Analysis of Faunal Remains from Three Late Paleoindian (Lake Poygan Phase) Sites in East-Central...

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Analysis of Faunal Remains from Three Late Paleoindian (Lake Poygan Phase)

Sites in East-Central Wisconsin

Steven R. Kuehn and James A. Clark

Owing to the vagaries of preservation and other factors, relatively little Paleoindian zooarchaeological material has been recovered in the Upper Midwest. This picture has changed in recent years, with the recovery of small but significant faunal assemblages from a number of Late Paleoindian sites in Wisconsin. Detailed analysis of three Lake Poygan phase site assemblages adds to this growing database and reinforces interpretation of a generalized foraging adaptive strategy.

Steven R. Kuehn, Illinois State Archaeological Survey, 23 East Stadium Drive, Champaign, IL 61820, [email protected] A. Clark, Jr., 2013-A N. Newhall Street, Milwaukee, WI, 53202

©2012 Illinois Archaeological Survey, Inc., Illinois Archaeology, vol. 24, pp. 123–158

Paleoindian subsistence adaptations are a long-standing research quandary in North American archaeology, resulting from the general paucity of well-preserved faunal ma-terial and the limited number of excavated sites. Based on the archaeological record of Wisconsin, the standard comment, jokingly made, is that Paleoindian groups in the state roamed across the landscape fashioning and losing spear points, visiting Silver Mound on occasion, never stopping to camp, and never eating a thing. In the Upper Midwest, traditionally, discussions of Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene dietary patterns have been reliant on tenuous analogies with sites in other regions and on ethnographic stud-ies of hunting and foraging peoples. Lacking hard data, however, most interpretations of dietary behavior remain speculative, at best. In recent years, archaeological data have come to light that are beginning to shed some light on Paleoindian subsistence strategies in Wisconsin. Evidence for Early Pa-leoindian utilization of megafauna is posited for southeastern Wisconsin (Overstreet 1993, 1998). A number of these sites are hypothetically linked to the Chesrow complex as defined by Overstreet (1993). Contextual evidence demonstrating a secure associa-tion between the megafauna sites and the Chesrow material, however, has not yet been

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identified (e.g., Mason 1997; Stoltman 1998). More substantial data are available for Late Paleoindian and Late Paleoindian-Early Archaic sites, in the form of assemblages from Deadman Slough, Sucices, and other sites in the Western Great Lakes (Kuehn 1998, 2007). The faunal remains from the three Lake Poygan phase sites analyzed here have been discussed briefly elsewhere (e.g., Kuehn 1998, 2000a, 2007), but no detailed analysis has yet been presented. This article provides an overview of the Late Paleo-indian Lake Poygan phase, a detailed analysis of the faunal remains recovered, and an interpretation of dietary behavior at these sites within a larger framework.

The Lake Poygan Phase

The Lake Poygan phase was defined based on years of archaeological survey and ex-cavation conducted by James Clark, in the region around Lake Poygan, in east-central Wisconsin (Figure 1). It is viewed as a regional expression of the Late Paleoindian Cody/Scottsbluff complex, marked by adaptations to wetland-lacustrine-riverine en-vironments of the Middle Fox River Passageway in Winnebago and eastern Waushara counties (Clark 1995). Jack Steinbring, Frank Farvor, and Richard Mason have docu-mented Scottsbluff assemblages to the south in the Rush Lake area (Behm 1988; Mason 1994; Steinbring 1959; Steinbring and Farvour 1957). Lake Poygan phase peoples also regularly visited wetlands adjacent to the Grand River-Fox River confluence in south-western Green Lake County and adjacent portions of Marquette County. Likewise, east of Lake Winnebago and the Niagara escarpment, Cody/Scottsbluff assemblages have been documented in proximity to extinct glacial lakes in eastern Calumet and western Manitowoc counties (Dirst 1985; William Kemps, personal communication). Sites are distributed low on the landscape, along the margins of what are today either extensive wetlands or open waterways. The hallmark diagnostic tool of the Lake Poygan phase, aside from eared and earless Scottsbluff and Eden projectile point forms, is the adze. The adzes are made from rhyolite and, to a lesser degree, basalt, and it has been proposed (Clark 1995) that they were employed in the manufacture of dugout canoes, as well as for other woodworking tasks. The occupants of these sites, now adjacent to closed marshlands, likely had access to navigable openings before accreting alluvium and eutrophication had advanced.

Physical Setting

The Middle Fox River Passageway is situated in the Lake Winnebago Lowlands at the juncture of Central Plain and Eastern Ridges and Lowlands physiographic provinces (Martin 1965). Glaciolacustrine deposits derived from Glacial Lake Oshkosh form a terrain of low relief bordering lakes Poygan, Winneconne, and Butte des Morts, the chain of lakes above Lake Winnebago. Glacially eroded dolomite ledges of the Prairie du Chien escarpment mantled by thin deposits of till and lacustrine deposits form topographic highs inland. During the nineteenth century, dams were constructed at the northern outlet of Lake Winnebago, forming the Lake Winnebago Pool. The pool

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system, affecting the lower reaches of its tributary streams, is maintained at a spillway elevation of 227.67 m (747 ft) amsl. The pool ranges up the Wolf River beyond Fremont, to Eureka along the Fox River, up Willow Creek in Poy Sippi Township southwest of the Poygan Marsh, into northern Winchester Township along the Rat River, and along numerous minor waterways. From its headwaters in the Northern Highland region, the Wolf River flows through lakes Poygan and Winneconne to join the Fox River in the northwestern reaches of Lake Butte des Morts. The Fox River traverses the Central Plain northeastward from its headwaters at Portage, a mere 2.4 km (1.5 miles) from the Wisconsin River.

Figure 1. Lake Poygan Phase locality in East-Central Wisconsin.

Pre-dam lake levels were at or slightly below 226.6 m (743.5 ft). With this in mind, it is of interest that with few exceptions surface elevations at Lake Poygan phase sites are consistently at or immediately adjacent to the 228.6 m (750 ft) contour interval. Below this elevation mineral soils soon grade to organic-rich mineral soils, muck, peat, and alluvial deposits. To date, no early sites have been identified below 228.0 m (748 ft) amsl. Inundated offshore sites with intensive Archaic and Woodland occupations have yet to yield evidence of Cody/Scottsbluff complex or earlier habitations. This implies that elevations below 228.0 m (748 ft) amsl were unfavorable (too wet) for occupation following the recession of Glacial Lake Oshkosh during the Terminal Pleistocene and Early Holocene.


Site Types and Settlement Patterns

Typically, Lake Poygan phase sites are situated on wetland margins at or beyond the foot of long, gentle slopes, on soils composed of mucky loamy fine sand, sandy loam, or silty clay loam. On level terrain, sites most often occur on barely perceptible rises of slightly coarser soil. Along tributary streams, sites with appreciable artifact density coincide with expansive, broad floodplain settings that at present are closed marshland. An exception to the 228.6 m (750 ft) amsl “rule” occurs where elevated terrain descends abruptly to a wetland. Peninsulas that jut into wetlands are also favored camp settings.

Approximately thirty Lake Poygan phase sites have been documented along the perimeter of the Lake Winnebago Pool system and adjacent wetlands. Additional sites occur along the floodplain margins of tributary streams. This general pattern has been noted for earlier Paleoindian adaptations in the region. One can hear the echo of George Quimby’s statement regarding the Aqua-Plano tradition with “lanceolate points found in association with fossil beaches and water planes of glacial and ancient postglacial lakes” (Quimby 1960:34).

Three provisional site types have been identified based on site size, artifact density, and range of activities performed. The majority of observations are derived from surface collections only, and as such they are limited to intuitive and impressionistic character-izations. More precise classification of the site types will be addressed in a forthcoming article formally defining the Lake Poygan phase.

Type I sites are interpreted as transient camps or even single event locations. These stations occur intermittently along wetland margins and up to 100 m or more inland. Artifacts may be contained within an area only several meters in diameter, or diffusely scattered over a significantly larger area, reflecting overlapping episodes of occupation along the wetland margin. Activities at Type I sites include maintenance of bifaces, oc-casional retooling, and use and discard of expedient flake tools most often struck from refined bifacial cores. Artifacts recovered include broken and discarded implements such as adzes, bifaces, and, rarely, projectile points. The individuals responsible for these light scatters were likely occupants from area camps on hunting and gathering forays. Test excavations conducted in the early 1980s by Clark in tilled and untilled contexts at sites such as Broken Banner (47WN272) and Old Pines (47WN275) suggest that these stations are much more common than surface collections would indicate. Cultural affiliation for these transient stations are often equivocal in the absence of rhyolite flakes, adzes, or diagnostic points. To date, no discrete, cohesive camps preceding the Scottsbluff/Cody component have been reported in the Lake Poygan region even though earlier lanceolate point forms (e.g., Gainey, Agate Basin, Plainview, Hell Gap) are present (e.g., Clark 1982; Dirst 1985; Overstreet 1991a).

Greater artifact density and diversity are evident at Type II habitation or camp sites. These sites typically range from 20 to 60 m in length, and often have their long axes oriented parallel to the wetland margin. Although accumulated debris may be of moderate density in comparison to Type III base camp sites, a range of on-site activities

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are manifest. Artifact assemblages include projectile points, bifacial blanks and cores, bifacial knives, drills, flake tools, end scrapers, flat sandstone abraders, rare striated hematite fragments, and, occasionally, adzes. Lithic chert debitage is moderately abun-dant, consisting of rhyolite, Hixton silicified sandstone, local and nonlocal chert, and traces of quartz, siltstone, and unidentified raw materials. Thermally fractured rock and unmodified manuports occur in trace amounts. Apparently, resource processing did not require quantities of heated rock. The single component Twin Hickories site (47WN262) is a representative example of a Type II habitation (Clark 1995).

The final and by far most archaeologically visible Lake Poygan phase sites are Type III base camps. They are strategically oriented to the most favorable setting of the time, presumably in close proximity to navigable water. Type III sites are often 30 m to 80 m in length, and are oriented parallel to the adjacent wetland. The Russell Wohlt site (47WN718) is an exception with respect to size. In this instance, a contiguous scatter reaching a maximum width of 60 m extends for a known distance of 300 m along the western margin of the lower Wolf River marsh and may extend even further into areas not tilled at the time of discovery. Artifact assemblages include Scottsbluff and Eden points (both eared and non-eared forms), trihedral and nontrihedral adzes, lithic deb-itage, utilized and retouched flakes, and a variety of bifaces, scrapers, and drills. The Lake Poygan phase–type site, Kiesow #1 (47WN138), is a Type III base camp at which numerous adzes, several reworked Scottsbluff projectile points, and a broad range of implements and lithic debris were surface collected by Clark in 1981. While the Scotts-bluff component is horizontal distinct, Kiesow #1 is a multicomponent site and as such is potentially compromised by artifactual white noise from other cultures. With further study, the single component Linstedt site (47WN308), also interpreted as a base camp, will ultimately provide more detail regarding the breadth of lithic technology, range of raw materials employed, and (through microwear analysis) specific on-site activities.

Type III sites have been referred to as “rhyolite scatters” by Clark, due to the characteristic ubiquity of rhyolite debitage. This tool stone is derived from Marquette rhyolite monadnocks located south of Lake Puckaway in southwestern Green Lake County (Smith 1978). Cortical flakes exhibiting flat, reddish-brown cortices are com-mon, suggesting that unmodified or minimally modified chunks or cobbles were being imported. William Olson discovered a cache of several rhyolite chunks in a tilled field at the Clark Orchard site (47WN159) (Clark 1995).

Rhyolite and, less frequently, basalt adzes, of both trihedral and nontrihedral forms, were manufactured, utilized, reworked to exhaustion, and fractured on-site in the manu-facture of dugout canoes and other woodworking tasks. During the 1950s and 1960s, these implements were observed in such abundance that Neil Ostberg, Paul Koeppler, and other avocational archaeologists coined the term “Poygan chopper” in reference to them. The junior author was once shown a large wash basin filled with adzes found on a family farm on the lower Wolf River marsh. The fact that such great numbers of adzes have been recovered over the years speaks of the intensive use of this tool and likewise to the importance of waterway navigation to this culture.


Lithic Technology

A preceramic archaeological manifestation known primarily from surface collections, Lake Poygan phase artifact assemblages are dominated by chipped-stone tools, modified and unmodified debitage, and ground-stone implements. Scottsbluff and Eden projectile points are diagnostic, with both eared and non-eared forms represented (Figures 2 and 3). Most of the points currently available for study are either fragmentary or reworked; it is probable that they served as both projectile points and knives. The Lake Poygan phase examples are shouldered lanceolates with straight bases and slightly excurvate and, less frequently, parallel blade margins. They are consistent with Scottsbluff (Type I) and Eden points (Justice 1987; Wormington 1957). While eared and non-eared forms occur, eared points tend to be made from rhyolite. Exceptions do exist, such as a Hixton silicified sandstone Scottsbluff point from the Borth site (47WS144) that exhibits both pronounced ears and barbed shoulders.

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Figure 2. Lake Poygan Phase Eared Scottsbluff Projectile Points (siltstone, top row; Marquette rhyolite, bottom two rows; top right specimen reworked into drill).

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Figure 3. Lake Poygan Phase Scottsbluff Points (chert, top two rows; Hixton silicified sandstone, bottom two rows).

Point lengths, including data from reworked specimens, range from 50 to 100 mm. The larger specimens tend to occur in mortuary contexts or caches. Stem margins may be either straight or expanding on non-eared forms, and slightly contracting on eared points. Base and lateral margins are typically ground on pristine or intact points, while grinding is sometimes minimal, remnant, or absent on reworked points. Point cross


sections vary, with triangular, planoconvex, biconvex, and lenticular forms observed. Diamond-shaped cross sections characteristic of Eden points are not common, although some points exhibit collateral flaking on both faces, while others possess very slight stem indentations.

Points not extensively reworked exhibit collateral flaking on the dorsal face. Flake scars on the ventral face often approach a parallel flaking pattern, with flake scars extend-ing beyond the median and meeting with an opposing flake scar. Others may exhibit oblique transverse flaking. Due to the tenacious nature of rhyolite, more irregular flaking patterns are sometimes observed.

The majority of adzes from the Lake Winnebago Pool study area are made from Marquette rhyolite (Figures 4 and 5). Basalt adzes derived from glacial till, however, are not uncommon. Both trihedral adzes (Fox 1980a) and ovate adzes occur within the same assemblages, with the latter demonstrating plano-convex transverse cross sections. These woodworking tools most often exhibit concavo-convex bits. They typically range from 80 to 120 mm in length, although a much larger adze approximately 270 mm long was found near the Poygan Marsh (Tom Zeulsdorf, personal communication 1987). Haft margins are dulled, either intentionally or from haft slippage. Smoothed facets are occasionally observed on the dorsal face, and flat, unmodified ventral surfaces are often seen on basalt adzes.

The tight horizontal association of flaked adzes and Scottsbluff and Eden points in east-central Wisconsin suggests that these adzes made their first appearance south of Lake Superior and west of Lake Michigan during the Scottsbluff horizon. This is not the case in northwestern Ontario, southern Manitoba, and adjacent regions to the north, however, where trihedral adzes are associated with unshouldered lanceolate points pre-ceding Scottsbluff (e.g., Buchner 1984; James Wright, personal communication 1985). Experimental study and examination of Dalton adzes demonstrate that these artifacts were employed in heavy woodworking activities, typically on charred and seasoned wood (Yerkes and Gaertner 1997). A similar woodworking role can be envisioned for the Lake Poygan adzes, and they were likely employed in the manufacture of dugout canoes.

A variety of other chipped-stone tools are associated with the Lake Poygan phase. Ovate and elongate ovate bifaces are present, reflecting the various stages of biface reduction, and, rarely, teardrop-shaped bifaces are found. Unifacial tools include end scrapers (some spurred), end-side scrapers, and (rarely) convergent scrapers. Both straight shank and expanding base bifacial drills have been identified. In addition, a wide range of utilized and retouched flakes are recovered; some retouched flakes exhibit one or more spurred projections. Flake tools often occur on finely executed bifacial thinning flakes displaying faceted and ground striking platforms. At more intensively occupied sites such as Linstedt, there is an appreciable ratio of flake tools that occurs on blanks struck from block and bipolar cores of locally available glacial cherts that are too small for biface manufacture. This may indicate utilization of local material

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as their stay lengthened and supply of nonlocal material dwindled. To date, no Cody knives (Wormington 1957) have been recovered from the study area, nor have they been observed in local collections.

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Figure 4. Lake Poygan Phase Basalt and Rhyolite Adzes.


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Figure 5. Rhyolite Adzes from the Kiesow Site (47WN138) (profile, obverse, reverse).

Ground-stone implements include small- to large-sized hammer stones, pitted hammer stones occasionally exhibiting multiple off-centered pecked anvil facets, flat ungrooved abrading stones of sandstone, and, occasionally, small masses of striated hematite that was utilized for red pigment. At the northern boundary of Twin Hickories (47WN262), an oval basalt pebble the size of a chicken egg was found which is encircled by a longitudinally oriented, pecked and polished groove. It is uncertain whether or not this is a bola stone or a fancy net sinker.

An impressive variety of tool stone typifies the Lake Poygan phase, primarily in the form of Marquette rhyolite from Green Lake County and Hixton silicified sandstone from Silver Mound in Jackson County (Porter 1961). Connections to western Wisconsin are manifest via the latter material, as well as the unidentified orthoquartzites, nonlocal Prairie du Chien chert, and traces of tan Cochrane chert (Boszhardt 1998).

Upper Ordovician Maquoketa Shale Formation chert from the lower Door Pen-insula, usually of the more homogeneous, gray to light olive-gray variety, occurs more often in tool form than as debitage. This suggests that this stone may have been acquired and modified at the source. Flake tools, several complete and fragmentary projectile points, and a few bifaces are also made from this material. Small, irregularly shaped Maquoketa chert pebbles with water-rolled cortices were occasionally utilized as cores.

Traces of siltstone, sometimes of a very dark greenish hue, occur in the form of points, cores, and flake tools fashioned from bifacial thinning flakes. This variety of siltstone, as well as a single Gunflint Silica end scraper from the Linstedt site, suggests ties to the Boundary Waters region of Minnesota (Bakken 1997). Hudson Bay Lowland

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chert, derived from regional tills, was occasionally utilized, as were other unidentified, fine-grained glacial pebbles. Although imported and locally derived Prairie du Chien chert is relatively common, Galena chert is curiously absent.

Ritual Activity

Extensive evidence of Late Paleoindian ritual or ceremonial activity has been identified in the Great Lakes region, at sites such as Renier (Mason and Irwin 1960), Caradoc (Ellis and Deller 2002), Crowfield (Deller and Ellis 1984), Deadman Slough (Kuehn 1998; Meinholz and Kuehn 1995, 1996), and Gorto (Buckmaster and Paquette 1988). Ritual activity evident at these sites includes cremation, thermal events, intentional artifact breakage, votive offerings, the presence of miniature point forms, and caching. In some instances, in particular with caches, these finds may represent functional rather than ceremonial activities (e.g., Carr and Boszhardt 2003).

Two Lake Poygan phase sites contain evidence of ritual activity: the Pope site in southern Waupaca County and the Clark Cottage site in Winnebago County. The artifact assemblage from Pope consists of 10 thermally fractured Scottsbluff points fashioned from quartzite, and was interpreted as the remnants of a cremation similar to the Renier site (Ritzenthaler 1972). In 1984, the discoverer of the site, Paul Pope, informed Clark that calcined bone was present in the vicinity of these surface finds, but no mention of this was made in the original report.

An isolated thermal event occurred at Clark Cottage (47WN168), on the north shore of Lake Winneconne, more than 100 m north of a Type II habitation site. The thermal event was identified in a silty clay loam soil, northwest of a low sandy knoll. The Clark Cottage site proper encompasses the knoll and surrounding area. Thermally fractured rhyolite adzes and Hixton silicified sandstone bifaces (Figure 6) were recov-ered on the tilled surface of a field within a 5-m area. It is presumed that the artifacts were scattered by tillage from a much tighter concentration. The specific nature of the activity (e.g., cremation, votive offering, etc.) reflected at Clark Cottage is uncertain, but given the evidence of thermal breakage, a ritual rather than functional interpreta-tion seems most likely.

Discussion

At the present time, no radiocarbon assays have been run for Lake Poygan phase sites or components. With the availability of faunal material, in the future bone collagen dates will be obtained, which will provide a temporal provenience for this cultural manifestation. Until that time, the junior author proposes an estimated time range of 8,500 to 9,000 B.P. for the Lake Poygan phase.

Lake Poygan phase base camps exhibit dense scatters of rhyolite, Hixton silicified sandstone, and chert (both local and locally exotic) implements and debitage. Rhyolite serves as a diagnostic marker since its utilization for the most part is restricted in time to


the local Scottsbluff horizon (e.g., Benchley et al. 1997:64). On-site production and use of adzes is made apparent by the large size of flaking debris and by failed adze preforms, resharpened specimens, and broken adze bits, respectively. Based on Clark’s firsthand experience, encountering rhyolite debitage during surveys in this area subsequently leads to discoveries of Scottsbluff points (Figure 7).

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Figure 6. Thermally Fractured Hixton Bifaces and Fragments, and Rhyolite Adzes from the Clark Cottage Site (47WN168).

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Figure 7. Large Rhyolite Flaking Debris from Lake Poygan Phase Camps.

As noted, studies of the Lake Poygan phase are ongoing, and the information pre-sented above should be considered provisional. Test excavations have been conducted at the Metzig Garden site, but have yet to be fully reported (Behm 1986). The base of a Plainview-like point was recovered from a buried surface at Metzig Garden, adjacent to two small pit features and stratigraphically below a Scottsbluff component (Clark 1995). A detailed report on the Lake Poygan phase is currently in preparation (Clark and Kuehn 2012) that will provide a formal definition for this phase. The available data discussed here demonstrate strong cultural ties with other Late Paleoindian manifesta-tions in the Western Great Lakes region, including the Minocqua phase and Reservoir Lakes, Lakehead, Quetico/Superior, and Rainy River/Lake of the Woods complexes (the Interlakes Composite) (Fox 1975, 1980b; Harrison et al. 1995; Magner 2001; Mason 1963; Meinholz and Kuehn 1996; Ross 1995; Salzer 1974; Steinbring 1974).

In 1997, the senior author analyzed the faunal remains from three Lake Poygan phase sites: Wohlt (47WN358), Russell Wohlt (47WN718), and Kiesow Grove (47WN356). The project was undertaken as part of research on early subsistence adaptations in Wis-consin. The data obtained comprised the senior author’s graduate thesis, and the results were subsequently published (Kuehn 1998). This information was also incorporated into a discussion of Late Paleoindian dietary strategies in the Western Great Lakes


(Kuehn 2007). Specific details on the zooarchaeological analysis of the Lake Poygan phase material, however, are presented here for the first time.

Method of Analysis

Each specimen from the Wohlt, Russell Wohlt, and Kiesow Grove site was examined individually, with the following basic information recorded: element, side of the body (when applicable), section or portion of the element, and taxonomic classification. The relative age (e.g., adult or juvenile/sub-adult) of the individual represented was noted, when it could be reliably determined. Determination of age, in general, was based on the degree of epiphyseal fusion, tooth eruption, and occlusal wear. Each specimen was examined for exposure to heat, in the form of burned or calcined bone. A substantial percentage of the faunal assemblage from each site was mineralized, suggesting some degree of age (e.g., Lyman 1994:217). Obviously recent or intrusive specimens were removed, and are not included here. No butchering marks or bone tools were observed. Due to specimen fragmentation, otherwise unidentifiable pieces of mammal bone are categorized as large-sized, medium-sized, or small-sized, based on the relative size and thickness of each specimen. The approximate live weight of large-sized mammals is considered to be greater than 50 lbs (23 kg), 11 to 50 lbs (5 to 23 kg) for medium-sized mammals, and less than 10 lbs for small-sized mammals. When it was not possible to reliably categorize a specimen based on size, it is listed simply as “mammal” or “mam-mal of indeterminate size.”

Refitting of bone fragments was restricted to specimens obtained from within the same feature or excavation unit at each site. The quantitative measure of the number of identified specimens per taxon (NISP) was used in this analysis, unless otherwise noted. Minimum numbers of individuals per taxon (MNI) estimations are made for each site assemblage as a whole, based on comparison of repeating or multiple elements, relative age, and overall size. In general, MNI determinations are made only for specimens that can be identified to the genus or species level. An osteological comparative collection was used in the identification of certain specimens.

The Russell Wohlt Site Assemblage

The Russell Wohlt site is positioned on the northwest side of the lower Wolf River marsh, above the Lake Poygan confluence (Figure 8). The site comprises a linear scatter of rhyolite, Hixton silicified sandstone, and chert chipping debris and chipped-stone implements, extending (at minimum) 300 m northeast-southwest and a maximum of 65 m southeast-northwest. The location of the site is coincident with a soil matrix of Kingsville mucky loamy fine sand (Mitchell 1980). The minimum site elevation is 748 ft (227 m) amsl and does not rise to the 750 ft contour line. The field in which the site is located has been under cultivation for an undetermined amount of time. It is nearly

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level, but for a linear beach-like or natural levee-like landform trending parallel to the long axis of the site. The highest artifact density occurs along the crest and back slope of this subtle landform, which rises less than 50 cm above the adjacent ground. In May 1995, plowing brought splays of light brown sandy subsoil to the crest surface, contain-ing Hixton silicified sandstone and rhyolite chipping debris, and the bone fragments analyzed here. Based on the available data, Russell Wohlt is interpreted as a single component site.

Figure 8. Distribution of Select Lake Poygan Phase Sites, including those with Faunal Remains.

Lake Poygan phase artifacts recovered include a reworked Scottsbluff point, rhyolite adzes, and numerous bifaces and other implements made from rhyolite, Hixton silici-fied sandstone, and chert. The unusually large scatter of rhyolite debitage associated with on-site manufacture of adzes and other bifaces, in tandem with a variety of other tool forms, speaks of a base camp that was revisited over time. Association of the faunal material recovered with the Lake Poygan phase is based on the context from which it originated (displaced subsoil), condition of the remains (heavily mineralized), and as-sociated diagnostic artifacts and characteristic raw material utilization pattern.


Russell Wohlt Faunal Assemblage

A total of 126 pieces of bone was recovered during archaeological investigations at the Russell Wohlt site (Table 1). All of the specimens are heavily mineralized, with numer-ous fragments encrusted with reddish, presumably ferric, concretions. Among pieces identifiable to the class level, mammal remains are ubiquitous, with turtle, fish, and bird present in minimal amounts. Fifty-nine specimens are not identifiable to element or a specific taxon.

Taxon NISP MNI

White-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus 1 1

Beaver Castor canadensis 2 2

Muskrat Ondatra zibethicus 4 1

Large-sized mammal – 30 –

Medium-large mammal – 1 –

Medium-sized mammal – 1 –

Small-medium mammal – 8 –

Total Mammalia 47 4

Bird, indeterminate – 5 1

Total Aves 5 1

Blanding's turtle Emydoidea blandingii 1 1

Water/box turtle family Emydidae – –

Turtle, indeterminate – 7 –

Total Reptilia 9 2

Catfish family Ictaluridae 1 1

Fish, indeterminate – 5 –

Total Osteichthyes 6 1

Taxon indeterminate – 59 –

Total Vertebrata 59 –

Total 126 8

Table 1. Russell Wohlt Site Faunal Assemblage.

Forty-seven specimens are identifiable as mammal. Seven can be classified to the species level, representing a minimum of four individual animals. The remainder can be categorized only in terms of relative size, with large-sized mammals being the most common. White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are represented by one specimen, a left scapula glenoid fossa fragment, from an adult individual. Two left ilium fragments are identifiable as beaver (Castor canadensis). A MNI of two adult animals is indicated; one

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is burned and the other calcined. The final four bones are muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus), from a minimum of one adult animal. Elements present include right and left maxilla fragments, a left maxillary second molar, and a right mandibular first molar.

Nine turtle carapace/plastron fragments are present in the assemblage. One periph-eral carapace piece compares favorably with Blanding’s turtle (Emydoidea blandingii). One partly calcined carapace fragment is identifiable as marsh or box turtle (family Emydidae). The remainder are indistinct shell pieces. Of these, six are calcined or partly calcined.

Six fish elements were recovered at the Russell Wohlt site. Only one is specifically identifiable, a right articular fragment from a large catfish (family Ictaluridae), probably channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus). It is partly calcined. The remaining fish elements consist of four vertebral centrum fragments and a partial tooth. Two of the vertebrae are burned black.

Five long-bone shaft pieces are categorized as indeterminate bird. Four are calcined.

Discussion

The composition of the Russell Wohlt faunal assemblage, although limited in size and identifiable specimens, reflects a generalized adaptive strategy. A diverse array of taxa are represented, obtained from a variety of habitats. White-tailed deer prefer sparse woodlot and forest-edge settings, while beaver and muskrat inhabit marsh and wetland areas. Blanding’s turtle, catfish, and marsh/box turtle similarly indicate utilization of local aquatic resources. The presence of bird and small- and medium-sized mammal elements also suggests a broad-based adaptive strategy.

The Wohlt Site Assemblage

The Wohlt site is situated 800 m northwest of the Russell Wohlt site, on the western side of the lower Wolf River marsh, above the Lake Poygan confluence (see Figure 8). The minimum site elevation is 748 ft (227 m) amsl, and the site soil is Kingsville mucky loamy fine sand, identical to the Russell Wohlt site. The site occupies approximately 900 m2 of fallow ground at the very tip of a peninsula that juts eastward into the lower Wolf River marsh. This peninsula, on which both the Wohlt and Wohlt Peninsula sites are located, is the southernmost of three peninsulas with evidence of early camps.

The Wohlt site was identified in 1987, following documentation of the nearby Wohlt Peninsula (47WN717) site. A patch of fallow ground was observed to the east of Wohlt Peninsula, separated by a narrow swale. Excavation of a few shovel tests at the head of a boat ditch resulted in the recovery of Hixton silicified sandstone and rhyolite chipping debris characteristic of Lake Poygan phase sites. An Early Woodland component, represented by a light distribution of incised ceramics, also was identified. The landowner (the late Beatrice Wohlt) stated that though a portion of the site was once a potato patch, no other cultivation had occurred in her 60 years on the farm.


A 1-m2 test unit (Test Unit 1 or TU 1) was subsequently excavated, employing 5 cm arbitrary levels below the ground surface, and the soil screened through 1/4-in mesh. A high water table required bagging screen residue below 30 cm for later processing. Excavation ceased at 45 cm (Level 9) due to seepage and a sharp decrease in artifacts. In fading daylight, the central portion of the east wall was deepened to 70 cm for profil-ing. No discernable Ap horizon was observed in this expedient profile, and if one were present, it would not extend below Level 4 (15–20 cm), which is the maximum depth of a very dark gray sandy loam A horizon. Diffuse soil boundaries underlie the A horizon to the base of the solum. Level 4 through Level 6 (20–30 cm) sediments are a grayish-brown sandy loam that grade to a mottled yellowish-brown sandy loam in Levels 7 and 8 (30–40 cm). In Level 9 (40–45 cm) and continuing to 55 cm, the soil is mottled light yellow brown sand containing common concretions. A 5 cm thick, clay-enriched horizon of pink sand was noted at 55–60 cm, overlying mottled, yellowish-brown sand that extends to the base of the profile. In hindsight, references to sandy loam may have been influenced by moist soil conditions, and in keeping with Mitchell’s (1980) descrip-tion for this mapped soil, fine sand may have been the sediment in the lower solum.

Wohlt Faunal Assemblage

A total of 479 pieces of bone was recovered during test excavations at the Wohlt site (Table 2). Bone preservation is relatively poor at this site; over 75 percent of the specimens present cannot be reliably identified to element or taxon. Most are small, indistinct fragments of bone. Burned and calcined specimens account for 190 pieces of bone. One vole (Microtus sp.) right mandible was recovered but determined to be noncultural in origin, and is not included here. All of the faunal remains were recovered from Test Unit 1.

Forty-four mammal bone fragments are present, representing a minimum of four individual animals. Thirty-nine specimens are classifiable only with regard for relative size. Of these, small-sized to medium-sized mammal elements are most common. One calcined proximal phalanx fragment, most likely a first or second, was the only white-tailed deer element recognized in the assemblage. One tooth fragment is classifiable as indeterminate cervid (family Cervidae), and compares favorably with white-tailed deer. One beaver tooth is present, a partly calcined deciduous molar. Two muskrat bones also were identified, a left maxilla fragment and a molar fragment. The loose molar is burned black. Both specimens are from adults, and a MNI of one muskrat is indicated.

Twenty-nine turtle shell fragments were recovered. One exhibits the exterior sculpt-ing pattern characteristic of softshell turtles (Apalone sp.). The remainder are indistinct carapace and plastron pieces, of which 22 are burned or calcined.

Fish remains account for 31 specimens, none of which can be identified beyond the class level. With the exception of one large tooth fragment, all are vertebral centrum pieces. Twenty-three of the vertebrae are burned black or calcined.

Kuehn and Clark 141

Four limb elements are identifiable as bird. One is the distal portion of a right ulna from a small bird, possibly a perching bird (order Passeriformes). Only one other bone is identifiable to element, the distal shaft aspect of a left ulna. The remaining specimens are listed as indeterminate long-bone shaft fragments. All four elements are either burned or calcined.

Taxon NISP MNI


Cervid family Cervidae 1 –






Small-sized mammal – 1 –

Mammal, indeterminate 2 –

Total Mammalia 44 3

Bird, indeterminate – 4 1

Total Aves 4 1

Softshell turtle Apalone sp. 1 1

Turtle, indeterminate – 28 --

Total Reptilia 29 1

Fish, indeterminate – 31 1


Taxon indeterminate – 371 –


Total 479 6

Table 2. Wohlt Site Faunal Assemblage.


Discussion

As a whole, the Wohlt faunal assemblage is very similar to that of the Russell Wohlt site. A broad-based subsistence strategy is indicated, utilizing a variety of taxa from various habitat settings. Deer, beaver, muskrat, and softshell turtle were specifically identified, along with indeterminate fish, birds, and various-sized mammals. The animal remains present indicate exploitation of forest-edge, wetland, and aquatic environmental zones.

The presence of grit-tempered ceramics in the upper levels of TU 1 indicates pos-sible mixing of Woodland materials with the Late Paleoindian remains. The distribution of bone by level is presented in Table 3. The majority of pottery was recovered from Level 4, with none recovered below Level 6 (only 1 sherd present in this level). The ephemeral Woodland component is restricted to the A (or possible Ap) horizon. Over two-thirds of the assemblage was obtained from Levels 6–9, below the A horizon; this includes the large-sized mammal and turtle remains from the area designated Feature 1 in Level 7. Feature 1 consists of a small, poorly defined discolored area in the northwest corner of the unit. Three pieces of bone and no other artifacts were recovered from this possible feature. The prevalence of rhyolite and hixton artifacts within the unit, and specifically within the preceramic lower levels, strongly indicates a Late Paleoindian association. In sum, even if the bone from the uppermost levels is excluded, the com-position of the remaining assemblage reflects a generalized foraging adaptation, with beaver, muskrat, turtle, fish, and various-sized mammals represented.

The Kiesow Grove Site Assemblage

The Kiesow Grove site is situated on the south side of the Rat River, on the eastern side of the lower Wolf River marsh (see Figure 8). The site occupies a linear, north-northeast to south-southwest trending rise, 80 m long and 25 m wide, oriented perpendicular to the Rat River. The rise is separated from fast land by nearly 100 m of marsh. Locally, these landforms, often wooded with white ash, are called “islands” in reference to their being surrounded by marsh. Minimum site elevation is 227 m (748 ft), and as with the Wohlt and Russell Wohlt sites, maximum elevation does not rise to the 750 ft mark. Identical elevations at all three site settings speak of a shared hydrological origin. Even though Kiesow Grove is mapped within a unit of Poy silty clay loam bordering Wil-lette muck, the soil description of the former (Mitchell 1980) mentions minor areas of mucky loamy fine sand. This description is consistent with the soils encountered at the Kiesow Grove site.

Kuehn and Clark 143

Taxo

nL

.2L

.3L

.4L

.5L

.6L

.7L

.7 F

.1L

.8L

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tal

Whi

te-t

aile

d de

er/C

ervi

d–

–1

1–

––

––

2

Bea

ver

––

––

–1

––

–1

Mus

krat

––

––

2–

––

–2

Lar

ge-s

ized

mam

mal

––

25

4–

1–

–12

Med

ium

-siz

ed m

amm

al–

–2

42

––

––

8

Smal

l-m

ediu

m m

amm

al–

3–

18

1–

21

16

Smal

l-si

zed

mam

mal

––

––

1–

––

–1

Mam

mal

, ind

eter

min

ate

––

––

––

–2

–2

Bir

d, in

dete

rmin

ate

––

13

––

––

–4

Soft

shel

l tur

tle–

––

–1

––

––

1

Tur

tle, i

ndet

erm

inat

e1

12

413

22

3--

28

Fish

, ind

eter

min

ate

––

27

128

–1

131

Taxo

n in

dete

rmin

ate

–3

2093

156

48–

3813

371

Tota

l1

730

118

199

603

4615

479

Tota

l bur

ned/

calc

ined

17

1648

6720

220

919

0

Tabl

e 3.

Bon

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ibut

ion

by L

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, Woh

lt Si

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Kiesow Grove was inventoried in 1987 during an independent survey of the Rat River drainage basin, primarily initiated in order to document early sites. Limited shovel testing revealed that the site contained a Lake Poygan phase component, based in part on the presence of rhyolite and Hixton silicified sandstone flaking debris. In addition, numerous rhyolite adzes and Scottsbluff projectile points were recovered from three nearby tilled sites, 47WN138, 47WN107, and 47WN283. A Woodland component was also identified at Kiesow Grove. Landowners Wayne Kiesow and the late Walter Kiesow informed James Clark that in years past, the site had been tilled in order to plant crops for wildlife. Subsequently, white pines were planted and are currently maturing on-site.

A 1-m2 test unit (TU 1) was laid out at the northern end of the linear rise, 50 m south of the marshy south bank of the Rat River. Excavation was conducted via 5 cm arbitrary levels measured below the ground surface, and matrix passed through 1/4-in screen. Work was hampered by shading due to the pine canopy and by a high water table. Excavation proceeded to a depth of 55 cm below the surface, in 11 levels (Levels 1–11). The north and west walls were deepened to 65 cm in order to expose in profile three subsoil disturbances, designated Features 1–3.

Levels 1–6 contained a 28-cm thick Ap horizon, made up of organically enriched, dark brown sandy loam. The underlying subsoil was a mottled grayish-brown sandy loam, which graded to yellow brown sand in Levels 10–11 (45–55 cm). Concretions were noted at various depths in Levels 7–9 and in the upper portion of Level 10. Krotovina were common within the subsoil, and the burrow matrix was discarded when observed. Bulk matrix samples from subsoil levels were removed for later processing. Portions of two possible pit features (Features 1 and 2) were defined at the base of Level 8. Given the similar matrix and limited light available during excavation, however, their true vertical origin remains equivocal. Feature 3 was mapped as a possible post mold. It continued beneath the water table, however, and therefore could not be examined in profile.

Although no Scottsbluff projectile points or adzes were recovered, rhyolite and Hixton silicified sandstone flakes and expedient implements, consistent with those from neighboring Scottsbluff components, were found beneath the Ap horizon. As in the Wohlt assemblage, the majority of remains were recovered below the Ap horizon, with the characteristic Lake Poygan phase lithics in direct association with mineralized and calcined bone fragments.

Kiesow Grove Faunal Assemblage

A total of 860 fragments of bone were recovered at the Kiesow Grove site (Table 4). The majority was obtained from a single test excavation unit, with 220 specimens recovered from three features and one bone concentration area. Six hundred pieces of bone can-not be reliably identified to element or taxon. Of these, 168 are burned or calcined.

Mammal remains are ubiquitous among identifiable remains, with 143 specimens. Large-sized and small- to medium-sized mammal bone fragments are most common, followed by indeterminate-sized mammal bone. A single white-tailed deer bone is pres-

Kuehn and Clark 145

ent, a burned tibia shaft fragment. One piece of tooth enamel, classified as indeterminate cervid, is likely also deer. Two incisor and one cheektooth fragment, representing a MNI of one adult beaver, were recognized in the assemblage. Both incisor fragments are burned. Finally, one left mandible fragment and two loose molar teeth are identifiable as muskrat. One molar is calcined; a single adult individual is indicated.

Taxon NISP MNI


Cervid family Cervidae 1 –




Medium-large mammal – 1 –



Small-sized mammal – 1 –

Mammal, indeterminate – 23 –

Total Mammalia 143 3

cf. Duck subfamily Anatinae 1 1

Bird, indeterminate 13 –

Total Aves 14 1

Painted turtle Chrysemys picta 2 1

Softshell turtle Apalone sp. 2 1

Water/box turtle family Emydidae 4 1

Turtle, indeterminate 59 –

Total Reptilia 67 3

Fish, indeterminate 36 1


Taxon indeterminate 600 –


Total 860 8

Table 4. Kiesow Grove Site Faunal Assemblage.


Sixty-seven turtle elements were identified in the assemblage. Fifty-nine are in-distinct shell fragments, of which 45 are burned or calcined. Two shell pieces can be classified as painted turtle (Chrysemys picta). One is a peripheral carapace fragment, and the other is a median costal fragment. Both specimens are calcined. Softshell turtles are represented by two pieces of shell, reflecting a MNI of one. One is burned black, and the other is calcined. Four calcined carapace/plastron fragments can be categorized as marsh or box turtle. Three are peripheral carapace fragments, one of which compares favorably with Blanding’s turtle.

Thirty-six fish elements are present in the assemblage. None can be identified be-yond the class level. Vertebral centra are most common, with 29 specimens; a smattering of spine and tooth fragments also was noted. Twenty-two fish elements are burned or calcined.

Bird remains account for 14 pieces of bone in the assemblage. One specimen, the proximal shaft portion of a left tibiotarsus, is identifiable as waterfowl/duck (order Anseriformes). It compares favorably with the surface-feeding ducks (subfamily Anati-nae), but cannot be assigned to a specific genus or species. The other bird remains are indistinct long-bone shaft fragments. All of the bird remains from the Kiesow Grove site are burned or calcined.

Discussion

The composition of the Kiesow Grove faunal assemblage suggests a generalized foraging strategy. Forest-edge, wetland, and aquatic habitat utilization is indicated, with deer, beaver, muskrat, duck, and various turtle and fish remains present.

The majority of specimens were recovered from Test Unit 1 (Table 5). Ceramics were present in the upper levels of this unit, indicating potential intrusion of later Woodland faunal material. No ceramics were recovered below Level 7; significantly, essentially all faunal remains below Level 5 are mineralized, suggesting some degree of antiquity (e.g., Lyman 1994:217). Three pit features and one bone concentration were identified in the lower levels of TU 1. (The bone concentration is listed as “BC” in Table 5.) Although only muskrat from the bone concentration in Level 7 is specifi-cally identifiable, a diverse array of taxa is represented. Various-sized mammal, turtle, fish, and bird remains also were recovered from feature contexts in this unit. As with the Wohlt assemblage, the remains recovered from the lower levels of TU 1 at Kiesow Grove similarly indicate a broad-based adaptive strategy.

Kuehn and Clark 147

Taxo

nL

.2L

.3L

.4L

.5L

.6L

.7L

.7 B

CL

.8F.

1F.

2F.

3L

.9L

.10

L.1

1L

.12

Tota

l

Whi

te-t

aile

d de

er/C

ervi

d–

––

–1

––

1–

––

––

––

2

Bea

ver

––

––

––

––

––

–2

–1

–3

Mus

krat

––

––

––

1–

––

–2

––

–3

Lar

ge-s

ized

mam

mal

–4

––

322

27

610

–6

–2

–63

Med

ium

-lar

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amm

al–

––

–1

––

––

––

––

––

1

Med

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ed m

amm

al–

––

––

24

––

1–

––

––

7

Smal

l-m

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m m

amm

al–

––

––

19–

–11

2–

6–

––

38

Smal

l-si

zed

mam

mal

––

––

–1

––

––

––

––

–1

Mam

mal

, ind

eter

min

ate

21

––

–7

–9

2–

––

–1

–22

Bir

d, in

dete

rmin

ate

––

––

36

1–

––

––

–3

–13

Pai

nted

turt

le–

––

––

––

1–

––

––

––

1

Soft

shel

l tur

tle–

––

––

––

1–

––

1–

––

2

Wat

er/b

ox tu

rtle

––

––

––

––

–2

––

1–

–3

Tur

tle, i

ndet

erm

inat

e–

11

23

252

56

21

2–

3–

53

Fish

, ind

eter

min

ate

––

––

–18

3–

13

–10

––

–35

Taxo

n in

dete

rmin

ate

1–

–2

524

227

1647

863

134

19

257

5

Tota

l3

61

416

342

4040

7310

65

163

219

282

2

Tota

l bur

ned/

calc

ined

34

14

1011

913

2650

275

742

140

352

Tabl

e 5.

Bon

e D

istr

ibut

ion

by L

evel

, Tes

t Uni

t 1, K

ieso

w G

rove

Sit

e.


Discussion

Late Paleoindian Subsistence Strategies

The faunal material from the Russell Wohlt, Wohlt, and Kiesow Grove sites each reflect a generalized adaptive strategy, in which a relatively wide variety of taxa were utilized. Seasonality cannot be adequately addressed due to the limited nature of the remains, but an open-water season of occupation is suggested for these three sites. The composition of the assemblages indicates exploitation of forest-edge, wetland, and aquatic animal resources. Although some mixing of later Woodland remains with the Lake Poygan phase faunal material may have occurred at the Wohlt and Kiesow Grove sites, this does not drastically affect our interpretation of Late Paleoindian subsistence behavior. Even excluding faunal material from the upper levels at these two sites, a broad-based, generalized adaptive strategy is still indicated. For all three sites, the association of the remains with the Lake Poygan phase is based on the context from which it originated (e.g., excavated subsoil deposits, displaced subsoil, stratigraphic position), condition of the remains (e.g., heavily mineralized), and associated diagnostic artifacts and/or char-acteristic raw material utilization pattern (e.g., Scottsbluff points, rhyolite and Hixton tools and debitage).

The Lake Poygan phase faunal remains compare favorably with zooarchaeological material from the Deadman Slough (47PR46) and Sucices (47DG11) sites in northern Wisconsin (Kuehn 1998; Meinholz and Kuehn 1996). At Deadman Slough, the remains of white-tailed deer, porcupine, softshell and painted turtle, bird, and various-sized mam-mals were recovered, from unit and feature context. Deer, beaver, painted turtle, water/box turtle, fish, and various-sized mammal bones were recovered at the Sucices site.

Comparable data are available from other early post-glacial sites in the Western Great Lakes. Calcined deer bone was recovered at the Cummins site in Ontario, and blood protein residues on lithics from the site indicate exploitation of bison, cervid, and a variety of smaller mammals (Julig 1991, 1994:214; Newman and Julig 1990). Several sites in Wisconsin have produced extinct bison remains (Boszhardt et al. 1993; Kuehn 2009), but none in direct association with archaeological material. The remains of at least four individuals were reported from the Interstate Park site in Polk County, from a peat bog deposit about 1 m deep containing approximately 300 pieces of bone (Palmer 1954; Pond 1937). A copper awl and two chert projectile points were supposedly recov-ered in association with the bones, although they were removed while no archaeologist was present, and their provenience remains unconfirmed. Dr. Matt Hill of Iowa State University recently reexamined the Interstate Park bison remains and has determined that they are noncultural in origin (Hill 2005). In the Midwest, Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene bison kill and processing sites have been identified primarily west of the Mississippi River (e.g., Anderson and Semken 1980; Kuehn 2000b; Shay 1971).

Kuehn and Clark 149

In the Eastern Woodlands, zooarchaeological data from a number of Paleoindian sites support a broad-based foraging strategy (e.g., Chalifoux 1999; Dent 1981; Guilday and Parmalee 1982; McNett 1985; Meltzer and Smith 1986; Parmalee 1968; Storck and Spiess 1994). This is not to suggest, however, that larger game animals such as deer and caribou were not an important part of the Paleoindian diet. Evidence for caribou exploitation, for example, has been found at the Whipple, Sandy Ridge, Bull Brook, Shoop, Udora, and Holcombe sites, among others (Cleland 1965; Jackson and McKillop 1991; Meltzer 1988:20–21; Spiess et al. 1985, 1998; Storck and Spiess 1994; Stothers 1996). The question at issue relates to the overall significance of caribou in the diet, in terms of its role as a potential specialized prey resource, or whether it represents only one of a range of animals utilized (Burch 1972; Custer and Stewart 1990; Spiess et al. 1985; Stewart 1994:143–144). Although limited, the recovery of floral material from Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene contexts in eastern North America (e.g., McNett 1985; Petersen and Putnam 1992:46; Seward 1992; Spiess et al. 1998:223) provides further insight on the full range of Paleoindian subsistence practices.

The information summarized here has been discussed in detail elsewhere (e.g., Can-non and Meltzer 2004; Kuehn 1998, 2000a; Lepper and Meltzer 1991; Meltzer 1988). These same studies review aspects of paleoenvironmental reconstruction, resource availability, and cultural ecology and foraging theory that lend support to interpreta-tions of generalized foraging strategies for Paleoindians in the Eastern Woodlands.

Paleoindian Site Location

The zooarchaeological remains recovered provide insight on Paleoindian site location and settlement patterns, as well as on diet. The location of the Lake Poygan phase sites suggests a focus on riverine, lake edge, and wetland settings (Clark 1995). It should be noted that this pattern likely reflects only one aspect of Lake Poygan phase faunal ex-ploitation, within the larger seasonal round of subsistence activities. Regional overviews of Paleoindian archaeology in Wisconsin note a strong correlation between early sites and existing and relic marshes, river terraces, lakes, and other riparian settings (e.g., Boszhardt 1991; Dirst 1985; Dudzik 1991, 1993; Moore and Willems 1995; Overstreet 1991a, 1991b; Salzer 1974; Speth 1996; Wendt 1985). Although this apparent associa-tion may reflect a sampling bias, it is noteworthy that similar patterns of Paleoindian settlement have been noted elsewhere in the Eastern Woodlands.

Nicholas (1988, 1991, 1994), in particular, has conducted extensive research relating to the importance of wetland resources for Early and Late Paleoindian peoples in the Northeast. Jones (2004) suggests that early Paleoindian base camps in the Northeast would have been established in locales adjacent to predictable resource patches, such as marshes, which would have supplied diverse and seasonally abundant animal and plant foods. Pollen and phytolith analyses from the Higgins site (Seward 1992) similarly indicate occupation and utilization of marsh settings and resources during the Late Pleistocene and Early Holocene.


In Wisconsin, two studies provide further support for the association of Paleoindian site location and wetland and riparian settings. Recent work by Engseth (1998) examines Paleoindian settlement in northwestern Wisconsin, and notes the occurrence of early sites near springs, glacial lake beach features, and vistas overlooking drainages. Finally, investigations by Dirst (1985) and others (e.g., Clark 1995; see also Benchley et al. 1997:63–65) in east-central Wisconsin indicate that a large number of Late Paleoindian sites are situated along rivers and extensive wetlands, in association with glaciolacustrine soils. The artifact assemblages found, reflecting a myriad of tasks and repeated occupa-tions, indicate long-term utilization of these resource areas. Additional investigations of similar areas will likely result in further insight on Paleoindian settlement patterns and subsistence adaptations in the region.

Acknowledgments

Our thanks to Jenny Gerth, who prepared Figure 8. Dan Joyce and Tom Loebel provided insightful comments that helped clarify a number of issues in the original draft. Although not all contextual queries and detailed information about each site investigation could be addressed in this article, the reviewers’ comments will certainly be of great value as we complete our forthcoming article, formally defining the Late Paleoindian Lake Poygan phase (Clark and Kuehn 2012). We would also like to thank Illinois Archaeology editor Tom Emerson for his assistance in guiding this article to publication. The authors are solely responsible for the interpretations, opinions, and any errors presented in this article.

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Analysis of Faunal Remains from Three Late Paleoindian (Lake Poygan Phase) Sites in East-Central...

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