HUMS301

NAME: Debbie Turkilsen

TOPIC

This essay is an in-depth study and analysis of the lives of the two British women, Boudica of the Iceni and Queen Cartimandua of the Brigantes. It will also examine the gender rhetoric used by both Tacitus and Cassius Dio to ascertain why both of these powerful women were portrayed in such a manners in which they were.

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This essay is an in-depth study and analysis of the lives of the two British women, Boudica of the Iceni, and Queen Cartimandua of the Brigantes. It will also examine the gender rhetoric used by both Tacitus and Cassius Dio to ascertain whythese two powerful women were portrayed in such a negative light.

In AD43, the Roman Invasion into Britain would irrevocably

change the lives of two of Britain’s most famous women,

Boudica of the Iceni tribe, and Queen Cartimandua of the

Brigantes. The ancient sources of both Gaius Cornelius Tacitus

and Dio Cassius portray Boudica in differing styles. If

Tacitus is to be believed, Boudica was the ideological ideal

of the Roman matron, severely wronged by the corrupt actions

of a Roman Imperial system rapidly falling apart. Dio depicts

Boudica as the classic stereotype of a wild, barbarian woman.

However, Cartimandua is only ever mentioned by Tacitus. His

description of Cartimandua is extremely hostile and

vindictive. This essay will analyse the ancient sources, and

both the archaeological and epigraphical evidence which has

been unearthed, so as to ascertain a true, unbiased account of

just who exactly these two powerful women were. It will also

examine the gender rhetoric used by both Tacitus and Dio

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within their historical accounts. This will prove that both of

their narratives were influenced by the alleged domestic

upheavals that were said to be occurring in the Imperial

household of the Emperors Claudius and Nero throughout each of

their rule. However, this essay will not provide a detailed

examination of the Roman Invasion of AD43, the Boudiccan

Revolt, or the ensuing battle between Venutius, Cartimandua’s

husband and consort, and Rome, except where it specifically

applies to the lives of both Boudica and Cartimandua.

Tacitus is the first of the ancient Roman historians to

mention Boudica.1This is in the literary history which he wrote

to glorify the life of his father-in-law, Julius Agricola.2

Tacitus wrote three works which mention the events that

occurred in ancient Britain, Agricola, Histories, and The Annals, with

Agricola being written first c.AD97-8.3 It is asserted by Tacitus

that it was Boudica who had incited the revolt which involved

the Icenian, Trinovantian, and alleged other tribes in AD 60-

61.4 With Tacitus stating himself that his book was intended to

honour his father-in-law as a tribute of dutiful affection,

and with the knowledge that Agricola was a tribune in the

Roman Army serving under the command of the British governor

Suetonius Paulinus at the time of the revolt, it has to be

understood that Tacitus’ narrative is heavily biased.5

1 Tacitus, Agricola 162 Tac. Agr. 13 Barrett, A., ‘Introduction’, in Tacitus, The Annals, trans. J. C. Yardley, New York, Oxford University Press, 2008, p.xv.4 Tac. Agr. 165 Tac. Agr. 3

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There is no definitive evidence which exists to prove if

Boudica was her birth name. The name itself is thought to

originate from the celtic word for victory, bouda. Celtic

warriors were said to have chanted this word in a chorus

before charging into battle.6 It is interesting to note,

however, that numismatic evidence unearthed in the territory

of the Dobunni show coins bearing the name Buduoc or Buduog.

It is not known if the title signified a person or a movement.

They are dated to around the time of the Roman Invasion in

AD43.7Boudica could have been a name given to her posthumously.

Dio describes Boudica as an extremely masculine woman with

very long red hair.8 There is no other evidence which exists to

assist in determining whether Dio’s description is factual.

However, portions of his narrative can be verified. It was

custom for Celtic aristocratic women to grow their hair long.

As only the privileged had the time to tend to the upkeep of

their hair, it indicated high status. Fabric which possessed

many colours and designs signified it was of high quality, and

the wearing of torques was a cultural custom.9

6 Collingridge, V. Boudica, London, Ebury Press, 2006, p.2.7 Bedoyere, G. Defying Rome: The Rebels of Roman Britain, Gloucestershire, Tempus Publishing, 2007, p.48.8 Cassius Dio, Roman History, 62.2.3-49 Waite, J. Boudica’s Last Stand: Britain’s Revolt Against Rome AD60-61, Gloucestershire, The History Press Ltd., 2011, p.20.

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While it was not uncommon for Celtic people to have red hair,

Dio could have used literary license to liken Boudica to

Cleopatra. A figurine of Isis that was discovered at Pompeii

has heavy red-coloured eyebrows. As Cleopatra liked to model

herself on the image of Isis it is possible she possessed red

hair. Alexander the Great was said to have red hair.10 She

could also have dyed her hair with henna. Cleopatra is

depicted as having an uncontrollable lust for sex, which

almost ruined Rome.11Boudica was said to have an uncontrollable

bloodlust which nearly lost the Province of Britain for

Rome.12Cleopatra and Boudica’s cupiditas was seen as an unnatural

feminine characteristic, and as such upset the natural order

of Roman moral values.

Boudica was said to be the wife of Prasutagus, an extremely

wealthy king of the Iceni tribe.13However, evidence states she

was not deemed queen. Boudica was a woman of the royal

household.14 The territory Prasutagus controlled equated to

modern Norfolk. (Figure 2). Prasutagus’ wealth is evidenced by

the torc-hoard discovered on Icenian tribal land at

Snettisham, between 1948 and 1991.(Figure 3). The torques

themselves date back to c.100BC, however the hoard was buried

at around the same time as the Boudiccan Revolt.15

10 Collingridge, V. 2006, pp.9-10.11 Lucan, Civil War, 10.7412 Dio. 62.613 Tacitus, The Annals, 14.3114 Tac. Agr. 1615 Stead, I. M., ‘The Snettisham Treasure: Excavations in 1990’, in Antiquity, 1991, p.465.

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It is not known if Boudica was Prasutagus’ only wife. Certain

ancient sources suggest the possibility that Celtic men could

have many wives, or share wives amongst family.16The Iceni were

known to the Romans from 54BC, when Julius Caesar invaded

Britain for the second time. However, they were known as the

Cenimagni, or the great Iceni.17The fact that by AD43 they are

only known as the Iceni could be indicative of lost power

struggles that may have occurred between them and other

tribes. Archaeological evidence shows that between the

invasions of Caesar and Claudius there was a major spread of

Catuvellauni power.18

The Iceni were one of the few British tribes which produced

their own coinage, with them being the only tribe to inscribe

their name onto the coin. (Figure 1) Four sites have been

located within ancient Icenian territory that possessed coin

moulds. These were situated at Saham Toney, Thetford, West

Stow, and Needham. The Iceni were the only tribe to have four

sites producing coinage.19 This is further evidence that the

Iceni were once formally a powerful tribe. No coins have been

unearthed bearing either Boudica or Prasutagus’ name.

Numismatic evidence has been discovered which bears the

previous king of the Iceni’s name, Antedios.(Figure 4). It is

thought that the Iceni were one of the eleven tribes who

16 Caesar, Gallic Wars, 5.14; Cassius Dio, Roman History, 62.6.317 Caesar, G.W, 5.2118 Salway, P. A History of Roman Britain, Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2001, p.38.19 Sealey, P. The Boudican Revolt Against Rome, Oxford, Shire Publications Ltd., 2004, p.11.

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entered into a client relationship status with Claudius and

Rome. (Figure 5).

It is not known what relationship Prasutagus had to Antedios.

It is also not known when Prasutagus succeeded to the kingship

over the tribe. However, Bedoyere states that it was quite

likely after the revolt of AD47.20This indicates the high level

of respect members of the Iceni tribe must have had in

Prasutagus’ leadership. After the revolt Prasutagus would have

had to have explicitly demonstrated to the Roman Imperial

system that he could both effectively maintain peace within

his tribe, as well as fulfil all the obligations being a

client king placed upon him.

Tacitus relates that Prasutagus died c. AD59-60, leaving his

kingdom to be shared between his daughters and the Emperor

Nero. Evidence states that the Imperial Procurator, Decianus

Catus, immediately sought to seize control of Prasutagus’

entire assets with the assistance of an undisclosed number of

centurions and slaves.21Paulinus had recently left this area of

the British province for his campaign against the Druids on

Mona.22 (Figure 2). It is not known whether Paulinus knew of

Prasutagus’ death at this stage, or if he was aware of Catus’

plans for the Iceni tribe.

20 Bedoyere, G. 2007, p.53.21 Tac. Ann. 14.3122 Tac. Agr. 14

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Evidence states that Boudica was flogged by the Roman

centurions, and her daughters were brutally raped. Icenian

nobility were stripped of all their ancestral possessions, and

those of the royal house were treated like slaves. Fearing

worse, Boudica is said to have acted.23 There is justification

for Boudica to have felt that way. Crummy states that the

execution of virgins in the ancient world was seen as both

immoral and unthinkable. The answer was to rape the maidens

first.24

There is strong evidence which links Seneca to the action. It

is alleged that Seneca had loaned 40 000 000 sesterces to

British tribes in a money-lending scheme.25As Nero was

considering the act of abandoning the province Seneca decided

to demand repayment.26Evidence exists which proves both

Seneca’s enormous wealth and his powerful influence within

Nero’s court.27Considering Seneca’s influence within Nero’s

court, and the fear of losing his money, Catus was possibly

given orders to retrieve funds and assets at any cost. It

would not have been impossible for Seneca to issue orders of

this kind to Catus. It is also quite possible that Prasutagus

23 Tac. Ann 14.3124 Collingridge, V. 2006, 235.25 Dio, 62.226 Suetonius, Nero, 1827 Tac. Ann. 13.3, 13; 14.6; Dio 61.10.1-6; Pliny, Natural History, 14.4.49-52

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and Boudica had considered these loans to have been diplomatic

gifts.28

One has to wonder why Boudica, her daughters, and the Icenian

nobles were treated in such a manner. This is especially so

when one considers that their client kingdom status would have

granted them Roman citizenship. Factions within the Iceni

tribe were said to have revolted in AD47. After serious

trouble with other tribes, such as the Ordovices and Silures,

the governor P. Ostorius Scapula demanded that a number of

tribes be disarmed.29As well as this being seen as an enormous

insult to a proud tribe, it also would have meant that Icenian

warriors could not correctly worship their warrior gods.30

However, since the revolt of AD47 all had been harmonious and

calm between the Iceni and Rome. The fact that the Icenian

tribe did not lose its client status also indicates that not

all members of the tribe were involved in the revolt. The only

explanation is the Roman belief that absolute moral right was

on their side. Rome felt justified in treating their client

kingdoms in any manner in which they wished.31

28 Tacitus, Germany 15; Caes. GW 1.43; Dio 62.329 Tac. Ann. 12.29, 31-3330 Howarth, N. Cartimandua: Queen of the Brigantes, Gloucestershire, The History Press Ltd., 2011, p.55.31 Virgil, Aeneid, 6.850-853; Sallust, Histories 4.69

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The question needs to be raised as to why Prasutagus did not

leave the kingdom of the Iceni to Boudica in his will. This is

especially so when one considers that evidence suggests it was

normal for a woman to rule in Celtic society.32Bulst states

that Prasutagus’ decision may have had to do with the prospect

of his daughters’ future marriages. Rome may have been more

likely to approve their royal status as wives of new client

kings.33The question also needs to be raised as to why Boudica

herself was not raped. Roman soldiers had raped queens

before.34

There is evidence which suggests that Boudica was more than

just a queen of the Iceni. Dio states that before the

commencement of Boudica’s final battle, she performed a piece

of divination by using a hare.35The hare was a sacred animal to

the Britons.36Material evidence has been discovered which

proves that hares were often used for ritual purpose. Hare

bones, remains of hare fur, and bronze hares have been found

in a number of sacred pits throughout Britain, such as Surrey,

Thistledon Dyer, and Ipswich.37

32 Tac. Agr. 15; Ann. 14.3533 Bulst, C., ‘The Revolt of Queen Boudica in A.D.60’, in Historia: Zeitschrift fur Atte Geschichte, Bd.10, H.4, 1961, p.498.34 Plutarch, Moralia, 258E-F35 Dio 62.636 Caes. GW 5.12.15-1637 Green, M. The Gods of the Celts, Gloucestershire, The History Press, 2011, p.174.

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Dio also states that Boudica appealed to the goddess Andraste

with her hands rising to the heavens, performing an open

supplication.38Evidence suggests that it was only those who

were considered to be Druids who were allowed to commune

openly and perform supplication to the gods. It was also only

within a Druid’s power to decide whether a war should be

pursued.39Tacitus asserts that Boudica made the decision to

fight. He also states that her ancestry was considered very

great, and makes claims she had some kind of communion with

the gods.40Dio claims that Boudica had druidic knowledge as to

why both Augustus and Caligula had never attempted to sail to

Britain.41

Boudica was either a female Druid, or the Priestess to

Andraste of the Icenian tribe. The ancient sources show that

female druids did exist.42Tacitus writes of another High

Priestess, Veleda, supposedly of German origin.43However, Ellis

states that the name Veleda is Celtic, deriving from the root

gwel, which means ‘to see’, or Seeress.44There is evidence which

proves there was both a strong cultural and ancestral link

that existed between the Celts of Gaul, and the Celts of

Britain.45

38 Dio 62.639 Caes. GW 6.1340 Tac. Ann. 14.35; Agr. 1541 Dio 62.442 Tac. Ann. 14.3043 Tac. Ger. 8; Histories 4.62, 6544 Ellis, P. B. The Celts: A History, Philadelphia, Running Press Book Publishers, 2004, p.89.45 Tac. Ger. 28; Caes. GW 2.4, 14; 4.20; 5.12

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The goddess Andraste is only mentioned by Dio. Her sacred

spaces were said to be in the groves of Andate, and her name

was said to mean Victory.46That means that both goddess of the

tribe and High Priestess of the tribe shared the same meaning

in name. This would signify that Boudica was the earthly

element to Andraste’s supernatural element. There is evidence

to show that priestesses were named after their patron

goddess. 47Green asserts that Andraste is philogically linked

to the Andarte, goddess to the Gaulish tribe of the Vocontii,

whose name also meant victory or unconquerable.48

Dio states that Roman women were sacrificed to Andraste in her

sacred grove, all whilst Boudica and her warriors feasted and

engaged in wanton behaviour.49One could compare this religious

activity to the Maenads of Dionysus’ Bacchae.50There are many

allegations that the Celts did indeed practice human

sacrifice. The blood sacrifice would have been dedicated to

Andraste as proof of gratitude.51However, Dio neglects to

mention that horses and livestock would have also been

sacrificed to appease the gods. This assisted Dio in creating

a more distorted image of Boudica.

46 Dio 62.647 Ellis, P. B. The Druids, London, Constable & Company Ltd., 1996, p.92.48 Green, M. Celtic Goddesses: Warriors, Virgins, and Mothers, London, British Press Museum, 1997, p.30.49 Dio 62.650 Euripides, The Bacchae 796-79851 Tac. Ann. 14.30, 33; Pliny NH, 30.13

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The impaling of Roman women, on sharp skewers which were run

through their entire body, would have been symbolic not only

of the rape of Boudica’s daughters, but also as a reflection

of the many other allegations of rape and sexual abuse

barbarian women were forced to endure from the Roman

soldiers.52 Like female slaves at Rome, native British women

would have been classified as object, not subject.53All trace

of Andraste was wiped out after Boudica’s death and she was

not adopted into Rome’s religion like other foreign gods.54The

massive religious hall of the Iceni, located at Thetford, was

also dismantled.55

Cementing Boudica’s religious status is the fact that a cult

was formed sometime after her death named Tutela Boudiga. An

inscription dedicated to this goddess has been discovered in

Bordeaux, France, dated c. AD237. (Figure 6). Tutela Boudiga’s name

translates as her being a goddess of protecting victory. This

inscription was said to have fulfilled the vow of a Roman,

Marcus Aurelius Lunaris, after he arrived in Gaul after safe

passage from Britain. The name Boudiga is philologically

linked to Boudica.56

52 Tac. Agr. 15, 31; Hist. 4.1453 Cantarella, E. Pandora’s Daughters, Baltimore & London, The John Hopkinds Press, 1989, p.114.54 Minucius Felix, Octavius 655 Bedoyere, G. 2007, p.71.56 http://www.janeraeburn.com/brigantes/deities.htm, accessed on 13 September, 2013.

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This could explain why Prasutagus did not leave his kingdom to

Boudica. As Druid or High Priestess of the Iceni tribe she

would not have been able to take an active part in any actual

battles.57Both Tacitus and Dio do not specifically say that she

took part in any of the battles that made up the Boudiccan

Revolt.58This could also indicate why Boudica was not raped.

Roman soldiers were said to be extremely superstitious of not

causing resentment from foreign gods when invading enemy

territory.59The rape of a High Priestess would be symbolic of

raping the goddess herself. Boudica’s religious status could

also have inspired superstitious fear with the Roman

soldiers.60

Boudica’s chariot is also symbolic of her status.61There have

been a number of archaeological excavations which have

discovered the graves of Celtic women buried with their

chariots, such as the Princess of Vix. (Figure 7). She was

buried with her chariot, ceremonial items, and jewellery such

as gold torgues. Other burials have been found in Britain, in

the area of Wetgang Slack. It has been alleged that these

women may have been priestesses which required them to be

buried with their chariot and ritual requirements.62

57 Caes. GW 6.1358 Tac. Agr. 16; Ann. 14.30-35; Dio 6259 Collingridge, V. 2006, p.175.60 Tac. Ann. 14.3061 Tac. Ann. 14.35; Dio 62.8.162 Ellis, P. B., 2004, pp.35-36.

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There is archaeological evidence which suggests the Boudiccan

Revolt was a lot larger than ancient sources would have us

believe. Situated at Cadbury Castle, the remains of a massive

hillfort has revealed a large massacre layer which is dated to

the same time of the revolt. The remains of men, women, and

children have been discovered. Weapon and armour fragments,

both Celtic and Roman, have also been discovered amongst the

remains.63 Tacitus states that Poenius Postumus committed

suicide out of shame for not assisting Paulinus in the

revolt.64However, there is archaeological evidence which shows

that the Fortress of Isca Dumnonorium situated at Exeter was

also under attack at this time.65This is evidence that Tacitus

was not averse to using his own literary licence when he felt

justified to do so.

Petillius Cerealis, ambushed on his way to assist those at

Camulodunum, had to speedily escape with his cavalry.66Evidence

from excavations at the Fortress situated at Longthorpe,

Cambridgeshire, shows that Cerialis had to build a smaller

fort inside the original base so as to defend it more

effectively.67All these places are situated at different points

and are widely distanced from each other. (Figure 8). Tacitus

himself asserts that the entire island rose behind

Boudica.68Dio estimates that the number of warriors amounted to

63 Waite, J. 2011, pp.150-151.64 Tac. Ann. 14.3765 Collingridge, V. 2006, p.24666 Tac. Ann 14.3367 Sealey, P. 2004, p.22.68 Tac. Agr. 16

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230000.69This number would be too large for one person to

command. This indicates the involvement of other tribal

leaders in the revolt.

A revolt of this size would have demanded thorough planning.

It was said to be extremely rare for tribes to unite in

fighting a common enemy.70However, if Boudica was a High

Priestess and linked to the Druids, it would have been

possible for officially endorsed messages to be sent through

to the leaders of each tribe, as well as those residing in the

colonia of Camulodunum.This could have been defined as a mission

from the native gods.71In turn, this also makes one question

whether the attack on Mona was instigated by the Druids to

divert Paulinus’ attention, exposing his rear.72 If one

analyses the alleged movements of Boudica and her forces after

the attack at Verulamium, it appears as if her north-western

direction was leading her straight towards Mona. (Figure 9).

The Trinovantian tribe are specifically named as accomplices

to Boudica in the revolt. The analysis of the ancient sources

state that the Roman veterans were said to be explicitly cruel

in the treatment of the Trinovantians.73Archaeological evidence

has unearthed six human skulls, dating to c. AD55, situated in

the ditch that belonged to the legionary fortress at 69 Dio 62.670 Tac. Agr. 1471 Caes. G.W. 6.13; Tac. Agr. 1472 Tac. Ann 14.29-3073 Tac. Ann. 14.31

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Camulodunum. All had been decapitated and would have been

impaled on stakes as a symbol of domination over other tribal

members. There is also the amount of land which the Roman

Imperial system had taken for the veterans to be settled. Each

veteran was said to have been given fifty iugera, which equates

to 12.59 hectares. On the approximation that there were at

least 3000 veterans located at Camulodunum, this would mean

the loss of over 37 750 hectares.74Boudica would not have found

it too difficult convincing them to revolt.

Evidence states that Boudica and her forces caused the

destruction of Camulodunum, Londinium, and Verulamium.75There

is only one piece of material evidence to indicate Icenian

involvement in the destruction of Camulodunum. These are two

terrets which are decorated in the typical design of both

Norfolk and South Suffolk design.76However, at all three places

there exists a destruction level under the current level of

earth. Evidence also shows that each place was well

plundered.77 The head of Claudius’ statue was violently

detached from its body. This was later found in the River

Alde, Suffolk, in 1907, which was a part of Iceni

territory.78This matches the description of the events that

Tacitus supplies.79

74 Sealey, P. 2004, pp. 16, 19.75 Tac. Agr. 31; Ann. 14.3176 Sealey, P. 2004, p.2277 Fields, N. Boudicca’s Rebellion AD60-61: The Britons Rise Up Against Rome, Oxford, Osprey Publishing Ltd., 2011, p.57.78 Collingridge, V. 2006, p.219.79 Tac. Ann. 14.31

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Tacitus states that Boudica died of poison.80There is no way of

verifying the truth of this comment. However, if one analyses

Tacitus’ works closely, there is a recurring theme which

associates suicide with shame.81 There also appears to be a

close association between the actions of Boudica, Cleopatra,

and Dido.82 All three queens are said to have inflicted much

damage to Rome. There is no evidence which exists that would

indicate Boudica would have felt shame with her loss. All

evidence seems to suggest that Boudica welcomed death over

slavery.83

Dio asserts that after Boudica and her forces had lost their

final battle against Rome many escaped with the hope of

regrouping and fighting again. However, after some time

Boudica is said to have fallen ill and died, leaving the

tribes to effectively lose hope in victory and return to their

homes. The tribes were said to have given her a lavish

burial.84If this information is accurate, it is evidence that

Boudica’s role in the revolt was more symbolic than

aggressive. It also verifies her status as Priestess to

Andraste, possibly with her death being seen as a divine omen

of impeding destruction at the hands of Rome if battle

continued.

80 Tac. Ann. 14.3781 Tac. Ann. 14.7, 3782 Plutarch, Life of MAntony, 86; Vir. Aen. 4.508-62983 Tac. Agr. 15-16; Dio 62.2-1384 Dio. 62.12.6

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It is stated that over 70 000 Romans and allies were

slaughtered by Boudica and her forces.85However no human

remains have been found at either site of Camulodunum,

Londinium, or Verulamium.86However, at an industrial suburb

located to the west of Camulodunum, at Sheepen, an ancient

pottery kiln that contained fragments of human skulls which

can be dated to the 1st century AD has been discovered.87It

cannot be ascertained whether these are human remains arising

from the Boudiccan Revolt.

Tacitus portrays Boudica as an enemy of Rome who possessed all

of the moral qualities that Rome was said to be

losing.88Boudica devoted her life to her husband, children, and

nation. She fought for the roman ideals of moral justness and

libertas.89However, she could not win. Boudica’s barbarian status

decrees this to be so. It took Tacitus’ father-in-law,

Agricola, to remedy all the wrongs that were being inflicted

on the British.90Dio depicts Boudica as a terrifying

monstrosity that is not a natural state for the feminine

ideal.91Her savage femininity is heightened by the words he

places into her speech concerning the cruel femininity of

85 Tac. Ann. 14.37; Dio 62.1-286 Collingridge, V. 2006, p.221.87 Sealey, P. 2004, p.2688 Tac. Agr. 1-5, 1589 Laudiatio Turiae 1.1.3, 10, 18, 4290 Tac. Agr. 1991 Dio 62.2

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Nero.92Boudica becomes masculine and as such, is seen as a

direct threat against Rome which had to be defeated.

What is strange is that there is no evidence of any kind to

signify Rome’s victory over Boudica. No victory coins were

manufactured and circulated. There were no victory parades

like the one given when Caratacus, who was the former king of

the Catuvellauni, was captured .93There are also no victory

monuments.94This is further confirmation that Boudica’s role in

the revolt was symbolic. Boudica’s role as Priestess to

Andraste and the Iceni tribe was a huge motivating factor for

the Boudiccan Revolt, but she did not play an active role as

either warrior or warrior commander.

Only one other source mentions Boudica. The post-Roman writer,

Gildas, discusses her role in the revolt in an extremely

negative fashion in his work De Excidio Britanniae. Gildas calls

her a lioness. She is not mentioned in Historia Brittonium, the

works of Bede, or Geoffrey of Monmouth.95Boudica obviously did

not fit the image of the perfect Christian feminine ideal

either.

92 Dio 62.6.593 Tac. Ann. 12.35-3794 Bedoyere, G. 2007, p.44.95 Koch, J. (ed.). Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia, Santa Barbara, ABC-CLIO inc., 2006, p.236.

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Cartimandua was the Queen of the Brigantian tribe.96It is not

known the exact date that Cartimandua succeeded to the

Brigantian throne. However, evidence exists which places her

firmly in her role as Queen in AD51.97The Brigantian territory

was situated in the northern portion of Britain, which today

equates to modern Lancashire and Yorkshire. (Figure 2). It is

said they were the most populous of the British tribes.98The

tribe was named after their patron goddess Brigantia, which

means ‘exalted one’.99Both the rivers Braint and Brent are said

to be named after her. Brigantia is also associated with sheep

and cattle, which was the basis of the Brigantian

economy.100Brigantia’s consort was said to be the god Bregans.101

Cartimandua is another of the British royals who entered into

a client kingdom relationship with Rome.102Her name translates

as ‘sleek pony’.103Tacitus describes Cartimandua as pollens

nobilitate.104This indicates that Cartimandua was born into a

social environment that was viewed as similar to the Roman

patrician and senatorial houses. All social and political

power was concentrated in the family circle.105This evidence

indicates that Cartimandua was descended from a powerful royal96 Tac. Hist. 3.4597 Tac. Ann. 12.3198 Tac. Agr. 1799 Ellis, P. 2004, p.84.100 Collingridge, V. 2006, pp. 149-150.101 http://www.janeraeburn.com/brigantes/deities.htm, accessed on 13 September, 2013.102 Tac. Hist. 3.45103 Ellis, P. 2004, p.84.104 Tac. Hist. 3.45105 Richmond, I. A., ‘Queen Cartimandua’, in The Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 44,1954, p.43.

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family whose male line had either died or failed. There is

very little known about Cartimandua and how she looked. One

source describes her as “a false red-haired queen of the

mists”.106However, there is no documentary source to prove that

this is true.

There is archaeological evidence which demonstrates that the

Brigantian tribe were used to powerful women. An altar has

been discovered in Birrens, Dumfriessure, which depicts the

patron goddess Brigantia. She is a carved figure, depicted

wearing a mural crown to denote her prestige in battle while

carrying both a spear and globe of victory. This evidence

could suggest that Cartimandua was the representative of

Brigantia on the royal throne.107 In Wetgang Slack, an area of

East Yorkshire, two graves have also been uncovered which has

the remains of powerful females. Both were buried with their

chariots, jewellery, and ritual objects.108

Both Hanson and Campbell support the theory that the

Brigantian tribe was in fact a large conglomerate of smaller

tribes.109 Their reason for aligning themselves with each other

would have involved issues of safety and protection. The

location of their territory would have left them open for

attacks from both north and south. (Figure 2). Hartley & Fitts106 Collingridge, V. 2006, 148.107 Collingridge, V. 2006, p.163.108 Collingridge, 2006, pp.149-150.109 Hanson, W. S., & Campbell, D. B., ‘The Brigantes: From Conquest to Clientage’, in Britannia, Vol. 17, 1986, p.73.

22

have raised the hypothesis that this may have been

Cartimandua’s predecessor who united the tribes into a

conglomerate.110This would explain the extraordinary power she

is said to have had.

Tacitus states that Cartimandua was married to a man named

Venutius.111Unfortunately, most of the information recorded by

Tacitus about Venutius has been lost. These are the missing

chapters of his Annals covering the years AD37-47.112Venutius is

described as being loyal to Rome while married to Cartimandua,

and one of the leading British military strategists.113With the

wealth of personal information allegedly recorded about

Venutius, and the lack thereof reported about Cartimandua, it

appears that Roman representatives had been dealing with

Venutius in an official capacity and not Cartimandua herself.

There is no evidence to define or explain the factors of her

authority over the tribe except to state she was queen.114

Cartimandua and Venutius’ marriage breakdown would cause great

problems for both Cartimandua and Rome.115Evidence states that

a first breakdown of the marriage occurred c.AD52-57. Venutius

went to war against Cartimandua, with some kind of truce being

formed between them after she captured members of his family 110 Howarth, N. 2011, p.47.111 Tac. Hist. 3.45; Ann. 12.40112 Creighton, J. Britannia: The Creation of a Roman Province, New York, Routledge, 2006, p.34.113 Tac. Hist. 3.45; Ann. 12.40114 Tac. Hist. 3.45115 Tac. Ann. 12.40

23

and Rome sent a cohort to assist her.116There are no reports of

issues occurring between them again until c.AD69.117

A divorce was decreed between them both c.AD69 after it is

reported that Cartimandua committed adultery with Venutius’

armour-bearer Vellocatus.118This name translates in Celtic to

mean ‘fighter of the good fight’, and in latin ‘sly shaved

one’.119The name is a Romanised one. There is no evidence to

state whether this was his birth name or given to him. If

given to him, it signifies the adoption of Roman culture into

the Brigantian tribal ethic. This would have to have been at

Cartimandua’s insistence. This is also evidence that Venutius

did not share Cartimandua’s royal power or authority, and

would have been viewed as consort only.

The date is not known when the Brigantian tribe entered into a

client relationship with Rome. However, it appears that they

were also one of the eleven tribes who appealed to Claudius

for protection. (Figure 5). Cartimandua’s client relationship

was said to have been strengthened when she captured Caratacus

and handed him over to Rome.120Hanson and Campbell both assert

that the reward for doing this must have been quite a

considerable one for Cartimandua.121Tacitus states that it

116 Tac. Ann. 12.40117 Tac. Hist. 3.45118 Tac. Hist. 3.45119 Collingridge, V. 2006, p.159.120 Tac. Ann. 12.36121 Hanson, W. S., & Campbell, D. B., 1986, p.73.

24

increased her influence.122This can be viewed as evidence that

Rome did reward Cartimandua extremely well.

Cartimandua’s reasons for capturing and handing over Caratacus

to Rome have not been recorded. Tacitus portrays Cartimandua’s

action as treacherous.123However, this description of

Cartimandua’s actions contradicts Tacitus’ assertion that

Caratacus was famed for his cunning and tactical skill.124

Tacitus is again found guilty of literary licence when he

states that Cartimandua’s capture of Caratacus ensured

Claudius’ triumph.125Caratacus was captured c.AD51.126 However,

Claudius celebrated his triumph in AD43-44.127It is known that

Caratacus was popular amongst the British tribes. He was also

the major contributor and organizer of the many attacks on,

and battles against, the Romans.128Cartimandua may have thought

Caratacus’ popularity may have diminished her rule if she

supported him.129Brigantian tribal members may have considered

Caratacus to be a more powerful leader. There is evidence

which does indicate that Cartimandua’s rule was not stable.130

This explains her actions in seeking Rome’s favour.

122 Tac. Hist. 3.45123 Tac. Hist. 3.45124 Tac. Ann. 12.36125 Tac. Hist. 3.45126 Tac. Ann. 12.36127 Suet. The Deififed Claudius 17128 Tac. Ann. 12.33, 35, 37129 Collingrdige, V. 2006, p.140.130 Tac. Ann. 12.32

25

Archaeological evidence has been discovered at Stanwick which

endorses the view that Cartimandua did extremely well

financially out of her relationship with Rome. A massive

hillfort discovered at Stanwick is thought to have been the

seat of Cartimandua’s royal power. Its foundation is dated

c.AD50 with evidence demonstrating that over the next 20years

it was to go through two more substantial phases of

rebuilding. (Figure 10.). This hillfort originally covered an

area of 17 acres. Between AD50-60 it was extended to 130

acres. It was then again expanded to an incredible 600 acres

by c.AD70.131

Material remains have also been found at Stanwick. These

include Roman-style rooftiles, exotic imported glassware,

large earthenware, amphorae, and a hoard of 146 metal

items.132The most amazing find is a pair of miniature horse

heads, made out of sheeted bronze. (Figure 11.). These would

have been used as a form of decoration on chariots. Brigantian

remains have also been unearthed in the Anglesey hoard, Llyn

Cerrig Bach, which indicates that they had a relationship with

the Druids of Mona.133However, Cartimandua’s rule over the

tribe must have been more influential and powerful than Druid

influence. There is no evidence which suggests any kind of

Brigantian complicity in the Boudiccan Revolt.134

131 Hanson, W. S., & Campbell, D. B., 1986, p.76.132 Collingridge, V. 2006, p.155.133 Richmond, I. A. 1954, p.48.134 Tac. Agr. 15-16; Ann. 14.30-35

26

Evidence states that the Brigantian tribe revolted c.AD48-

50.135The episode is not recorded as serious. However, it must

have gained some kind of impetus as Scapula, then governor of

Britain, had to disengage from his campaign against the Welsh

tribes so that his army could assist Brigantian factions still

loyal to Rome.136This highlights the importance of the

Brigantian treaty with Rome. Especially when one considers

that the tribe was not disarmed of their weapons, like the

Iceni had been when other tribes had previously revolted.137By

letting the Brigantian warriors keep their arms Rome was

creating a buffer zone in the north. They did not have to

worry about sudden military attacks from the Scottish tribes.

This could also have been when Cartimandua was established

onto the Brigantian throne.

Tacitus’ portrayal of Cartimandua is extremely hostile. In

just one paragraph of his work Histories Tacitus depicts

Cartimandua as treacherous, as a ruler more concerned with her

treaty agreement with an Emperor who was not even in charge of

his own self, let alone the Roman Imperial state, and

susceptible to both wealth and luxury. She is also criticized

for having an adulterous affair and falling in love with

someone of a lesser status to herself, and being vindictively

and ruthlessly cruel.138One has to question why someone who was

135 Tac. Ann. 12.32136 Tac. Ann. 12.32137 Tac. Ann. 12.31138 Tac. Hist. 3.45

27

both friend to Rome, and who had assisted Rome by handing over

Caratacus, is written of in such a way.

A close analysis of Tacitus’ writings clearly shows the use of

gender rhetoric by him. There is a similarity in the way that

Cartimandua is represented by Tacitus, and the way Messalina,

one of Claudius’ wives, is represented by Tacitus. Both women

appear to let their sexual desires and greed override their

concern for both of their domestic domains and the State.139It

is alleged that Messalina used treachery to cast suspicion on

Asiaticus, causing his death.140When one compares the words put

into the mouth of Asiaticus, against the words of Caratacus

after capture, both men resent the fact that it was a woman

who was the cause of their downfall.141

Agrippina, another of Emperor Claudius’ wives and mother to

future emperor Nero, is said to have had a political ambition

which was viewed by the men of Rome as a distortion of the

ideological feminine stereotype.142Cartimandua’s powerful

ancestry and right to rule is likened to Agrippina’s demands

to be recognised as having “a share in the empire her

forefathers won”.143This makes it difficult to determine just

who Cartimandua really was as a person and ruler.

139 Tac. Hist. 3.45; Ann. 11.28140 Tac. Ann. 11.1141 Tac. Ann. 11.3; 12.37142 Tac. Ann. 12.37; Dio 61.32, 33.1-2, 12143 Tac. Hist. 3.45; Ann. 12.37

28

Evidence does suggest that Cartimandua’s rule eventually was

seen as either unjust or cruel by c.AD69. After her adulterous

relationship with Vellocatus and subsequent divorce from

Venutius, the Brigantian tribe endorsed Venutius’ ambition to

take over the rule of the kingdom. It is also alleged he

received outside help from other tribes.144This suggests

Cartimandua’s rule had become both heedless of consequence and

despotic. It is further alleged that Brigantian tribal members

were shamed to submit to the rule of a woman.145However,

archaeological evidence discovered at Wetgang Slack, discussed

above, discredits this assertion of Tacitus.

Evidence states that Cartimandua again appealed for military

assistance from Rome. It took the combined forces of auxiliary

cohorts and cavalry to rescue Cartimandua. It is alleged that

it took a number of battles to get her to safety.146 Venutius

was left to rule the Brigantian kingdom until c.AD74, when

Roman forces finally defeated him and took over the Brigantian

territory.147 This is the last time Cartimandua is heard of.

There is no definitive indication of where Rome placed her.

There is not even definitive evidence to support the fact she

actually existed.

144 Tac. Hist. 3.45145 Tac. Ann. 12.40146 Tac. Hist. 3.45147 Tac. Ann. 12.40; Agr. 17; Statius Silvae 5.2.148-150

29

Although there is no factual historical or archaeological

record to prove Cartimandua’s existence was real, there is a

possibility that her life passed into oral legend form. The

legend of King Arthur and his wife Gwenhwyfar, as recorded by

Geoffrey of Monmouth in his work Historia Regum Britanniae, has been

influenced by Cartimandua’s life story. Both Cartimandua and

Gwenhwyfar left their husbands for subordinates. Cartimandua

chose Vellocatus and Gwenhwyfar chose Mordred. Both women

sought the protection of occupying armies, which resulted in

civil war and the loss of their kingdoms. Finally, the story

of Gwenhwyfar is located in Brigantian territory.148

Both Cartimandua and Boudica are used as literary tools by

Tacitus and Dio to discuss Roman issues to gender and power.

Boudica is used by Tacitus to highlight the Imperial abuses

occurring in Rome, and the loss of the Republican virtuous

ideals. Dio portrays Boudica as a savage barbarian woman

threatening Rome’s power while being ruled by Nero.

Cartimandua is depicted as cruel, full of cupiditas and

ambition. In reality, Cartimandua was more than likely a

political tool who was placed on the Brigantian throne because

of her powerful family connections. Her greed was more than

likely confused with the novelty of wealth and riches never

before seen. Whichever way one wishes to view the lives of

Boudica and Cartimandua, it cannot be refuted that Rome’s

invasion of Britain in AD43 forever changed their life paths.

It also treated them in an extremely different manner. 148 Collingridge, V. 2006, p.163.

30

Boudica, her family, and her people were abused, robbed, and

insulted. This left Boudica with no choice but to use her role

as priestess of the Iceni tribe as an impetus and an

encouragement for the British tribes to unite and revolt.

However, Cartimandua prospered until she allegedly made some

wrong decisions. Their roles in history will forever be a

reflection and example of the consequences of being on the

losing side.

31

APPENDIX

Figure 1.

32

http://finds.org.uk/database/images/image/id/249788, accessed on 03 September, 2013.

Figure 2.

33

http://www.google.com.au/imgres?imgurl=http://ancientweb.org/images/explore/England_Map_Britannia.jpg&imgrefurl=http://ancientweb.org/index.php/explore/country/England&h=642&w=480&sz=177&tbnid=mLrBt2oV9MPG2M:&tbnh=91&tbnw=

34

68&zoom=1&usg=_HSFK5OAzi3qmE9tjPkxn6h0KLlI=&docid=FOVqpAZIYzgaHM&sa=X&ei=qcBMUvGDDPG71, accessed on 12 September, 2013.

Figure 3.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Snettisham_Hoard.jpg, accessed on 12 September, 2013.

35

Figure 4.

http://www.fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/opac/search/cataloguedetail.html?&priref=111061_function_=xslt&_limit_=50#2, accessed on 9September, 2013.

Figure 5.

36

http://www.google.com.au/imgres?imgurl=http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Capitoline_museum2.jpg, accessed on 12 September, 2013.

Figure 6.

37

http://wanderingimage.deviantart.com/art/An-altar-in-Honour-of-the-Goddess-Tutela-Boudiga-353050769, accessed on 2 October, 2013.

Figure 7.

http://www.google.com.au/imgres?imgurl=http://home.bawue.de/~wmwerner/hochdorf/h_grh6&gif&imgrefurl=http://www.waa.ox.ac.uk/XDB/tours/europe2.pdf, accessed on 13 September, 2013.

Figure 8.

38

http://www.google.com.au/imgres?imgurl=http://www.drivingtours.com/pix/ukmap.jpg, accessed on 9 September, 2013.

39

Figure 9.

http://www.google.com.au/imgres?imgurl=http://www.darris.pwp.blueyonder.co.uk/boud4.jpg, accessed on 15 September, 2013.

40

Figure 10.

41

http://www.google.com.au/imgres?imgurl=http://megalithix.files.wordpress.com/2008/10/stanwick-

42

fortifications-wheeler-1954.jpg, accessed on 13 September, 2013.

Figure 11.

http://www.google.com.au/imgres?imgurl=http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Brit_Mus_17sept_048_crop.jpg, accessed on 12 September, 2013.

43

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