Queen Elizabeth's Coaches: The Wardrobe on Wheels

QUEEN ELIZABETH’S COACHES: THE WARDROBE ON WHEELS1

Julian Munby FSA*

*Julian Munby, Oxford Archaeology, Janus House, Oseney Mead, Oxford OX2 0ES, UK. E-mail: <[email protected]>

The origins of the coach in England have never been clearly documented, but the very complete records of the royal wardrobe in the reign of Queen Elizabeth reveal her part in their introduction, and the extent of her lavish expenditure on the creation and repair of coaches from 1564 until her death. Detailed descriptions of eleven new coaches, and the repairs to a number of gifts from her courtiers record the astonishing richness and quality of these machines. This suggests that the furnishings, decoration, and trappings of both horse and carriage were both an extension of the Queen’s costume, and also a significant part of the public persona of the monarch.

INTRODUCTION

The appearance of the coach in England in about 1555 was a sufficiently sudden and distinct event to be recognizedby contemporaries (at least in retrospect) as significant. While a number of people have been held responsible for importing this continental habit, there can be little doubt that the royal use of coaches was a key element in fostering this innovation.1 John Stowe, whois our prime source on this topic, gave one account in his A Summarie of the Chronicles of England, under the year 1555:

This yeere Walter Ripon made a coch for the Earle of Rutland, whichwas the first Coche (saith he) that ever was made in England. Sence,to wit, in anno 1564, the said Walter Ripon made the first hollowturning Coch, with pillars and arches, for her majesty, being then herservant. Also in anno 1584, a Chariot Throne with foure pillarsbehinde to bear a Canopie, with a crowne imperiall on the toppe, andbefore two lower pillars, whereon stoode a Lion and a Dragon, thesupporters of the armes of England.2

1 Published as ‘Queen Elizabeth’s Coaches: The Wardrobe onWheels’, Antiquaries Journal LXXXIII (2003), 311-367.

*

Final Draft, January 2003 Queen Elizabeth’s Coaches: 2

In an alternative version he states:

In the yeere 1564, Guylliam Boonen, a dutchmen, became the Queene’sCoachmann, and was the first that brought the use of Coaches into England. And after a while, divers great Ladies, with as great Jealousie of the Queen’s displeasure, made them Coaches, and rid in them up and downe the Countries, to the great admiration of all the behoulders, but then by little and little they grew usuall among the nobilitie and other of sort, and within twenty yeeres became a great trade of coach-making.3

It is not easy to state what distinguished the ‘coach’from the medieval suspended carriages that were in use since the fourteenth century. The medieval ‘kobelwagen’ type of carriage with an arched cover or tilt is familiarfrom iconographic evidence and from a few surviving examples (of which the most accessible example is the brass cover on the Beachamp Tomb in Warwick).4 They are usually depicted with female passengers, and seem to havebeen the preserve of aristocratic women; or as Stow claims:

Of old time, Coaches were not known in this Island, but Chariots or Whirlicotes, then so called, and they only used for Princes or great Estates, such as had their footmen about them.

Indeed, it would seem likely that the social change involved in the widespread use of what had been an almostexclusively feminine form of transport perhaps constituted the major part of the innovation, as men of all classes who would once have ridden on horseback now took to riding in coaches.5

From its origins in the Hungarian court of Mathias Corvinus as a fast road vehicle in the late fifteenth century, the coach moved to Italy, and then spread aroundwestern Europe as a new fashion in the 1550s.6 The character of the earliest coaches is uncertain, but they were taking on a standard form during the sixteenth century. The earliest surviving coaches, indeed the


oldest European wheeled vehicles, dating from 1560 and 1586, are two wedding carriages of the Dukes of Saxony, at Veste Coburg in Bavaria (fig 1). They have ‘four-poster’ bodies suspended on leather straps, and are certainly distinct from the medieval type in appearance, and were presumably regarded as ‘coaches’. No other physical change in form can be identified, and certainly not in the extremely conservative character of the undercarriage, though there was probably an essential change in harness and driving style (with a driver seatedon the coach rather than a postillion).7 The English royalcarriages shown in the Höfnagel drawing of Nonsuch Palaceinclude straight-sided ‘four-poster’ bodies alongside a more elaborate example (fig 2).8 Queen Elizabeth is invariably associated with the introduction of the coach to England, and indeed one of the earliest surviving coaches is the magnificent machine in the Kremlin armourymuseum that was presumably made in London in her reign and taken by the Muscovy Company as a diplomatic gift to the Tsar Boris Godunov in 1604 (fig 3).9 Intriguingly, it may be that Queen Mary was the first to use a coach, since in 1557 the former Venetian ambassador Giovanni Michiel describes a coach and horses given to Queen,10 butno more is heard of this. When she had the Princess Elizabeth removed from the Tower to Woodstock in May 1554she sent a litter to carry her, and this wheel-less meansof transport (slung on shafts between two horses) was to remain popular.11

Stow’s testimony points to 1564 as the date when QueenElizabeth first acquired a new equipage and ‘coachman’, but in all that has been written about her court little has been made of Stow’s remarks, or their possible implications, and the means by which the ‘portable queen’saw her country have generally passed unremarked.12 Verification for Stow’s claims about the introduction of the coach can easily be corroborated by the extensive evidence of Queen Elizabeth’s stable expenditure in the records of her Great Wardrobe, a hitherto neglected source which reveals the scale of the extraordinarily lavish productions in which she showed herself in public.


The near complete survival of her Wardrobe warrants and accounts means that her stables can be closely examined (in contrast with the relatively poor survival of such materials for earlier and some later reigns). That a major source for her reign has been little used can only partly be explained by the cryptic and summary nature of the existing catalogues, which obscure the fact that the Great Wardrobe (in the Lord Chamberlain’s Department) included the royal stables.13 It was Janet Arnold who first drew attention to the wealth of available material in her study of the Queen’s costume, although an important single record had been published earlier without any explanation of its source.14 This material is sufficiently remarkable from several aspects to deserve detailed examination, while from the yards of ribbon, thousands of gilt tacks, and countless pearls and spangles, some important general conclusions can be drawn.

Queen Elizabeth’s WardrobeIn describing the workings of the Elizabethan Great Wardrobe (situated by St Andrew’s church in the City) Arnold has shown how the Stables were a separate division, alongside the Wardrobe of Robes, and the Removing Wardrobe. She has also described the system of requisitioning work by a highly organized system of warrants controlled by a regular staff of clerks under the Master of the Wardrobe, Sir John Fortescue; among theliveried artificers working for the wardrobe was a wheelwright, and later a coachmaker.15 The continuous series of Warrant Books for Elizabeth’s Wardrobe run onlyfrom 1562 and so are missing for the first three years ofthe reign, but there is a patent for the appointment of Anthony Silver as wheelwright in May 1559.16 Wheelwrights often made much more than the wheels and undercarriage, and it was Silver who made a ‘close car for the stable’ in 1564 (costing £18), and did all repairs to the cars and close cars of the stables, and the gentlewomen’s waggon.17

The Wardrobe warrants were issued in a regular annual


series, and comprised ‘Great Warrants’ that provided for the needs of all the horses, and ‘Particular Warrants’ for all other requirements (sometimes specifically for the Queen’s or the Ladies’ stables); these Elizabethan warrants can be compared with the only surviving set of warrants for Charles I published by Arthur MacGregor.18 Ananalytical list prepared in the 1580s showing the different items to be included in Great and Particular warrants, divided into trades and including typical costs, was entered into a miscellaneous warrant book, with a page for ‘The coche maker’ and another for ‘The Smyth’ covering the assembly of most of the components ofa coach; but behind these two lay a host of artificers including tailors, embroiderers, upholsters and silkwomen, who contributed the individual parts.19 Sadly there is no English equivalent of the Medici wardrobe book of the 1580s which not only itemizes the parts of a carriage but also illustrates them.20 It should be noted that the warrants were generally issued for work yet to be done, but could also authorize payment for other work that had already been undertaken.

The annual Wardrobe accounts provide as much or more detail as the warrants, and likewise survive for most of Elizabeth’s reign.21 Written in Latin, they follow each warrant item by item, arranged by the different craftsmenand women who provided the goods. Overall, the stables take up between a quarter and a third of the business recorded in the warrants and account s, and contain an overwhelming amount of detail on all aspects of horses and vehicles, of which only a small area is touched upon here.

The First Coach of 1564Neither Silver nor Ripon is mentioned in the first warrant ‘For the Cowche’ issued in November 1564, though this must be the ‘first hollow turning Coch, with pillarsand arches’, that Ripon was said to have made in 1564 for her Majesty ‘being then her servant’; so perhaps Ripon was only a minor figure at that time. The furnishing and


decoration of the coach is described at some length in the warrant, which is addressed ‘To our Trustie and welbelovid John Fortescue Esquire M[aster] of our great Wardrobe or to his deputie or deputies there’:22

We Will and commaunde you forthwith upon the sight hereof that ye deliver or cause to be delivered unto our right trustie and right welbelovid cousen and Counsaylour Robert Earle of Leicester knight of our order of the garter and M[aster] of our horses or unto Edmond Standen Clerke of our stable all these parcells herafter ensuinge To our use and behoufe- That is to say a Coche with foure wheles the bales seates and

coffers to it with a coveringe of blew velvet wrought with a broad border of twisted gold Lace by the Imbroderer cut and Lyned with whit Tincell’ underneath the imbrodery Lyned with fyne cotton and Purple Taphata fringed with blew silk and gold quilted in the bottom, seates, and sides with purple Satten garnished with lace of purple silke and guilt nayles with buttons and lowpes of blue silk and gold to the same.

- four Quisshions of like stuffed with fyne downe covered with blue velvet fringed with blewe silke and gold with buttons and Tassels of blue silk and gold for the same Quisshions

- with a paire of longe raines of blue silk and gold wrought upon bobins with buttons and tassals to the same One leadinge raine of the same stuff

- One grosse of blew riband poyntes to tye on the same coveringe - One Slophouse of fyne blewe Clothe fringed with a blew frendge to

cover the same Coche with buttons and lowpes for the same and allmanner of necessaries to the coche belonginge

- One sadle covered with blew velvet with a border of imbroderye in the same manner quilted and stiched with a twisted gold Lace fringed with blew silk and gold

- with all the harnesses as collers coller chames hed stalles and raynes All which harnes covered with blew velvet fringed with blew silke and gold with buckles Pendaunts Rings and roses of copper and guilt with vj paire of girthes two paire of stirropes and stirrop leathers six bitts with guilt bosses with all other things necessary to the same coche belonginge whatsoever it be.

- And that ye content and paie Anthony Silver our whelewright for ij paire of carages with yron worke for the Coches and all things to


the said Carage belonging.

Blue was to be the predominant colour of the fittings or their adornments, of the cushions, reins, the coach coveror ‘slophouse’, the saddle and harnesses. The warrant continues with a new wagon for the Ladies and Gentlewomen(probably for their luggage), saddles for seven camels, asaddle for Jack Grene ‘our foole’, together with other saddlery and cloth. The formal ending includes the date and the address (given above):

And these our L[ette]res shalbe your sufficient warraunt and dischardge in this behalf, Geven under our Signet at our Manor of St James the xxix day of November in the seaventh yere of our raigne.

It is not the warrant, but the accounts that reveal the coachmaker to have been Lewis Stocket, who was paid £68 15s 5d for the work of ‘le joyner, carver, sawyer, wheelewrighte, faber [smith] et pictor [painter]’.23 He was indeed a joiner, but no ordinary craftsman, for Stocket was the Surveyor of the Queen’s Works from 1563 until his death in 1579.24 It is thus improbable that he was wholly responsible for making the coach and entirely possible that Walter Ripon was working under him. The embroidery of the coach cover and lining was carried out by the royal embroiderer David Smyth, but it was the saddler, Thomas Cure, who made the outer covering (and the slophouse), Nicholas Norton the cushions, and the royal silkwoman Alice Mountague made lace and fringe for everything. Thomas Cure also made the saddles, including one provided ‘pro Le Cotcheman’ marking the first recorded appearance in English (albeit bastardized) of the new word. The royal wheelwright Anthony Silver made the undercarriage, which was painted and gilded by the sergeant painter Nicholas Lysard. The accounts are notable for giving the quantities and costs of all the materials, which are here summarized:

Coach: Total £118 8s 9dLewis Stocket joinery and carving £68 15s 5d


Anthony Silver wheels and ironwork £41 13s 4dNich Lysard painting undercarriage £8

Cover and lining: Total £231 3s ¾dDavid Smyth embroidering coach £22 13s 4d

same quilting the coach £6 13s 4dThos Cure making cover of blue velvet £3 6s 8d

27¼ yds blue velvet for cover £35 14s13 yds tincel for lining £916 oz venice pearls £5 6s 8d2½ lb silk for the coach £518 yds Cotton for quilting same – 18s13 yds purple taffeta for same £8 15s 6d6 lb 5⅝ oz gold lace £34 18s 7½d1 lb gold venice twist for same £4 16s13 lb 1⅜ oz gold fringe £65 7s4 lb 4⅜ oz blue silk fringe £8 10s 11¼d1½ oz purple silk lace – 5s4 lb buttons with blue/gold silk loops £612 yds purple satin for quilting £8 8s4000 gilt nails to garnish cover £418 yds buckram for lining cover £1 10s

Cushions: Total £24 1s 7dNich Norton making four tick pillows £5 6s 8d6½ yds purple velvet for covering £9 8s 6d8⅞ oz gold fringe £3 11s3½ oz purple silk fringe – 8s 9d16 buttons and tassels of blue/gold silk £5 6s 8d

The harness: Total £16 16s1 pair long reins blue/gold silk £81 leading rein of same stuff £81 gross blue ribbon points – 16s

Slophouse: Total £10 12s 1¾dThos Cure making slophouse £1 3s 4d9 yds blue cloth for the cover £4 10s13⅛ oz blue silk fringe for same £1 12s 9¾d


3½ dozen buttons and loops for same £2 2s18 yds buckram for lining £1 4s

In all: £401 10s 6½d

The cost of this amazing finery was to add to the basic cost of the coach (of £118) the further sum of £283 for its fitting out and decoration, making an overall total of £401, a sum almost as fabulous as the appearance of the coach must have been. Even this was less than half the total for the whole warrant with all the other saddlery and harness work (£889 12s 9¾d). The easiest comparison of these costs is with a humble wagon made forthe Queen’s gentlefolk in 1567, which cost £15 8s 2d to make, £8 to paint, £43 16s to cover and decorate, with £10 18s for harness.25 The total of £78 2s 2d for the wagon would have made a handsome annual salary, and the coach cost over five times as much.

The Queen’s CoachmenIt should be this vehicle, the first coach made for QueenElizabeth, for which Boonen was coachman, though his namedoes not at first appear in the Wardrobe records. The existing establishment of the stables included four Littermen (Roger Olyver, George Lillie, Richard Wrighte and John Forrest), as shown by the annual warrants for their livery in July 1563 and 1564.26 Apart from the account quoted above, the first occurrence of coachmen alongside the littermen was in May 1565, by which time the coach must have been finished and delivered; the warrant ordered a crimson livery for the two grooms of the coach: Stephen Horrobin and Peter Thomeson.27 The sametwo are named in the following year, and it was only in 1567 when livery was again ordered for the ‘coachmen’ that a third name appears: Stephen Horrobin, Nicholas Paine, and William Bowne.28 The clerks never seem to have been sure about the spelling of Boonen, but there is no doubt that this is him. The livery of the coachmen and littermen seems to have been identical: crimson velvet jerkins embroidered front and back with ‘our letteres’


[that is ER] beneath a crown, four pairs of hose made of kersey [wool] and sarcenet [silk], a skirt of holland cloth, a velvet night cap, and four pairs of shoes. This cost over £62 in 1565 and £70 in 1567.29 The livery, not so dissimilar from that current today, is worn by the figures carrying the Queen in the ‘Procession Portrait’ at Sherborne Castle, dated to c 1601 (fig 4).30

The Queen’s StablesBut it was not just the stable manpower that increased, for the effect of the new arrival of coach and horses on the architecture of stables can be seen almost immediately, as provision now had to be made for storage of such a delicate machine: a coach-house was built at the Royal Mews at Charing Cross in 1568, substantial works were carried out on the stables at Greenwich in 1568–9, and at Hampton Court a new complex of barns, coach-house and garners was completed in 1570.31 Indeed, so much work was carried out in the stables of other royal establishments over the next decade that a separatedepartment was eventually set up with its own surveyors.32

The impact of the coach horse can also be seen in a comparative analysis of stable costs over four reigns that was made twenty years later, and gives the total number of various categories of horse:

Category Henry Edward Mary Elizabeth(1541) (1552) (1554) (1585)

Coursers 36 36 30 40Geldings 32 20 24 24Litter Mules 4 4 ? 6Coach horses – – – 15

Unnumbered categories: Jennets, Stole horse, Male horse, Bottle horse, Packe horse, Sumpter horse, Bessage horse.

Table 1: Horses in the Royal Stables from 32 Henry VIII to 28 Elizabeth

Source: An Abstracte of the Chardes of her maties Stable for the Coursers, geldings etc. taken out of the severall accompts folowing. (PRO LC5/32,


pp 210–11)

The fifteen coach horses had been built up gradually: there were eleven coach horses in 1568, thirteen in 1576,and fourteen in 1580.33 The mules were used for an older form of transport that the coach was eventually to replace, though in most respects (except for the wheels and undercarriage) the litter does not seem to have been very different from the coach in terms of its ostentatious decoration. The ‘Great Warrant’ of July 1566included a new litter: ‘all the timber and workmanship ofa new Lytter covered with hide lether lyned and quilted with red doble Taffata Sarcenet’, with saddles and other fittings for it. From some calculations at the end of thewarrant book it would appear that a litter required 56 yards of cloth to cover it, as against 72 yards for a coach, and as will be seen below, the costs were equivalent.34

With the arrival of new machines, there was inevitablya cost for their repair and maintenance, and the same warrant of July 1566 ordered payment to the coachmaker for this: ‘and that ye Content and pay Anthony Silver wheelwright for all manner of reparacions done to the Cotche, the Close Carre of the stable and the wagon for ladies and Gentlewomen for the space of two yeares past’.35 And it was not just repairs, for the cycle of acquisition had also begun.

The 1567 CoachThe next warrant book starts with a cancelled warrant of February 1567 for a new coach ‘covered with black figuredvelvet brodered allover with gold, or laide on with gold silver or silke lace, frindged with black silke silver orgold’. It was to be lined and quilted with ‘crimsin satten, purple or black, garnished with silke lace and guilte nailes’.36 Something in the indecisive nature of the description must have proved unsatisfactory, and a new warrant was issued in March 1567:

One Cotche of Timber Worke painted and guilded with Wheles, Strakes,


nayles, Seats Coffers and all maner of Iron Worke and Carriage to the same belonginge- And also one Saddle and two harnesses covered with Purple velvet

fringed with Purple Silke and Silver, with Buckles Pendaunts Ringes and Roses of Copper Silvered

- And ij Quissions of Purple Velvet lyned and stuffed with Downe, withButtons Tassells and fringes as is aforesaid

- Further ij spaire harnisses of black lether withe the furniture to excercise the said Cotche, viij Bytts with guilt Bosses, xij paire of Doble white gyrthes, vi pair of Doble Stirrop lethers, ij paire of Stirropes

- one slophouse of blew clothe to cover all the said Cotche withe Buttons Lowpes and Silk frindge to the same

- Six Dozen poynts of black silk Silver and golde to tye on our Saddle Clothes with all

- And that ye Content and pay Thomas Cure our Esquire Sadler for Cuttinge and makinge of a Coveringe for our said Cotche of Purple Tissew lyned with Purple Damaske and whit Cotton betwene the tissew and the Damask Lyninge

- And for quiltinge and garnishinge of the bothom and sides with Purple Satten for the same Cotche

- All which Tissew Damask and Satten is to him beforehand Deliveredby our Commaundemente out of our previe Wardrobe

- More that ye content and pay Alice Mountague our Silkwoman for fringes of purple Silk and Silver for the Coveringe of the said Cotchewith all other fringes as is aforesaid and for certen Stuff by hir beforehande delivered ……….37

The accounts for this coach show that it was made by the Queen’s joiner Richard Pye for £30, painted and gilded byNicholas Lisard the Queen’s painter for £34, the iron work by John Keyne cost 64s.38 Evidently the Queen’s Workswere still involved in providing for her stables, since Pye was the Chief Joiner in that department, and Lisard was the Sergeant Painter.39 By contrast, most of the decorative work on the coaches seems to have been done bystaff of the Wardrobe of Robes, and this was so with the new coach. Its covering included some very expensive items provided by the royal silkwoman Alice Montague, quilting was by the royal embroiderer John Witton,40 and


the cover was by the royal saddler Thomas Cure (who also made the great braces of triple leather to support the body of the coach). The cushions were made by Nicholas Norton and Alice Montague, the slophouse by Cure and Montague. Thus the basic cost of £67 had risen to £194 bythe time all the fittings and soft furnishings had been added, and with a further £156 for the saddles, harness and reins (and a few general repairs).

Coach (Pye, Lizard & Keyne) £67 4s Saddle (Cure & Montague) £86 11s10½dCushions (Norton & Montague) £18 15sHarness (Cure, Doughtie & R Smyth) £20 9s 4dSlophouse (Cure, Pope & Montague) £11 17s 10dCover (Cure, Witton & Montague)

£96 1s 4dReins, etc (Montague) £49 11s4d

Total: £350 10s 8½d

Table 2. Costs of 1567 Coach

Source: Wardrobe Accounts for 1566–7 (LC9/59, f. 10–11)

A LitterThe orders for coaches can again be compared with the warrant for a litter issued later in the same year. This was:

One Litter of Timberworke covered with black lether, lyned and Quilted with Crimson Satten garnished with silke lace and guilt nailes covered with black velvet lyned with buckeram Enbraudered with Clothe of Silver and gold by David Smyth our Enbroderer and fringed with black silk silver and gold, with ij Saddles and Harnesses in lyke maner Covered and fringed suteable to the same Litter coveringe.

The litter was to be provided with three crimson velvet


cushions, and velvet covered shafts, with covers or ‘slophouses’ of leather lined with cotton to protect the litter, and likewise for the saddles, to protect them in storage.41 The litter, spectacularly decorated with cloth of gold and silver and pearls, actually cost more than the coach. Thomas Cure supplied the litter for £32, and the cushions cost as much again, but the covering, liningand decoration cost £239, a total of £304 with a further £184 2s for harness and slophouse.42 As with most warrants, the principal item is followed by a number of minor pieces, and it is not always clear where the list of necessary equipment stops and becomes a general shopping list. This can make it difficult to compare the costs on a like for like basis, but there is a reasonablyfair comparison here between the £350 coach and £488 litter.

The Arundel CoachThe same warrant of October 1567 includes ‘One slophouse of blue Clothe lyned with Buckeram fringed with blue silke frindge with Buttons and Lowpes of silke to the same to Cover our guilt Coche gevin by the Earle of Arundell’. This protective cover was for the present of Henry FitzAlan, 12th Earl of Arundel (1512–80), who according to William Camden ‘introduced to England the use of what we call coaches’ (Comes Arundeliae obit, qui rhedarum quas Coches dicimus usum in Angliam induxit).43 The Earl, as Lord Steward to the Queen, fell out of favour and relinquished office in 1564; he retired to the baths at Padua in 1566 and returning in March 1567 was received with much pomp and returned to court. The gifts he brought to his sovereign on his return were reputed to have included a coach, and although this has been doubted, it is fully corroborated by the Wardrobe records.44 But the gift was not just a coach: the warrant ordered ‘eight Longe Raines of black Firrit Silke for thesame Coche horses four Clothes of Sackclothe garded with whit and grene lyned with Canvas with Colers pasterons Trunnells Sursingles and all other things necessary for


the foure Coche horses gevin with the sade Coche’.45 The slophouse cost £17 16s ¼d, and the other items £18 6s 4d.46

1568: Re-covering the CoachesIn the following year there was a single warrant in May 1568 and only for new coverings for two coaches, ‘Fyne black velvet for the new Coveringe of one of our Coches’,and ‘crimsin velvet for the coveringe of our fyne coche’.Thus the colours of the first two coaches, blue and purple (1564) and purple (1567) were to be transformed (which one was thought to be ‘fine’ is not clear, though it is perhaps more likely to have been the more expensivefirst coach).

The black velvet covering was to be ‘enbraudered with a brode border of Cloth of gold and silver Fringed with gold silver and black Silke’, and for the inside of the coach ‘Also crimsin Satten for the lyninge and Quiltinge of the said Coche garnished with lace and guilt nailes, in lyke maner Fringed with gold silver and Crimsin silke.Fittings included ‘Three Quisshions of fyne tickes stuffed with downe covered with Crimsin velvet Fringed and Tasseled with gold silver and Crimsin Silke with Longe Laces for Dores and windowes and Lowpes and buttonsof gold Silver and black Silk for the same Coche’. The coach was to be re-gilded, with new harness and reins, and both coach and horses were to be adorned with eight plumes of feathers supplied by the Master of the Armoury,Sir George Haward (who doubtless had frequent need of ostrich feathers for decorative armour).

The fine coach of crimson velvet was to be ‘enbraudered alover with Cloth of gold and silver, Fringed with gold silver and Crimsin silk lined and quilted with Crimsin satten garnished with lace and guiltnails’. It was to have two new chairs ‘of Timber worke Covered with Crimsin velvet garnished and Fringed in Lykemaner’, and three cushions ‘of fyne ticke stuffed with downe Covered with the lyke velvet’, with buttons, loops and tassels, and eight long reins of ‘crimsin Firret silk’. Alterations to the body were envisaged: ‘And to


paie the Joyner for makinge of our said fyne coche higherand deper’, while the undercarriage was mostly replaced with ‘new careage wheles and axeltrees and all maner of Iron work and other necessaries’. Harness work included four bits ‘with guilt and Engraven bosses for coche horses’, and four harnesses of double leather ‘to exercyse our horses belongynge to the said coches’, thus making it clear that the coaches were drawn by a team of four.

Lord Arundel’s coach was to have a new harness coveredwith black velvet fringed with blue silk and gold, and three cushions ‘of fyne Tycke stuffed with Downe covered with purple Velvet frynged and Tasseled with gold and purple Silke’, and reins of black silk. Walter Rippen is now named in a warrant for the first time, providing iron-gilt and silvered buttons for coach coverings, and being responsible alongside ‘Gilbert our Locksmyth’ for iron and timberwork repairs to the coaches.47 This was Gilbert Polson, the Queen’s Master Locksmith, yet anotherofficer from the Works department.48

In the accounts for this warrant the majority of the work was undertaken by Thomas Cure, John Witton, Alice Montague and Nicholas Norton, with some of the fabrics drawn directly from the Wardrobe store, and some suppliedby the craftsmen. It is quite difficult to separate out labour and materials, and the arrangement of the account is followed in this table (which excludes harness):

Coach Fyne Coach Arundel CoachBlack velvet Crimson velvet [Purple velvet]

Store £58 3s 3d £92 1s 11d£25 4s

Cure £20 18s £4 £12Witton £87 0s 4d £192 8s -Montague £141 19s 11d £84 17s 6d

£50 9sLining etc £45 17s 5d – -Chairs – £24 18s 9d -


Cushions £19 13s 6d £58 12s 4d£23 14s

Misc, inc reins £57 1s 5d £21 12s 11d£19 6s 6d

Totals £430 13s 10d £478 11s 5d £130 13s 6d

Table 3. Fitting out Three Royal Coaches in 1568

Source: Wardrobe Accounts for 1567–8 (LC9/60, fols 16–18v)

In addition, the joiner Andrew Weston was responsible forenlarging the fine coach (for £23 15s) and Walter Rippen supplied a new [under]carriage (at £14), two pairs of wheels and axles and other necessaries (£5 7s), while Gilbert Polson the smith saw to the ironwork and gilt nails (£21 8s 6d).49 The overall cost of the warrant, over£1,332, demonstrates the scale of this very conspicuous level of luxurious consumption.

Walter RiponIt is of interest that Walter Ripon now appears making the undercarriage, for he appears first as ‘our wheelwright’ in the wardrobe records in 1569,50 and only in the Great Warrant of June 1570 was he described as ‘our Cochemaker’.51 According to the investigations of Mary Edmond, Ripon was a parishioner of St Sepulchre’s (in Smithfield) and a freeman of the Leathersellers, and only just outlived his Queen.52 Later on, in September 1573, he was to be appointed by patent (during pleasure) ‘of the office of builder of all the Queen’s coaches, close cars, chariots, and waggons, as also of all other carriages as well by land as water’ for a fee of one shilling a day. The annual grant for a livery coat was 3 yards of red cloth with 2 yards of black velvet for ‘guarding’ and 8 yards of frieze for lining, and the making and embroidering with the letters E.R. He had ‘leave to take up timber and have it carried where needful, and writ of assistance therein’.53 The enrolled


patent notes a reversion of this office to Thomas Walker in 1603 on the accession of James I.54 Ripon’s work for the crown would not have been to the exclusion of all other employment, and in 1578 as ‘Walter Rypon the Queen’s coachmaker’ he was petitioning the Treasurer, Lord Burghley for payment of a debt due from the reprobate heir of Viscount Bindon.55

The Queen of Scots, and some feathersThe quantity of evidence means that we must here concentrate on the production of coaches, but it is important to realize that all the stable warrants may contain items relating to the coaches and all kinds of saddlery, harness, and horse fittings. A miscellaneous stable warrant in October 1568 included a saddle with allnecessaries (covering, harness, lifting stool and box, reins, bits, rods and box, stirrups, slophouse and bag) for ‘the Queen of Scots’. Mary was already a prisoner, but evidently with some liberty for movement out of doors; it was to be a side-saddle, stuffed with down and ‘the head covered with velvet laid on with bone lace of gold, Frindged with gould Frindge garnished with guilt nailes’. Even the cover of black velvet was to be elaborately decorated.56 At the same time a saddle was ordered for the Duke of Norfolk ‘our Cossen Haward that lately came out of Fraunce’ (and who was now investigating the affairs of the Queen of Scots). Fittings were ordered for two litters, a red and a ‘richeblack’ one, including ‘four great braces to runne over the saddles to cary the shafts of the said litters’, and a slophouse cover for the ‘old riche litter’. Four harnesses for the Arundel coach had been forgotten from the previous warrant and were now to be paid for, along with gilding and mending various pieces from his coach, while the decoration of the fine coach was to be overhauled:

And to pay for guildinge and paintinge of vj beasts and knoppes for Chayres and x great knoppes of Carved worke for our fyne Coche of markatree And for payntinge and colowringe of a lytle chest and the


wheeles careage and shafts of the same coche.

Nicholas Lizard gilded the Arundel Coach for £6 10s, the chair knobs for £12, and the ‘marketree’ coach for £6. Eight plumes of feathers were to be dyed and trimmed withVenice gold and silver for the fine coach, and four plumes of black feathers for the Arundel coach, and thesewere again supplied from the Greenwich Armoury, at a costof £4.57

The 1570 CoachDuring the 1560s the Queen had bespoke two coaches and been given one other by Arundel; she was now to acquire three more before 1575. The first was ordered in December1570:

One Coche of Timber worke painted and guilded with wheles Strakes, nayles Seats Coffers, and all manner of Ironwork and Cariage to the same belonginge,- And to content and pay for the enlardginge fashioninge and

fyttinge of our old black Coche coveringe enlarged with black velvetand Crimsin Satten to Lyne the same

- For the same Coche for Cloth of gold and silver, and for Frindge and lace of gold and silver and for workmanshipp therupon donne by the enbrauderer

- As also Crimsin Satten for the Lyninge of all the Innerside of the body of the same Coche and windowes Quilted and garnished with parchment Lace of Crimsin Silke and guilt nayles Fringed in the seats and sides with Crimsin Silk silver and gould

- And to pay for Crimsin Taffata Sarcenet and makinge of foure Curtens with rings and roddes of Iron and guilt for the windowes with buttons and lowpes of silke silver and gold for the same Coche,with foure barres of Iron and guilt made with vices and springs to beare out the Curtens in the windowes

- More to pay for the new dyinge makinge and trymminge with venice gold and silver of xiiij plumes of Fethers for two of our Coches parte of which fethers were delivered by our Commaundement out of our Armory at Grenewich by Sir George Haward

- eight Longe reines of Firrit Silke black and yellow for coche horsses,


and foure fyne bitts with guilt bosses,- one Slophouse of blue Cloth to cover all over the same Coche

frindged with blue fyrret Silk with buttons and lowpes of blue Silke for the said slophouse

- with all maner of braces of doble lether short and longe to guide and beare the same Coche and the rest of our Coches,

- Two dozin great poyntes of gold and red silk and one dozin of buttons and Lowpes of gold and red silke for our red lytter,

- Foure Coche harnesses of doble Lether with buckles, rings, basens and studdes of copper and guilt for our foresaid new Coche sewteable to our last harness heretofore made …58

Amongst general repairs and saddlery maintenance one itemis singled out: ‘the skowringe makinge and kepinge Cleaneof the Irons Chaines and vices belonging to our fyne red coche’, while purchases included ‘two whit heare brusses for our litters and Cotches’.

The accounts show that Walter Ripon was responsible for the ‘coach and carriage’, which cost £45, Nicholas Lizard painted and gilded for £50, and Gilbert Polson didthe ironwork for £13 16s. The work on the new roof for the old black coach, done by Thomas Cure, cannot altogether be distinguished from the new coach in the accounts any more than it can be in the warrant, but costat least £33 18s 8d, and most of the expensive furnishingdescribed in the warrant seems to have devoted to the newcoach. They were carried out by Thomas Cure, Richard Paramour, Alice Montague and John Witton.59

Coach (Ripon, Lizard & Polson) £108 16s

Roof (Cure) £33 18s8d

Fabrics (Paramour, Witton, Montague & Cure) £106 16s 10½dCurtains (Paramour, Cure, Polson & Montague) £32 3s 4d


Feathers (Hamond) £22 3s 8dReins (Montague & Beaumont) £15 4sSlophouse (Cure, Pope & Montague) £16 5s 8dHarness (Cure & Montague) £75 13s 8d

Total: £411 1s 10½d

Table 4. Costs of 1570 CoachSource: Wardrobe Accounts for 1570–1 (LC9/62, fols 11–

11v)

A saddle and wagonA later warrant, in March 1571 included coach repairs alongside a new saddle ‘in French fashion’ for the King of France.60 The accounts for this work show that it continued from the coach repairs begun in December: the old black coach was re-covered and made longer by Thomas Cure, with doors and windows ‘for opening’ (£22 6s 7½d), while the red coach had an enlarged cover and Walter Ripon made doors and windows for it (£34 4s 6d).61 In Junethe stable warrant for saddles and other gear included a new wagon with a red cover, which provides an interestingcomparison with the cost of a coach.62 Walter Ripon made the wagon and undercarriage for £16, Gilbert Polson supplied the ironwork for 64s 8d, and William Lisarde painted and gilded for £12, a basic total of £31 4s 8d, on top of which the red cover lined with buckram and its decoration came to £58 11s 8½d; the overall total of £89 16s 4½d (equivalent to the £78 wagon of 1567) was still along way short of the cost of a coach.63

The 1571 CoachWithin a year, in August 1571, another coach was ordered:

One Coche of Tymbre worke painted & guilded with wheeles, strakes, nailes, seates, Coffers, and all manner Ironwork and cariage to the same belonginge.- And to contente and paie for fyne blac velvet to cover the same

Coche Enbraudered allover with cloth of gold and Silver and Silk of Sundrie sorts with venice gold Silver and Silke of Sundrie colloures


frendged with gold silver and Black Silke.- And for grene Taffata to Lyne the same coveringe, and also for

grene Taffat for lynynge and Quiltinge of the bodie of the saide Coche, dores & wyndowes and for garnishinge with parchement lace of silke and guilt nailes, frendged in the Seates and sides of thesame with gold Silver and Silke.

- More to paie for grene taffata Sarcenet and makinge of foure Curtins with rings and rodds of Iron guilte for the same Curtins with foure Barres of Iron guilt made with vices and springs to bere oute the said Curtins in the windowes

- with buttons Lowpes Lace and tassells of gold Silver and Silke for the endes Dores and windowes of the saide Coche and for workmanship done upon the same aswell within as without.

- More for three quishions of Grene velvet Lyned with fyne Tike, and Stuffed with fyne Downe, with Buttons Tassells and frendge of gold silver and silk,

- Eighte Longe Reynes of firret Silk Black and yelow to use the same Coche,

- Four hammerclothes of Black velvet enbraudered allover as the cloths before expressed Lyned with fyne Buckeram,

- Tenne plumes of Fethers of sondrie coloures trymed with venice gold Silver and spangles for oure Coche horses parte of which fethers were delivered oute of oure Armorie by Sir George Hawarde Master of our Armourye,

- Sixe fyne white bitts with guilt Bosses for oure Coche horses.- One slophouse of Blewe cloth to cover all over the same Coche

frendged with Blewe Firret Silke with Buttons and Lowpes of Blewe silk for the same slophouse

- Foure hammerclothes of Blewe clothe frendged with firret Silke to cover and kepe drye the foure former riche hammerclothes.

- Two Coche harnesses of Lether with buckles ringes rosses bassenetts and studdes of Copper and guilt for the same Coche and for all maner of Braces of doble lether shorte and Longe to guide and bearethe said Coche.

All stable warrants of this sort include general items ofequipment, and this year ‘two new carriages and wheles for two of our old coches’ were ordered (i.e. the undercarriages), along with a harness decorated with stripes ‘of the french Fashion’, and a velvet covered


lifting stool.64 The warrant of the following April was a general one of similar content, with hardly a mention of coaches.65

The accounts show that Walter Ripon made the timberwork (£50), Gilbert Polson the ironwork (£9 2s 8d),and William Herne did the painting and gilding (£61). Thelatter was shortly to become the Queen’s serjeant painterin the place of Nicholas Lizard, who had died in April.66 The items are grouped as follows:

Coach (Rippon, Herne & Polson) £120 2s8d

Fabrics (D Smith, Cure & Montague)£271 7s 5d

Curtains (Norton, Polson & Montague) £24 12s 2dCushions (Norton & Montague) £31 15s 8dHammercloths (Cure, Parramour, Montague, D Smith) £106 0s 6dFeathers (Hamond) £35 8s Bits (Henry Beaumont) £9Slophouse (Cure, Pope & Montague) £14 9s 8dHammercloths (Cure, Pope & Montague) £5 16s Harness (Cure) £35 6s 8dUndercarriages (Ripen) £30

Total: £683 18s 9d

Table 5: Costs of 1571 CoachSource: Wardrobe Accounts 1570–167

It should be noted that the undercarriages for the old coaches cost £15 each, which suggests that the £50 cost of the new coach may have been £35 for the body over and above a £15 undercarriage.

The 1574 CoachThere was a gap of two years of relatively modest stable expenditure, in which the only notable event was Walter Ripon’s patent of appointment as coachmaker in September 1573, as previously noted. And then in May 1574 another order was placed for a new coach, of black velvet lined once again with green taffeta:68


One Cotche of Tymber worke paynted and guilded, with wheles, Carriadge nayles Seats and Coffers.- And to Content and pay for fyne black velvet to cover the same

Coche garded or bordered with bone lace or Lome lace of gold and Silver and other gold and silver lace to garnish the same, the said Cloth frindged with gold Sylver and black Sylke

- and for grene Taffata to Lyne the body of the same Coche and grene Taffata to lyne the foresaid covering of the same Coche, with Taffata for lyninge of the body of the same must be quilted in sundry partes with a Frindge and passamayne lace of gold sylver and grene Sylke for the Inner aetes of the said Coche with guilt nayles for garnishinge of the same.

- More to paie for grene Taffata Sarcenet and makinge of Curtens with rings and roddes of Iron and guilt for the Dores and windowesof the said Coche with barres of Iron gilt made with vices and springs to beare out the said curtins in the dores and windowes with Buttons Loopes Laces and Tassells of gold Silver and Silke for thendes dores and windowes of the said Coche. And for workmanshipp done upon the same aswell within as without.

- Also for v Quishions of grene velvet Lyned with tykes and stuffed with downe with Tassells of gold sylver and grene sylke.

- eight Longe raynes of Fyrret Sylke black and yelowe to guide the Coche horsses,

- iiij hamberclothes of black velvet garded or bordered with bone Lace or Lome Lace and Frindged as the Cloth afore expressed Lynedwith fyne Buckeram,

- xij plumes of fethers of Sondry Colours trymmed with venice gold Silver and spangles for our Coche and horses

- viij fyne Bytts with guilt Bosses for our Coche horses- one slophowse of Blue Cloth to Cover all the same Coche frindged

with blue Fyrret Sylke with Buttons and Loopes of Blue Sylke for the same slophowse.

- iiij hamber Clothes of blue Cloth frindged with Fyrret Sylke to Cover and kepe dry the former riche hamberclothes,

- iiij Coche harnesses of Lether with buttons, Ringes, roses, Bassenetts, and studdes of yron and Copper and guilt for the same harnesses

- iiij Saccrells of doble Lether with roses of Copper and guilt and claspes with Laces and Tassels of black and yelow fyrret Sylke


- And for all maner of braces of doble lether short and Longe to guide and beare the same Coche

- and for buttons of yron and guilt to fasten on the coveringe of the said Coche braces for the coach.

A complete outfit for a pillion saddle with all the necessary gear was not related to the coach, and the warrant ends with a miscellaneous collection of items forcoaches and horses.

The coach was made by the same team responsible for that of 1570, but was rather more expensively decorated, with the paintwork costing £92 over and above the £60 bodywork. On this occasion William Herne’s work included ‘divers histories in good colours’ (diversis historiis operat’ cum color’ bonis) in addition to painting and gilding. In the same year the Close Car was decorated by Herne with ‘our Armes Beastes Badges Lettres and Cognizaunces layed on with Oyle fyne golde byse and other colours verye richelye’,69 but the ‘histories’ of the coach painting do imply painted scenes rather than mere heraldry. This is avaluable instance of the accounts being more informative than the warrants, while proving that the warrants were not in themselves sufficiently detailed to initiate the works without further instruction. The accounts, on the other hand, are sufficiently detailed to show that they reflected actual expenditure of materials rather than being a costed specification.

Coach (Ripon, Herne & Polson) £159 1s6d

Fabrics (Cure, Montague & D Smyth)£349 18s 3d

Curtains (Norton, Polson & Montague) £31 2s 2dCushions (Norton & Montague) £29 17s 8dHammercloths (Cure, Montague, D Smyth)

£93 9s 9dFeathers (Hamond) £40 Bits (Henry Beaumont) £13 6s 8dSlophouse (Cure, Pope & Montague) £14 6s 9½d


Hammercloths (Cure, Pope & Montague) £5 5s 1½d Harness (Cure, Montague & Polson) £85 14s

Total: £822 1s 11d

Table 6. Costs of 1574 CoachSource: Wardrobe Accounts 1573–470

The 1575 LitterThe 1575 warrant is for a ‘rich litter’, not a coach, butit shows how similar the two were in terms of decoration and apparel:71

One Litter and two Chayres within the same with two paire of Shafts of Timber worke paynted and guilded, with all maner of Iron worke to thesame belonginge, the lower parte of the saide Litter covered with lether to kepe it from wette and the bodie therof to be lyned with greneSatten quilted with lace and sylke, and garnished with Frindges of gold& Silver and Sylke and guilte nayles,- the Chayres covered with grene velvet Frindged and garnished as

aforesaid.- iij Quishions of fyne tyke stuffed with downe covered with grene

velvet, frindged and tasseled with gold sylver and Sylke,- and curtens for the dores and windowes of grene Taffata Sarcenet,

frindged and trymmed with lace and frindge of grene Sylke with rings and rodds vices and hooks of Iron guilte for the same Curtens, and barres of Iron guilte to beare out the Curtens in the saide dores and windowes,

- covered all over with black velvet and enbraudered alover with Cloth of gold and Sylver and venice golde and sylver mixed with spangles all wroughte by our Embrauderer, Frindged with gold Sylver and black Sylke, and one paire of the foresaid shafts to be covered and Enbraudered accordinglie, the which coveringe to be lyned with grene Satten,

- with buttons lowpes lace and Tassells of venice gold & Silver and Sylke for the dores and windowes of the same, with all sorts of Buttons of yron with guilt hedds to fasten on the coveringe of the said litter.

The continuing use of green, initiated in 1571, is


notable, and later in the warrant there is an order to pay for more green taffeta for ‘prepayringe and lyninge the dores windowes and parte of the bodies of our Coches’, which may imply relining of old coaches, though it is followed by an order to pay for the green curtain fabric of ‘our coche last made’, with velvet ‘to enlardgethe doores and windowes of the said Coche’, so it may simply part of that order (there is, incidentally, no mention of any glass in these windows). A litter was slung between two horses or mules, so two saddles were required for the new litter, with matching covers and reins, leather braces and dorsers to carry the litter andsaddles, blue slophouses for the litter and saddles, and of course ‘viij plumes of Fethers of sondrie Colours trymmed with venice golde sylver and spangles for our fine litter and mules’, with a lifting stool.

The cost of the litter (excluding saddlery) was easily comparable with the charges for a coach:

Litter (Ripon, Herne & Polson) £108 15s 4d

Fabrics (Cure, Witton & Montague)£46 13s 5d

Seats (Norton & Montague) £39 13sCushions (Norton & Montague) £37 10s 4dCurtains (Norton, Polson & Montague) £44 11s8dCover (Cure, A Smyth, Witton & Montague)

£380 2s 2dShafts (A Smyth, Witton & Cure)

£28 2s Slophouse (Cure & Albany) £8 19s 8dFeathers (Hamond) £28 Lifting stool (Cure, A Smyth, Witton & Montague) £82s

Total: £726 9s 7d

Table 7. Costs of 1575 LitterSource: Wardrobe Accounts 1573–472


Of interest also is the inclusion of two canopies in thiswarrant, presumably of the sort that could be carried over a rider:

Two Canapies with frames and lathes of Joyned worke & longe staves to beare them, paynted and guilded and sylverd with sylver plates and revetts for the ioynts of the same Frames with two litle pynnes and Chaynes of Sylver to staie up the same Frames coverd with grene Taffata laid on with lace of gold and Sylver and Frindged with gold sylver & sylk with buttons and lowpes great and small of gold silver and grene Sylke.

Remarkably, the cost of the canopies was only just over £50.73

There is a possible reference in the 1575 warrant to adiplomatic gift of horses in the order for ten ‘Tappetts for our Carriage moyles that came latelie out of Fraunce with our Colours armes bests and badges in the same, echeof them contayninge in lengthe and bredth xiiij ells madeby Richarde Kirke our Arrasmaker and lyned with canvas’. General coach parts and repairs amongst the ‘stuff beforehand spent’ includes two seats ‘of fine Ticke stuffed with fyne downe for one of our coches’, and a huge quantity of ‘points’: 3 dozen of gold silver and silk, 11 gross and 6 dozen of ‘ordinary’ points, and 12 dozen ‘greate grene Sylke poynts’, all for use on ‘our litters coches and ladies Saddles’. Points, as Arnold hasexplained, were fabric strips or pieces ending in tags used for fastening.74 There were gold silver and silk laces with tassles for the ‘doores of one of our coches’,a ‘newe footestole covered with red taffata and quilted, with a Frendge of red sylke for our old red coche’ (so atleast that had not been turned green), 26 ‘great double braces’ and 23 ‘single braces’ for the coaches, a blue slophouse for the ‘fine red coach’ and two more for other‘old coaches’, four new wheels for a coach forgotten fromthe previous warrant, and for ‘newe Carriage and wheles for our greate olde Coche’. Repair work includes cleaningthe irons of the fine red coach and general haberdashery


and repairs on all coaches, litters, saddles and harnesses.75

Repairs and fittings for this growing number of coaches now become a commonplace feature in the annual warrants, and can be informative about aspects other thanfabrics and furnishings. In 1576 the saddler was ordered to make a new whip and lasher for the coach, their handles decorated with gold silver and silk, and ‘vj coche harnesses of black lether for our coche horses’. Payment was also to be made for a new set of ‘wheles and Caryage for our coche last made, being mad[e] with yron and other work of yron of new devices,’ and ‘for the making cleane the yron of our fyne red coche for this yeare past.’76 Another harness and wheels are repeated thefollowing year, together with a set of four wheels and carriage ‘for one of our old coches.’77 Then in 1578 therewas another order for a complete undercarriage, and an order for wheels ‘for one of our coches forgotten out of a warrant made the last year’, while payment is again to be made for cleaning the ironwork of the red coach.78 It is instructive how the undercarriage was seen as a separate item that needed frequent replacement, and that its (presumably unpainted) ironwork needed cleaning, while the harness orders imply that at least one coach could be driven with six horses. In 1579 there are decorative reapairs in the ‘new guildinge of six of the knobbes of the great coche’, and feathers coloured orangetawny, a foretaste of the décor of the next new coach.79

The 1580 CoachRipon was responsible for the next coach for which a warrant was issued, now marking a change from the green colours of the previous decade to a new fashion for orange tawny.80

One Cotche of timber woorke, paynted & guilded, with wheeles, cariadge, nayles, seats & coffers, and for all manner and sorte of yron worke to it belonginge, - And also for fower spare wheeles unshodde, beinge bounde rounde


aboute with yron for the same Cotche,- and to content and paye for fyne blacke velvet to cover the same

Cotche, gardid and bordered all over by our Imbroderer, with clothe of goulde & silver and garnished likeso all over with venice goulde & silver with purles and spangles, the said clothe frindged with gould silver & blacke silke,

- and for orendge tawny taffata to lyne the coveringe, & boddye of the saide cotche, with boddye and lyninge muste be quilted, in sundry parts with frindges & parchement lace, of goulde silver, & orendge tawny silke, to garnishe the inner parte of the said cotche

- with guilte nayles & lace, to garnishe the same, - Moor so pay for orendge tawny taffata sarcenet, for curtens for the

Doores & wyndowes, of the said Coche & for frindges of silke of sondry sortes, to them belonginge, And for the makinge of them with rings and roddes of yron guilt for the Doores & windowes of the said Coche, with barres of yron guilte, made with vices and springes [to] beare out the said curtaynes, in the Dores & wyndowes, with buttons, lowpes, laces, and tasselles of goulde silver and silke, for the eandes Dores & windowes of the saide Cotche, And for the workemanship done uppon the same aswell within as withoute.

- Moore for one Cheare coverid with orendge tawny velvet, & frindgedwith Goulde, Silver ande Silke.

- Also for fyve quishins of orendge tawny velvet, lyned with tikes, & stuffed with Downe, with tassells and frindges, of goulde silver and silke,

- Syxteene Longe Raynes of fyrret Silke of the Cullors of orrendge tawney and white, to guide the Cotche horsses,

- Fower hammer clothes of blacke velvet gardid and bordered with clothe of goulde & silver & garnished & frindged, with venice goulde silver, and silke, spangles & purles sutable to the clothe aforesaid, lyned with fyne buckeram.

- Tenne plumes of feathers of sondry colors trimmed with venice goulde, silver, and spangles for our cotche and horsses

- eighte fyne white bitts with guilte and caste bosses, for our Coche horsses,

- Tenne fyne white bitts with caste bosses, for oure owne geldings- One slophouse of blewe clothe, to cover all over the same Coche,

frindged with blewe fyrret silke, with buttons and lowpes of blewe fyrret silke for the same sloppehowse,


- fower hammer clothes of blewe clothe, likeso frindged to cover and kepe cleane the foresaid riche hammer clothes.

- Fower Cotche horse harneses of duble leather, with buckles, Rings, roses basenetts and studdes of yron, copper and guilte, to the sameharness

- fower hammer clothes of hide leather cut with workes, with buckles, pendaunts, and roses, of copper and guilte, to the same harnesses,

- fower saccrells of Doble leather with roses of copper and guilte, and claspes with laces, & tassells of orrendge tawny, and white firret silke.

- And for all manner of braces of Duble leather shorte and longe to guide and beare the same Coche

- and for buttons of yron guilte, to fasten on the coveringe of the saidcoche.

The text of this long warrant continues with numerous items for these and other vehicles; a new litter is also ordered.81 It would seem that the orange tawny theme of the interior was also to be matched in the draught, for ateam of six Hungarian greys was purchased from the Netherlands in 1581, with the hair of their manes and tails dyed orange tawny.82 Ripon’s timberwork on the coachcost £70, the widow Herne was paid £80 for painting and gilding ‘with gold and good silver and oil colour’, and Gilbert Polson received £4 10s 8d for the ironwork, whichincluded ‘Braces, loupis, lynchepynnes, plates, ham[es] hendges, pole, cathen[as], staplis et aliis’; the spare wheels cost £5, and their ironwork £4.

Coach (Ripon, Herne & Polson) £154 10s 8d

Wheels (Ripon & Polson) £9Fabrics (Cure, Montague A & D Smyth) £241 0s3½dCurtains (Baker, A Smyth, Polson & Montague) £33 6s 4dSeat (Baker, A Smyth & Montague) £30 6s 6dCushions (Baker & Montague) £54 5s Reins (Montague) £18 8s


Hammercloths (Cure, Montague, A Smyth) £99 11s 10d

Feathers (Bonfoy) £16 Bits (Beaumont) £30Slophouse (Cure, Albany & Montague) £11 16s4dHammercloths (Cure, Albany & Montague) £219s 9dHarness (Cure) £56Hammercloth (Cure) £16Saccrells (Cure & Montague) £4Braces (Cure) £1 6s 8dButtons (Polson) £3 4s 4d

Total: £781 15s 8½d.

Table 8. Costs of 1580 coachSource: Wardrobe Accounts 1573–483

These accounts are remarkably similar in many details to those already quoted, but there is a change of personnel,with the mercer Ambrose Smythe now in the place of Nicholas Norton, and Edward Baker instead of Francis Popeas suppliers of fabrics.

The Caroche of 1581The 1580s were to see two new vehicles with innovatory names, a caroche and a chariot, and for neither can we beentirely sure in what respect they were distinct from a ‘coach’. In the 1620s James I had two new caroches made, the like of which had not been seen before: one was in the German fashion ‘with the roof to fall assunder at hisMajestys’ pleasure’, and the other of the Spanish fashion; perhaps they were a sort of open car or landau.84

A report in the State Papers of 1582 mentions that the Duke of Saxony has sent the Emperor a most artificially contrived ‘caroche’, so perhaps they were an innovation in this decade.85 The following warrant for the caroche makes no mention of windows or curtains, which would


support this view, while the six-horse team suggests thatit was to be fast. A chariot was the name later used for a half coach to seat two people, but here seems to be used of a kind of litter, slung between a pair of horses.

The first of these is in the warrant for the Queen’s Stables in April 1581:

One Carroche of Timberwork paynted with wheles Caryage seates Coffers and for all maner of sorts of yronworke to yt belonginge

- covered with red lether with Coveringe to be garnyshed with Copperwhyles unguilt

- the ynsyde of the said Caroche both body and roof, Lyned with blue velvet garnyshed with lace of blue Sylke and Silver and guilt whyles frindged with sondry sorts of Frindge of Silver and blue Sylke the seates backs and stayes therof Quilted,

- xv yards of the which velvet was delivered by Thomas Knevet out of our prevye warderobe at our Pallace at Westminster, the rest of the velvet to furnishe the same is to be delivered by you out of our greate warderobe in London,

- iij quishions of blue velvet Lyned with blue Taffata frindged with Silver and blue Sylke with buttons Caules and Tassells to the same with castes of Tykes stuffed with feathers

- the bottome of the said Caroche Lyned with blue Carsey parte therof is quilted with Lace and Sylke and lyned with canvas

- one Slophouse of Blew Cloth with frindge and buttons of blue fyrrit Silke,

- six harnesses of red leather for vj Coche horses to drawe the said Caroche, with ringes, buckles, barres, roses and pendaunts of Copper and guilt

- with six hammerclothes of lether Cut with antyque work with buckles roses and pendaunts suteable to the same

- And for all maner of braces with doble leather short and longe to beare the same Caroche

- sixteene longe raynes of red and yelow fyrrit Silke- vj plumes of fethers of the Colours of red and yelowe garnyshed

with venice gold Silver and spangles for the said horses- six bytts with guilt bosses for these horsses, viij bytts guilte alover

with guilt and cast bosses for our owne use.86

The caroche was made by Walter Ripon for £50, with


ironwork by Gilbert Polson for £13 11s. It was painted for £20 10s in oil and vermilion colour by George Gower, who had been the Sergeant Painter since Herne’s death in 1580.87 The cheaper cover of leather, and a more modest lining made a total cost of only £422 15s, which was considerably less, by almost half, than the recent purchases of coaches and litters.

Caroche (Ripon, Gower & Polson) £84 1s Cover (Grene) £32 15sLining etc (A Smyth, Montague, Grene, Baker)

£90 0s 7dCushions (Baker, A Smyth & Montague) £23 8s 9dLe Bottom (Grene, Albany, D Smyth & Montague) £23 3s4d Slophouse (Grene, Albany & Montague) £12 15sHarness (Cure) £90 Hammercloths (Cure) £28 Braces (Cure) £2 3s 4dReins (Montague) £18 8s Feathers (Bonfoy) £9 Bits (Beaumont) £9

Total: £422 15s

Table 9. Costs of 1581 carocheSource: Wardrobe Accounts 1580–188

The Straw Coloured Coach In the same warrant is an order for extensive reworking of an old coach:

More for a new roofe of Timberworke for one of our old coches with newe wheles Caryages strakes nayles stirropps vices and wormes of Iron and allother sort of Ironwork to the same belonginge

[£41 4s 4d]- covered with strawe coloured lether garnyshed with guilt nayles

lyned with Carnacion wrought velvet the body of the said coche within Lykeso lyned with the same velvet garnyshed and frindged


with lace and frindge of Silver and Silver and guilt nayles,[£68 3s 9d]

- two Cusshions of the same velvet Lyned with Carnacion Taffata frindged with Silver and Carnacion sylke with buttons cawles and Tassells to the same Quishions of Silver and silke with Cases of tyke stuffed with feathers [£14 7s 6d]

- and foure Laces of Silver and Sylke with buttons Cawles and Tassellsto them for stayes in the Coche of Silver, and Sylke

[£4]- xxxiiij yards q[uar]ter of the which velvet aforesaid was delivered by

the aforesaid Thomas Knevet out of our privie warderobe at our Pallace at Westminster,

- the botome of the said Coche Lyned with Carnacion kersey, quilted with lace and Sylke and Lyned with Canvas.

[£16 6s]- One slophowse of blue Clothe with frindge and buttons of fyrret

Sylke to Cover the said Coche[£9 14s]

- iiij harnesses of strawe coloured lether for iiij Coche horses to drawe the said Coche with rings buckles barres roses and pendaunts of Copper and guilt

[£60]- with iiij hammerclothes of lyke Lether cut with antyque work with

buckles roses & pendaunts suteable to the same[£18 13s 4d]

- And for all maner of braces of doble lether short and longe to bearethe same Coche [£2 3s 4d]

- xij Longe raynes of strawe colour fyrret Sylke [£13 16s]

- foure plumes of fethers of sondry Colours garnyshed with venice gold sylver and spangles for the said horses [£6]

- iiij bytts with guilt bosses for those horses [£6]- six Curtins of Carnacion Sarcenet frindged with Sylke and

Carnacion lace and ringes of Iron to the aforesaid Coche And for new guildinge and makinge Cleane of the barres and rodds for the Curtins and doors

- [£9 0s 3d]

It is not clear which ‘old coach’ this was, though the straw-coloured coach is commonly mentioned hereafter. The


work was undertaken by Walter Ripon and the others who had worked on the caroche, and cost a total of £269 8s 6d.89

The Chariot of 1584After a short gap no less than two vehicles were bespoke in September 1584,90 the first being Ripon’s ‘Chariot Throne’ said by Stow to have been made in 1584.

For one Chariott of Timber work paynted and guilded, with burnished golde and silver with a paire of shafts to the same garnished alonge the sydes with Cloth of Silver and stayned alover by the paynter with sondry works with greate lardge skirts,- and Canopie to the said Chariott of Cloth of Silver stayned as

aforesaid all frindged with gold silver and silke of sundry sorts garnished with guilt nayles,

- the inside of the body of the said Charyott quilted and lyned within with white satten and garnished with gold and silver frindge, ribon lace and guilt nayles.

- More for one Chaire Covered with Cloth of silver and frindged with gold and silver and silke as aforesaid with a seat of Fustian stuffed with downe and the Cloth of Silver stayned as aforesaid

- Like so for six quishions of fyne Ticke stuffed with downe covered with Cloth of silver, with frindges buttons Cawles and tassells of gold and silver and silke likeso stayned as aforesaid, and for buckeram Cotton and lace to make Cases for the said Quishions

- the shafts of the said Chariott covered with like stuffe of Cloth of silver aforesaid, with buttons poynts and all things necessary therunto,

- with one slophowse of blue cloth with buttons lowpes and frindges of Fyirrett sylke to the aforesaid Chariott

- and for all maner of Ironworke pertayninge to the said Charyott aswell guilt as otherwise,

- more for ij lytter Saddles and harnesses of lether covered with Clothof Silver stayned & frindged as aforesaid with buckles and pendaunts of Copper and guilt frindged with gold and silver and silke, lyned with yelowe buckeram, with girthes braces dorsers and all other things therunto belonginge.

In addition, there were to be two reins and two gilt


bits, all presumably intended for a two-horse draught forthe chariot. There is no mention of either an undercarriage or wheels, so the chariot was apparently carried as a litter on the shafts between two horses (andthus could afford a ‘large skirt’). Neither is there muchhint of the elaborate structure described by Stowe 1587: a Chariot Throne with foure pillars behinde to bear a Canopie, with a crowne imperiall on the toppe, and before two lower pillars, whereon stoode a Lion and a Dragon, the supporters of the armes of England,91 and it is onlylater that we have confirmation of the existence of theseitems when they came to be repaired in 1598. We do, however, have proof that the ‘chariot’ was indeed a litter, in an eye-witness account of the Queen riding to open Parliament in 1584, ‘in a semi-covered litter that looked like a half-canopied bed ... upholstered all over with gold and silver cloth ... borne by two white steeds with yellow manes and tails … their saddles and cloths being of gold material’.92

The chariot was indeed made by Walter Ripon for £30, Arthur Cutler painted and gilded it for £30, while the fabric for the cover was bought for £32 and stained and painted by Cutler ‘with divers works’ for £16. The use ofcloth of silver increased the cost of the canopy and other fittings, bringing the total for the whole to £630;and for once we are told the quantity of gilt nails that were used on the lining (4,500 at a cost of £4 10s).

Chariot (Ripon, Polson & Cutler) £68 18sCloth of silver (Barnes & Cutler)

£48 Canopy (Baker, Barnes, Cutler & Montague) £110 6s2dLining (Barnes, Parr, Montague & Cure)

£61 7s 8dChair (Baker, F Smyth, Montague & Cutler) £45 9s 9dCushions (Baker, Barnes, Montague & Cutler) £74 6s 7dShafts (F Smyth, Cutler, Montague & Cure)

£28 12s


Slophouse (Grene, Albany & Montague) £13 3s 4dSaddles (Cure, F Smyth, Cutler & Montague) £124 8s3dReins (Montague, Beaumont & R Smyth)

£54 10s Total: £629 1s 9d

Table 10. Costs of 1584 chariotSource: Wardrobe Accounts 1583–493

The Turkey Leather Coach of 1584The 1584 warrant continues with another new coach:

And also for one Coch of timber worke paynted and guilded alover withrabask worke as well within as without- with wheles and Cariage to the said Coch with all maner and sortes

of Ironwork to the said Coch Cariage and wheels belonginge which said Cariage is to be paynted and guilded also.

- And to content and pay for Crimsin skynnes of Turkey Lether to cover the said Coche garnished bordered and garded with a small Lome Lace of gold and silver set on by our Enbrauderer and frindged with gold silver and silke, the said Coveringe to be set alover with Copper nayles great and small of sondry sorts guilt

- and for strawe coloured Taffata to Lyne the said Coveringe of the Coche and the body of the said Coche within, which body and Lyninge must be quilted in sondry places,

- And also for frendges of gold silver and silke of sondry sorts and parchement laces and guilt nayles to garnishe the body of the sameCoche within:

- More so to pay for strawe coloured doble sarcenet for six Curtins frindged with silke of sondry sorts to them belonging and for rings of Iron guilt to the same Curtins, and lace of silk to the said ringes, and for the makeinge of the said Curtins with roddes barres and vices of Iron guilt to the Curtins Dores and Windowes of the said Coche,

- and buttons of Iron guilt to fasten the coveringe on the said Coche, with buttons Lowpes Laces and Tassells of gold silver and silk to make fast and drawe up the endes dores and wyndowes of the said Coche,


- and for workmanshipp donne upon the said Coche as well within aswithout.

- More for ij Chaires covered with strawe colour velvet, stuffed with downe Lyned with Taffata and frindged with gold silver and silk.

- as also for iiij Quishions of strawe coloured velvet lyned with Taffata and tick stuffed with fyne downe with buttons cawles frindge and tassells of gold silver and silk to the said Quisshions, which strawe coloured velvet was delivered out of our pryvie wardrobe in our Pallace at Westminster by Thomas Knyvett one of the gromes of our pryvie Chamber by our Commaundement withCases of Cotton and buckeram to the said quishions and Chayres.

This continues with sixteen long reins for the coach horses, ten garnished plumes of feathers for the coach and horses, eight gilt bits for the coach horses, a blue slophouse, and four coach harnesses, hammercloths, and saccrells. Among the supplies for earlier vehicles in the‘surplusage’ section of moneys already spent there are laces for the doors of the ‘old new coach’, cushions and repairs ordered for ‘our strawe coloured coach’ that had been recovered in 1581, and other items were required forthe ‘great black coche’ and the ‘fyne red coche’. A new undercarriage is ordered for ‘our newe coche’ (?that of 1580), painted in oil colour:

and for iiij newe wheles, more for the said coche, covered with felt to make the said Coche to go easye with felt and workmanshipp therupondonne was paid for out of our pryvie purse. And for iiij other new wheles to the strawe couloured Coche covered with felt which felt was paid for as aforesaid. More for iiij newe wheles covered with Ramme skynnes and woll for the easy goinge of the said Coche which skynnes woll and workmanshipp was paied for by our pryvie purse as aforesaid.94

The payment by the Privy Purse almost suggests that the Queen was determined to promote this curious innovation for her own comfort, and possibly even against the adviceof her wheelwrights, who would have to wait almost three centuries for effective tyres.

The coach was built by Richard Fisher, who was


responsible for both timber (£70) and ironwork (£14: described as ‘les stayes, les Revetts, Fastenings [compaginibus], les Staples nutts Braces, Screwes, Hamis Bored Plates springs great and small rings [annulis] Barresetc’). The external and interior arabesque decoration waspainted ‘with good gold and oil colour’, by Arthur Cutlerfor £80. David Smyth the embroiderer put the lace on the cover, for which Thomas Cure supplied 1994 gilt nails (£58 16s), but it was Francis Smyth who supplied the straw-coloured sarcenet ‘de levant’ for the curtains.

Coach (Fisher & Cutler) £164 Cover (Cure, Montague, D Smyth, Baker)

£235 18s 7½dCurtains (F Smyth, Montague, Polson, Baker) £26 6s 4dChair (Baker, F Smith & Montague) £33 5s 4dCushions (Baker, F Smyth & Montague) £27 16s 10dReins (Montague) £18 8sFeathers (Bonfoy) £16Bits (Beaumont) £13 6s 8dSlophouse (Cure, Albany & Montague) £11 3 s4dHarness (Cure) £56 Hammercloths (Cure) £16 Saccrells (Cure & Montague) £4 13s 4dBraces (Cure) £6 13s 4d

Total: £626 11s 9½d


The Hollow Turn, 1587The next warrant book starts in 1585, and within a coupleof years a new coach was required, in May 1587.96 This, ina long warrant for the Queen’s Stable, was more of a conversion than a completely new vehicle, and it involvedreworking the 1584 Turkey Leather coach:


And that you pay for new alteringe with a hollowe turne the bottome and sydes of our Coche Covered with turkey Lether, aswell for Iron worke, Timberworke payntinge and guyldinge, stuffynge and mendinge, and quiltinge the elbowes and seates of the said Coche within and all other thinges therto belonginge. One new Carriage with wheles strakes nayles and all manner of Ironworke to the same belonginge and for payntinge and guildinge the same Carriage and wheles in Oyle colours to the Coach aforesaid.

This involved a modest expenditure of £64 8s: the carpentry by Ripon (£20), painting and gilding by Arthur Cutler (£11) and other work by Edward Baker (£6 8s 4d). The undercarriage and wheels were again by Ripon (£16), ironwork by Gilbert Polson (£4 6s 4d) and painting by Cutler (£6 13s 4d).97 The ‘hollow turn’ cannot certainly be explained, though it perhaps referred to curved sides,like those shown on the Nonsuch drawing (fig 2).

Among the usual miscellanea was a harness for four coach horses with long traces to break ‘our yonge coch horsses that came out of the Lowe Countries’. In the ‘surplusage’ section of moneys already spent there was a saddle for the French Ambassador, and another to ‘the Scottishe kinge’, and reins of gold and silver ‘provided for our use againste the Parliament’ (opened the previousSeptember). There were dozens of buttons and loops of Venice gold silver and silk ‘for the doores and wyndowes of our Coches and Lytters’, and ‘strings’ of Spanish silkto ‘drawe up the doares and windowes of our great Coche’,and

two new Carriages with wheles strakes nayles and all manner of Ironworke to the same belonginge, and for payntinge the said Carriage and wheles in oyle colours for two of our old coches forgottenout of the former warrant.

The ‘great Coche’ was perhaps the same as the ‘fyne Coche’ whose irons had been kept clean ‘for this two yeares past’.98 The pair of undercarriages, made by the same team, cost £53 18s 4d, that is almost exactly twice


the cost of the single one.99

A near contemporary warrant for the Stables for Ladiesand Gentlewomen covers much the same ground, and despite its title does seem to include some of the Queen’s own needs. There are the usual pillion and side-saddles and harness, including harness for four coach horses ‘for ourold greate Coche’, as if this was now in the province of the court ladies (there were also four ‘longe traces of lether… to breake and exercyse our yonge Coche horsses’).The same coach was to have a new [under]carriage and slophouse, and another ‘one of our old coches’ was to have four new wheels. The coach ‘covered with Turkey lether’ was to have two large curtains of straw-coloured taffeta, and the ‘ryche lytter’ a new curtain of green sarcenet, ‘the old beinge worne out’.100 Since it was the Turkey Leather coach that had been the subject of the other warrant, unless there were two of them, it looks asif these curtains were for the Queen’s use, not the Ladies. Otherwise, it would appear that the Ladies had the use of the ‘old great coach’, and at least one ‘old coach’.

The Cavendish Coach, 1588Another coach appears in the following year’s warrant forthe Queen’s Stable, this time by means of the conversion of a coach she had been given:

For new coveringe of a Coche geven us by Cavendishe with Crimsin Turkey lether, the said Lether Lyned with fyne white Canvas, garnyshed with greate bullion nayles and small roses of Copper and guilt frindgedwith gold Silver and Silk, [£93 0s 8d]- and for Strawecolored taffata to Lyne the said cover and the bodie

of the said coche within the lyninge of the said bodie, frindged quilted and Tufted with Silke, and garnyshed with Silk lace and guiltnayles within the bodie of the said Coche, and for sylke to quilte thesaid Lyninge within the bodie of the said Coche.

[£43 6s 4d]- More for strawecolored taffata Sarcenet frindged with silke with

lace of silke and ringes of Copper for iiij Curtins for the dores and wyndowes of the said Coch and for the makinge of them.


[£8 18s 8d]- More for buttons of Iron guilt to fasten the Coveringe of the said

Coch and for lardge buttons and Lowpes of gold silver and Silke to the doares & windowes of the said Coche.

[£8 10s 8d]- And lykeso for strawecolored taffata for to enlarge the seates of the

said Coch quilted, tufted and frindged with Silke and stuffed with fyne downe.

[£14 5s]- Also for ij Quishions of strawecolored velvet with baggs of fyne

fustian and stuffed with fyne downe the said Quishions furnyshed with Tassells cawles and Frindges of strawecoloured Silk, and for the makinge of them.

[£12 7s]- The foresaid Coche Carriage and wheles paynted with soundrie

Colours.101 [£12 15s]

‘Cavendishe’ was perhaps William Cavendish (1551–1626), son and heir of Bess of Hardwick, and later the first Lord Cavendish and Earl of Devon; if it was he the gift may have been related to the Queen’s settlement of the raging family disputes between his mother and the Earl ofShrewsbury.102 Quite why the gift should have needed so much refurbishment is not clear, though it must be said on later evidence that Elizabeth was always determined tomake her own mark on such gifts. At least the costs of the work were reasonably modest. The cover was made by Thomas Cure (£39 6s 8d), decorated by Roger Montague (£5314s), with the straw-coloured lining provided by Baptist Hickes and decorated by Montague. The same three made thecurtains, while the seats and cushions were made by Hickes, Montague and Edward Baker. The undercarriage and wheels were painted by Arthur Cutler, and the total cost of this part of the work (excluding harness, etc) was £193 3s 4d.103 In addition to this, a blue slophouse was ordered to cover the coach, the usual harness (for four coach horses) with four hammer cloths and saccrells, and


‘all manner of braces of doble lether short and longe to beare and guide the said Coche’, and even four new wheels.

The Queen’s own coaches also occur in the same warrant: the Great Coache needing repairs to the ‘hinder parte of the Carriage’, and new plumes of feathers were ordered for the coach and horses. Plumes were also to be provided for the horses drawing the ‘great Coche covered with turkey Lether’, and the ‘our riche Marratime Coche covered with Crimsin velvet’. As far back as 1568 the ‘fyne coche’ had been recovered in crimson velvet, but this is the first mention that has been noted of a ‘maritime’ aspect. Among a long series of miscellaneous pieces are ‘cloths of sondrie Colours to lyne the endes of the Coches and Lytters to kepe out the wether and to lay in the bottome of the said Coches and lytters to kepethe same from soylinge’.104 There is another clue to the identity of the Maritime Coach in 1589, with the provision of crimson velvet to repair the ‘Garnesh of ourfyne Marratime coche’ being immediately followed by ‘the makinge Cleane of the irons of the said Coche for this year past’. This certainly confirms the identification with the ‘fine red coach’, since the cleaning of its ironwork had been a regular feature over the years, and we shall learn more about that ironwork in due course. Itwas not, however, the only ‘fine coach’, for another one occurs at the same time: ‘And for the newe alteringe witha hollowe turne of our fyne Marcatorie Coche and payntinge the same in Oyle colours’.105 Although the marginal title reads ‘mercury coche’ there can be little doubt that that the word is marquetry, and that this is identical with the ‘fyne coache of markatree’ last mentioned back in 1568. This was the second coach to be given a ‘hollow turn’, following on from the Turkey Leather coach in 1587.

The Stables EstablishmentThe size of the royal Stables was undoubtedly expanding, and not just in the number of coaches. The number of horses had also increased, as witness the figures


produced in 1585 for comparison with previous reigns (table 1, above), while the stable warrant for 1600 talksof no less than 15 coach horses.106 The staff had also increased, and an establishment list for the Stables in the four quarters of 1589 shows the large numbers of riders, footmen and valets, and still with Ripon as coachmaker and William Bowne as one of the coachmen, taking respectively 12d and 10d a day.107 Bowne had becomethe third coachman in 1567 alongside Stephen Horrobin andNicholas Paine, and was joined by John Twist in 1568, after which there were always four of them. Edward Gauntearrived in the place of Twist in 1571, John Boltby in theplace of Paine in 1579, and George Blenkarne in the placeof Horrobin in 1582; the four then remained until the endof the reign.108

The Silver Coach of 1590It was now six years since the last new coach had been ordered but now, after a couple of quiet years in the stables, in May 1590 there was a ‘warraunt for a new Coche’.109

That is to say one Cotche of timber worke with a new devise and fassion with two Chayres to it paynted and gilded all over with stories and other workes as well within as without with wheeles caredge coffers - and all manner or sortes of Ironworke to the sayd Cotche caredges

coffers & wheeles belonginge the sayd caredges and wheeles partliepainted & gilded with barres & rods of iron to beare and hange the Curtens aswell for the dores and windose with vices & wormes to the sayd barres & rods which barres & roddes are gilte all over,

- the sayd cotche covered with cloth of silver lyned with fustean and embrothered allover by our Imbrotherer with flowers leaves & braunches of russet velvet and twisted lace and broyded lace of venice gold purles & spangles frendged with frendges of sondry sortes of gold silver and silke the foresaid Chaires covered with russet velvet imbrothered with borders of silke fringed with gold silver and silke with seats of downe to the sayd Chares

- the body of the sayd cotche within lyned with russet Satten quilted and tufted with a worke of twisted lace of white silke the dores &


windows of the sayd coveringe like so lyned with Satten & quilted & tufted as is aforesayd the body of the sayd cotche within fringed with gold silver and silke garnished with lace & gilt nayles

- & for lardge buttons & lowps of gold silver & silke to fasten the dores and windows of the sayd Cotche;

- more to pay for taffeta of Chaungeable culler for curtens to the dores & windows of the sayd Cotche & for fringes of silke of sondry sortes to the sayd Curtens & for lace of silke & rings of copper to the sayd curtens, as allso for the makinge of them & for buttons & lowps of gold silver & silke to fasten the dores and windows of the sayd cotche

- further for all manner of workemanshipe done upon the sayd Cotche aswell within as without & for all sortes & cullers of sowinge silke imployed upon the workmanshipe of the sayd Cotche

- Like so for three coushions of russet velvet imbrothered with borders of silke with tickes of fustean stuffed with fine downe with buttons, Cawles, tassells, & frenges of gold silver & silke to the sayd coushons.

- more for twentie longe cotche raynes of ferret silke to guide our cotche horses as well for store as otherwise

- and for twelve plumes of fethers small and great of sondry colors garnished and trimmed with venis gold silver & spangles for our foresayd cotche & horses & two grosse of large ferrit silke pointes of sondry collers to fasten the feathers upon the Cotche horses

- & for repairinge of all our old feathers at two severall times in this yeare past.

- tenne fine white bittes with gilt and cast bosses for our Cotche horses, tenne fine white bittes with guilt and cast bosses for the geldings for our owne use,

- one slophowse of blew clothe to cover all over the body of the sayd Cotche & standardes, the sayd slophowse partlie lyned with fusteanwith fringes buttons and lowpes of sondery sortes of blewe ferret silke to the sayd slophowse

- Foure Cotche harnes of doble lether with buckles ringes roses brodebasnets and studdes of sondery sorttes of iron copper & gilt ritchlie sett on the sayd harnesses.

- fower hamerclothes of hide lether cutt with antickeworkes with buckles pendantes ringes roses and studdes of sondery sortts of copper and guilt to the sayd harnes

- foure sacrils of doble lether with roses of copper and gilt and


claspes with laces & tassells of ferret silke for the fowre cotche horses

- and for all manner of braces of doble lether short & longe fowre of the sayd braces covered with clothe of silver painted & stained with sondery collers which braces are to gide and carry the sayd cotche in sondery partes

- More for buttons of Iron of sondery sortts to fasten on the coveringe on the sayd Cotche in sondery partes aswell within as without.

The ‘new fashion’ was perhaps for the chairs in the coach, if not the painted histories or the cover decoration of flowers, leaves and branches. The accounts do not tell us any more of the subject of the stories that were painted by Arthur Cutler for £80, except that his work is described as ‘painting and gilding the coach and its carriage inside and out with various stories (diversis historiis) and other curious works carried out on thegreat standards, chest, boxes belonging to it likewise painted and gilded’. The standards were the main upright supports holding the braces to carry the coach, and it isnotable that on this occasion they were specifically decorated and mentioned as being covered by the Slophouse, as if they were not normally so protected. This warrant and the accounts are useful for clearly defining the gear required for one coach drawn by four coach horses, and for showing for example that the hammercloths with their grotesque ornament were for horses, and not for driver’s seat (the saccrell is not explained, but was apparently the dock for the horse's tail).110 The coach was built by Richard Fisher rather thanRipon, and cost considerably more than its predecessor. Fisher’s carpentry cost £106, Cutler’s painting £80 and Polson’s ironwork £66 5s 8d:

Coach (Fisher, Cutler & Polson)£252 5s 8d

Fabrics (cover) (Fowler, Parr & Montague)£343 5s 10d

Chairs (Baker, Parr & Montague) £55 0s


6½dLining (Parr & Montague) £80 7s 10dCover (Cure & Montague) £16 10s8dCurtains (Fowler, Baker & Montague) £30 2s 8dCushions (Parr, Baker & Montague) £31 10s 5¼dReins (Montague) £23 Feathers (Bonfoy) £37 8s Bits (Beaumont) £33 6s 8dSlophouse (Cure, Copwood & Montague) £17 4s 7½dHarness (Cure) £56 Hammercloths (Cure) £16 Saccrells (Cure & Montague) £4 Braces (Cure & Cutler) £2 16s 8dButtons (Montague) £4 7s

Total: £1,003 6s 7¼d


The same warrant included a new canopy and repairs to other coaches: straw-coloured curtains for ‘Mr Candis’ coach; the coach that had just been ‘altered with a hollowe turne’ joined the new fashion and received a new chair stuffed with down, covered with crimson velvet, a crimson curtain and foot stool; repairs were made to the lace decoration of the Turkey leather coach. The ‘charret’ is also repaired: ‘more for gold silver & silkefrendge for to repayre our Charret the other beinge stolne away, and for quiltinge a peece of satten to the sayd Charret like so spoiled’; the repairs cost over £16,and we shall hear more about the theft of the fringe.

The Silver Coach completed, 1591Evidently this expensive new coach with its embroidered silver cover cannot have been entirely to the Queen’s liking, for major alterations to the ‘new coche’ were


described in the following year’s Stable Warrant, in May 1591, under the ‘Surplusage’ heading, ‘for all those parcells of Stuff beforehand spente’.112 The items includeda completely new lining of carnation satin, in place of the russett that had previously been supplied, with matching cushions, seat covers and curtains (the costs ofeach item have been added from the Wardrobe Accounts).

For Carnation Satten striped with gold to newe lyne the bodie of our newe Coche within quilted with a worke of carnacion Silke and twisted lace, the dores and windowes of the Coveringe of the said Coche lyke so lyned with Carnacion Satten and quilted as ys aforesaid, the said Lyninge, dores, and windowes frendged with gold silver and Silke and for all sorts of sowinge silke employed upon the windowes and Lyningeof the said Coche, the Inner syde of the said Coche garnished with guiltnayles and silke Lace: [£120 16s 1d]- For Carnacion velvet for to newe cover two Chaires belonginge to

the said Coche, the back of the said Chaires lyned with Carnacion Taffata, quilted with silke, frindged with gold silver and silke, garnyshed with guilte nayles and silke Laces.

[£40 14s 8d]- Likeso for three Quisshions of Carnacion velvet with ticks of fustian

stuffed with fyne downe, with buttons caules and Tassells and frendges of gold silver and silke, lyned with Carnacion Taffata.

[£22 14s 6d]- More for six curtaines of carnacion Taffata Sarcenet to the dores

and windowes of the said cotche and for fringes of silke of sondrie sorts, lace of silke, and Copper rings to the same Curtens and for the makinge of the said quisshions and Curtens …113

[£19 3s 4d]- Further for one new Carredge of Timberwoorke with wheles, and all

manner of Ironworke belonginge to the said wheles, for our new Cotche covered with cloth of silver, and all other things necessary tothe sayd Carredge; and for the paintinge and gildinge of the said Carredge & wheles with gold and silver, and other colors.

[£44]- For one new Chaire to the said Cotche, and for the alteringe and

mendinge of the other Chaire and for Ironworke to them. [36s]

- and for alteringe and raysing of the roofe higher at both the ends


of the said Coche.[£5]

- And to pay Richarde Fyssher maker of the said Coche for horsehire and other expences in followinge of the Courte to repayre and mende the said Coche at sondrie tymes in this yeare past

[£7]- Further to paie our silkman for garnyshinge of two greate cordes

with Cheverneworke of spanishe Sylke, and two great peare buttonsof gold and Silver, and ij greate tassells of spanyshe silke with buttons and Caules of gold and silver to beare the said Coche on the Carriage….. [£1 13s 4d]

- More for repairinge and alteringe the Fethers for the new cotche and horses at two sondrie times, and putting to them more fethers both of Carnacion, and white, and for repairinge of all the fethers for her Majesties Cotches and Lytters for this yeare past.

[£12 10s]

All of this reworking, which was carried out by the same individuals who had made the coach a year before, cost £275 7s 11d; the lining being considerably more expensivethan the earlier attempt, though the other items were less so. An additional sum of £4 13s 9d was paid for the embroiderer John Parr to make patterns ‘aswell for our new Coche as for our saddles aforesayd the said patterns imbrothered with bone lace, Lome lace, twisted lace, purles, plates, and spangles all of gold silver and silke; and for silke imploied upon the workemanship of them’.114 Thesewere perhaps for the elaborate designs used on the 1590 cover, made up as samplers to guide others, in a manner also recorded for dress-making.115

The external work on raising the roof, changing the feathers and decorating the guiding cords, rather suggeststhat the Queen had had second thoughts about the execution of the new-fangled design and ordered it all tobe redone, while the necessity for the hapless Fisher to follow the court suggests that a series of problems was experienced with the coach (luckily for him the 1590 progress was a fairly modest affair in the home counties). Fisher was not the only coach builder, and theaccounts show that Ripon continued to be paid for generalrepairs over the year. However there is another possible


explanation for the wholesale renewal in the final note on the warrant:

And to pay John Bowltby one of our Cochemen the chardges he was atin apprehending and presuinge the Law on certen men that robbedher Majesties Coches, Lytters and chariot, of gold and silver frindges,and Lace, such a some as by his bill shall appeare.

Boltby was paid £10 for his trouble, though no further details are provided. But even if the lining had not beenstolen, the Queen had another good cause to deck out her new coach with yet more finery: the progress to Portsmouth in the summer of 1591 when she had hopes of meeting Henry IV of France.116 In the event, the new Bourbon king (who was to be assassinated in a coach on the streets of Paris in 1610), never crossed the channel.

The Cavendish Coach Repairs, 1592The stable warrant for 1592 was a modest affair by comparison, ordering a litter harness for ‘our riche lytter covered with black velvet’, and other miscellaneous items.117 The one striking feature is further work on the Cavendish coach, which must either have fallen apart or continued to disappoint the Queen. Atotal of £203 0s 7¼d was spent on this, again largely with the same group of craftsmen working once more under Walter Ripon (but with Thomas Larkin, the Queen’s Master Locksmith, in place of Polson for ironwork and gilding):118

And also for alteringe, mendinge, translatinge & enlarginge the doors, windowes and galleries of the Coche geven by Mr Cavendishe with timber & Ironworke, carved, paynted and guilded,

[£58 12s 8d]- and for carnacion velvet and Satten enbraudered with platted lace

of venice gold & silver knotted and cauled, quilted and lyned with lynnen Clothe, and frindged with gold silver and Silke, for the enlarginge of the dores windowes and galleries and garnyshed withsilk lace and guilt nayles, and for all sorts of sowinge silk employed upon the said Coche


[£112 2s 6d]- and a newe footstole of Timber worke covered with Carnacion

Satten, quilted with gold and silver lace and lyned with lynnen Cloth, by the enbrauderer, and garnyshed with silke lace and guilt nayles, [£2 4s 8d]

- and for Carnacion poynts, buttons and lowpes of gold silver and Carnacion ingraine silke for the dores and windowes of the said Coche [£10 12s 9d]

- Lyke so for a Quishion of Carnacion velvet with a Ticke of Fustian stuffed with Fyne downe, with buttons, cawles Tassells and frendge of gold silver and Carnacion ingraine Silke to the same Quishion,

[£7 11s 5d]- and a newe Slophouse of blue Clothe with buttons lowpes and

Frindge of Blue firrett silke or the said Coche and for the makinge of yt, and For all other workmanshipp and Stuffe employed upon the alteringe of the saide Coche.

[£11 16s 7¼d]

Work also continued on the new coach of 1590, which now received its third roof (made by Ripon for a mere £10) and new undercarriage, costing a total of £281 16s 7½d:119

Further for alteringe of our great newe Coche covered with cloth of Silver with a new roufe of Timber and Ironworke, carved paynted and guilded, with vices and wormes, - the said rouffe covered with Clothe of Silver enbraud’ with flowers

of russett velvett and venice gold silver and silke, with frindges, buttons and lowpes of gold silver and Silke,

[£163 4s 8d]- and vallence of Cloth of silver enbraudered and Lyned with Tincell

satten & frindged as ys aforesaid and garnyshed with Silk lace and guilt nayles.

[£35 1s 10½d]

- And also for a newe Carryage of Timber worke to the said coche with Coffers, wheeles, and all manner of Ironworke to the same caryage Coffers and wheles belonginge, the said Carryage, Coffers and wheles paynted and guilded.

[£83 10s 1d]


There is another reference to the 1584 chariot, re-decorated for £57 18s, of which, as so often, over half (£32) was taken up by gold and silver fringe (2 lb 8½ oz at 3s the ounce), while the painting and gilding cost £103s.120

More for repayringe and mendinge of the Charyott with white Satten enbraudered with Silke lace quilted and lyned with lynnen Clothe, frindged with gold Silver and silke, garnyshed with guilt nayles, and forguildinge and payntinge the same Charyott in sondry places, and for Silk ymployed upon the repayringe thereof.

The remainder is taken up with harness and saddlery, together with the inevitable ‘repayringe of all our Fethers belonginge to our Coches and lytter, with Fethersof sundry colours’.

The Carewe Coach, and a SledgeAlthough the last decade of the reign saw relatively little purchasing activity, there was another acquisition, as we learn from the ‘surplusage’ section ofthe June 1593 warrant for the Ladies stable:

First for coveringe the Coche Sir George Carew gave with orrindge tawny velvet and for the cuttinge and making of the said coveringe andgarnished with gilte nailes with all sorts of frindge and lace of gold and silver and silke lace and sowinge silke and all other necessaries imployed upon the coveringe aforesaid and for quiltinge of taffata for the bottome of the said Coche and for linen Cloth Cotton and sowinge silke to quilte the same and the lininge of the said coche and for workedonne and stuffe imploied by the imbrotherer upon the said Coche.121

The decoration of the cover was rich, using 30 yards of orange velvet, and with over 13 lbs of silver fringe and lace making up half the cost of £119 16s 2d.122 The order included a slophouse, and a matching orange tawny harnessand hammercloths for two horses (costing £68 9s 9d). In the following year there was an order for feathers ‘of sondrie colours garnished and trymmed with venice gold,


silver, and spangles for our Coche geven by Sir George Carewe’ (these cost £24 12s), but of course as a gift thecoach still required further modification, which was to cost another £70, bringing the total outlay on the refit to £283 3s 7d:

for the alteringe and enlardginge the roofe of the Coche Sir George Carewe gave, and for a newe Carriage, Coffer and wheles to the said Coche, the sayd Coche cariage and wheles paynted and guilded alover with oyle colours, and for all maner of Ironwork guilt or silvered ymployed on the alteringe of the said roofeFor ij Turkey Skinnes, Orrendge Tawny velvet, buckram, fringe of goldand silver and guilt nayles to enlardge fringe and garnishe the saidCoche.123

Sir George Carew had a career as a soldier and administrator in Ireland, and was a gentleman pensioner favoured by the Queen, who had just been made Lieutenant-General of the Ordnance in England, and perhaps made thisgift on his return to England.

Elaborate sledges are a major component of princely carriage collections (such as that of the Dukes of Saxonyat Coburg), but have not been encountered before now amongst Elizabeth’s equipage.124 In the warrant of May 1595, and well before winter, an order was made for

a new Slead carriage of timber worke engraven, with great boxes of iron, nuttes, scrues, plates springes and all other Iron worke whatsoever to the sayd sleade belonging, the sayd sled paynted and gilded in oyle colours suitable to shipe Coche.125

The description of the attachments, and the lack of any furnishing shows that this was a sledge runner to place under a coach, presumably the Maritime Coach under another guise; while at a cost of £71 it was relatively inexpensive.126 By untying the leather braces the coach could be set down on the sledge and so run smoothly through snow, like the coaches on runners depicted in street views of Amsterdam in the following century.127


Repair works, 1596–8The ‘Ship Coach’ returns in the next year, when its elaborately decorated body was to have an extensive reworking in addition to its new sledge runners. This seems to have involved some rather unusual ironwork, and that this was a replacement rather than completely new work is suggested by the regular item in the warrants andaccounts over the years for the cleaning of the ironwork on the fine red coach.

one new Cariage of timber worke for the shipp Coche, with a new roffe,Carved Pillers, wheels, strakes nayles with a great Crane neck of Iron, springs, scrues, plate & all other Iron worke whatsoever to the saide Carriage belonginge, - the saide Carriage Pillers Roofe and wheeles curiouslie painted &

gilded in oyle Coullers, and for the newe paintinge of the Cooche in sundrye places with a newe lader to the sayd Cooche, painted.

- The Roofe and endes of the sayd Cooche covered covered with Carnacion velvet, lyned with buccaram and Carnacion taffata, imbrodered and fringed with lace and fringe of gould and silver of sunderye sortes, purles, plates, spangles and sowinge silke, and garnished with goulde lace and gilte nayles,

- and for downe, fustian and all manner of stuffe and workmanshipe whatsoever, imployed on the sayd Carriage, Cooche, Cheeres, seats and Cushons, belonginge unto the sayd Cooche.128

The ‘crane neck of iron’ is surprising, in that the arched iron extension of the pole or perch beneath the coach to allow the forecarriage to turn beneath it was not used before the mid-seventeenth century. Likewise, springs (or at least those directly connected with the leather strap suspension) were only being developed from the mid-seventeenth century, although Lord Manners was supplied with ‘a paire of springe trees’ and ‘a long spring brace’ in 1598.129 The accounts add a little information: Ripon was responsible for the woodwork (£60), Thomas Larkin for most of the ironwork (£32 9s 8d), but Thomas Laverock was separately paid 70s for two great steel springs (pro ij de les springes magn’ de chalyb’), each


5 lb in weight, with bolsters and forelocks. Thus the only clue to the character of the springs is that there were two and not four of them, and so they cannot have operated at all four corners of the carriage body. GeorgeGower, the Sergeant Painter, painted and gilded the undercarriage for £40, the new roof for £8, the body for £4 6s 8d, and the ladder for 30s. To this basic cost of the refit (in all £149 16s 4d) were added £76 2s 2d for the cover, and £10 18s 1d for the seats, a total of £236 16s 7d, excluding slophouse and harness.130

The cycle of repairs to the great silver coach of 1590also continued in 1596:

for the enlardginge mendinge and repayringe of the endes dores and windose of our great Coche with cloth of silver tincell satten and russett velvet, quilted and frindged and imbrodered with lace of gold and silver venice gold and silver, purles, plates, spangles and sowinge silke, the seatte of the sayd Coche quilted stuffed and mended and for all maner of stuff imployed on the repayring of the sayd Coche. One new Cariage of timber worke with a seate, wheeles strakes, nayles and all maner of Iron worke to the sayd Cariage, seate and wheeles belonging, the sayd Cariage wheeles and seate paynted and guilded in oyle Colours.131

Work on the coach cost a modest £43 6s 8½d, and the undercarriage £39 11s 10d; it was painted and gilded by George Gower.132 There was to be a new slophouse of blue cloth fringed with silk, and a seasonal requirement in the order for ‘Cloth of sondry colours, for bottome Clothes, and to lyne the endes of our Coches to keep out the winter wether’.133 The provision of sledges and bottomcloths suggest that the Queen had suffered in the previous winter, though her travels had not involved morethan a few days in Surrey in December.134

The next round of repairs was two years later, when repair works were ordered in 1598 for three carriages, firstly the Little Coach:

for new coveringe & lyninge our little coche with carnacion velvet & taffata; the sayd cover richly wrought in borders with silver lace round


about & overtwhart the same & sowing silk the lyninge quilted with carnacion silk & spangles & garnished with lace and guilt nayles, - & for the new payntinge gildinge & silveringe of the sayd coche &

the cariages of it in oyle colours.- For garnishinge & makinge the Chayres of the sayd coche, & fowre

Cusshions of Carnacion velvet & lyned with taffata, with pillowes of fustian for the sayd Chayres & Cushions stuffed with downe, the Coch, Chayres & Cushions frindged with gould silver & silk & for sowing silk & garnished with lace & nayles & for all other work & stuff imployed or done in or about the sayd coche or chayres

- & for paynting two ladders for the sayd coche, and also for fowre hammer Clothes of carnacion velvet, imbrodered sutable to the cover of the sayd coche.

- Fowre curtens of carnacion sarsnet frindged with silk with rings of copper for the sayd #135 and for making of them.

The coach was to be decorated with feathers, and protected by a blue slophouse.136 As the accounts show, itwas indeed ‘richly wrought’, with the extensive use of the silver lace and fringe bringing the cost of the coveralone up to £232 14s 6d. The somewhat elaborate painting in oil, with both gilding and silvering, cost £20 and wasundertaken by ‘Marcus Gerad’, presumably Marcus Gheeraerts the Younger (1561–1636) who, whilst not necessarily having a formal court position, undertook numerous court portraits, and other painting work.137 The new chair cost £45 13s 8d, the cushions £34 0s 10½d, hammercloths £30 16s 9d, and curtains £6 18s 1d. Togetherwith a dorse (£4 15s 10d), feathers (£21) and slophouse (£12 3d 1d), but excluding harness, this work amounted to£408 2s 10d.138

The Great Coach was also in need of repair, this time damaged by rodents rather than human hands, which cost a total of £59 13s 9¼d:

For cloth of silver Tyncell satten & carnacon satten to enlarge & repayre the cover & lyninge of our great coche being eaten with Ratts & for imbrodering & quilting the same with Russett velvet, venice gould& silver, lace of gold & silver, purles, plate, spangles & sowing silke & for all other worke and stuff done or imployed on the sayd coche,


[£24 4s 8d¾]- & for the repayring enlarging & tryming of the fethers belonging to

the sayd coche & horses with fethers of sondry colours venice gouldsilver & spangles [£22 10s]

- with a slophowse of blew cloth for the sayd coche with buttons, lowpes & fringe of blew ferret silk for the sayd slophowse.139

[£12 19s ½d]140

The silver chariot emerged once more, and now with a description that fully matches Stow’s account of its appearance in 1584:

More for cloth of silver to repayre our Charret & to make hose for the shafts & for stayninge the same cloth of silver [£41]- & for a Crowne and other beasts of wood carved & guilded all over

for the sayd Charret & for bagges of Cotton to keep or cover them &for the making of them. The Charret posts & pillers thereof paynted guilded & silvered all over.

[£30 9s]- fringe of gould silver & silk & silk, lace of gould & silver & guilt

nayles to fringe and garnish the sayd Charret & Cushions & chayresthereof [£50 1s 3¾d]

- & for whit satten to repayre the lyning and for orrendg tawney twist& silke to quilt the same & for all other worke and stuffe whatsoever done and employed on the repayringe thereof.141

[£19 14s 4d]

The ‘beasts of wood’ were described by Stow as being ‘a Lion and a Dragon’, and may have been similar to the surviving figures of a lion, unicorn and griffin standingwith shields on the four posts of the Moscow Coach.142 Therepairs were quite limited, but not inexpensive with a total of £141 4s 7¾d.143 Ripon carved the crown and beasts(£5 9s), and then Marcus Gheeraerts gilded them, the posts and columns with ‘good burnished gold’ (£24), and six cotton bags were made (£1). The cloth of silver cost £27, and it was stained by Gheeraerts for another £14. The colour of the stain is not revealed, but orange is


the only colour mentioned in the warrant and accounts forthe fabrics for decorating and lining. The warrant also provided for two slophouses, for the chariot and for the ‘Mercurye coach’, another mention of this name that is perhaps another error for 'marquetry', or may indicate the use of what was to become a very popular name for rapid conveyances in later ages. There is also a further reference to the practice of colour-matching the horses’ hair to the coaches: ‘For dyinge or payntinge the maynes & Tayles of thre of our horses’ (a task undertaken by Gheeraerts for £3), and a rare provision for the driver’scomfort: ‘A cushion of brod cloth lyned with lether & stuffed with fethers for our cocheman’.

The 1599 ChariotThe following year a new ‘chariot’ was ordered, covered in watchet (blue) velvet embroidered with gold and silver; what proved to be the Queen’s last commission wasas elaborate as any yet, though like the 1584 chariot it seems to have been carried like a litter on a pair of shafts between horses, rather than on wheels.144

First the Tymber worke of one newe Chariot Curiouslie carved with Chameworke145 Orpins and pillers paynted guilded and silvered aswell within as withoute the bottome thereof covered with lether, with two Canopies of tymber covered in the top with watchet velvet imbrotheredwith gold and silver, lace of gold and silver and Naples silke parte ingrayne, with vallences to them lyned with wrought Satten, quilted with silke lace, and Ribbon of silke and fastened to the Canopie with guilt Nayles, with deepe and narrowe fringes of gold silver and silk andsowing silke.- Two payre of shafts to the same Chariott likewise carved and

paynted with foure hosen of watchet velvet to take of and on, imbrothered with gold and silver and lace of gold and silver and fringed with gold and silver and sowing silke.

- And all maner of Iron worke aswell gilt and silvered as otherwise to the same Chariott and Cariage belonging.

- One covering of watchet velvet for the same Chariott, richlie embrothered all over with lace of gold and silver, venis gold and silver and Naples silke parte ingrayne, sett with purles, plats and


spangles, fringed with gold silver and silke and sowing silke, and lyned with buckeram, with great skirts of watchet velvet, imbrothered in like maner and fringed with gold silver and silke and sowing silke lyned with Buckeram.

- The inside of the same Chariott lined with wrought Satten, quilted with silke lace and Ribene of silke and gilt Nayles to garnish the same and sowing silke.

- Six long stringes of gold silver, watchet and Carnacion in grayne silke, whereof two with branches all wrought upon bobbyns to drawe the covering to and fro garnished with Tassells of like silke, with buttons and caules of gold and silver.

- Longe buttons and loupes of gold silver and silke, parte Carnacion in grayne, with great rounde laces of like gold silver and silke madeupon bobbyns to tie the gilt pinnes of Iron to the same Chariot.

- And for all maner of broad cloth and Kersie Satten and Buckeram to lay betweene the chariott and the covering thereof and for bottome cloths.

- Large Curtens of taffeta frindged with silke and ribens and sowing silke parte whereof carnacion in grayne silke with rodds of Iron guilt and fine rings of Iron gilt to the same Curtens.

- Three Quishions of watchet velvet lyned with wrought satten garnished with lace and fringe of gold silver and silke with Twelve tassells of like silke with buttons and caules of gold and silver sowing silke and pillowes of fustian filled with downe and cases of Buckeram to them

- Two chaires to the same Chariott with pillowes of fustian, filled withdowne covered with watchet velvet, the backes therof quilted with silke and twist lace of silke,

- The same backs seates and Elbowes garnished with lace and frindges of gold silver and silke, parte carnacion in grayne and sowing silke and gilt Nayles with double poynts of like silk halfe yard long the peeces with cases of Buckeram and other necessaries to the same Chaires belonging.

- Two foote stooles of tymber worke covered with wrought Satten quilted with silke garnished with lace of silke parte carnacion in grayne and gilt nayles and sowing silk.

- One slophouse of blewe cloth, with frindges, buttons and loupes of blewe ferret silke and sowing silke to cover the said Chariott.

- And one perfuming pann of stele plate for the said chariott.


There was to be ‘one furniture’ for two horses, the saddle decorated to match the cover, two harnesses, and two pairs of reins, likewise decorated, and ‘three fine gilt bitts with gilt and cast bosses for our Chariott horses and spare horse.’ A degree of refinement is implied by the ‘perfuming pann of stele plate’ that was provided for the chariot, and five plumes of feathers with pearls and spangles completed the show. The chariot was to be made by Robert More ‘cochmaker’, and two men were sent to find him and bring him ‘out of the countrie to workeupon the premisses. And in like maner to paie the said More aswell for making two Modells, carved paynted and guilded to the forme of the said chariott for our vewe. As also for his attendance in delivering thereof One patterne of wachet velvet imbrodered with silver lace: purles plats spangles, venis silver and sowing silke.’ The order for a pair of models and the sample for the Queen’s ‘view’ implies her direct involvement in the new design.

In all, the Chariot was the most expensive production yet, at a total of £1,123 7s 1d. The quantities of materials used were prodigious:

Cloth: 246¼ yards (Watchet velvet 72¾ yds, taffeta 24 yds, wrought satin 44 yds, buckram 71 yds, blue cloth 17½ yds, broad cloth, kersey and fustian 17 yds)

Fringe: 40 lb 8 ¼ oz (gold and silver 24 lb 8¾ oz, coloured 10 lb ¾ oz, carnation ingrain 2 lb 6¼ oz, blue ferritt 3 lb 8½ oz)

Lace: 32 lb 9½ oz (venice gold and silver 1 lb 2 oz,gold and silver 21 lb 5¼ oz, gold and silver twist 9lb 1 oz, coloured silk 17¼ oz

Silk: 10 lb 8½ oz (ribbon 11½ oz, carnation ingrain 2 lb 12½ oz, coloured 3 lb 14¼ oz, sowing 3 lb 2½ oz)

Pearls, plates and spangles: 11 lb 10½ oz. The chariot was made by Robert More (£72 13s 4d), and painted ‘with divers curious works in pleasing colour with burnished gold and silver' by Marcus Gheeraerts (£68), while all the ironwork was performed by Thomas Larkin. The two model chariots were also made by More (£613s 4d) and painted by Gheeraerts (£3).


Chariot (More, Gerard and Larkin) £140 13s 4dCanopies (More, Cure, Bingham, Marshall, Parr & Montague)

£37 13s 8dVallences (Cure, Bingham, Marshall, Parr & Montague)

£27 16s Shafts (More, Cure, Bingham, Marshall, Parr & Montague)

£51 19s 2dIronwork (Larkin) £35 13s 8dCover (Cure, Bingham, Marshall, Parr & Montague)

£302 12s 5½dLining (Cure, Bingham, Marshall, Parr & Montague)

£49 2s 1dStrings (Montague) £14 Buttons (Montague) £14 17s Lining (Wyn, Cure & Bingham) £6 4s 8dCurtains (Baker, Marshall, Montague & Larkin) £36 19s3¾dCushions (Baker, Marshall & Montague) £29 3s 9¾dChairs (More, Baker, Marshall, Montague) £68 0s 8dFootstools (More, Marshall, Montague, Cure & Bingham) £5 10s 6dSlophouse (Wyn & Montague) £15 17s 4dPerfuming pan (Larkin) 10s Saddles (Cure, Bingham, Marshall, Parr & Montague)

£80 11s Harness (Marshall, Parr, Montague Cure & Bingham)

£108 19s 7dMisc (More, Cure, Bingham, Wyn, Montague & Elbridge)

£36 14s 6dFeathers (Cokisburie & Montague) £26 8s Fetching coachmaker (More) £3 6s 8dModel (More & Gerard) £25 13s 4dSample (Parr, Marshall & Montague) £5 0s 4d

Total: £1,123 7s 1d

Table 13. Costs of 1599 chariotSource: Wardrobe Accounts 1598–9146

The same warrant ordered repairs to the Ship Coach


that had been worked on three years earlier:

for mending and altering the tymber worke and Iron worke of our shipcoche, with a new cariage Coffers and wheeles to the same, – and for the new paynting guilding and silvering of the said Coche and cariage. – and for a new covering and vallance of carnacion velvet to the same both imbrodered with plate lace of gold and silver and carnacion silke ingrayne powdered with spangles and frindged with gold and silver parte of which frindges wrought with Cauleworke knotted, and also fringes of carnacion ingrayne silke, and sowing silke, the said vallance and roofs lyned with Carnacion Taffata buckeram and Cotton,– and the lyning in the body of the same coche performed with carnacion Satten, quilted and garnished with silke lace guilt nayles andsowing silke.

The coach was also to have curtains of carnation taffeta,three cushions of carnation velvet, and the chairs covered with the same, all finished with lace, silk and tassels. Ten plumes of carnation and white feathers were to decorate the coach, while three footstools, the door and window handles, and the harness and hammercloths wereall to be finished in the same colour scheme. Hardly surprising, given the opulence of these carriages, was the request for ‘one new locke and hendges for the coche house doore.147 A number of intriguing details of the ShipCoach emerge from the accounts, though they are not easily interpreted. Robert More’s timberwork (£35 15s 4d)included a long list of items, with ‘a head called a backhead with a lion on it’, four ‘de les satires’, mending the galleries, and a new ‘counterroofe’, eight new ‘de les maskeheads’, 2 yards of Holland tick for ‘le keele’, four ‘de les elbowe leaners’, three new Satires for ‘le sterne’; indeed it does sound like a ship. Other items, such as axles, 'hyrters', transom, guide, a pair of springtrees, crane-neck and 'fuchells' belong to the undercarriage.148

Thomas Larkin’s ironwork (£15 9s 4d) is likewise a long list of nuts, screws and bolts that cannot always beeasily understood. The four braces with columns and


screws ‘for making the columns of the coach stronger’ maybe the iron supports for the standards, but we cannot be sure, while the two four by six-inch plates for the craneneck do not help to explain what that was, any more than the ‘two bolts with forelocks for the crane neck’. The two hames cum les flaps for the ends of the ladder were fixedwith twenty rivets to a joining piece, with a hasp, square plate, staple and spring-bolt, all of which suggests a hinged or folding set of steps attached to thecarriage.149 Once again it was Gheeraerts who painted, silvered and gilded the coach and [under]carriage (£24). The cover, vallance and lining cost £206 8s 11d, curtains, cushions and chair another £92 1s 7d, and the ten plumes of feathers £25 12s; the total, including harness, hammercloths and miscellaneous items came to £572 7s 10d.150

Repairs to the Little CoachThe following year saw a major re-upholstering of the ‘Little Coach’:

For cutting making and covering our little coche with carnacion velvet and imbrothering the same with silver plate laces layd billet wise tufted at their endes with twisted silver powdered with purles spangles and round tuftes of silver twist, flowres of silver with carnacion and coulloured naples silke fringed with the like silver and silke, gilt nayles and great bullion nayles silvered, and for all maner of braces as doble single long and short withall tymber and Iron worke to performe the said coche [£193 15s 7½d]- with new vallance of carnacion velvet to the said coche imbrodered

wrought garnished and performed with stuff and workmanship sutable to the cover aforesaid [£53 5s]

- the same cover and vallance lyned with cloth buckeram bayes and carnacion taffeta, and the whole inside of the coche likewise all wrought quilted and garnished with spangles of silver, tufts of watchet silke ribone and lace of silke and sowing silke fringes of silver and silke and gilt nayles

[£69 10s 4½d]- One foote stoole likewise covered with taffeta wrought and


garnished sutable to the lyning of the coche[£5 1s 8d]

- Two chaires covered with velvet quilted garnished and tufted sutable Lace and fringes of silver and silke and sowing silke with doble poynts of carnacion in graine ribon to fasten the chaires

[£52 2s 5¼d]- Three quishions with pillowes of fustian filled with downe, covered

with velvet, with lace and frindges of silver and silke, with tassells ofthe like silke buttons and caules of silver sowing silke and cases of buckram

[£25 0s 2d]- curten rods of Iron silvered, with curtens of taffeta, with fringes and

ribons of silke and sowing silke, and rings of copper gilt [£13 12s 6½d]

- and for all other things to perform the premisses, with long buttonsand loupes of silver and silke Long strings of the like silke garnished with branches, buttons tassells and caules of silver for the dores and windows of the said coche, two laces of silke tagged to lace the lyning to the roof of the said coche.

[£6]

There was also to be a slophouse of blue cloth (£11 15s 10d), a coach harness for eight horses, with eight hammercloths and reins (£170 5s 8d), and nine plumes of feathers (£21), making a total of £621 18s 3¾d.151 Among the miscellaneous items in the warrant that may be connected with this coach is the order to pay for ‘two paire of coche wheles and a newe patterne lyned and shoddwith lether and wodden pegges for the easier going of ourcoche, and for the paynting gilding and silvering of the said coche carriage and wheles.’ The wheels (which cost £8 and Gheeraerts paintwork £28) may have been an attemptto improve the comfort of travel for the ageing queen.152

Lord Cobham’s ChariotThe stable warrant for 1601 reveals the final addition tothe collection, in the form of yet another gift whose receipt was marked by extensive reworking:

One new case of timber with knobes of wood gilt for the Chariot my


Lord Cobham gave us with a cariage and wheles to the same paynted in oyle Colours with locks keyes and all other iron worke to the same case, carriage and wheles belonging, the case covered with hide lether,garnished with lace and fringes of silke and gilt nayles and lyned with Cotton with all other necessaries thereunto apperteyning the shafts covered with hide lether, lyned with Cotton and garnished with gilt nayles and all other necessaries imployed on the said Case cariage andwheles.153

This chariot, it will be noted, certainly did have wheels, and was probably drawn by two horses, judging from the order for two bits for the ‘Chariot horses’; there was also to be the usual blue slophouse. Although this sounds like an extensive overhaul it proved to be relatively cheap, at £98 19s 4¼d: the timberwork was doneby Robert More (£26 13s 4d), gilding and painting by Gheeraerts (£6 13s 4d) and ironwork by Thomas Larkin (£7 11s 4d); with the leather cover (£29 18s), shafts (£4 6s 4d), slophouse (£13 17s ¼d) and bits (£10); this was not,however, to be the end of the matter since it would take three years to finish the refit.154 Henry Brooke, Lord Cobham, a Knight of the Garter (and later degraded for his part in a plot against James I), had famously entertained the Queen in his house at Blackfriars in June1600, and that may well have been the occasion of the gift. The warrant is otherwise taken up with miscellaneous items and saddlery, but includes another special set of wheels:

Two paire of new wheles shode with doble lether and wodden pegges and painted in oyle coloures and for new showing in like manner of two paire of old wheles Two dores, a beame and a ladder for our shippe Coche paynted and gilded all over, and for the stayning of foureof our Horses Maynes and tayles at our comyng to White Hall.

Robert More made the wheels for £13, and Gheeraerts painted them for £3 6s 8d, while his work on the Ship Coach fittings came to £6, and the horses’ manes cost £4.The occasion referred to may be the opening of parliamentin October of that year (see further below), but it is


not entirely clear whether all these parts were for the Ship Coach. It is of interest that the general clause covering all repairs refers to the ‘reparacions of all our coches litters Chariots’ as if chariots were now a recognized class apart.155

The Queen’s last warrantThe final stable warrant for her reign, in July 1602 included a new litter for the Queen’s ladies, while a side saddle seat (with a down cushion) and lifting stool for the Queen shows that she was still riding. A number of repairs were made to the ‘Chariot’, (which the covering and canopy show to be that of 1584). This was for use in the opening of Parliament, which had occurred in October 1601, so the order is for payment in arrears:

Also that you paie for cloth of silver stained and white satten to repaire and cover our chariot against the parliament & for imbrodering quilting and stuffing of the lyning with purles plates spangles twist of gould and silver and sowing silke,

[£55 9s 4½d]- the Chariot paynted and gilded allover and for the stayning of horses

maynes and tayles at sondry times[£32]

- One long quishion of cloth of silver stayned with a pillow of fustian filled with downe, the said quishion fringed garnished and trymed withfrengs buttons caules and tassells of gold and silver with sowing silke,

[£9 16s 8¾d]- for the new covering the Canopie of the said Chariot, repayring the

Cheares the quishions and garnishing them with frings & lace of venicegould and silver sowing silke and gilt nailes with cases of buckram for the said quishions and cheares.

[£29 6s 11½d]

The refurbished chariot was also to have a new slophouse (£11 19s 5½d), and the feathers were altered, enlarged and repaired (£16), making a total of £154 12s 6¼d.156 Theonly change in personnel was the use of Leonard Fryer, the Queen’s Sergeant Painter since 1598, in place of Gheeraerts, for the painting and staining.157 The


connexion between this chariot and the opening of Parliament is a crucial link in the evidence for its identity that will be discussed further below.

At the same time the work on Cobham’s chariot was continued, though a new gloss is provided on what was being done:

Also for a new cariage Roofe coffers and wheeles of timber painted and gilded allover the wheles shod with hide lether and wodden pegs and for all maner of Iron worke gilte or silvered whatsoever ymployed upon the said Cariage roofe coffers and wheeles for the converting the Chariot my Lord Cobham gave into a coche and for the shewing and painting of two paire of old wheeles with lether and woden pegs;- the roof covered with orendge tawnie velvet with vallence of the same

velvet,- the roofe and vallens imbrodered with laces and twists of gold and

silver and sowing silke fringed and garnished with lace fringe of gold silver and silke sowing silke and gilt nayles with all other necessaries whatsoever requisite for the alteringe of the same chariot.

The addition of a slophouse is curious, since one had been made and paid for in the previous year, but in fact the order amounted to a comprehensive reworking of what had been done before.158 The implication seems to be that the change from chariot to coach solely involves a new undercarriage, which reinforces the impression that a chariot was a kind of litter. The accounts show the extent of the operations, from a basic total of £171 16s 2d, with the body by Ripon (£66 13s 4d) paint and gildingby Leonard Fryer (£60), ironwork by Larkin (£38 12s 10d),and wheels by Ripon and Fryer (£6 10s); in addition the cover and vallance cost £165 16s 9d, which with slophouse(£13 2s 1d) and feathers (£32) brought the total to £382 15s.159

James I and the late Queen’s WardrobeAgain, in the first stable warrant of James I, in August 1603, there was authorisation for payment of the final work in completing these projects, in the ‘parcells heretofore delivered for the use and service of our deare


sister late Queen of England’ (she had died in March). These included further work on the Little Coach, with embellishments much as described in 1600, though the accounts demonstrate that this was much more than a mere finishing of earlier work, and at a cost of £492 19s 11½dseems more like a second attempt at the same task:

for the newe coveringe of the lytle coche with Crimsin velvet with vallaunces of the same, all enbraudered alover with naples silke purles and spangles of silver twists and laces of silver and garnyshed with frindges of silver and silke and sowinge silke;

[£298 0s 7¾d]- Foure longe strings of silke, braunched and Tasseled with lyke silke,

and buttones and caules with silver; [£4 16s]

- Foure great braces covered with crimsin velvet for the same Coche, [£4 14s]

- the inside and vallaunce of the same newe lyned with buckeram, bayes and taffata quilted, frindged and Tufted with silke, set with Owes [spangles] of Silver, laces and bullion nayles guilte and ribon and sowinge silk.

[£87 14s 11½d]- One footstole covered with Taffata quilted, tufted, and set with

owes of silver, lace and guilt nayles, [£5 10s10d]

- The Chaires, seats backs and Elbowes newe covered with Carnacion velvet quilted with Silke and lace parte ingrayne & lyned with Taffata, frindged with silver and silk, and pillowes of fustian filled with downe for the seats and elbowes, and duble poynts of spanyshe silk to fasten them in the Coche and guilte nayles.

[£41 1s 8½d]- Viij Curtins iiij of Taffata and foure of Sarcenet frindges and ribons

of silke and sowinge silke, and rings of Copper guilte for the same Curtins

[£16 15s 5¼d]

- Three Quishions of Carnacion velvet lyned with Taffata with pillowesof fustian filled with downe, and garnyshed with frindges of silver and silk with Tassells of lyke silke buttons and caules with silver andsowinge silke.


[£21 4s 4½d]- One slophowse of blue Cloth, with frindges buttons and Lowpes of

firret silke and sowinge silke for the same Coche, and for the makinge of yt.

[£13 1s 11¾d]160

Then finally there was an order to pay for completion of the Cobham Coach:

for all maner of Timberworke carved or playne, newe made mended or altered in or about the Chariot, converted into a Coche and the Caryages therof [£65]- Four paire of newe wheles shod with hide lether and wodden peggs,

[£16]- and for the new showinge of iiij paire of old wheles, [£5]- the said wheles paynted in oyle colours, and for the payntinge and

guildinge of the said Coche caryage and Ladder.[£60]

- And for all maner of Iron worke guilt silvered or otherwise newe made mended altered or repayred used in or about the said Charyot converted into a Coche.

[£13 12s 6d]161

This came to £159 12s 6d, and there was also a slophouse (£12 1s 4d), bringing the total for the three years’ workon the chariot/coach to £653 6s 2d. Quite apart from the curious fact that it was found necessary to make a new slophouse in each of the three years, one may wonder justhow much of Cobham’s original gift survived its translation. A further order for two carroches and ‘Six Scotts Saddles’ was presumably part of the new King’s requirements, and that is another story.162 It was Walter Ripon who made ‘all manner of timberwork’ for the Cobham Coach, but it was his widow Mary who was paid. He just outlived his Queen, and one of his last tasks, shortly before his death was making the four-horse chariot that carried Elizabeth’s effigy at her funeral in 1603. But this was a chariot in the older sense used in the days before coaches, and it had a separate canopy carried by


six knights.163

The Queen’s CoachesThe extraordinary amount of detail in the Elizabethan Wardrobe records that has prompted this examination of a neglected byway of Tudor state culture, emphasizes the extentof the very conspicuous consumption by the sovereign in an area which has left almost no visual records. By contrast, the one surviving vehicle of the era – the Moscow coach – is almost undocumented. But following the torrent of colours, fabrics and exotic decorations that have been described, it will be as well to summarize what we have discovered about the Queen’s coaches.


Table 14. Queen Elizabeth’s coaches, 1564–1603Date Vehicle Named coaches Colour: external Colour:

lining/internalMaker Costs

1564 Coach I * Blue velvet Purple taffeta Lewis Stocket

£69/ 118/ 402

1566 Litter Leather & red 1567 Coach II Purple damask Purple satin Ric. Pye £30/ 67 /3511567 Coach Gift A [Arundel]1567 Litter Black leather Crimson satin Thos Cure £32/ –/ 3041568 Coach

repairs[Coach]*Fine Coach

Black velvetCrimson velvet.

Crimson satinCrimson satin

[£1040]

1570 Coach III Cloth of gold/silver

Crimson satin Walt. Ripon £45/ 109/ 411

1571 Coach IV Black velvet Green taffeta Walt. Ripon £50/ 120/ 684

1574 Coach V Black velvet Green taffeta Walt. Ripon £60/ 159/ 822

1575 Litter Black velvet Green satin Walt. Ripon £30/ 109/ 726

1580 Coach VI Black velvet Orange tawny taffeta

Walt. Ripon £70/ 164/ 782

1581 Carroche VII

Red leather Blue velvet Walt. Ripon £50/ 84/ 423

1581 Coach alt Straw colour Carnation velvet Walt. Ripon [£269]




leather1584 Chariot

VIII[Parliament] Cloth of silver White satin Walt. Ripon £30/ 108/

6301584 Coach IX Crimson Turkey

leatherStraw coloured taffeta

Ric. Fisher £70/ 164/ 627

1587 Coach alt [Turkey leather]

[Hollow turn] Walt. Ripon [£64]

1588 Coach Gift B [Cavendish] Crimson Turkey leather

Straw coloured taffeta

[£193]

1588 Coach repair *Rich Maritime Coach

Crimson velvet

1589 Coach repair *Fine Maritime Coach

Crimson velvet

1590 Coach X [Great coach]

Cloth of silver Russet satin Ric. Fisher £106/ 252/ 1003

1591 Coach X New coach Carnation Carnation satin Ric. Fisher [£275]1592 Coach X Great new

coachSilver & russet Walt. Ripon [£282]

1592 Coach alt Cavendish Carnation satin Walt. Ripon [£203]1592 Chariot

repair[Parliament] White satin [£58]




1593 Coach Gift C [Carewe] Tawny orange velvet

[£283]

1596 Coach alt *Ship coach Carnation velvet Carnation taffeta

Walt. Ripon [£237]

1596 Coach alt Great coach Cloth of silver Russet velvet Walt. Ripon [£83]1598 Coach alt Little coach Carnation velvet Carnation

taffeta?– [£408]

1598 Coach alt Great coach Cloth of silver Russet velvet – [£60]1598 Chariot

repaired [Parliament] Cloth of silver

(stained)White satin Walt. Ripon [£141]

1599 Chariot XI Watchet velvet Wrought satin Robt. More £73/ 180/ 1123

1599 Coach repairs

*Ship coach Carnation velvet Carnation satin Robt. More [£572]

1600 Coach alt Little coach Carnation velvet Buckram, baize, and carnation taffeta

– [£622]

1601 Chariot GiftD

[Cobham] Hide leather Cotton? Robt. More [£99]

1602 Chariot repaired

[for Parliament]

Cloth of silver (stained)

White satin – [£155]




1602 Chariot converted to a coach

[Cobham] Orange tawny velvet

Walt. Ripon [£383]

1603 Coach alt Little coach Crimson velvet Buckram, carnation baize and taffeta

Walt. Ripon [£493]

1603 Chariot converted to a coach

[Cobham] Walt. Ripon [£172]

Table 14. Queen Elizabeth’s coachesSource: Great Wardrobe Warrants and AccountsThe table gives the names or descriptions of the coaches, the predominant colour or fabric of the coach cover and lining, the nameof the coachmaker responsible for the bodywork, and the costs of either the carpentry/basic bodywork/completed coach, or the overall cost of the work.


For what it is worth, the total expenditure on coaches over this forty-year period amounts to nearly £14,500, though this was only a small proportion of overall stableexpenditure. In three of the last four years the coach spend was between 11% and 21% of the total, but this would have been higher in years of more extravagant outlay. As a rough guide we can return to the analysis ofstable charges considered at the outset, and add some more figures. Not too much can be made of the rising costs, when there was general inflation throughout the sixteenth century, though it would do well to remember that a craftsmen’s daily wage only rose from ten pence toa shilling (12d) in the same period.164

Henry Edward Mary Elizabeth Elizabeth James(1541) (1552) (1554) (1585) (1600) (1603)£648 £1,901 £882 £1,670 £2,901 £5,577

Table 15. Expenditure in the Royal Stables from 32 Henry VIII to 1 JamesI

Source: An Abstracte of the Chardes of her maties Stable for the Coursers,geldings etc. taken out of the severall accompts folowing. (PRO LC5/32,pp 210–11); Wardrobe Accounts LC9/90 fol 21v and LC9/93

fol 32

We have seen that coaches were made for the Queen’s wardrobe from 1564 onwards, and she must have had a fair collection by the end of her reign, albeit altered and remade to conform with fashion or convenience. To these purchases were added gifts from courtiers like the Earl of Arundel and Lord Cobham, while in 1582 the King of France commanded ‘an exceeding marvelous princely coche’ for her, according to the English ambassador, and confirmed by the French Royal Stables accounts.165 At this date the fruitless marriage negotiations with the Duc d’Alençon were still in progress but, more interestingly,this was not long after the French ambassador had apparently got a coach made in London for the imprisoned


Mary Queen of Scots, which she was not at first allowed to use, though in time Elizabeth relented, and in January1582 the coach was sent to Sheffield, and she was ‘pleased to allow her to take the air abroad, provided there was no concourse of people to look on her’.166 As we have seen, back in 1568 in the early days of her captivity Elizabeth had herself sent Mary a richly decorated saddle,167 though her final dispatch was to be a royal coach to convey the body of Queen Mary from Fotheringay to Peterborough ‘drawn by four horses and covered with black velvet’.168 Apart from outright gifts, the loan of royal vehicles was a special mark of princelyfavour: the French Ambassador Extraordinary in 1597, Sieur de Maisse was collected by royal coach on each occasion that he had an audience with the Queen.169

The Queen’s use of coachesWe have already considered evidence for the first use of coaches in the 1550s, and the appearance in the Royal stables of the Queen’s first coach in 1564. Thereafter there is fairly continuous reference to royal use of coaches, even though horse and litter may have been used more often, and contemporary descriptions very often takethe means of transport for granted and so fail to describe it. In his extensive account of the Queen’s progresses, Nichols imagined that the coach was not introduced until 1585, implying that he had found no earlier references.170 Scotland was not far behind England,and in 1561 Mary Queen of Scots entered Edinburgh in a coach ‘lined with purple velvet and red taffeta’.171 The French Ambassador in an audience in 1568 found Elizabeth complaining of a bruising received on previous day due tocoach being driven too fast,172 and it is in this year thatthe Hoefnagel drawing of her visiting Nonsuch was drawn. (fig A). In 1570 she rode through Berkshire in a coach because of her ulcerated leg,173 while in Warwickshire in 1572 there as a more detailed description of her visit toWarwick, when the bailiff ‘approaches nere the coche or chariot wherein her Majesty sat’ and the queen ‘caused every part and side to be opened, that her subjects


present might behold her which most gladly they desired.’174 In August 1575 it was reported (possibly as a matter of scandal) the she ‘was disposed to ride in her coach or wagon to the cathedral church’.175

Coaches might themselves form part of the pageantry that the Queen encountered wherever she went. In the elaborate show at Woodstock in August 1576 a hermit led her to a fairy queen with six children ‘in waggon of state’, and going home in her own coach was taken past a talking tree.176 At Norwich in August 1578 the Queen arrived on horseback ‘but she had a coach or two in her trayne’.177 It rained of course, but the brave performance on the first day included Mercury in a fabulous coach decorated with birds sprites and a tower, and on the nextCupid appeared in a coach, until cast out by Chastity, who then ‘rides in his Coatche to the Queene’.178 The introduction of the coach must have altered the rules of courtesy and protocol, which deserves a study of its own,but we may note the occasion in 1581 when Dudley and a household servant came to blows over which of them shouldhelp the Queen from her coach.179

The most circumstantial descriptions of Elizabeth’s equipage are those of a Pomeranian nobleman visiting England in October 1584, Lupold von Wedel, who describes the Queen’s train at Hampton Court:

After dinner we saw the Queen’s horses, eighty-one in number, and three carriages. One was very small, only two persons being able to sit in it. The distance between the fore and hind wheels was very large. The second carriage was lined with red leather, fastened with silver-giltnails; and on the third carriage, the wheels, being twelve in number, were fixed under the axle in a manner very difficult to describe.180

Later he wrote of her entry to St James’s in a coach, following in a procession of servants, bishops and councillors:

They were followed by the Queen in a gold coach, open all round, but having all above it a canopy embroidered with gold and pearls. On the front and on the back of the coach were three plumes of various


colours. The coach was drawn by four bays in royal trappings. The coachman was clad in red velvet, and on his coat both before and behind was the Queen’s coat-of-arms and a rose of chaste silver-gilt. The Queen sat alone in the carriage. She was dressed in white and cried to the people: ‘God save my people’, to which the crowd responded with ‘God save Your Grace.’ This they repeated many times, falling upon their knees. The Queen sitting all alone in her splendid coach appeared like a goddess such as painters are wont to depict. Behind the Queen’s coach rode my Lord Leicester, who is an Earl of princely blood. He had long been Master of the Horse… [councillors, Maids of Honour and guards then follow]. Then came a gilt coach embroidered with gold and silver, which however did not rival that of the Queen, and behind it another coach studded all over with nails of gold. In neither of these coaches was anyone seated.181

This is an interesting and early example of the ostentatious use of empty carriages in a procession. We find it again when in the same month she opened Parliament in a litter:

Then came the Queen in a semi-covered litter that looked like a half-canopied bed. The litter was entirely of wood upholstered all over with gold and silver cloth. The cushions too, on which the Queen reclined were of gold and silver material. The long red velvet parliamentary cloak she wore was trimmed to the waiste with a lining which was white with black dots. On her head she wore a crown. The litter was borne by two white steeds with yellow manes and tails. On the horses’ heads and tails were plumes of yellow and white, their saddles and cloths being of gold material. [Women and maidens follow on horseback, richly attired.] Behind the women followed two coaches. The one was upholstered in red, gold embroidered velvet, the other in black velvet with gold embroidery; but in them was no one.’182

These descriptions emphasize the extent to which both vehicles and horses formed part of the decorative scheme of the Queen’s costume, in which the colour range and style of the costume, cushions, coach lining and horses tails was seen as one glorious atmosphere that she carried with her, and it mattered not whether anyone was actually conveyed in the vehicles.


The particular interest of this account of the State Procession to Parliament with the Queen in a gold and silver litter with a canopy is that it links directly to the description of the 1584 ‘chariot throne’ that has been mentioned several times above. It was evidently usedfor Parliament in 1584 and still in 1601 (repairs paid for in 1602), and the only repairs that have been noted earlier (paid for in 1590, 1592 and 1598) were likely to have been connected with Parliaments in 1589, 1593 and 1597 (see table 14 above). The only other Parliament in this period was that of 1586 when the chariot was new, but the 1587 warrant only mentions paying for new reins ‘againste the Parliament’. So from the descriptions provided by Stow and by von Wedel, and the wording of thewarrants and accounts in 1584 and 1598, we have the clearest account of any one of Elizabeth’s transports, albeit the most unusual of them all, and not even a coachat that, but a highly decorated ‘chariot’ in the form of a litter. This also links directly to one of the few illustrations of Elizabeth in a vehicle, a woodcut of 1594 that is based on an earlier image (pre-dating 1584).183 In this the Queen is shown seated on a canopied throne, with crown and sceptre just as described by von Wedel, in a fantastic triumphal (and wheeled) chariot, with a figure of fame at the front. We can now understandthat this is not such an unlikely scenario, though it differs from the one actual depiction of Elizabeth in a litter, in her coronation procession, with an all-over canopy that is carried separately by attendants.184

Apart from state occasions, the coach enabled the Queen to be visible and accessible to her subjects, making her easier for petitioners to reach than if she had been on horseback. Yet while the coach was a means ofmaking the Queen accessible, this also carried potential dangers, as in the 1585 assassination attempt in which the plotters had planned to stab Elizabeth when out driving in her coach, one from each side.185 The threat wasaverted, but this does at least show that her use of the coach was reasonably common. There is ample evidence thatElizabeth continued to ride, and indeed on at least one


signal occasion she deliberately spoke on horseback to her troops awaiting the Spanish Armada at Tilbury in 1588, although she had travelled there by coach.186

Coaches and the Royal PersonRiding in a coach, unlike being on horseback, meant that one occupied a more intimate space, even in a sense a travelling interior space or personal territory, from which people could be observed from above, but in which one was also very visible. It was ideally suited to the Queen’s needs, and her assumed role as an idealized goddess-like figure.

The sacred and hieratic nature of the royal person wasa constant factor of court life, demonstrated in the needfor thrones or seats of estate raised on a dais and with a canopy over the monarch’s head.187 While the Reformation had done away with the need for the more sacred aspects of ritual, the trappings of secular devotion remained even in absence of religious ceremony, and could be expressed in a secular liturgy.188 The pageants on Elizabeth’s coronation ride through London had emphasizedher regality, and throughout her reign she was determinedto live up to, or exceed, the public expectations of royalty. She actually demonstrated an interest and concern for pageantry and its symbolism (e.g. the London pageant) and much enjoyed joining in (e.g. by replying toLatin speeches at Oxford).189 But apart from her facility in foreign languages, her own contribution to the theatrical performance was her amazing appearance in fabulous costumes (both of remarkable apparel and astonishing jewellery).190 These were quite beyond anyone’sexperience, but she could no more dress down than a Hollywood star on an opening night of a new film.

What is now clear is that the coaches could provide anequally fantastic setting for the costumed body of monarch, being externally decorated and wonderful, and internally providing a dazzling contrast of colour and light that could offset and frame the costume. The coach has to be seen really as an extension of her personal adornment, and the many thousands of pounds spent on them


emphasize yet again her preference for expenditure on personal adornment rather than on building. Unlike her palaces, the coach could move around with her, and formeda portable setting for the appearances of Gloriana beforeher people.

It is only to be regretted that, apart from the Nonsuch drawing, no pictures survive to show these colourful conveyances. As Roy Strong has observed, the ‘Procession Portrait’ of Queen Elizabeth at Sherborne Castle, dated to c 1601 (fig B), shows the queen on a chair beneath a canopy, propelled on some kind of triumphal car or wheelbarrow by liveried figures who mustbe coach or littermen, one suspects the latter.191

General use of coachesWhile the monarch exploited the new invention for her ends, within her lifetime the possession of a coach had become commonplace, first amongst aristocrats and higher clergy, then gentry and urban elites. This excited various social commentators, but is John Aubrey who givesus perhaps the clearest picture of its impact. His grandfather in Gloucestershire, William Aubrey (1529–95) ‘kept his coach, which was rare in those dayes … they then (vulgarly) called it a Quitch’.192 Aubrey took his old friend and neighbour Thomas Tyndale as a model for an aged courtier in his unfinished comedy The Country Revel, whohas much to say on the introduction of coaches:

T.T., an old gentleman that remembers Queen Elizabeth’s raigne and court … hath seen much in his time both at home and abroade; and with much choler inveighes against things now: ‘Alas! O’ God’s will! Now-a-dayes every one, forsooth! must have coaches, forsooth! In those dayes gentlemen kept horses for a man-at-armes, besides their hackney and hunting horses. This made the gentry robust and hardy and fitt for service; were able to be their owne guides in case of a rout or so, when occasion should so require. Our gentry forsooth in these dayes are so effeminated that they know not how to ride on horseback. Now we are come all to our coaches forsooth! Now young men are so farr from managing good horses, they now not how to ridea hunting nag nor handle their weopons. So God help the king if,


etc.193

Perhaps the greatest change was in travel time. For Stow,himself a pedestrian, ‘there is neither distinction of time, nor difference of persons observed: for the world runs on wheeles with many, whose parents were glad to go on foote.’194 The introduction of the coach produced a transformation that was perhaps not so marked as the effect of railways or motor car, but a noticeable change nonetheless. With the contemporary introduction of the four-wheeled wagon, and the vastly increased amount of road traffic for the transportation of goods, and then the appearance of public transport in the form of the Hackney carriage and the stage coach, the changes were indeed to become something of a revolution.195


Fig. A

Fig. B

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The preparation of this paper has been aided by a grant from the Society of Antiquaries’s Research Fund.

I am most grateful for the assistance and encouragement provided by a number of people, including Jeremy Ashbee, Martin Biddle, Gail Browning, Peter


Edwards, Martin Henig, David Honour, Arthur MacGregor, Rudolf Wackernagel and Sheila Wray. The effective use of so many records would have been impossible without the friendly efficiency and co-operation of the staff of the Public Record Office.

NOTES

1. The origins of the coach, with an analysis of the earliest surviving examples, are discussed in detailin my forthcoming study Medieval Carriages and the Origins of the Coach: The Archaeology of the European Transport Revolution; for a summary account see Munby 2000, and for previous accounts, see especially Markland 1825, Jackman 1916, Crofts 1967, and Piggott 1992.

2. John Stow, A Summarie of the Chronicles of England. Diligently collected and continued unto this present yeare of Christ 1587 (1587), 310 (first issued in 1565). The spelling ‘coach’ and the words ‘saith he’ appear first in the1604 edition (p 260), as used by Kingsford 1908, ii.282.

3. John Stow, The annales of England untill 1592, continued unto the ende of 1614, by E. Howes (1615), 866–7 (a posthumous textthat does not occur in Stow’s quarto edition of 1601).

4. The 'hearse' on the Beauchamp tomb, according to thecraftsmens' contract, was to be copied from a timbermodel, and it is constructed in a manner identical withsurviving 15th and 16th-century carriage bodies; seeMunby 2002, Tarr 1969, pls. xlvii and l.

5. John Stow, Survey of London (Kingsford 1908), i.83–4; seePiggott 1992, 139ff, and below, final section.

6. Coczian-Szentpeteri 2000; Tarr 1969, 203–8; Gozzadini1864.

7. The Coburg coaches are discussed in Gelbhaar 1999, and illustrated in Munby 2000, Kreisel 1927, 28, taf. 3, and Wackernagel 1986, 207; I am most grateful to Dr Gelbhaar for his assistance at Veste


Coburg.8. British Museum, Prints and Drawings (1943-10-9-35),

Stainton 1985, No. 1.9. The only significant study of this has been David

Wray’s examination preparatory to making the model the South Kensington Science Museum (Wray 1985); I have been allowed to study his notes and drawings through the kindness of Sheila Wray. See also Oman 1944, Unkovskaya 1991, and Piggott 1992, 154–7, pls 14–15; I am most grateful to Dr Unkovskaya for her advice on the Moscow coach.

10. Calendar of State Papers Venetian VI, Part II 1556–1557 (1882), 1084.

11. British Library MS Additional, 34,563, fol 10, a reference I owe to the kindness of Jeremy Ashbee.

12. e.g. Strong 1977; Cole 1999.13. Scargill-Bird 1891, 90 ‘not open to inspection

without permission from that Department’; Giuseppi 1963, 208–10.

14. Arnold 1988; Nixon and England 1970. 15. Arnold 1988, Chapter VII, and 231.16. Arnold 1988, 231, quoting PRO LC5/49, patent dated

May 1559.17. PRO, LC9/57, fol 20v, by warrant dated 6 July 6 Eliz.

(1564).18. MacGregor 1996, prints the only surviving stable

warrants for Charles I..19. LC5/32, pp 85–106, esp 94–5.20. Thornton 1984.21. Running from Michaelmas 1559 (LC9/53) to 1603

(LC9/93), the accounts for only four years are missing; for the procedures of warrant production and accounting, see Arnold 1988, 170ff.

22. LC5/33, pp 138–40, warrant ‘For the stable. For the Cowche’, dated 29 November 7 Eliz. (1564). The divisions in the texts here and below are editorial,since the punctuation of the originals is unhelpful;comparison should be made with the later warrants printed in MacGregor 1996, where the significance ofmany of the terms is elucidated.


23. LC9/58, Wardrobe accounts for 6–7 Elizabeth (i.e. Michaelmas 1564–5), fols 16v–17; it will be observedthat the ‘Latin’ of the accounts is somewhat notional.

24. Colvin 1975, 71ff.25. LC9/59, fol 9, Wardrobe Accounts for 1566–7.26. LC5/33, p 59, warrant dated 11 July 5 Eliz. (1563),

and 95, warrant dated 17 July 6 Eliz. (1564).27. LC5/33, p 156, warrant dated 13 May 7 Eliz. (1565),

and accounts, LC9/58, fol 27.28. LC5/33, p 179, warrant dated 13 May 8 Eliz. (1566),

and accounts, LC9/59, fol 18; LC5/34, p 20, warrant dated 14 May 9 Eliz. (1567).

29. LC9/58, fol 27, LC9/59, fol 18v.30. Strong 1977, 36 and pl 1; Strong 1987, 153–5, fig.

169–70.31. Colvin 1975, 79 quoting PRO E351/3204. See RCHM 1937

for the Hampton stables.32. Colvin 1975, 80.33. LC5/34, p 61; LC5/35, pp 28–34 and pp 213–20 (Great Warrants).34. LC5/33, p 202. 35. LC5/33, pp 185, 186.36. LC5.34, p 5, warrant ‘for a Coche for the Quenes

maiestie’, dated 2 February 9 Eliz. (1667) ‘under our signet’; a note in the margin reads: ‘dd backe agayn and cancelled and a newe warraunt Signed with the quenes majesties hand’.

37. LC5/34, pp 8–9, warrant ‘for a Coche for the Quenes maiestie’, dated 14 March 9 Eliz. (1567).

38. LC9/59, fols 10–11, Wardrobe Accounts for 1566–7.39. Colvin 1975, 409 (Pye, 1551–73), 411 (Lizard, 1554–

71).40. For Witton, and his arbitration with regard to Smith,

see Arnold 1988, 189.41. LC5/34, pp 29–30, warrant ‘for a litter’, dated 25

October 9 Eliz. (1567). 42. LC9/60, fols 6–6v, Wardrobe Accounts for 1567–8.43. William Camden, Annales rerum Anglicarum et Hibernicarum

regnante Elizabetha ad annum MDLXXXIX (1615 etc). In the


English edition of 1675 (The History of …. Princess Elizabeth)there is a marginal note opposite the account of theEarl’s death (p 256): ‘The death of the Earl of Arundel who first brought the use of Coaches into England’, with no further reference in the text.

44. [Henry Peacham], Coach and Sedan (1636), sig. E: ‘the first (they say) that was seene in England was presented to the earle of Arundell’. The Queen thanked Arundel ‘for the things he has sent her’ in a letter of 16 March 1567, Calendar of State Papers Domestic1547–80, 289 [Vol. XLII, no. 34].

45. Ibid, p 29.46. LC9/60, fol 7, Wardrobe Accounts for 1567–8.47. LC5/34, pp 46–7, warrant ‘for Coveringe of two Coches

for the Quenes maiestie’, dated 4 May 10 Eliz. (1568).

48. Colvin 1975, 412 (Master Locksmith 1566–84).49. LC9/60, fols 16–18v, Wardrobe Accounts for 1567–8.50. Arnold 1988, 231, quoting LC5/49 (October 1569); also

BL MS Egerton 2806 fol 19v (Warrant dated 6 October 1569).

51. LC5/34, p 119, warrant dated 1 June 12 Eliz. (1570).52. Edmond 1976, 1621, quoting his will dated 1603 in PRO

(PCC 46 Bolein). 53. Arnold 1988, 231, quoting LC5/49, patent of September

1573. 54. Arnold 1988, 231, quoting Cal. S.P. Dom. Addenda (1566–79),

453 no.29 (24.9.73).55. Petition for payment of £43 6s 8d due to him by Henry

Howard, son and heir of Thos Viscount Bindon, dated 7 February 1578. Cal. S.P. Dom. I (1547–80), 583 (and qv inG.E.C., The Complete Peerage, VI (1926), ‘Howard of Bindon’).

56. See also below for coaches sent to the Queen of Scots.

57. LC5/34, pp 57–9, warrant ‘for a Saddle and the furniture for the Quene of Skotts’, dated 22 October, 10 Eliz., 1568; LC9/60, fol 31v, Wardrobe Accounts 1567–8.

58. LC5/34, pp 134–5, warrant ‘for a new Coche for the


Quenes maiestie’, dated 16 December, 13 Eliz. (1570).

59. LC9/62, fols 11–11v, Wardrobe Accounts 1570–1.60. LC5/34, pp 136–7, warrant dated 20 March 13 Eliz.

(1571).61. LC9/62, fols 13–13v, Wardrobe Accounts 1570–1.62. LC5/34, pp 145, warrant dated 6 June 13 Eliz. (1571).63. LC9/62, fols 15–15v, Wardrobe Accounts 1570–1.64. LC5/34, pp 157–8, warrant ‘for the stable’, dated 8

August 13 Eliz. (1571).65. LC5/34, p 172 (8 April 14 Eliz.).66. Colvin 1975, 411.67. LC9/62, fols 16–17, Wardrobe Accounts 1570–1.68. LC5/34, pp 244–7, warrant ‘for a new Coche for the

Quenes Maistie’, dated 8 May 16 Eliz. (1574).69. Arnold 1988, 231, quoting warrant book of Wardrobe of

Robes, B.L. MS Egerton 2806, fol 68, warrant dated 14 April 1574.

70. LC9/65, fols 13v–14v, Wardrobe Accounts 1573–4 (the marginal totals in the account have been checked andcorrected).

71. LC5/34, pp 289–95, warrant for ‘a newe riche litter’ dated 23 April 17 Eliz. (1575).

72. LC9/66, fols 30–31, Wardrobe Accounts 1574–5.73. Ibid, fols 33–33v.74. Arnold 1988, 369, figs 318–320.75. LC5/34, pp 292–5.76. LC5/35 pp 35–7, warrant dated 26 June 18 Eliz.

(1576). 77. Ibid, pp 102–4, warrant for the Queen’s Stable, dated

20 August 19 Eliz. (1577).78. Ibid, pp 118–21, warrant for the Queen’s Stable,

dated 27 June 20 Eliz. (1578).79. LC5/35, pp 161–2, warrant for Queen’s Stable, dated 16 June 21 Eliz. (1579).80. Arnold 1988, 91 for the Queen’s use of orange tawny

satin in 1584. Orange tawney cloth was being produced in Berkshire and Kent in 1561–2, see Ramsay1942.

81. LC5/35 pp 191–5, warrant ‘for the Stable pro usu


domine Regine’, dated 13 April 22 Eliz. (1580).82. Reese 1976, 159 and Watney 1987, 14; neither provides

a reference, and there is no obvious mention in the printed Treasury, Privy Council, or State Papers.

83. LC9/71, fols 14v–16, Wardrobe Accounts 1579–80.84. H[istorical] M[anuscripts] C[ommission] Sixth Report (1877),

Appendix (Graham of Norton Conyers), 326, dated 1625.85. Cal. State Papers Domestic 1581–90, 122.86. LC5/35, p 264, warrant dated 15 April 12 Eliz. (1581).87. Colvin 1975, 411.88. LC9/72, fols 20–20v, Wardrobe Accounts 1580–1.89. LC5/35, 264; LC9/72, fols 20v–21.90. LC5/35, pp 394–9, warrant dated 26 September 26 Eliz.(1584).91. As note 2 above.92. Arnold 1988, 61, discussed further below.93. LC9/75, f28–29, Wardrobe Accounts 1583–4.94. LC5/35, pp 394–895. LC9/75, fols 29–30v.96. LC5/36, pp 38–42, warrant dated 9 May 29 Eliz.

(1587).97. LC9/78, fol 16, Wardrobe Accounts 1586–7.98. LC5/36, pp 41–2.99. LC9/78, fol 17v.100. LC5/36, pp 43–8, warrant dated 10 April 29 Eliz.

(1587).101. LC5/36, pp 81–2, warrant dated 26 May 30 Eliz.

(1588).102. Durant 1988, chapter 9.103. LC9/79, fols 19–19v, Wardrobe Accounts 1587–8.104. LC5/36, pp 83–5.105. LC5/36, p 115, warrant dated 30 April, 31 Eliz. (1589).106. LC5/37, pp 197–205, warrant dated 30 September 41

Eliz. (1600).107. PRO E101/107/33, an extensive listing on four pairs of membranes.108. Warrants for coachmen's livery: LC5/34, pp 20, 56,

155, 214; LC5/35, pp 140, 169, 300, 336; LC5/36, pp


5, 249; LC5/37, pp 206, 229, 262.109. LC5/36, pp 150–5, warrant dated 14 May 32 Eliz.

(1590).110. As OED ‘hammock cloth’; ‘saccrell’ is not in OED,

which does however give 'saker' from French sacquerelle, a dock for a horse's tail..

111. LC9/81, fols 10v–12, Wardrobe Accounts 1589–90.112. LC5/36, pp 197–201, warrant dated 24 May 33 Eliz.

(1591). 113. The warrant includes a number of unrelated items here.114. LC9/82, fols 25v–27, Wardrobe Accounts 1590–1. 115. Arnold 1988, 190.116. Cole 1999, 161–2.117. LC5/36, pp 226–9, warrant dated 23 May 34 Eliz.

(1592).118. LC9/83, fols 19v–20, Wardrobe Accounts 1591–2.

Larkin is listed as joint Locksmith with Polson from1584, Colvin 1975, 412.

119. LC9/83, fols 20–20v.120. LC9/83, fol 20v.121. LC5/36, p 245, warrant dated 20 June 35 Eliz. (1593).122. LC9/84 fols 7–7v, Wardrobe Accounts 1592–3; the

remainder cost £68 9s 9d (Slophouse £13 17s 4d, andHarness £54 12s 5d).

123. LC5/37, p 31, warrant dated 2 June 36 Eliz. (1594); LC9/85 fols 18–18v, Wardrobe Accounts 1593–4.

124. For sledges, see Kreisel, 1927.125. LC5/37, p 55, warrant dated 18 May 37 Eliz. (1595).126. LC9/86 fols 8v–9, Wardrobe Accounts 1594–5.127. E.g. Jan van Kessel, 'The Dam at Amsterdam',

National Gallery of Ireland, Potterton 1986, 74-5, Fig. 86.

128. LC5/37, pp 93–4, warrant for the Queen’s stable, dated 1 June 38 Eliz. (1596).

129. Terrier 1981, 1986, 18 (where he quotes and dismissesthe unsubstantiated claim of Paul Gille (1965, ii. 20)that Boonen had invented steel springs); for Manners,see C; Crofts 1967, 112, quoting H.M.C. Rutland IV, 420; see


also the description of the 1582 marriage of ArchdukeFerdinand of Austria, when his bride’s retinue arrivedin litters and carriages ‘on springs’, Fugger News-Letters(1928), 68. The steel spring awaits the attentions of asuitably equipped historian of technology.

130. LC9/87, fols 15v–16.131. LC5/37, p 92.132. LC9/87, fol 14, Wardrobe Accounts 1595–6.133. LC5/37, p 92.134. Cole 1999, 199.135. The contemporary marginal note ‘A word wanting in the

warrant at this mark #’ proves that the engrossed warrants are merely office copies of the originals.

136. LC5/37, pp 153–5, warrant for the Queen’s stable, dated 20 August 40 Eliz. (1598).

137. Dictionary of Art, 12 (1996), 514–15; Poole 1914.138. LC9/88, fols 22–23, Wardrobe Accounts 1597–8.139. LC5/37, p 153.140. LC9/88, fols 23v–24. 141. LC5/37, p 154; in the marginal heading the word is

spelled ‘Chariott’.142. As note 2 above.143. LC9/88, fols 24v–25.144. LC5/37, pp 183–6: warrant dated 25 September 1599;

full text published by Nixon and England 1970, 56–61.

145. In the carefully written copy of the warrant this word is written Chameworke, and certainly not ‘chaineworke’, and the same is true of the accounts.

146. LC9/89, fols 23v–27, Wardrobe Accounts 1598–9.147. LC5/37, pp 184–5.148. The hurter is the shoulder of the axle (OED), the

futchells (or hounds) are the angled pair of membersin the turning forecarriage, see Berkebile 1978.

149. The accounts are in Latin, so the English equivalents are not always obvious. 150. LC9/89, fols 27v–30.151. LC5/37, pp 202–3, warrant dated 1 June 42 Eliz.

(1600); LC9/90, fols 17–19, Wardrobe Accounts 1599–1600.


152. LC5/37, p 204 (‘pattern’ is written in error as ‘panterne’, as the accounts fol 20v read ‘de nova exemplar’).

153. LC5/37, pp 225–8, warrant dated 23 July 43 Eliz. (1601).

154. LC9/91, fols 10–10v, Wardrobe Accounts 1600–1.155. LC5/37, p 228.156. LC5/37, p 269, warrant dated 21 July 44 Eliz.

(1602); LC9/92, fols 18v–19v, Wardrobe Accounts 1601–2.

157. Colvin 1975, 411.158. LC5/37, p 269.159. LC9/92, fols 19v–21.160. LC5/37, p 297–8, warrant dated 10 August 1 Jac.

(1603); LC9/93, fols 23v–25, Wardrobe Accounts 1602–3.

161. LC5/37, p 299–300; LC9/93, fols 27–27v.162. The series of warrant books ceases with this one in

1603; the Wardrobe Accounts for James I’s reign are intermittent [Post-publiction note: not so, as Dr Hilary Turner kindlyinforms me: the gaps in the main series are supplied by the duplicate accounts in the Audit Office series –AO 3/1115-1119], but an important series of papers for both his and the Duke of Buckingham’s stables are preserved in the Graham archives at Norton Conyers, see H.M.C. Sixth Report (1877), 322–7. [Post-publiction note: now in the British Library]

163. Edmond 1976, 1621; quoting PRO LC2/4(4). For an illustration of the funeral ‘chariot’, see Arnold 1988, fig. 108.

164. (And twenty shillings to the pound). See Phelps Brown and Hopkins 1955.165. Stratton 1878, 266, quoting Strype’s Annals 2nd edn

III, 78; Wackernagel 1966, 332, quoting summary listing in Paris, Archives Nationales K1717 no. 4, ‘un carosse riche pour la Reine d’Angeterre’.

166. Leader 1880, 476 (Beale to Walsingham, 17 Nov. 1581), and 488 (Shrewsbury to Walsingham January 1582).

167. See above in the Wardrobe section.


168. ‘A Remembrance of the Order and Manner of the Burialof Mary Queen of Scots’, Archaeologia I (1804 edn), 382.

169. Arnold 1988, 7–9, quoting André Hurault, Sieur de Maisse, A Journal of all that was accomplished… trans. G B Harrison and R A Jones (1931).

170. Nichols 1823, ii. 309.171. Bergeron 1971, 24 quoting A J Mill, Mediaeval Plays in

Scotland (1927), 189.172. Reid 1933, 22.173 .Cole 1999, 21.174. Stratton 1878, 266 quoting Holinshed’s Chronicle IV, 6;

see Cole 1999, 123, and Bergeron 1971, 25–6 on otheraspects of Warwick visit, quoting Black Book in Warks R.O. (ed T Kemp, The Black Book of Warwick, 1898).

175. Jack Simmons, Journeys in England (1951–69), 81. 176. Bergeron 1971, 36 quoting The Queenes Majesties

Entertainement at Woodstock 1585) ed A.W.Pollard 1903/1910.

177. Jackman 1916, 112 n (letter from Sir Thomas Browne to his son, 15 October 1680).

178. Bergeron 1971, 41–2 quoting T. Churchyard, A Discourse of the Queenes Majesties Entertainment in Suffolk and Norfolk (1578) sig. C.

179. Cole 1999, 169.180. von Bülow 1895, 251. 181. Ibid, 256–7. This translation from Arnold 1988, 6,

quoting von Klarwill 1928, 328–9.182. Arnold 1988, 61, quoting von Klarwill 1928, 333–4;

as von Bülow 260.183. Strong 1963, 120 (Cat. no. W.4), compare 102 (Cat. no. D.& I. 8).184. Strong 1963, 100 (D.& I. 4). This may be the same as

the reputed illustration of her opening Parliament in 1571 in a state coach, Stratton 1878, 266.

185. Cole 1999, 84, 167.186. Cole 1999, 160.187. Adamson Courts, 99; for chairs of state, see Graham 1994.188. McCoy 1989.


189. Anglo 1969/1997; but see also his modified views on earlier work in Anglo 1992, esp. Chapter 5 .

190 Arnold 1988.191. Strong 1977, 36 and pl 1.192. Clark 1898, i. 60.193. From the ‘Country Revel’, MS Aubrey 21, quoted Clark

1898, ii. 267, also Powell 1949, 10.194. Stow’s Survey, Kingsford 1908, ii. 282.195. Barker and Gerhold 1993.

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Queen Elizabeth's Coaches: The Wardrobe on Wheels

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