample were counted in the Holschkenfehn

profile. In samples with abundant Alnus pollen, 1,000 AP

grains were counted. Large amounts of plant debris made

counting of the Bockholter Dose samples very difficult so

that, in general, three slides (24 9 32 mm2) were required

to achieve an AP count of 600.

Pollen and NPP percentages were calculated using a

total terrestrial pollen sum (TTP). Calluna was excluded

from the pollen sum as it was regarded as a local element

of the bog vegetation. This is supported by frequent

macro-remains of Calluna recorded from both profiles. The

data are presented as percentages which are regarded as

preferable to concentration or pollen accumulation rate

(influx) data (cf. Waller et al. 2012). Other considerations

influencing this choice include the possible effects of cli-

mate on pollen productivity (van der Knaap et al. 2010)

and uncertainties relating to dating uncertainties.

The pollen diagrams were drawn using Tilia ver. 2.0.2.

(Grimm 2004). Pollen zone boundaries were placed after

careful visual inspection of the profiles.

Macro-botanical remains ([200 lm) obtained by siev-

ing during pollen preparation were examined using a ste-

reo-microscope. Charcoal concentrations are given as

particles/cm3.

Ordinations

Pollen percentage data from each profile were analysed

using principal components analysis (PCA), as the data sets

showed a linear response to theoretical gradients during

detrended correspondence analysis (DCA) (gradient

length \2; DCA results not shown).

The analyses were run to objectively investigate pollen

taxa responses to theoretical gradients (axes of the ordi-

nation plot) and to identify taxa that react similarly within

the data set. Other points of interest included checking for

sample clustering and validation of the pollen zones.

For the analyses, all terrestrial pollen types that were

present in at least three samples throughout the profile or

showed values [0.5 % in one sample were included. Per-

centage data were square-root transformed to improve

comparability. For these analyses, CANOCO ver. 4.5 and

CanoDraw ver. 4.5 were used (ter Braak and Smilauer 2002).

A detrended canonical correspondence analysis (DCCA)

was applied to the AP data from the Bockholter Dose to get

a semi-quantitative measure of regional forest changes

during the Neolithic. Herb pollen was excluded from the

analysis as it is under-represented in forested areas (Hicks

1971) and may derive mainly from local vegetation. By

introducing the age-depth relationship as a constrained

gradient in the analysis, the DCCA enables the detection of

total compositional species turnover through time (Birks

2007). Detrending was done by segments and percentages

were square-root transformed and scaled non-linearly. The

species scores are given as direct standard deviation units

(SD) of the compositional turnover (Birks 2007; Hill and

Gauche Hill and Gauch 1980).

Results

Age-depth modelling

The results of the radiocarbon dating are presented in

Table 1 for both profiles, and age-depth models are shown

in Figs. 2 and 3 (Bockholter Dose and Holschkenfehn,

respectively). The radiocarbon dates for Holschkenfehn

were partly published in Nosler et al. (2011) and Kramer

et al. (2012); the radiocarbon date for depth 45 cm

was, however, incorrect and has since been re-dated.


123

For construction of the age-depth model for Holschkenfehn,

the results from the lowermost sample, 114–115 cm (KIA-

42180), were excluded from the analysis. The leached res-

idue contained insufficient carbon for reliable dating

(0.1 mg). The humic fraction, on the other hand, returned an

unexpectedly young date. This is probably attributable to

humic matter deriving from the overlying peat. The cali-

brated and modelled ages are in good agreement. As regards

Bockholter Dose, all dates were used to construct the age-

depth model and the modelled ages are in good agreement

with the calibrated dates. Ages in the following text are

given as the arithmetic mean of the 95.4 significance

interval (2 r range).

Pollen diagrams

Pollen diagrams from Bockholter Dose and Holschkenfehn

are presented in Figs. 4 and 5, respectively. In Fig. 6,

curves for the wetland taxa and NPP in the Holschkenfehn

profile are presented. The PAZs and the macrofossil data

relating to Bockholter Dose and Holschkenfehn are sum-

marised in Tables 2, 3, respectively.

Ordination

The ordination diagrams (Figs. 7, 8) show the first two axes

of the PCA. Only taxa that fit 25 % or more to the axes are

displayed in the ordination plot. Samples are shown using

symbols that indicate the PAZs as distinguished by visual

inspection of the pollen diagram. The ordination of the

terrestrial pollen data from Holschkenfehn is shown in

Fig. 7. The first and second axes account for 51 % of the

total variance. Both axes seem to reflect vegetation dis-

turbance. The first axis seems to reflect the transition from

woodland to human-altered vegetation while the second

axis appears to reflect a primary/secondary woodland gra-

dient. The clustering of samples serves to confirm

the validity of the zoning, and the transitional character

of the vegetation and a trend towards more disturbances in

PAZ 2.

Results of the PCA analysis of Bockholter Dose pollen

spectra are shown in Fig. 8. The first axis (eigenvalue

0.35), i.e. the main gradient, separates pollen taxa that

reflect woodland from taxa indicative of open vegetation.

This axis is therefore used to assess openness of the veg-

etation (Fig. 9). Quercus separates from Corylus and

Table 1 Dating results

Lab code (KIA-) Depth (cm) Material dated 14C dates

(B.P.)

d13C

(%)

Age, 2r-range

(cal. B.C.)

Modelled

ages (cal. B.C.)

Holschkenfehn

Pollen event 21–20 Secale pollen [1 % A.D. 50–140

42993 36–35 Peat* 3,520 ± 30 -24.27 1920–1750 1920–1750

47126 39–40 Peat* 3,760 ± 30 -23.32 2290–2040 2270–2040

42994 46–45 Peat* 3,960 ± 30 -27.25 2570–2350 2570–2350

47127 49–50 Peat* 4,110 ± 25 -25.88 2860–2580 2750–2580

42995 56–55 Peat* 4,300 ± 30 -26.26 3010–2880 3010–2880

42996 66–65 Peat* 4,430 ± 35 -26.76 3330–2920 3340–3160

47129 70–71 Peat* 4,720 ± 25 -26.62 3630–3380 3630–3380

42997 76–75 Peat* 5,060 ± 35 -24.35 3960–3770 3880–3710

42998 86–85 Peat* 5,210 ± 30 -24.52 4150–3960 4230–3970

42179 96–95 Charred Erica tetralix branch 5,650 ± 45 -27.00 4580–4360 4590–4370

42180 114–115 Sedges (humic acid fraction) 5,630 ± 40 -28.17 4540–4370 Not included

42180 114–115 Sedges (leached residue) 5,800 ± 250 -27.41 5210–4270 Not included

Bockholter Dose

42984 80–79 Peat* 3,760 ± 30 -25.09 2290–2040 2290–2050

42982 110–109 Peat* 4,160 ± 30 -26.97 2880–2630 2870–2630

42983 138–137 Peat* 4,490 ± 35 -26.93 3350–3030 3330–3100

42985 155–154 Peat* 4,710 ± 30 -24.17 3630–3370 3630–3380

42173 180–179 Ericaceae remains, Sphagnum leaves 5,210 ± 35 -29.64 4220–3960 4050–3950



* Peat was sieved [200 lm and root material removed


123

Betula on the second axis, which suggests that the latter

two taxa are indicative of transitional vegetation stages.

The ordination shows poor clustering of spectra which

suggests that the pollen zones are not distinctive and that

changes are gradual.

The DCCA carried out on the AP data from the Bock-

holter Dose profile (Fig. 9) shows a compositional species

turnover of 0.6 (eigenvalue 0.03), measured as standard

deviation units. Total variance of the data sets is given as

0.29 total inertia.

Discussion

Regional vegetation change inferred

from the Bockholter Dose

The pollen spectra from the Bockholter Dose (Fig. 4) are

considered to reflect regional vegetation changes as it

is a large bog complex (Jacobson and Bradshaw 1981).

The pollen record indicates that between 220 and 66 cm

(4500 and 1900 cal. B.C.), the vegetation in the Hummling

area consisted of woodland dominated by Quercus, Bet-

ula, Fraxinus, Tilia and Ulmus. High Alnus values prob-

ably reflect the widespread presence of alder carr that was

favoured by much wet habitat (Bauerochse 2003). Pinus,

which has relatively high percentage pollen values, was

probably largely confined to drier areas. Today, Betulo-

Quercetum roboris communities are regarded as the cli-

max stage of forest development on the sandy soils in the

region (Pott 2002). It seems therefore that the woodland

communities have changed little during the last

6,000 years. Only Tilia, a substantial component of the

Atlantic forests of north-western Germany (Behre and

Kucan 1994), has declined in importance. In the pollen

record, it is greatly underrepresented due to low pollen

productivity and poor pollen dispersal (Andersen 1967).

Tilia was probably distributed on the better soils that are

today occupied by beech or used for agriculture (Behre

and Kucan 1994). Generally, low NAP values underline

Fig. 2 Age-depth model for Bockholter Dose, profile DMB Fig. 3 Age-depth model for Holschkenfehn, profile HSV


123

Fig. 4 Pollen diagram of main taxa from the Bockholter Dose

(profile DMB). Percentages based on total terrestrial pollen counts

(TTP). Where values are low, silhouettes show the values magni-

fied 910. Analysis: Kramer 2012

Fig. 5 Pollen diagram showing curves for AP, shrub taxa and NAP

from Holschkenfehn (profile HSV). Percentages are based on TTP.

Where values are low, silhouettes show the values magnified 910.

Analysis: Kramer 2012

c


123

the regional character of the pollen rain at the site but,

mostly wind-pollinated species like Artemisia, Rumex and

members of the Chenopodiaceae and Poaceae are con-

sistently represented. Changes in the woodland

composition are visible throughout the record and the main

trends are indicated by the ordination of samples along

PCA axis 1 (Figs. 8, 9). The vegetation changed in PAZ 1

with Betula decreasing above 210 cm (4400 cal. B.C.),

Table 2 PAZ descriptions and macrobotanical records, Bockholter Dose profile

PAZ Depth

(cm)

Age (B.C.,

model)

Main zone characteristics Macro-botanical remains

6 97–66 2490–1920 Ulmus, Tilia, Fraxinus generally decreasing, Fagus increases,

Carpinus recorded, P. lanceolata increasing

Sphagnum leaves C. vulgaris twigs,

sedge rootlets

5 123–97 2960–2490 Betula and Quercus increase, Ulmus, Tilia, Fraxinus show peaks.

P. lanceolata and R. acetosa only sporadic

Sphagnum leaves, C. vulgaris twigs,

sedge rootlets

4 155–123 3520–2960 Low Ulmus, Tilia, and Fraxinus, high Corylus values, Betula and

Quercus decreasing. P. lanceolata recorded. Poaceae high values,

maximum values for Calluna. High charcoal values

Sphagnum leaves C. vulgaris twigs,

sedge rootlets

3 173–155 3860–3520 Relatively high Ulmus, Tilia and Fraxinus values, Corylus decreases.

P. lanceolata recorded, slightly higher R. acetosa values, cerealia-

type pollen, high charcoal values

Sphagnum leaves, sedge rootlets

E. vaginatum remains, Cenococcum

geophilum

2 200–173 4250–3860 Quercus and Corylus increase at the base of the zone, followed by

Fraxinus, Tilia and Ulmus. First Fagus records

Sphagnum leaves, charred C. vulgaris

twigs, sedge rootlets E. vaginatum

remains

1 220–200 4510–4250 Alnus, Betula, Corylus and Quercus are the dominant taxa. Ulmus

declines at the end of the zone; NAP rather poorly represented

Sphagnum leaves, charred C. vulgaris

twigs, sedge rootlets

Fig. 6 Diagram from Holschkenfehn (profile HSV), showing wetland taxa and non-pollen palynomorphs. Where values are low, silhouettes

show the values magnified 910. Analysis: Kramer 2012


123

while increasing Corylus values point to openings in the

forest canopy (Kalis et al. 2003). Further opening-up is

suggested by Ulmus which declines at the PAZ 1/2 tran-

sition after 205 cm (4250 cal. B.C.) while Fagus pollen is

recorded for the first time. It has been often discussed

whether opening-up of woodland as a result of human

activity facilitated local establishment of Fagus (Behre and

Kucan 1994; Kuster 1997; Pott 1997; Nielsen et al. 2012).

Our investigations support the idea that beech benefited

from human-induced woodland disturbances in our study

area. The woodland openings seem to have been easily

reversible so that first Betula and then Ulmus soon

recovered again. However, a small change in the forest

composition is visible at the beginning of PAZ 4 (after

155 cm, 3500 cal. B.C.) with declining Tilia and Ulmus in

the mixed-oak woodlands (Figs 4, 9). The high Corylus

values point to woodland clearings that were probably

moderate considering the decline of total tree pollen from

about 75 to 65 %. Settlement indicators like Plantago

lanceolata, Pteridium aquilinum and Poaceae (non-culti-

vated and cerealia-type) in PAZ 3 above 170 cm (after

3800 cal. B.C.) suggest that the changing woodland com-

position is probably related to human activities in the

region. Also increased macroscopic charcoal in samples

from PAZs 3 and 4 (between 160 and 130 cm;

3620–3090 cal. B.C.) points to human activity in the area.

In PAZ 5, 123–97 cm (2960–2490 cal. B.C.) woodland

regenerated and Betula increased when human activities

ceased, indicated by a decrease in Plantago and Pteridium

values. Also, late succession trees like Tilia and Ulmus

recovered for a short period between 2800 and 2600 cal.

B.C. (110 and 100 cm). In PAZ 6 (97–66 cm, 2490–

1920 cal. B.C.), Fagus is at about 1 % which suggests local

presence of beech.

Local environmental changes at Holschkenfehn

Given the small size of the bog, the pollen spectra from

Holschkenfehn (Fig. 5) are assumed to reflect local and

extra-local vegetation changes (Jacobson and Bradshaw

1981; Moore et al. 1991). In PAZ 1 (5190–4180 cal B.C.),

pollen from mixed-oak woodlands dominates and any

changes are small. NAP taxa such as Succisa, Cichorioideae

and Melampyrum are regularly recorded in PAZ 1 which

points to locally present woodland clearings in the late

Atlantic. At the transition PAZ 1/2, Ulmus declined while

Tilia and Quercus increased. Whether higher values for

Quercus and Tilia reflect greater contribution by oak and

lime to the surrounding woodlands, enhanced flowering

within an opened woodland or higher pollen influx from the

regional vegetation is difficult to assess. The overall changes

in PAZs 1 and 2, however, appear to be relatively small. The

results of the PCA ordination also support this view (Fig. 7)

and so it is concluded that there were only minor vegetation

changes during this time.

In PAZ 3 (71–42 cm, 3520–2260 cal. B.C.), increasing

values of human settlement indicators such as Rumex

acetosella-type, Jasione montana-type, Scleranthus annuus

and P. lanceolata as well as a decrease in AP (mainly Alnus,

Betula and Tilia) indicates opening-up of woodland cover

and suggests local presence of farmers. The NAP pollen

types referred to above may be regarded as indicative of

arable land as they are frequently found as segetal flora on

fallow land (Behre 1981). Pollen from cerealia-type is also

regularly present between 70 and 43 cm (3490 and 2310 cal.

B.C.). This supports the idea of crop cultivation, even though

the possibility that some of this pollen may arise from non-

cultivated grasses cannot be excluded (see below). Stron-

ger human impact is particularly evident in the peri-

ods between 3490 and 3230 cal. B.C. (70–65 cm),

3050–2870 cal. B.C. (60–54 cm) and from 2870 to 2310 cal.

B.C. (54–43 cm). The local hydrological changes, as reflec-

ted by the NPP records (Fig. 6), show a shift to more humid

conditions in zone 3 (indicators of dry conditions, including

Assulina muscorum, Callidina angusticollis (Van Geel

1978) and Byssothecium circinalis (Van Geel et al. 1980/81)

decrease). Pollen taxa, such as Hydrocotyle vulgaris,

Utricularia, Scheuchzeria palustris and Sparganium-type,

that are indicative of shallow dystrophic water bodies, point

to increased wetness and probably the formation of an open

water-body during this time. Human-induced woodland

disturbance, which resulted in reduced evapo-transpiration

and increased surface-water run-off, was probably mainly

responsible for this development.

Pteridium aquilinum values increase strongly in PAZ

3b, i.e. at ca. 2870 cal. B.C. This suggests vegetation dis-

turbance. Pteridium is common in mixed woodlands today

but the ability to produce spores is largely restricted to

situations where there are openings in the tree canopy.

Furthermore, rhizomes that are resistant to disturbance and

with high growth potential enable this fern to quickly

expand, given favourable circumstances, by vegetative

reproduction. Tree taxa such as Betula, Ulmus, Fraxinus,

Pinus and Alnus decline sharply between 2610 and

2300 cal. B.C. (49 and 43 cm), which further suggests

severe woodland disturbances. The stable values for

Quercus are interpreted as reflecting a steady input of

Quercus pollen from the wider region, as local vegetation

was cleared. Synchronous with the decline in AP, Corylus

increases in PAZ 3c at 2520–2260 cal. B.C. (47–42 cm)

which supports the idea of further woodland clearance. A

little later at 2420 cal. B.C. (45 cm), this is followed by

maximum Poaceae values. This suggests that grasslands

have replaced closed-canopy woodland, probably as a

result of the impact of grazing animals (Groenman-van

Waateringe 1993; Vera 2000). However, elevated Poaceae


123

values as a response to locally drier conditions cannot be

excluded from consideration (see below). Woodland

recovered after these disturbances and Betula increased and

achieved maximum values in PAZ 4a between 2260 and

1570 cal. B.C. (42 and 34 cm). As a high pollen producer,

input of Betula pollen probably contributes to the reduction

in Quercus values between 1990 and 1570 cal. B.C. (37 and

34 cm). When Betula decreased after 1570 cal.

B.C. (34 cm), Quercus values increased again implying

presence of well developed mixed-oak woodland.

Since neither human indicators nor high charcoal con-

tent is recorded during the Betula maximum in PAZ 4 we

regard this as a regeneration phase. This phase lasted ca.

690 years and is comparable to regeneration trends recor-

ded in pollen diagrams from the Elbe-Weser area after

human disturbances (Behre and Kucan 1994). The

longevity of the regeneration phase is probably due to the

considerable leaching of the already poor sandy soils as a

result of human disturbance. Betula, a tree that can cope

well with poor, highly leached sandy soils, was favoured.

Increased leaching also resulted in expansion of heathland

during the Neolithic and later periods in this region (Behre

and Kucan 1994; Behre 2000), though this development is

not clearly reflected in the pollen profiles presented here.

Synchronous with the woodland disturbances a shift in

the hydrological regime is suggested by high Sphagnum

spore values after 2520 cal. B.C. (47 cm). According to

Freund (1994) this might be related to drier conditions as

Sphagnum tends to increase spore production under dry

(less favourable) conditions. Bauerochse (2003) argued

that higher Sphagnum values might reflect lowering of the

groundwater table that would favour formation of Sphag-

num peat. Typical open-water taxa (Hydrocotyle vulgaris,

Utricularia, Scheuchzeria palustris, and Sparganium-type)

Table 3 PAZ description of Holschkenfehn pollen spectra and macrobotanical remains

PAZ Depth

(cm)

Age (B.C.,

model)

Main zone characteristics Macro-botanical remains

5 23–16 170 B.C.–

A.D. 390

Ulmus and Tilia present with very low values, Fagus strongly

increases. Poaceae, Secale, and Rumex increase. Sphagnum

values decline, higher fungal spores values (Gelasinospora

and HdV-18)

Sedge rootlets, J. effuses seeds, Calluna vulgaris

twigs

4b 34–23 1570–170 Betula and Alnus decline, Quercus increases. Pteridium,

P. lanceolata and other herb taxa show scattered records.

Poaceae increases, Secale appears

Sedge rootlets, Carex sp. fruits, Sphagnum leaves

4a 42–34 2260–1570 Betula and Alnus are increasing. Quercus, Ulmus, and Tilia

are decreasing. Only sporadic occurrence of Pteridium,

P. lanceolata and other herb taxa, very low Poaceae values.

Local Sphagnum minima, Botryococcus only sporadic, no

charcoal

Sedge rootlets, Carex fruits, Sphagnum leaves

3c 48–42 2570–2260 Betula and Pinus percentages decrease significantly, Ulmus

and Tilia decrease. Corylus shows highest percentages

Fagus is continuously present from this zone on; Carpinus

records begin. Poaceae and Pteridium show highest values,

P. lanceolata and Rumex are decreasing. Sphagnum and

Copepoda spermatophores increase strongly

Sedge rootlets, Carex fruits, Sphagnum leaves

3b 57–48 2950–2570 Ulmus and Fraxinus show higher values than before.

P. lanceolata decreases slightly, Pteridium rising strongly

Sedge rootlets, Carex fruits, Sphagnum leaves,

J. effusus seeds

3a 71–57 3520–2950 Betula, Alnus, Ulmus, Tilia decreases. P. lanceolata,

R. acetosa sharply increase, Jasione montana shows highest

values, cerealia-type pollen continuously present, Poaceae

are rising. Hydrocotyle vulgaris, Utricularia, and

Sparaganium-type show highest values in zone III a/b, algae

are well represented. Charcoal input increasing

Sedge rootlets, Carex fruits, Sphagnum leaves,

J. effusus seeds

2 89–71 4180–3520 Quercus, Tilia and Fraxinus values increase followed by

Ulmus. Betula gradually declines. Pteridium is increasing.

Sphagnum generally increasing, Gelasinospora and HdV-18

increase. Highest Botryococcus values and highest charcoal

values

Sedge rootlets, Sphagnum leaves, J. effusus fruits,

Cenococcum geophilum, unident leaf

fragments, Calluna twigs

1 108–89 5190–4180 Alnus, Betula, Corylus and Quercus are the dominant taxa.

Ulmus declines at the end of the zone. Herbs (Asteraceae,

Fabaceae, Filipendula etc.) are comparably high. Sphagnum

and algae values are comparably low; records of fungal

spores such as Gelasinospora and type HdV-18

Sedge rootlets, Sphagnum leaves, Carex nuts,

E. tetralix twigs


123

decreased and other dryness indicators like Assulina mus-

corum, Callidina angusticollis and Copepoda spermato-

phores increased so conditions may well have been drier

during this time at Holschkenfehn.

Woodland composition remained stable between 1570 and

170 cal. B.C. (34 and 23 cm) (in PAZ 4b), while occurrences

of Secale, high values of Rumex acetosella and a decrease in

AP, suggest enhanced farming in PAZ 5 (23–16 cm, 170 cal.

B.C.–cal. A.D. 390). Since the major focus of the study was the

Neolithic, the temporal resolution of the record after 1500

B.C. is lower (*500 years) compared with *40 years during

the Neolithic. This part of the Holschkenfehn record is

therefore less detailed but, nevertheless, provides a useful

general indication of developments–increased human impact,

including rye cultivation–during this time.

Considerations regarding the Neolithic transition

First indications of the presence of Neolithic people in

northern Germany are often related to the elm decline. The

elm decline is a widespread phenomenon visible in most

records from north-western Europe shortly after 4000 cal.

B.C. (Tipping et al. 1993; Andersen and Rasmussen 1993;

Peglar 1993; Behre and Kucan 1994; Heider 1995; Kalis

and Meurers-Balke 1998; O’Connell and Molloy 2001;

Molloy and O’Connell 2004; Ghilardi and O’Connell

2013). It is assumed that it originates from the interaction

between the spread of a disease of elm and the impact of

the first Neolithic farmers. A shift to a more continental

climate may have also played a role in the elm decline

(Moe and Rackham 1992; Peglar and Birks 1993; Parker

et al. 2002).

The elm decline does not constitute a distinctive feature

in the pollen profiles presented here as Ulmus does not

exceed 3 %. Elm was probably present in the area (cf.

Huntley and Birks 1983) but the rather infertile, old mor-

ainic soils were hardly favourable for this edaphically

demanding tree. Declining elm values as recorded in the

Hummling profiles (cf. PAZ boundaries 1 and 2) predates

the classical elm decline in northern Europe by about

300 years. This might be attributable to an earlier (human)

impact on elm prior to the spread of an elm disease (cf.

Bakker 2003; Feeser et al. 2012). In the Holschkenfehn

profile, Ulmus declined rather gradually, from ca. 4270 cal.

B.C. (91 cm) onwards. Whether this early decline resulted

from Neolithic activity is difficult to say. The PCA ordi-

nation suggests little change (Fig. 7) and evidence for

pastoral or arable farming is lacking (P. lanceolata is first

recorded at 3520 cal. B.C.–71 cm). The records for cerealia-

type pollen before the declining of elm probably originate

from wild grasses such as Glyceria fluitans (Beug 2004)

that is common in wet environments. A potential indicator

Fig. 7 Plot of results of PCA

analysis of Holschkenfehn

pollen data. Spectra relating to

the various PAZs are enclosed

within envelopes


123

of human-induced disturbances is Pteridium aquilinum that

expanded as Ulmus declined. This fern is considered to

reflect wood pasture and fire-induced forest clearings

(Behre 1981). The practice of ‘slash and burn’ was prob-

ably important for Neolithic people in Germany (Rosch

et al. 2002) and new results from the TRB North Group

also indicate early use of fire (Feeser et al. 2012). We

assume that the Holschkenfehn charcoal record is more

related to activities at local settlement sites as no direct

correlation between woodland cover, spread of Pteridium

and enhanced charcoal input is visible.

Records of spores that may originate from coprophilous

fungi, such as Sordaria, Cercophora (Van Geel 1978) and

Sporormiella (Davis and Shafer 2006), point to wood pasture

but wild animals cannot be excluded. We favour the latter,

given that these spore types were also recorded prior to

declining elm values and the first occurrence of P. lanceo-

lata, the classic Neolithic settlement indicator (Iversen 1941;

Behre 1981; Behre and Kucan 1994).

In the Bockholter Dose, Ulmus declines around 4250 cal.

B.C. (205 cm) with a quick recovery after 250 years and a

second decline again around 3620 cal. B.C. (160 cm) while

settlement indicators did not register before 3800–3620 cal.

B.C. (170–160 cm). As pollen spectra from the Bockholter

Dose reflect regional woodland vegetation patterns, settle-

ment-indicator pollen taxa and herb pollen in general is

underrepresented (Hicks 1971). However, small decreases in

Betula, Tilia and Alnus and slightly increasing Poaceae

values after 4180 cal. B.C. (195 cm) point to woodland

openings that in turn may indicate human activity. The

DCCA data suggest a distinct change in woodland compo-

sition between 4250 and 4050 cal. B.C., after which there is a

distinct change in the opposite direction which may point to

woodland regeneration. The appearance of P. lanceolata at

3800 cal. B.C lagged declining elm values by 450 years and is

associated with a decrease in Betula and an increase in Po-

aceae and Quercus. All together, there is no general pattern

of vegetation responses to possible human activities. Eval-

uation of single woodland taxa, settlement indicators and the

comparison between pioneer trees (e.g. Corylus, Betula,

Fraxinus) and late succession trees (Ulmus, Tilia, Quercus)

(Kalis et al. 2003) does not suggest any persistent trend in

vegetation dynamics. However, the evidence points to

woodland opening and possibly small-scale clearings in

areas with differing woodland composition as dictated by

successional and other factors.

The Neolithic farming practices that had led to the vege-

tation changes at the beginning of the Neolithic are difficult to

Fig. 8 PCA plot from the

Bockholter Dose. Spectra

relating to the various PAZs are

enclosed within envelopes


123

assess by palynological investigations. Troels-Smith (1954)

assumed that cutting leaves and twigs (from elm) for fodder

for the stabled livestock and small-scale clearing of the

woodlands for cultivation of cereals were the main techniques.

He excluded wood pasture as Poaceae values were not par-

ticularly elevated. This model was also used by Behre and

Kucan (1994) for the interpretation of several Neolithic pro-

files from the Siedlungskammer Flogeln. They connect the so-

called leaf-fodder period to a ‘pre-megalithic culture’. Com-

parable interpretations have been applied to early Neolithic

developments as documented at in the Alps (Rasmussen 1993;

Akeret et al. 1999) and the Netherlands (Casparie et al. 1977).

A recently published work investigated the stable-isotope

composition of tooth enamel of livestock from the Neolithic

village site Bercy in Paris, France. The results imply that

feeding on leaves took place during winter which probably

prolonged the period of cattle breeding from three to almost

6 months, and thus possibly securing dairy-product supply

throughout the year (Balasse et al. 2012). Seasonal feeding

that included wood pasture during summer and leaf fodder

during winter might have been possible also in a north-west

German context where such practices persisted well into the

historical period (Burrichter and Pott 1983; cf. Bakker 2003).

Pointers in the Bockholter Dose profile suggestive of wood-

land pasture include increases in Poaceae and Pteridium as

Ulmus declines and P. lanceolata records commence.

Increasing Quercus and Corylus values also support this view.

In a review of woodland structure during the Linearbandke-

ramik (LBK) in Central Europe, Kreuz (2008) points out that

high Quercus and Corylus values are probably indicative of

open woodland suitable for wood pasture. A combination of

grazing and leaf-foddering is also assumed by Bakker (2003)

from palynological investigations on the Drenthe Plateau, the

Netherlands. He found a comparable expression and timing of

the elm decline, and sometimes delayed appearance of

P. lanceolata followed by increasing Poaceae values. He

related ‘‘Neolithic Occupation Period I’’ to the Swifterbant

culture that was established in the Netherlands

from *5000 cal. B.C. (Out and Verhoeven 2013; Raemaekers

2013). It seems that the Neolithic transition took place as a

gradual process within the Swifterbant culture from ca.

4500 cal. B.C. when animal husbandry began, while the first

signs of cereal cultivation date to ca. 4200 cal. B.C (Cappers

and Raemearkers 2008; Louwe Kooijmans 2009; Out 2009;

Huisman et al. 2009; Raemaekers 2013). A comparable neo-

lithisation process has also been put forward for areas to the

east of Hummling where comparable palynological data have

been interpreted as indicative of different stages in the Neo-

lithic transition within the Ertebølle-Ellerbek culture and TRB

North Group (Kalis and Meurers-Balke 1998; Hartz et al.

2000; Kirleis et al. 2012).

The pollen data from the Bockholter Dose profile might

also be interpreted as indicative of a series of gradual

developments in the early Neolithic that included scattered

openings in the woodland, these possibly dating to before

the classical Elm Decline recorded in other areas in

northern Europe, and varying vegetation responses to early

farming activities. There are indications of grazing also in

the Holschkenfehn profile before the decline of elm.

Mesolithic activity, involving improving grazing condi-

tions for wild animals or part adoption of a Neolithic

subsistence strategy in the form of livestock breeding, may

be involved. Indeed, grazing of wild animals may have

produced these disturbances.

While clear archaeological evidence is lacking for early

Neolithic in the region, settlement sites such as Hude I in

the Dummer (Schutrumpf 1988; Kampffmeyer 1991), Bo-

berg at the river Elbe (Huser 2009) and Sievern 114, in the

Cuxhaven district (Nosler et al. 2011; Kramer et al. 2012)

point to the presence of early Neolithic settlers in north-

western Germany, although details regarding the nature

and extent of the activity and the chronology have yet to be

resolved. Raemaekers (2013) argues for analogous neo-

lithisation processes in north-western Germany and the

Netherlands, a view that receives support in the interpre-

tation of Mesolithic lithic artefacts from Lower Saxony as

indicative of a more or less closed cultural group in Lower

Saxony and the Netherlands (Mahlstedt 2012).

Human impact ascribable to the TRB West

The vegetation change as recorded in the regional pollen

profile and species turnover (Figs. 4, 9) at Bockholter Dose

between ca. 3600 and 3500 cal. B.C. involves more long-

lasting modifications in woodland composition. Ulmus,

Tilia, Fraxinus and Quercus decrease while Corylus

increases strongly and Fagus is established in the region

(Fig. 4). This indicates that woodlands opened and Corylus

quickly occupied the resulting gaps or experienced

enhanced flowering due to increased availability of light.

Opening-up is also suggested by the PCA ordination plot

(Fig. 8) where the distribution of samples on axis 1, which

is regarded as reflecting a landscape openness gradient,

shows a gradual trend to more open landscape and negative

values after 3500 cal. B.C. (Fig. 9). The pollen spectra from

Bockholter Dose reflect a regional picture of vegetation

changes while spectra from the small site Holschkenfehn

enable direct inference of local Neolithic land use (Behre

and Kucan 1994). Here, changes in wood composition

coincide with sharp increases of human settlement indica-

tors at the site after 3490 cal. B.C. The first period of

woodland disturbance lasted ca. 300 years, i.e. until

3230 cal. B.C. (70–65 cm) when tree pollen taxa (Betula,

Tilia) recovered and P. lanceolata decreased. Between

3050 and 2870 cal. B.C. (60–54 cm), P. lanceolata values


123

increase again and also AP taxa which suggests that stable

forest vegetation, especially Ulmus and Tilia, declined.

Recently, several pedological and pollen analytical

studies have been carried out in the vicinity of Neolithic

and bronze age burials to investigate the degree of local

landscape openings (Dreibrodt et al. 2009; Demnick et al.

2011; Fyfe 2012; Sadovnik et al. 2012). Holschkenfehn is

located close to nine megalithic tombs, seven of which lie

within 100–250 m (Fig. 1c). It is to be expected therefore

that the impact of the construction and use of the tombs

on the local environment might be inferable from the

Holschkenfehn pollen data. The phases of landscape open-

ness described above probably largely reflect the influence

of local settlements. P. lanceolata, Scleranthus annuus,

Rumex acetosella-type and also cerealia-type records are

presumed to reflect local farming and, in particular, arable

activity (Behre 1981). To date, two possible TRB settlement

sites have been identified, based on find scatters to the south

and west of the Holschkenfehn site (Fig. 1c).

The vegetation changes appear to mirror the pattern of

Neolithic land use as reflected by pollen profiles in the

Elbe-Weser area, and referred to as Landnam sensu Iversen

(1941) and relating to the TRB culture (Dorfler 1989;

Behre and Kucan 1994; Heider 1995). Substantial opening-

up of the woodland cover indicates greater land use than

before, and is probably related to more extensive wood

pasture and cereal cultivation with barley, emmer and

einkorn as major crops, the latter supported by macro-

botanical records (Behre and Kucan 1994; Kirleis et al.

2012). Cerealia records, i.e. Hordeum-type and unidentified

cereal-type pollen but excluding Secale which is identifi-

able with a high degree of certainty, probably also reflect

cereal growing. Further differentiation of the cerealia-type

pollen as regards size etc. may help in distinguishing pollen

of cereal origin from large cereal-like pollen produced by

non-cultivated grasses (cf. Ghilardi and O’Connell 2012).

Why the major impact on vegetation took place at ca.

3500 cal. B.C has been much discussed. In north-western

Germany and the Netherlands the timing coincides with the

emergence of the TRB West Group (Brindley 1986; Muller

et al. 2010) as a clearly defined Neolithic culture. Similar

changes are visible in Schleswig–Holstein. There, the first

evidence for the Neolithic more or less coincides with changes

in woodland composition at 4100 cal. B.C. (Muller et al. 2010;

Feeser et al. 2012). The much later strong increase in human

impact has been interpreted as a change from subsistence,

mainly based on husbandry, to a farming economy with

increased emphasis on arable activity (Behre and Kucan

1994). Other theories involve technological developments

coinciding with the introduction of the ard (Wiethold 1998).

The earliest dated plough marks in Lower Saxony, recorded

close to Wittenwater (Tegtmeier 1993), point to the intro-

duction of ploughing between the TRB and the early bronze

age. However, the ard might be less efficient than hoes for

cultivation (Bogaard 2004) and tillage in areas recently under

woodland would not have been without difficulty due to

persistent root systems (Rosch et al. 2002). In Ireland, changes

in Neolithic subsistence strategies have been ascribed to cli-

mate change (precipitation and also temperature; Stolze et al.

2012) but it remains uncertain if climate had such a dominant

influence (cf. Ghilardi and O’Connell 2012). Evidence

gleaned from plant macroremains from Neolithic sites in

northern Germany, and especially the shift in emphasis away

from plant material collected in the wild to crops, imply a

change from a surplus strategy to a full Neolithic lifestyle

(Kirleis et al. 2012). Taken in conjunction with the emergence

Fig. 9 Summary of vegetation changes and settlement activity as

derived from openness of vegetation, compositional species turnover

and human indicator pollen curves; main settlement phases are

indicated by shading


123

of the TRB West Group in north-western Europe, this appears

to be an acceptable explanation also for the intensification of

land use at ca. 3500 cal. B.C. recorded in the pollen profiles

presented here.

Neolithic land-use pattern

The close proximity of the Holschkenfehn pollen profile to

the archaeological evidence facilitates the reconstruction of

different phases of Neolithic land use in the area. Small

scale agriculture and wood pastures are assumed for the

period between 3520 and 2870 cal. B.C. (71–54 cm) with a

decrease in settlement activities between 3230 and

3050 cal. B.C. (65–60 cm) and lower impact between 3050

and 2870 cal. B.C. (60–54 cm). This is different to the sit-

uation at Flogeln during the Neolithic where Behre and

Kucan (1994) assumed uninterrupted arable activity and

continuous settlement. Given the poor sandy soils, highly

susceptible to leaching, fertility would have rapidly

declined if no manuring took place. This, in turn, would

lead to new clearances. Further clarification of various

aspects of the Neolithic economy, such as shifting culti-

vation and/or use of permanent plots, requires further

research including archaeobotanical investigations (cf.

Bogaard 2002; Kreuz and Schafer 2011).

Between 2870 and 2260 cal. B.C. (54–42 cm), the type of

human impact changed. Considering the strong representation

of Pteridium and sharp declines in Betula, Ulmus, Pinus and

Fraxinus, intense grazing in the context of cleared woodland

is assumed. This is also supported by a sharp increase in Po-

aceae between 2420 and 2310 cal. B.C. (45–43 cm) which is

regarded as indicative of grassland expansion. These changes

seem to parallel the emergence of the single grave culture

(SGC) in northern Europe (Muller et al. 2010). Unfortunately,

there is little archaeological evidence of settlement pattern and

subsistence practice during the SGC period in the study area

(Strahl 1990; Nosler et al. 2011). The results from Bockholter

Dose show only minor changes which might imply intensifi-

cation of land use on a very local level which is also favoured

by Bakker (2003) for the Drenthe Plateau. That the soil

became exhausted due to crop cultivation has often been cited

as an argument for the abandonment of grazed and arable land

at the end of the TRB (Behre and Kucan 1994; Wiethold

1998). This may also explain the developments seen in the

Holschkenfehn profile at this time. The longevity of the sub-

sequent regeneration phase, involving first birch and then oak,

supports the idea of soil exhaustion and ultimately the aban-

donment of settlement at Holschkenfehn.

The character of the human activity cannot be so easily be

reconstructed on the basis of the evidence provided by the

Bockholter Dose profile. However, changes in woodland

composition and a trend to more open vegetation are in syn-

chrony with phases of TRB settlement intensification and

reduction as reconstructed by pollen indicator taxa from

Holschkenfehn (Fig. 9). This suggests that settlement patterns

are regional in character. There appears to have been high

variability in climate in northern Europe at the beginning of

the Neolithic (Charman 2010). Investigation of lake sediments

and tree-ring data suggest warm summers with mild winters

and increasing wetness in the early Neolithic (after ca.

4000–3800 cal. B.C.) (Leuschner et al. 2002; Dreibrodt et al.

2012). After that, the climate became progressively drier until

2600 cal. B.C. while temperatures declined considerably at

3350 cal. B.C. (Leuschner et al. 2002; Dreibrodt et al. 2012).

Based on the data obtained so far, no direct connection

between regional settlement activities and changing climatic

conditions can be made for the Hummling region.

Conclusions

High percentages of AP pollen indicate that, prior to and

during the early Neolithic, closed canopy woodland dom-

inated in Hummling. Woodland composition changed

during the Neolithic but early opening-up of the woodlands

may be under-estimated due to shifts in tree composition

from low to high pollen producers (cf. Rasmussen 2005)

and also increased overall AP production due to increased

light availability as a consequence of human disturbance.

The mid Holocene decline in Ulmus pollen representa-

tion in Hummling predates the classical elm decline in

northern Europe by ca. 300 years and is only weakly

expressed in both profiles. The decline as expressed in

these profiles may be attributable to an early farming

impact, independent of any disease factor which may not

have been important anyhow given the sparse elm popu-

lation (cf. Bakker 2003).

The timing of the overall vegetation changes as reflected

in the shift in compositional turnover of AP taxa and the PCA

data from Bockholter Dose are in good agreement with the

chronology of Neolithic cultures in north-western Europe.

Initially, farming was probably small scale and the responses

of the vegetation to farming were accordingly varied.

On the basis of the pollen data, there appears to be little or

no change in type of human impact in the region during the

early Neolithic (prior to 3520 cal. B.C.), but human impact

increased considerably after 3520 cal. B.C. and continued until

2260 cal. B.C. A change from a subsistence-type farming

economy with little wood pasture and arable farming to more

intensive wood pasture coincides with the emergence of the

SGC. The underlying factors that influenced these settlement

dynamics have still to be clarified, especially the possibility

that they are connected with changing climatic conditions (cf.

Berglund 2003, Kalis et al. 2003; Schulting 2010).

The palynological evidence from prior to the emergence

of the TRB does not unambiguously prove the presence of


123

Neolithic people in the study area. On the other hand, the

vegetation changes parallel developments seen in pollen

profiles from neighbouring regions such as the Netherlands

and Schleswig–Holstein where the Neolithic transition is

regarded as a gradual process that included the adoption of

various Neolithic subsistence strategies while essentially a

Mesolithic way of life was maintained. It is assumed that

vegetation at a regional level was relatively resilient to low

human impact but that the influence of the TRB led to

compositional change in the woodlands, and to strong

leaching and ultimately exhaustion of soils that is visible,

especially at a local scale during the early SGC.

Apart from questions concerning vegetation dynamics

and settlement history, insights into regional vegetation

developments may contribute to a better understanding of

early greenhouse effects and climate change by assessing

land-cover changes in northern Europe during the mid

Holocene (Ganopolski et al. 1998; Ruddiman 2003; Kaplan

et al. 2011) and hence deserve further careful attention.

Acknowledgments We thank Gerfried Caspers for providing

insights into archived maps from the Hummling, Stefanie Muller for

introduction to analysis of testate amoebae, Ingo Feeser for an

introduction to the OxCal program, Steffen Wolters for helpful dis-

cussions and, together with Jens Luhmann, for help during fieldwork.

An earlier version of the manuscript benefited from constructive

comments by Michael O’Connell, Walter Dorfler and an anonymous

reviewer. This research was supported by the Deutsche Forschungs-

gemeinschaft (DFG Jo 304/3).

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