An investigation into the relationship between the raw materials used in the production of Chinese...

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEENTHE RAW MATERIALS USED IN THE PRODUCTION OFCHINESE PORCELAIN AND STONEWARE BODIES AND

THE RESULTING MICROSTRUCTURES*

M. S. TITE,1† I. C. FREESTONE2 and N. WOOD1

1Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art, Dyson Perrins Building, South Parks Road,Oxford OX1 3QY, UK

2Department of Archaeology and Conservation, SHARE, Cardiff University, Humanities Building, Colum Drive,Cardiff CF10 3EU, Wales, UK

The microstructures of porcelain and stoneware bodies from north and south China, spanningthe period from the Tang to the Ming dynasty (7th–17th centuries AD), were examined in polishedsections in a scanning electron microscope (SEM) after etching the sections with hydrofluoricacid (HF). Mullite, present as fine, mainly elongated crystals, is the dominant crystalline phaseobserved. The bulk chemical compositions of the bodies are determined by energy-dispersivespectrometry in the SEM, and the relative amounts of mullite and quartz present in the differentceramics are estimated from X-ray diffraction measurements. Mullite formed from areas ofkaolinitic clay, mica particles and feldspar particles is distinguished through a combination ofthe arrangement of the mullite crystals, and the associated SiO2/Al2O3 wt% concentrationratios. It is shown that very different microstructures are observed in ceramic bodies producedusing kaolinitic clay from north China (Ding porcelain and Jun stoneware), porcelain stonefrom south China (qingbai and underglaze blue porcelain and Longquan stoneware), andstoneware clays from south China (Yue and Guan stonewares). Therefore, SEM examination ofHF-etched, polished sections of the bodies of high-refractory ceramics has considerablepotential for investigating the raw materials used in their production.

KEYWORDS: PORCELAIN, STONEWARE, MICROSTRUCTURE, MULLITE, SCANNINGELECTRON MICROSCOPY, ENERGY-DISPERSIVE SPECTROMETRY, HF ETCHING, X-RAY

DIFFRACTION, CHINA, SONG, YUAN, MING

INTRODUCTION

Stoneware, a dense hard, glazed ceramic with a low porosity and fired to high temperatures(typically in excess of 1200°C), was first produced in China in the early Bronze Age ShangDynasty (i.e., mid-second millennium bc). Towards the end of the first millennium ad, stonewaretechnology had attained a high level, and the production of porcelain, a white translucent variety,and high-quality green-glazed stoneware, particularly in the southern provinces of Jiangxi,Zhejiang and Jiangsu, was well established. The social and economic factors behind this highlevel of ceramic achievement are complex, but inventive exploitation of the outstanding rawmaterials available to the potters was a key factor in their success. Furthermore, the availableporcelain clays and stones are responsible for the marked variation in appearance of the mainware types and location of the kilns.

*Received 26 July 2010; accepted 18 March 2011†Corresponding author: email [email protected]

Archaeometry 54, 1 (2012) 37–55 doi: 10.1111/j.1475-4754.2011.00614.x

© University of Oxford, 2011

The investigation of the raw materials used in the production of Chinese porcelains andstonewares, undertaken since the pioneering studies of Sundius (1959) and Chou Jen and LiChia-Chih (1960a,b), has clearly established that very different clays were used in north andsouth China. This view was reinforced by later studies (Sundius and Steger 1963; Pollard andHatcher 1986, 1994). As proposed by Wood (2000a), this division in raw materials, which occursacross the Nanshan–Jinling divide, reflects the fact that, on the basis of plate tectonic theory,north and south China were originally separate land masses that only came together during theTriassic period, some 225–195 million years ago.

In north China, porcelains and stonewares were produced using secondary (sedimentary)kaolinitic clays, often associated with coal deposits. These clays have a range of compositionsbut, relative to similar coal measure clays in, for example, Britain, they may have low iron andtitanium contents (Wilson 2004; Ding et al. 2009). They grade from those producing buff-firing,opaque stonewares to those producing white translucent porcelains. In contrast, in south China,the clays used in the production of stoneware and porcelain originated from deeply weatheredand/or hydrothermally altered acidic (i.e., high silica) volcanic and intrusive igneous rocks. Theserocks are rich in mica and have often weathered deeply into a crumbly mass consisting of quartz,mica, clays and some residual feldspars. In some cases, this primary material was processeddirectly by levigation to produce fine siliceous stoneware clays, while in other cases the naturaldownwash from this same deposit was mined as a sedimentary clay. From the 10th century adonwards, deep beds of hydrothermally altered volcanic ash, referred to as porcelain stone, wereexploited, following pulverization and refining, for the production of porcelain. X-ray diffraction(XRD) analysis and scanning electron microscopy established that the porcelain stone used at themajor production centre of Jingdezhen consisted of a mixture of quartz, secondary mica andsodium feldspar (albite) (Tite et al. 1984). In addition, stoneware clays with relatively high ironcontents, which would have been red-firing in an oxidizing atmosphere, were sometimes usedeither by themselves or mixed with porcelain stone. Published data on the chemical compositionsof typical examples of these different types of raw material are given in Table 1.

A primary aim of this paper was to establish the relationship between the raw materials usedin the production of Chinese porcelain and stoneware bodies, and the microstructures of thebodies as observed in polished sections in a scanning electron microscope (SEM). In addition, theobserved microstructures, together with bulk chemical compositions, were used to extendthe existing information on the raw materials themselves. A group of 18 sherds of well-knownporcelains and stonewares from north and south China, selected from the collections of theBritish Museum, have been examined. These sherds included typical examples of the followingwares: Ding (9th–14th centuries ad) (northern porcelain); qingbai (late 10th–14th centuries ad)and underglaze blue (14th century ad to modern times) (varieties of porcelain produced inJingdezhen, the famous southern production centre); Jun (11th–14th centuries ad) (northerngreen stoneware); and Yue (4th–12th centuries ad), Longquan (late 12th–15th centuries ad) andGuan (12th–14th centuries ad) (southern green stonewares).

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES

Polished thin sections through the bodies of the sherds were prepared from slices cut perpen-dicular to their surfaces. The bulk chemical compositions and microstructures of the bodies weredetermined using a Jeol JSM 840 scanning electron microscope (SEM) fitted with an OxfordInstruments Link Systems energy-dispersive spectrometer (EDS). The SEM was operated with a15 kV accelerating voltage and a 1 nA specimen current. Bulk chemical compositions were

38 M. S. Tite, I. C. Freestone and N. Wood

© University of Oxford, 2011, Archaeometry 54, 1 (2012) 37–55

Tabl

e1

Che

mic

alco

mpo

siti

ons

ofra

wm

ater

ials

(wt%

norm

aliz

edto

100%

)

Cla

yty

pe*

Dis

tric

tP

rovi

nce

Dat

aso

urce

SiO

2A

l 2O

3N

a 2O

K2O

MgO

CaO

Fe 2

O3

TiO

2M

nO

Nor

thC

hina

Kao

linite

Lin

gsha

nH

ebei

Guo

Yan

yi(1

987,

16)

55.0

42.8

0.4

0.3

0.4

0.1

0.2

0.7

bdK

aolin

ite(p

urpl

ecl

ay)

Lin

gsha

nH

ebei

Guo

Yan

yi(1

987,

16)

53.6

40.0

0.5

0.2

1.0

2.0

0.7

2.0

bdK

aolin

iteG

ongx

ian

Hen

anG

uoY

anyi

(198

7,16

)53

.641

.31.

61.

40.

10.

50.

51.

00.

01K

aolin

iteH

espi

doH

enan

Guo

Yan

yi(1

987,

16)

64.8

27.9

0.1

2.1

0.4

0.1

2.5

1.9

0.01

Sout

hC

hina

Porc

elai

nst

one

Sanp

aope

ngJi

angx

iN

ikul

ina

and

Tara

eva

(195

9,45

7)76

.215

.73.

63.

00.

30.

50.

60.

02bd

Porc

elai

nst

one

Nan

kang

Jian

gxi

Nik

ulin

aan

dTa

raev

a(1

959,

457)

79.0

15.9

0.2

3.1

0.1

1.1

0.6

bdbd

Porc

elai

nst

one

Day

ao,L

ongq

uan

Zhe

jiang

Cho

uJe

net

al.(

1973

,137

)73

.620

.70.

42.

50.

50.

41.

9bd

0.03

Porc

elai

nst

one

Yua

ndi,

Lon

gqua

nZ

hejia

ngC

hou

Jen

etal

.(19

73,1

37)

74.3

18.2

0.2

4.8

0.3

0.8

1.3

bd0.

05R

edcl

ayG

aojit

ou,L

ongq

uan

Zhe

jiang

Cho

uJe

net

al.(

1973

,137

)64

.822

.41.

14.

90.

90.

74.

50.

50.

10R

edcl

ayM

udai

kou,

Lon

gqua

nZ

hejia

ngC

hou

Jen

etal

.(19

73,1

37)

63.2

26.6

0.4

3.2

0.4

0.2

5.2

0.9

bdSt

onew

are

clay

(raw

)H

angz

hou

Zhe

jiang

Zho

uSh

aohu

aan

dC

hen

Qua

nqin

g(1

992,

370)

77.5

17.9

0.2

1.9

0.3

0.2

1.1

1.0

bd

Ston

ewar

ecl

ayH

angz

hou

Zhe

jiang

Zho

uSh

aohu

aan

dC

hen

Qua

nqin

g(1

992,

370)

72.8

20.3

0.5

2.9

0.5

0.3

1.5

1.2

bd

Aci

dig

neou

sro

ckSh

angl

inhu

Zhe

jiang

Woo

det

al.(

2005

,194

)78

.112

.82.

05.

40.

20.

01.

30.

20.

02W

eath

ered

rock

Shan

glin

huZ

hejia

ngW

ood

etal

.(20

05,1

94)

77.1

14.2

1.0

4.7

0.3

0.0

2.3

0.3

0.04

Sedi

men

tde

rive

dfr

omro

ckSh

angl

inhu

Zhe

jiang

Woo

det

al.(

2005

,194

)76

.414

.80.

43.

30.

50.

13.

80.

60.

18

bd,B

elow

dete

ctio

n.

*Cla

ysw

ashe

dan

dfir

edun

less

othe

rwis

ein

dica

ted.

Raw materials used in the production of Chinese porcelain and stoneware bodies 39


determined by rastering the electron beam across areas of the sections prior to partial etching ofthe polished sections. The areas analysed were greater than 300 mm across, with at least threeindividual analyses being averaged for each sherd. The spectrometer was calibrated with pureelement, oxide and mineral standards. Estimates of accuracy and precision were based upon theanalysis of over 10 synthetic glass standards. The relative errors were better than 2% for silica,5–10% for major and minor elements, and increased for elements present at less than 1 wt%, asthe detection limits of about 0.1 wt% were approached. For the determination of the bodymicrostructures, a part of each polished section was etched with 2% hydrofluoric acid (HF) for3 min, and was examined in the SEM using the backscattered electron (BSE) detector. In BSEmode, the different phases present in the bodies were distinguished through a combination of thetopography resulting from the differential etching of crystalline and glass phases, and the atomicnumber contrast of the phases. A representative selection of these phases was individuallyidentified using EDS. It was observed that the ceramics typically comprised domains whichcontained varying amounts of glass, mullite or quartz, and these domains are interpreted asrepresenting original mineral phases that have broken down or reacted at high temperature. Theduration of firing was insufficient to allow homogenization of the microstructure by interdiffu-sion, so that elements of the arrangement of phases in the original raw material were effectively‘frozen in’. In order to provide an indication of the original raw material phases from which theobserved relict phases were derived, domain areas of about 20 mm across were analysed, and theirSiO2/Al2O3 wt% concentration ratios were determined.

XRD analyses were undertaken on powdered bulk body samples using Debye–Scherrerpowder cameras in order to determine the mineral phases present. The resulting films weremeasured using a Joyce–Loebl computer-driven microdensitometer in order to determine theintensities of the principal XRD lines for mullite (5.39 Å) and quartz (3.34 Å). The ratios of theline intensities provide a good measure of relative amounts of mullite and quartz, and so indicatewhich ceramics have high and low mullite relative to quartz. Although the XRD line intensityratios do not translate into absolute mullite/quartz concentration ratios, they can be usefullycompared within the sample group.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The bulk chemical compositions of the porcelain and stoneware bodies are given in Table 2,together with the ratios of the intensities of the principal XRD lines for mullite and quartz. Alsoincluded in Table 2 are representative published compositional data for the bodies of the differentcategories of ceramic, as determined principally using atomic absorption spectrometry or, in theearlier Chinese papers, wet chemical methods. The first point to note is that the bulk chemicalcompositions of the current samples are consistent with the previously published compositionaldata, with the oxide percentages determined for the current samples falling within or close to thecorresponding compositional ranges for the previously published ceramics.

The chemical compositions of the ceramic bodies indicate that they consist of about 95 wt%or more of silica, alumina, soda plus potash. With some simplifying assumptions regarding thepossible mineral phases present in the ceramic bodies prior to firing, it is possible to estimatetheir original mineralogical compositions, within certain limits. The estimation is based upona number of assumptions which are supported by theoretical and empirical considerations.First, on the basis of phase equilibrium considerations, we note that at the low temperatures atwhich the plutonic and hydrothermally altered volcanic source rocks are likely to have equili-brated, there is a substantial solvus or miscibility gap between sodic and potassic feldspars



Tabl

e2

Che

mic

alco

mpo

siti

ons

ofC

hine

sepo

rcel

ain

and

ston

ewar

ebo

dies

(wt%

norm

aliz

edto

100%

)

BM

regi

stra

tion

num

bers

*Ty

peD

ynas

tySi

O2

Al 2

O3

Na 2

OK

2OM

gOC

aOF

eOTi

O2

MnO

P2O

5X

RD

Mul

l/Q

u†

OA

852A

Din

gN

.Son

g63

.84

29.7

00.

371.

610.

961.

410.

851.

200.

05bd

OA

852B

Din

gN

.Son

g64

.27

28.2

20.

721.

991.

402.

030.

840.

52bd

bd2.

7P

olla

rdan

dH

atch

er(1

986)

Din

g(8

)N

.Son

g61

–68

25–3

30.

2–0.

61.

1–3.

40.

5–1.

21.

0–3.

00.

6–1.

30.

2–1.

20.

01–0

.03

na

PD36

Jun

N.S

ong

64.1

027

.98

0.66

1.51

0.61

1.52

2.26

1.25

0.11

bdPD

21Ju

nN

.Son

g64

.62

27.9

30.

541.

890.

660.

692.

591.

06bd

bd2.

9Ya

ngW

enxi

anan

dW

ang

Yuxi

(198

6,20

9)Ju

n(1

)N

.Son

g64

.830

.00.

51.

60.

30.

41.

71.

2na

na

1938

-04-

12,2

1qi

ngba

iS.

Song

-Yua

n78

.66

15.6

91.

102.

900.

100.

400.

800.

05na

0.30

0.2

1938

-04-

12,2

3qi

ngba

iS.

Song

-Yua

n78

.06

15.8

90.

803.

300.

201.

000.

500.

05na

0.20

1940

-04-

13,2

8qi

ngba

iS.

Song

-Yua

n79

.16

16.0

90.

502.

400.

300.

700.

500.

05na

0.30

0.2

Woo

d(1

986,

262)

qing

bai

(3)

S.So

ng77

–79

16–1

70.

7–1.

13.

0–3.

30.

1–0.

30.

4–1.

40.

5–0.

80.

06–0

.08

nana

1921

-03-

01,

UG

blue

Yua

n74

.26

19.6

92.

302.

30bd

0.20

0.90

0.05

na0.

300.

319

26-0

6-18

,35

UG

blue

Yua

n71

.86

20.5

91.

604.

000.

200.

101.

400.

05na

0.20

1926

-06-

18,3

6U

Gbl

ueY

uan

71.0

621

.29

1.90

3.90

0.10

0.10

1.40

0.05

na0.

200.

5C

hen

Yaoc

heng

etal

.(1

986,

123)

UG

blue

(3)

Yuan

74–7

519

–20

2.3–

2.4

2.7–

3.0

0.20

0.1–

0.9

0.2–

1.2

bd–0

.2bd

na

HD

1L

ongq

uan

S.So

ng72

.01

20.1

40.

365.

400.

20bd

1.63

0.08

0.11

0.05

0.4

OA

896

Lon

gqua

nY

uan

69.3

222

.38

0.48

5.21

0.32

0.07

1.95

0.18

0.09

bd0.

619

30-0

6-17

,1L

ongq

uan

Min

g71

.05

20.2

80.

645.

990.

26bd

1.55

0.11

0.12

bdC

hou

Jen

etal

.(1

973,

135)

Lon

gqua

n(5

)S.

Song

-Yua

n68

–71

19–2

40.

3–1.

04.

8–6.

00.

1–0.

7bd

–0.2

1.6–

2.4

0.1–

0.2

0.03

–0.1

na

1938

-04-

12.7

Yue

Six

Dyn

astie

s76

.57

16.1

00.

953.

030.

530.

251.

640.

90bd

bd0.

219

35-1

0-19

,1J

Yue

Tang

76.9

215

.40

0.98

2.86

0.64

0.26

2.13

0.76

0.05

bd0.

419

38-0

4-12

.5Y

ueL

iao

77.0

516

.08

0.83

2.29

0.61

0.29

2.02

0.78

0.05

bdP

olla

rdan

dH

atch

er(1

994)

Yue

(12)

Tang

71–7

815

–21

0.8–

1.0

2.6–

3.1

0.4–

0.6

0.1–

0.6

1.6–

2.2

0.6–

0.8

0.01

–0.0

2na

HK

1G

uan

S.So

ng66

.94

24.9

30.

443.

860.

390.

121.

981.

270.

05bd

HD

2G

uan

S.So

ng65

.07

26.5

20.

473.

340.

440.

182.

701.

25bd

bd1.

0L

iJi

azhi

etal

.(1

999,

177)

Gua

n(6

)S.

Song

67–6

822

–25

0.3–

0.7

2.3–

3.6

0.1–

0.4

0.1–

0.3

2.0–

3.9

1.0–

1.2

bd0–

1–0.

3

na,N

otan

alys

ed;

bd,b

elow

dete

ctio

n.

*Pre

viou

sly

publ

ishe

dch

emic

alco

mpo

sitio

nra

nges

are

show

nin

italic

s;th

enu

mbe

rof

sher

dsan

alys

edis

give

nin

brac

kets

inth

e‘T

ype’

colu

mn.

†Rat

ioof

inte

nsiti

esof

the

prin

cipa

lX

RD

lines

for

mul

lite

(5.3

9Å

)an

dqu

artz

(3.3

4Å

).



(e.g., Bowen and Tuttle 1950). Hence feldspars are likely to be either mainly sodic or mainlypotassic, and intermediate compositions are unlikely. This inference is supported by the sub-stantial compilation of naturally occurring feldspar compositions by Trevena and Nash(1981), which indicates that for plutonic rocks, albite (NaAlSi3O8) substitution in orthoclase(KAlSi3O8) is limited, typically less than 25%, while the content of orthoclase in albite istypically less than 10%. The limited mutual solubility of potassic and sodic feldpars in plutonicrocks has been used to investigate the provenance of feldspar particles in fossil sands (Trevenaand Nash 1981) and in provenance investigations of feldspar-tempered pottery (Freestone1982; Freestone and Middleton 1987). Furthermore, it was confirmed for porcelain stone fromJingdezhen by Tite et al. (1984), where it was shown that the potash content of albite was verylow. We also know that sodium substitution in other phases in the raw materials—quartz,kaolinite and mica or hydromica—is low. Therefore, the first step in our estimation of themineralogy of the ceramic raw material is to assign all sodium to albite (NaAlSi3O8). It isthen assumed that the potassium was associated with either orthoclase or muscovite mica. Onbalance, it is likely that the potassium in the hydrothermally altered raw materials found insouth China occurs as mica, rather than orthoclase, but we present estimates for both possi-bilities. Although the mica present in the porcelain stone used in south China is secondarymica in the form of sericite (which corresponds more closely to hydromica or illite) (Vogt1900; Kerr and Wood 2004, 216), the formula for primary muscovite (KAl3Si3O10(OH)2) is, forsimplicity, used in the following calculations. It is then assumed that any remaining aluminawas associated with the clay mineral, kaolinite (Al2Si2O5(OH)4), and that the remaining silicawas in the form of quartz.

The resulting estimated percentage weights of original albite, orthoclase, muscovite, kaoliniteand quartz are given in Table 3, assuming (a) that all the potash was associated with orthoclase,or (b) that 50 wt% of the potash was associated with orthoclase and 50 wt% with muscovite, or(c) that all the potash was associated with muscovite. In estimating the original kaolinite/quartzwt% concentration ratios, also given in Table 3 and subsequently referred to in the text, the choicebetween these three options was based on the most likely original mineralogy, as inferred froma combination of bulk composition and observed microstructure. It is noted that the estimatedalbite contents of the bodies are below 10% in all cases except for the underglaze blue wares, inwhich a distinctive variety of porcelain stone is likely to have been used, as discussed below. Ashydromica contains somewhat less potash than muscovite, our estimate for the amount ofmuscovite is likely to be a minimum, and of kaolinite a maximum.

In addition to a scatter of surviving, partially reacted quartz particles, the dominant crystallinephase observed in all the HF-etched, polished sections using the SEM is mullite (Si2Al6O13),present as a mass of fine, mainly elongated crystals formed as a result of the breakdown ofkaolinite, mica and feldspars during firing (Figs 1–8). The presence of mullite is consistent withthe results presented by Iqbal and Lee (1999, 2000) and by Lee and Iqbal (2001), in a series ofpapers on the microstructural evolution of modern triaxial porcelains, produced from a mixtureof kaolinite, feldspar and quartz, but without significant mica. In these papers, the authorsdistinguished between the formation of small, cuboidal or low aspect ratio, primary mullitecrystals, typically less than 1 mm across, and larger acicular, high aspect ratio, secondary mullitecrystals, typically up to 10 mm or more in length, set in a glassy matrix. The primary mullite isformed from pure clay agglomerates, whereas the secondary mullite is formed either fromfeldspar penetrated clay relicts or from clay–feldspar–quartz mixtures, pure feldspar relicts bythemselves containing insufficient alumina to form mullite. The elongation of the secondarymullite is due to the growth of crystals within a lower viscosity liquid phase resulting from the



Tabl

e3

Est

imat

esof

orig

inal

min

eral

phas

esin

Chi

nese

porc

elai

nan

dst

onew

are

bodi

es(w

t%no

rmal

ized

to10

0%)

BM

regi

stra

tion

num

bers

*Ty

peSi

O2

Al 2

O3

Na 2

OK

2OO

rtho

clas

e†O

rtho

clas

e+

mus

covi

te†

Mus

covi

te†

%A

%O

%K

%Q

%A

%O

%M

%K

%Q

%A

%M

%K

%Q

%K

/%Q

‡

OA

852A

Din

g66

.831

.10.

41.

73

1062

243

57

5827

314

5429

2.2

OA

852B

Din

g67

.529

.60.

82.

16

1257

246

68

5227

617

4730

1.9

Pol

lard

and

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6)D

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65.4

32.7

0.8

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76

6621

73

463

237

961

242.

8

PD36

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68.0

29.7

0.7

1.6

69

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65

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286

1351

301.

9PD

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62.

05

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265

68

5329

516

4831

1.8

Yang

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and

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209)

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66.9

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45

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1qi

ngba

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99

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912

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924

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3qi

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83.

47

2024

497

1014

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727

957

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1940

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8qi

ngba

i80

.716

.40.

52.

44

1428

534

710

2256

420

1759

0.3

Woo

d(1

986,

262)

qing

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79.3

16.5

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919

2548

99

1317

529

2610

560.

2

1921

-03-

01,

UG

blue

75.4

20.0

2.3

2.3

2014

3037

207

924

4020

1919

430.

419

26-0

6-18

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73.3

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1424

3032

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3714

3311

420.

319

26-0

6-18

,36

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blue

72.4

21.7

1.9

4.0

1623

3129

1612

1622

3416

3212

390.

3C

hen

Yaoc

heng

etal

.(1

986,

123)

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2736

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1120

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2313

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3

HD

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480.

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219

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.(19

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85.

77

3329

317

1723

1538

746

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819

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89

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528

2511

560.

319

35-1

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80.0

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77

1630

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811

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1G

uan

69.6

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424

4527

412

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324

3226

370.

7H

D2

Gua

n68

.227

.80.

53.

54

2150

254

1014

4229

428

3434

1.0

Li

Jiaz

hiet

al.(

1999

,177

)G

uan

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318

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39

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2433

390.

8

*Pre

viou

sly

publ

ishe

dch

emic

alco

mpo

sitio

ns(a

vera

ges)

are

show

nin

italic

s.

†%A

(alb

ite),

%O

(ort

hocl

ase)

,%

M(m

usco

vite

),%

K(k

aolin

ite)

and

%Q

(qua

rtz)

calc

ulat

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sum

ing:

(a)

all

K2O

asso

ciat

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(‘O

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(b)

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t%K

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ated

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orth

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t%w

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ated

with

mus

covi

te(‘

Mus

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.

‡Kao

linite

/qua

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wt%

conc

entr

atio

nra

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own

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incorporation of alkali-rich feldspars, the extent of the elongation increasing with increasingalkali content, and increasing firing temperature and time.

An indication of the phases from which the mullite was formed is provided by the SiO2/Al2O3

wt% concentration ratios of the domains in the ceramic (Fig. 9). Thus, for pure kaolinite andmuscovite mica, the SiO2/Al2O3 wt% concentration ratios would be 1.2:1; and for albite andorthoclase feldspars, they would be 3.5:1. Kaolinite or mica mixed with or penetrated by feldsparwould have ratios greater than 1.2:1, as would illitic and montmorillonitic clays. As a result, theobserved concentration ratios in those areas containing extensive mullite, which were originaldominated by kaolinite or mica, can extend up to about 2.5:1. Similarly, ratios greater than 3.5:1would result from feldspars mixed with increasing amounts of quartz.

From Figure 10, it can be seen that the ratios of the intensities of the principal XRD lines formullite and quartz increase more or less exponentially with increasing bulk Al2O3/SiO2 wt%concentration ratios of the ceramic. This result is consistent with the fact that the overall amountof mullite formed depends on the relative proportions of kaolinite and muscovite mica, whichhave high alumina contents, as compared to feldspar, which has a lower alumina content, andquartz, from which alumina is absent.

Ding porcelain

The bodies of the Ding porcelain, which were produced using a secondary sedimentary kaolin(Li Guozhen and Guo Yenyi 1986), consist of sparse quartz in an essentially continuous matrix

Figure 1 A SEM photomicrograph of a Ding porcelain body (OA852A) showing sparse quartz particles (dark grey) ina more or less continuous matrix containing a dense mat of fine, randomly oriented, elongated mullite crystals. Alsopresent are a scatter of indurated clay particles (CP) that did not disaggregate during clay preparation, and in whichequant primary mullite has formed.



that contains a dense mat of fine, randomly oriented, elongated secondary mullite crystals,typically up to about 10 mm in length (Fig. 1). The majority of the SiO2/Al2O3 wt% concen-tration ratios are in the range 1.1–2:1, with peaks around 1.2:1 and 1.6:1 (Fig. 9 (a)), a resultthat is consistent with the secondary mullite being formed from kaolinitic clay. Also presentare aggregates of equant primary mullite, which are likely to represent indurated particles ofclay that did not disaggregate during the clay preparation process and were therefore notintimately mixed with potassium-bearing phases. The quartz particles are surrounded by solu-tion rims of glass with high SiO2/Al2O3 wt% concentration ratios (>5:1). Assuming that thepotassium was divided equally between with orthoclase and muscovite, the estimated concen-tration ratios for original kaolinite/quartz are in the range 1.9–2.8 (Table 3), a result that isconsistent with the high ratio (2.7) observed for the XRD mullite/quartz line intensities(Table 2).

The silica, potash, lime and magnesia concentrations in the bodies are higher than those formany kaolinitic clays from Hebei province, local to the Ding ware kilns (Lingshan district;Table 1). As a result, Guo Yanyi (1987) suggested that small amounts of quartz, feldspar,dolomite and calcite were added to the clay. Alternative explanations include the use of a mixtureof kaolinitic clay with a refractory clay, available locally, which contains some lime and mag-nesia. On the presently available evidence, it is not possible to decide between these options.

Jun stoneware

The bodies of the Jun stoneware, which are pale grey in colour and coated with green, lavenderblue or purple opalescent glazes, have similar microstructures to the Ding bodies. Thus, the

Figure 2 A SEM photomicrograph of a Jun stoneware body (PD36) showing sparse quartz particles (dark grey) in afragmented matrix, with extended areas containing dense mats of fine, randomly oriented, elongated mullite crystals thatare separated by a combination of quartz particles and pores (dark grey and black, respectively).



Jun bodies again contain sparse quartz, and areas with a dense mat of fine, randomly oriented,elongated secondary mullite crystals, typically up to about 10 mm in length (Fig. 2). Within thesemullite-rich areas, the SiO2/Al2O3 wt% concentration ratios are again low (<2.1:1), with a peakat 1.7:1 (Fig. 9 (b)). However, the microstructures of the Jun bodies are more fragmented thanthose of the Ding bodies. Instead of a more or less continuous mullite-rich matrix, the Jun bodiesconsist of only extended mullite-rich areas, typically up to about 80 mm across, which areseparated by a combination of quartz particles and porosity. Also, the quartz particles are notsurrounded by glass solution rims. Again assuming that the potassium was divided equallybetween with orthoclase and muscovite, the estimated concentration ratios for original kaolinite/quartz (1.8–2.2), and the ratio for the XRD mullite/quartz line intensities (2.9) are also similar tothose for the Ding porcelain.

With the exception of their higher iron oxide contents, the bulk compositions of the Junbodies are similar to those of the Ding bodies. Therefore, as discussed by Kerr and Wood(2004, 176), sedimentary kaolinitic clays were again probably used, kaolinitic clays with arange of iron oxide contents being available in north China. In contrast to the case of the Dingporcelain, the observed potash contents of the Jun ware are consistent with the fact that analy-sed clays from the Henan province typically contain 1–2 wt% potash (Gongxian and Hespidodistricts; Table 1). The fragmented microstructure and the absence of solution rims to thequartz particles indicate either that the Jun stoneware was fired to a significantly lower tem-perature than that for the Ding porcelain, or that the soak time at high temperatures wassignificantly shorter.

Figure 3 A SEM photomicrograph of an underglaze blue porcelain body (1921-03-01) showing common quartzparticles (dark grey), clusters of ragged filaments made up of mullite crystals (mid-grey, M), and glassy pools containinga scatter of fine, randomly oriented, elongated mullite crystals (light grey, F) in an essentially continuous matrix.



Qingbai and underglaze blue porcelain

The bodies of the qingbai and underglaze blue porcelains from Jingdezhen, both of which wereproduced using porcelain stone (Tite et al. 1984; Kerr and Wood 2004, 216), have similarmicrostructures (Fig. 3). Quartz is common, with the quartz particles surrounded by solutionrims of glass with high SiO2/Al2O3 wt% concentration ratios (>5:1). A distinctive feature ofthe essentially continuous matrix associated with these bodies is the presence of commonclusters of ragged filaments. At higher magnification (5000¥ as compared to 500¥), theseclusters are seen to consist of secondary mullite crystals (Fig. 4), the arrangement of whichis comparable to the fibrous, platy structure of mica particles. On the basis of this microstruc-ture, together with the fact that the associated SiO2/Al2O3 wt% concentration ratios are lessthan 1.6:1 (Fig. 9 (c)), these clusters of ragged filaments most probably represent relictmica particles. Also present are pools of glass which, at higher magnification, can be seen tocontain a scatter of fine, randomly oriented, elongated secondary mullite crystals, typicallyless than about 2 mm in length (Fig. 5). Again, on the basis of this microstructure, togetherwith the fact that the SiO2/Al2O3 wt% concentration ratios are in the range 3–4:1, these glassypools most probably represent relict feldspar particles. This difference in the microstructure ofthe relict mica and feldspar reflects the lower proportion of melt which forms from micarelative to feldspar at a particular temperature, due to the lower concentration of potash inmica.

Typically, the feldspar relicts are less abundant in the qingbai than in the underglaze blueporcelain, while quartz is more abundant in the qingbai porcelain. This is not surprising, as the

Figure 4 A SEM photomicrograph of an underglaze blue porcelain body (1926-06-18,35) showing mullite crystalscombining to create clusters of ragged filaments that reflect the fibrous, platy structure of the mica particles from whichthey were formed.



estimated total feldspar contents of the underglaze blue bodies are significantly higher due totheir high content of soda, which is thought to have been derived from albite (Table 3). Assum-ing that all the potassium was associated with muscovite, as indicated by the examination ofmodern porcelain stone from the region of Jingdezhen (Tite et al. 1984), the estimated con-centration ratios for original kaolinite/quartz and the ratio for the XRD mullite/quartz lineintensities are both lower for the qingbai porcelain (0.1–0.3 and 0.2, respectively) than forthe underglaze blue porcelain (0.3–0.4 and 0.3–0.5, respectively). Also, for both porcelains,the ratios are significantly lower than those for Ding porcelain and Jun stoneware, with thelower overall mullite content reflecting the fact that much less alumina was available for itsformation.

It can be argued that the higher soda and alumina contents of the Yuan underglaze blue bodies,as compared to the Song–Yuan qingbai bodies, reflects the switch from a kaolinized porcelainstone (e.g., Nankang district; Table 1) to the use of a high-albite porcelain stone (e.g., San-baopeng district; Table 1) to which kaolinitic clay was added (Wood 1983, 2000b; Tite et al.1984; Kerr and Wood 2004, 229). Although this hypothesis is not as yet fully proven, the use ofa high-albite porcelain stone would certainly have increased the fusibility of the body and thus,facilitated its firing.

Longquan stoneware

The Longquan stonewares, which are generally referred to as celadon wares, are pale grey andcoated with a thick green or bluish-green glaze. Their bodies have similar microstructures tothose of the Jingdezhen porcelain. Again, the essentially continuous matrix contains common

Figure 5 A SEM photomicrograph of an underglaze blue porcelain body (1926-06-18,35) showing a scatter of fine,randomly oriented, elongated mullite crystals within a pool of glass formed from a feldspar particle.



quartz with solution rims, clusters of ragged filaments of mullite crystals, associated with micarelicts, and glassy pools containing a scatter of fine, randomly oriented, elongated mullitecrystals, associated with feldspar relicts (Fig. 6). The clusters of ragged filaments again haveSiO2/Al2O3 wt% concentration ratios less than 2.0:1, and the glassy pools have ratios in therange 3–4:1 (Fig. 9 (d)). However, the clusters of ragged filaments are less clearly defined thanin the case of the qingbai and underglaze blue porcelains. The estimated concentration ratiosfor original kaolinite/quartz vary from less than 0.1 to 0.6, depending on whether the potas-sium was divided equally between orthoclase and muscovite or was all associated with mus-covite (Table 3). The XRD mullite/quartz line intensity ratios are in the range from 0.4 to 0.6(Table 2) and, thus, are closer to the ratios for the underglaze blue than those for the qingbaiporcelain.

Porcelain stone was again most probably used in the production of Longquan celadon wares,and as discussed by Kerr and Wood (2004, 252), porcelain stones from the Longquan region havethe lower soda contents and higher iron oxide contents (Dayao and Yuandi, Longquan districts;Table 1) necessary to achieve a match with the compositions of the Longquan bodies. However,taking into account the extended production period and extended production area for Longquanceladon wares, Chou Jen et al. (1973) (see also Proctor 1977) have argued that, in order toachieve the 2 wt% and above of iron oxide often observed in Longquan bodies, it would havebeen necessary to add between 10 and 30 wt % of local high-iron clay (Gaojitou and Mudaikou,Longquan districts; Table 1), which would have been red-firing in an oxidizing atmosphere, to theporcelain stone.

Figure 6 A SEM photomicrograph of a Longquan celadon ware body (1930-06-17,1) showing common quartz particles(dark grey), poorly defined clusters of ragged filaments made up of mullite crystals (mid-grey, M), and glassy poolscontaining a scatter of fine, randomly oriented, elongated mullite crystals (light grey, F) in an essentially continuousmatrix.



Yue stoneware

The bodies of the Yue stoneware, which are pale grey and coated with a green-grey glaze,contain fairly abundant quartz in an essentially continuous matrix, with extended areascontaining varying densities of fine, randomly oriented, elongated secondary mullitecrystals, typically up to about 10 mm across (Fig. 7). Those areas with a lower density ofmullite crystals (marked F in Fig. 7), which are typically up to about 50 mm across, areprobably associated with pools of glass derived from the larger melted feldspar crystals,whereas those areas with a higher density of mullite crystals are associated with moreclay-rich clay–feldspar mixtures. The SiO2/Al2O3 wt% concentration ratios for the matrix,which are all greater than about 2:1, with a high proportion in the 2.8–4:1 range (Fig. 9 (e)),provide confirmation that the original clays contained feldspar particles that melted,and to varying extents, penetrated the clays during firing. The solution rings around thequartz, although present, are less well developed than in the case of the Ding porcelain.Assuming, on the basis of the absence of obvious relict mica particles, that at least halfthe potassium was associated with orthoclase, the estimated concentration ratios fororiginal kaolinite/quartz vary from 0.3 to 0.5 (Table 3), and the ratio for the XRD mullite/quartz line intensities is in the range from 0.2 to 0.4 (Table 2). Thus, both ratios areagain significantly lower than the corresponding ratios for either the Ding porcelain or the Junstoneware.

These observed microstructures reflect the use of clays produced from weathered acidic,high-silica rocks (Shanglinhu and Hangzhou; Table 1), and prepared by crushing and levigation.

Figure 7 A SEM photomicrograph of a Yue stoneware body (1938-04-12,7) showing common quartz particles (darkgrey) in an essentially continuous matrix, with extended areas containing varying densities of fine, randomly oriented,elongated mullite crystals. Those areas that appear to have a lower density of mullite crystal are marked F.



As discussed by Kerr and Wood (2004, 140) and by Wood et al. (2005), the effect of thisprocessing is to remove the coarser quartz and feldspars, with a resulting increase in the claycontents, and in fine-grained iron and titanium minerals.

Guan stoneware

Guan stonewares, which appear to have been a southern development of Northern Song imperialRu ware, have dark thin bodies with thick, crackled bluish glazes. The bodies again contain fairlyabundant quartz in an essentially continuous matrix, in which there is evidence of poorly definedclusters of ragged filaments of mullite crystals, associated with mica relicts (Fig. 8). However, inthis case, glassy pools associated with feldspar relicts appear to be absent, which is consistentwith the fact that very few analysed body phases have SiO2/Al2O3 wt% concentration ratiosgreater than 2.0:1 (Fig. 9 (f)). The quartz particles lack solution rims, suggesting that the firingtemperatures were lower than those used in the production of the Longquan celadon ware.Assuming, on the basis of the absence of obvious relict feldspar particles, that all the potassiumwas associated with muscovite, the estimated concentration ratios for original kaolinite/quartz arein the range 0.7–1.0 (Table 3), and the ratio for the XRD mullite/quartz line intensities is 1.0(Table 2), both ratios being higher than those for all the other porcelains and stonewares exceptfor Ding and Jun.

These observed bulk compositions and microstructures are consistent with the proposal byKerr and Wood (2004, 261) that the Guan bodies were produced from processed high-ironprimary clays that would have been red-firing in an oxidizing atmosphere, and not dissimilar tothe Gaojitou and Mudaikou clays of the Longquan districts.

Figure 8 A SEM photomicrograph of a Guan stoneware body (HK1) showing common quartz particles (dark grey) andpoorly defined clusters of ragged filaments made up of mullite crystals (M) in an essentially continuous matrix.



CONCLUSIONS

The above results show that the SEM examination of HF-etched, polished sections of ancientceramic bodies, taken together with their bulk chemical compositions and XRD analyses, providea powerful tool for identifying relict phases in the bodies, and thus helping to distinguish betweenthe different raw materials used in their production. Of particular note is the fact that, in the caseof the porcelain stone used in ceramic production in southern China, secondary mullite is formedfrom the partial melting of mica (fluxed by the structural potassium) in addition to that formed from

Figure 9 Histograms showing the number of analysed phases present in the bodies of (a) Ding, (b) Jun, (c) qingbai plusunderglaze blue, (d) Longquan, (e) Yue and (f) Guan porcelains and stonewares associated with the different SiO2/Al2O3

wt% concentration ratios.



feldspar and clay–feldspar mixtures, which has been previously observed in triaxial porcelains(Iqbal and Lee 1999, 2000; Lee and Iqbal 2001). This mica-based mullite is characterized byclusters of ragged filaments that reflect the fibrous, platy structure of the original mica particles.

Thus, in northern Ding and Jun wares produced from kaolinitic clays, the microstructures arecharacterized by dense mats of fine, randomly oriented, elongated secondary mullite crystals. Incontrast, in southern qingbai, underglaze blue and Longquan wares produced from porcelainstone, the microstructures are characterized by a combination of clusters of ragged filaments ofsecondary mullite crystals associated with relict mica particles, and glassy pools containing ascatter of fine, randomly oriented, elongated secondary mullite crystals associated with relictfeldspar particles. These differences are reflected in the higher bulk alumina contents and higherXRD mullite/quartz line intensity ratios associated with the kaolinitic northern wares as com-pared to the porcelain stone based southern wares.

Further, the observed microstructures show that white porcelain stone was not used in theproduction of either Yue or Guan stonewares from southern China. Instead, the clay used in theproduction of the Yue stoneware contained considerable feldspar but more limited mica, whereasthe clay used in the production of Guan stoneware was very different, containing considerablemica but only limited feldspar. Again, the differences are reflected in the higher bulk aluminacontents and higher XRD mullite/quartz line intensity ratios associated with the Guan stonewareas compared to the Yue stoneware.

In summary, as also recently shown by Martinón-Torres et al. (2008) in a study of mullitecrucibles from medieval Europe, the SEM examination of HF-etched polished sections hasconsiderable potential for the future investigation of the raw materials used in the production ofancient porcelains, stonewares and other high-refractory ceramics from across the world. Also,for the future, the methodology could be extended to include Rietveld XRD measurements todetermine the quantitative phase compositions, and the investigation of the thermal history of theceramics by means of refiring experiments to establish the evolution of the microstructures withincreasing firing temperature.

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

0.00 0.10 0.20

Bulk Al2O3/SiO2 wt% concentration ratio

XR

D li

ne in

tens

ity r

atio

- m

ullit

e/qu

artz

0.30 0.40 0.50

JD

G

LULY

UYQQ

Figure 10 A plot of the ratios of the intensities of the principal XRD lines for mullite and quartz versus the bulkAl2O3/SiO2 wt% concentration ratios for the porcelains (D, Ding; Q, qingbai; U, underglaze blue) and stonewares (J, Jun;L, Longquan; Y, Yue; G, Guan).



ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Two of us (MST and ICF) were members of staff of the British Museum when this workwas initiated. We thank Derek Gillman and Jessica Rawson, then of the Department of OrientalAntiquities (now the Department of Asia), for advice in the selection of the sherds for analysis.

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An investigation into the relationship between the raw materials used in the production of Chinese...

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