AN EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON EFFECTS OF SURFACE OPENINGS ON AIR

FLOW CAUSED BY THE WIND IN COURTYARD BUILDINGS

Vildan OK, Mustafa ÖZGÜNLER*, Enes YAŞA

Istanbul Technical University, Faculty of Architecture, Physical Environment Control Unit,

Taşkışla-Taksim 34437, Istanbul-Turkey

Abstract

One of the modifications to increase the performance of the buildings with courtyard by

means of ventilation and decrease the cooling load indirectly in the regions especially

temperate or hot-humid climate except hot-arid is to create cavities to convey the air

horizontally compelled in the courtyard by the wind. This study explains the effects imposed

by openings, which will be created in the architectural mass of courtyard buildings, upon the

velocities of air flows within such courtyards, through tests conducted in a wind tunnel. The

results from this study indicate that for buildings containing openings arranged in

configurations different from those of courtyard buildings, the openings located on

perpendicular surfaces increase the velocities of air flows within courtyards in proportion with

their dimensions and positions.

Keywords: Natural ventilation, In-building air movements, Wind effects, Passive cooling, Climate of buildings with courtyard

1

*Corresponding Author: Tel: + 90 – 212 – 293 13 00 / 2361 Fax: + 90 – 212 – 251 48 95

E-mail: ozgunlerm@itu.edu.tr

1. Introduction

Planners and designers have been considering the wind or air flows natural data for

building components at such various scales as city, region and country due to structural and

environmental reasons for centuries (Ansley, R.M., Melbourne, W., Vickery, B.J., 1977).

Various passive or natural air-conditioning methods using the wind are employed by

architects and city planners to lower cooling energy costs to minimum at hot climate regions

(Awbi, H.B., 1994.). The air movement as a passive air-conditioning media may be required

in order to provide in-building ventilation especially in the hot and humid climate zones. In

hot and arid climates, the traditional courtyard building form ensures air flows to arise by

themselves through natural ventilation between a building and its inner court, while in

temperate-humid and hot-humid climates, such air flows are created by using the wind

pressure (Ratti, C., Raydan, D., and Steemers, K.,2003, Adil A. Al-Mumin, 2001,

Nasser A., Al-Hemiddi and Khalid A., Megren Al-Saud, 2001”, I. Rajapaksha, H. Nagai

and M. Okumiya 2003).

The courtyard building form should be improved by means of modifications designed

to increase its performance of ventilation, especially for other humid climate regions than the

hot-arid climate regions. In this context, the other openings pertaining to the building which

may change the air movement effectiveness incurred with the wind effect in the buildings

with courtyard should be taken into consider and studied carefully. Many numerical or

experimental studies have been conducted on the insulation aspects of courtyard buildings.

However, only a limited number of studies have been conducted on the wind effects.

Not only may the building itself have a courtyard, but also may produce an open space in

courtyard form at urban structure together with several buildings. In building complex, the

courtyards are accepted one of the sections that air speed increases, like as in the other voids

(Lawson, T., V., 1980). When the buildings are combined to each other as an open

courtyard within the settlement area, the wind either flows over the courtyard or circles in it.

The surface area of a courtyard, the measures and the position of the courtyard openings

against the wind and the width or total width of the openings are variables affecting the

qualitative and quantitative character of the wind within the courtyard (Gandemer, J.,

Guyot., A., 1976).

2

Layout and position of outdoor spaces affect the discomfort parameter of pedestrian

spaces. The discomfort parameter occurs at the highest level in spaces exposed to the wind at

both sides thereof, and at medium levels close to each other in spaces fully covered or

exposed to the wind at a single side, but relevant values are different (Ok, V. et al., 1996).

The wind direction’s effect on ventilation performance of courtyard buildings, and noted that

said performance weakens when the courtyard is positioned perpendicular to the wind

(Sharples S. and Bensalem, R. 2001). When a building contains openings, the air flows

reach highest velocity in the openings made in the same direction as the wind (Ünal, B.,

1995). The results in question comply with a number of similar experiments. (Grigs, P.,F.,

Sexton, D.E., 1974.) The studies carried out in the place with the measurements indicate

that the courtyards have never reached to the maximum outdoor temperature degree at

noontime in the hot climates in summer and the minimum outdoor temperature degree

before the sunrise. The courtyard depth in the building without opening makes an effective

variable in controlling these events (Reynolds, S. J ., 2001). However, except for the hot-

arid climates, the openings to be arranged on perpendicular surfaces with the buildings with

courtyards to be built especially in hot-humid and mild-humid climate regions will be of

great importance. Therefore, the investigation presented below is necessary to be carried out.

2. Experiment Process

This study explains the effects imposed by openings, which will be created in the

architectural mass of courtyard buildings, upon the velocities of air flows within such

courtyards, through tests conducted in a wind tunnel.

The steps of the experimental study consist of the setting up of the experiment

mechanism, designation of the reference building mass, scale model making, determination

of the model building configurations, designation of measurement point positions and

numbers, performing the measurement, visualization of the outputs and interpreting the

results in short.

2.1. Reference Building

Experimental studies have been carried out on 17 different opening configurations to

be arranged the building without (BSL-SUZ) having no openings on the mass surrounding

the courtyards selected as the reference building. The building has been considered at

original scale in 2 storey, story height being 3.00 m and building external dimensions 14.00 x

3

14.00 x 6.00 m. whereas courtyard dimensions are 6.00 x 6.00 x 6.00 m. 36 different

measuring points at X and Y dimensions have been determined in the model courtyard and

measuring profiles having 36 measuring points in Z dimension have been determined at each

of measuring points.

2. Modelling and scale models used in the experiments

The building model with reference to the courtyard has been thought to be modular so

as to see the effects of the openings on the building with a courtyard to ventilation of the

building and to easily obtain different building models to this extent.

The reference model, in this direction, has been consisted of empty boxes made of

Plexiglas material uses at 4.00 x 4.00 x 4.00 cm sizes in order to provide 17 different

courtyard configurations at various (Figure 4 - Figure 5) combinations. The model has the

dimensions 28.00 x 28.00 x 12.00 cm and the internal courtyard 12.00x 12.00x12.00 cm.

2.3. Measuring Points

The measuring axis perpendicular on the lateral surface of the wind tunnel observation

section “A, B, C, D, E, F” are placed parallel to the wind direction. The “1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6”

measuring points are on the axis perpendicular to the wind direction. Total 36 measuring

points have been determined at 2.00 cm intervals within the courtyard between the X and Y

axis directions and at each of the measuring points in Z dimension, profiles having 34

measuring points becoming meagre at different intervals have been determined while getting

closer to the floor, roof and the opening borders to be arranged on the surfaces in the

courtyard of the model. (Figure 1,2,3 )

At each of the measuring profile, total 9 measuring points have been determined

between 0 – 4 cm at 0,5 cm intervals; 6 in the section up to subsequent 10.00 cm at 1.00 cm

intervals; 14 in the zone between 10.00 and 17.00 cm at 0,5 cm intervals; and 5 measuring

points out of the model between 17.00 and 22.00 cm have been determined.

4

Figure 1: Positions of measurement axis on the lateral surface of the wind tunnel

observation section

5

Figure 2: The position of the courtyard configuration with 17 different openings

on which the experimental study is carried out on ground floor plan

3. Experimental Findings

For this study, experiments were conducted on 17 different courtyard building

configurations, and findings of the experiments conducted at heights 0.00H, 0.25H, 0.50H,

0.75H, 1.00H and 1.25H at codes BSL-SUZ, BSL-1, BSL-2, BSL-6, BSL-9, BSL-13 and

BSL-14 have been given in the following graphics (Figures 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 ,9).

The ground floor plane measurements of the building configuration (BSL-SUZ)

model without opening (compact) courtyard have been considered as the reference.

6

In (BSL-SUZ) configuration without opening; the mean wind speed at every point in

the courtyard up to the first H height is about 1.50 m/s. In the profile plane, the wind speed

between 1.25H–1.50H has reached to the 1.50–2.50 m/s value. A sudden increase in the wind

speed has been observed from 3.00 m/s speed to 7.00–8.00 m/s speed value mean starting

from the 1.50H level. (Figures 4,5,6,7,8, 9).

Figure 3: Illustration of the courtyard configurations whose Experimental results have been interpreted

In building configuration with courtyard having an up-wind opening (BSL-1); the speed

values in the courtyards have been seen to increase when the speed values compared with the

(BSL-SUZ) configuration which is the reference building. The opening in this configuration

has been formed on 3–4 axes in the up-wind region. The width and height of the opening is

at the H/3 ratio when the height of the courtyard is H. The speed value in the points on the 1–

2 and 5–6 axes, where there are no openings, is 2.00–2.50 m/s and at the same level with the

mean speed value in all points of the reference building. Whereas a sudden increase occurs in

the speed values at the points on the 3–4 axes, where there are the openings, and the mean

speed increases up to 4.50–5.00 m/s level. The opening at the H/3 ratio opened on the 3–4

7

axes which is the courtyard central axis in here has been observed to increase the mean wind

speed value in the courtyard approximately 60%. When examined the graphic values, the

values on the 1–2 and 5–6 axis are almost seen to be the symmetry of each other (Figures

4,5,6,7,8, 9 ) .

In the building configuration with courtyard having counter one opening each (BSL-2) in the

up and down wind zones; when compared with former reference building and

BSL1 buildings, the wind speed in the courtyard has increased significantly. The opening

width is H/3 as the one in the former case. While there is mean 2.50–3.00 m/s speed in the

former building cases, here it is seen to reach the speed of mean 4.50–5.00 m/s values. The

speed values on the 3 – 4 axis in the both up and down wind zones where there is the

opening has reached to a quite high value like 5.50–6.00 m/s at the ground floor level.

(Figure 4,5,6,7,8, 9)

In the building configuration with courtyard whose up and down wind zones left empty

(BSL-6) reciprocally at the ground floor height like in the others; all the points on the

1–2–3–4–5–6 axis are available at the opening level on the plan plane (Figure 5). The width

of up-wind zone which is the entrance of the opening zone with the down-wind zone which

is the exit zone is at the H and the height is H/3 ratios. The speeds have reached to higher

values in comparison with the speeds obtained in the building models with courtyard on

which the experiments have been carried out. At the level between At the level between

0.00 H and 0.50 H, laminar type of flow reached such extremely high velocities as 7.00 to

7.50 m/s. At the levels 0.50H and 1.25H, turbulence type of flow fell to velocities 1.50 to

2.00 m/s (Figures 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9).

8

A

B

C

D

E

F

123456

00,5

11,5

2

2,50.00H-BSL-SUZ

A

B

C

D

E

F

1

5012345678

0.00H-BSL1

A

B

C

D

E

F

123456

0

2

4

6

8

0.00H-BSL2

A

B

C

D

E

F

6

20

5

10

15

0.00H-BSL6

A

B

C

D

E

F

6

42

0

1

2

3

4

5

0.00H-BSL9

A

B

C

D

E

F6 5

4 32 1

02468

10

0.00H-BSL13

Figure 4: Ground plane 0.00H level Velocity graphics

Different from the other configuration explained above, in the building configuration with

(BSL-9) courtyard whose inverse of (BSL-1), openings are down-wind zone;

different from the other configuration explained above, the width and height of the openings

on the courtyard is at the H/3 proportions. While the wind speeds at the A-B-C points

between the 0.00 H and 0.50 H up-wind zone emerge at about the level as low as 1.50–2.00

m/s, the speed at the D3-D4,E3-E4,F3-F4 points close to the down-wind zones has increased

to 3.50-4.00 m/s. While the in-courtyard mean speed up to 1.25 H level is 1.50-2.00 m/s, a

sudden increase with the wind speed has been seen from the 1.50 H and speed values have

reached to 8.50-9.00 m/s. At the 1.25 H–1-50 H heights, rather high turbulence values have

been attained and almost 50–60% air flow with turbulence has been obtained (Figure 4,

5,6,7,8, 9).

9

A

C

E

6

4

2

00,5

11,5

22,5

3

0.00H-BSL14-HIZ

Figure 5: Velocity graphics at 0.25H level.

(BSL-13) building configuration with courtyard; it is obtained by emptying one box of

4.00 x 4.00 x 4.00 cm each from the points where there are the 3 – 4 axis in the up and down

wind zones, and from the lateral surfaces where there are the C-D axis. Hence, openings

were formed on both courtyard central axes in the up and down wind zone and central axis in

the lateral areas. On the ground floor level, the speed values at the points where the openings

are on 3 – 4 axis in the up-wind zone is rather high in comparison with the others points

where there are no openings. The measured speeds at the points on the 1–2 and 5–6 axis

where there are no openings are about 1.50 m/s average. Speed value changes at the points

on 1–2 and 5–6 axes are between 0.70 and 4.50 m/s and at the points on 3–4 axis are between

4.50 and 8.50 m/s. The highest speed values in the courtyard up to 0.50H level has been

observed at the points on the 3–4 axes. While the mean speed value up to 1.25 H level is

about 3.50 m/s, a sudden increase is seen in the speed values starting from 1.50 H level.

(Figure 4, 5,6,7,8, 9).

1

A

B

C

D

E

F

13

50

0,5

1

1,5

2

0.25H (3.00cm) - BSL-SUZ

A

B

C

D

E

F

1

40

1

2

3

4

0.25 (6.00cm ) - BSL1

A

C

E 6

202468

10

0.25H (3.00 cm )-BSL6

A

C

E

6 4 2

02

4

6

8

100.25H (3.00 cm )-BSL13

A

C

E 6

10

0,51

1,52

2,5

0.25H (3.00 cm )-BSL14

A

C

E

1

4

0

2

4

6

80.25H (3.00 cm )-BSL2-HIZ

A

C

E 6

2012

3

4

0.25H (3.00)-BSL9-HIZ

Figure 6: Velocity graphics at 0.50H level.

In the building configuration with (BSL-14) courtyard having opening on the lateral

surfaces parallel to the flow; the widths of the openings are 2H/3 and heights are H/3. When

these configuration measurements are compared with building model measurements with

(BSL-SUZ) courtyard being a reference building, the air speed values up to 1.25 H level and

turbulence values are almost seen to be close to each other. (Figure 4, 5,6,7,8, 9). In these

measurements, no other speed is encountered over 2.00 m/s wind speed values up to 1.25 H

level.

1

A

D

6

4

2

00,5

11,5

22,5

0.50H (6.00 cm )-BSL14

A

C

E

1234

56

00,20,40,60,8

11,21,41,61,8

0.50H (6.00cm ) - BSL-SUZ-HIZ

A

B

C

D

E

F

1

50

1

2

3

4

0.50H (6.00cm ) - BSL1-HIZ

A

B

C

D

E

F

13

50

1

2

3

0.50H(6.00 cm )-BSL2-HIZ

A

C

E

6

20

1

2

3

4

0.50H (6.00 cm )-BSL6-HIZ

A

C

E 6

10

0,51

1,52

2,53

0.50H (6.00 cm )-BSL9-HIZ

A

C

E 63

0

2

4

6

80.50H (6.00 cm )-BSL13-HIZ

Figure 7: Velocity graphics at 0.75H level

1

A

C

E 6

30

1

2

3

4

0.75H (9.00 cm )-BSL6

A

C

E 6

20

1

2

3

0.75H (9.00 cm )-BSL9

A

D

6

42

0

1

2

3

0.75H (9.00 cm )-BSL13

A

C

E6

20

1

2

3

0.75H (9.00 cm )-BSL14

A

C

E

1

4

00,5

1

1,5

2

0.75H (9.00cm ) - BSL-SUZ-HIZ

A

C

E

16

0

1

2

3

4

0.75H (9.00cm ) - BSL1-HIZ

A

C

E

1

50

1

2

3

0.75H(9.00 cm )-BSL2-HIZ

A

C

E

1

4

00,5

11,5

22,5

3

1.00H (12.00cm ) - BSL-SUZ

A

C

E

1

501

2

3

4

1.00H (12.00cm ) - BSL1

A

C

E

1

50

1

2

3

1.00H(12.00 cm )-BSL2

A

C

E

6

301

2

3

4

1.00H (12.00 cm )-BSL6-HIZ

A

C

E 6

20

1

2

3

1.00H (12.00 cm )-BSL9

A

C

E 6

3

00,5

11,5

22,5

31.00H (12.00 cm )-BSL14

Figure 8: Velocity graphics at 1.00H level.

1

A

C

E

6

20

1

2

3

1.00H (12.00 cm)-BSL13-HIZ

A

C

E

1

50

1

2

3

4

1.25H (15.00cm ) - BSL-SUZ

A

C

E 6

20

1

2

3

1.25H(15.00cm )-BSL1-HIZ

A

C

E1

5012

3

4

1.25H (15.00 cm )-BSL2

A

C

E

65

4 3 2 10

24

6

8

10

1.25H (15.00 cm )-BLS6

Figure 9: Velocity graphics at 1.25H level.

4. Comparative interpretation of the findings

Although opening area ratios in some of the building configurations with courtyard

are at the same values, the air speed incurred in the courtyard and turbulence values are seen

to be at different levels. Obtaining different values result from the position and measures of

the openings.

The opening area ratios in building configuration with (BSL-1)-(BSL-9) courtyard are the

same. When the speed values in the (BSL-1) configuration are compared with the values in

1

A

B

C

D

E

F

6

20

2

4

6

8

1.25H (15.00 cm)-BSL9-HIZ

A

C

E

6

1012345

1.25H (15.00 cm)-BSL13-HIZ

A

C

E

60123456

1.25H (15.00 cm)-BSL14-HIZ

(BSL-SUZ) configuration which is the reference building, the speed values in the courtyard

is seen to increase. While the mean speed within the reference building courtyard at H level

is 1.50m/s, it is increased to be 2.50 m/s value in the (BSL-1). In the up wind points, where

there are the openings, this speed reaches to 4.50-5.00 m/s value. When we look at the flow

values at the 0.00H and 0.50 H levels, the laminar flow type is seen. While the (BSL-9)

configuration demonstrates similarity by means of having no openings on the wind

directions, the measurements in the courtyards are seen to be different. While in-courtyard

mean wind speed on the up-wind zone side where there are no openings is the same between

1.50-2.00 m/s with the reference building, the mean wind speed on the down-wind zone side,

where there is opening, is between 3.50-4.00 m/s.

Consequently, in-courtyard mean wind speeds of the building models with (BSL-1) -

(BSL-9) courtyard having openings are almost at the same level - 3.50-4.00m/s on the sides

where there are openings. The mean wind speeds on the sides, where there are no openings,

in both configurations are at the same level- 1.50-2.00 m/s with the reference building

(Figure 4–5–6–7–8 ).

In the (BSL-2); when we compare the former building and (BSL-1) buildings, we observe

that the wind speed has increased significantly. While the mean speed ratio at H height in

(BSL-1) is 2.50 m/s, the values are seen to increase to 4.50-5.00 m/s in (BSL-2). The air flow

to incur in the reciprocally left openings will be quite high in the environment. The openings

in the (BSL-2)-(BSL-4)-(BSL-6) configurations are left reciprocally at different ratios. For

these three configurations, the wind velocities raised to high values as expected on the points

where the courtyard’s openings are located (Figures 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,9), along the heights of said

openings.

In the (BSL-13), the mean in-courtyard H height wind speed is 3.50 m/s. The speed

values at the points, where there are openings, on the 3 – 4 axes in the up-wind zones at

ground level are quite high in comparison with the points where there are no openings.

As the opening is left only on the lateral areas in the (BSL-14) configuration, the wind

does not circulate in the building courtyard through up-wind zone; thus, the wind speed

values also decrease.

Comparison of the (BSL-14) readings with the (BSL-SUZ) courtyard building model

i.e. reference building readings reveals that the average wind velocity of the air flows

1

occurring within the courtyard up to 1.25 H level is 1.50 m/s in average. In this level, no

speed over 2.00 m/s wind speed value is encountered almost up to 1.25 H level.

The (BSL-13) and (BSL-14) configurations demonstrate distinctions as per the other

configurations which have been studied so far. Since openings are formed only with the

others in the up and down wind zones; in these in addition to these zones openings are

formed on the lateral areas as well.

Consequently, the air flow in the courtyard not only circulates through up and down

wind zones, but also circulates through the lateral areas. An air inlet opening located in the

middle of the courtyard and an opening located in the middle of the lateral area of the

courtyard cause the air flow to change direction in an abrupt way after moving into the

courtyard, so that the air flow turns to the air outlet opening located on the lateral wall. Thus

the air flow does not reach to high velocities in the wind direction within the courtyard. The

mean wind speed at the points in the courtyard up to the 1.25 H height is about 3.00–3.50

m/s. In here, the turbulence values especially in the down-wind zone are at high level.

5. Conclusion

Results of the studies on the effects imposed by openings arranged in the mass of a

courtyard building, depending on said openings’ positions towards the wind and their surface

area rates, on the average velocity of the air flow occurring in the courtyard, can be

summarized as follows with reference to Figure 10, Table 1 and Figure 11.

1

Average Speed Measured on the C-D Axis at 0.00H, 0.25H, 0.50H, 0.75H and 1.00H

0,001,002,003,004,005,006,007,008,009,00

10,00

BS

L-S

UZ

BS

L-1

BS

L-2

BS

L-6

BS

L-9

BS

L-13

BS

L-14

Courtyard Configurations

m/s

0,00H

0,25H

0.5H

0,75H

1.00H

Figure 10: Changes of average speed measured on the C-D axis at 0.00H, 0.25H,

0.50H, 0.75H and 1.00H within the courtyard.

• Velocities within the courtyard, especially the ones occurring on the middle axes,

occur at high values on the layers where openings located in the wind direction are

situated, and at low values at all codes on the non-opening mass level or non-opening

structure (Figure 10). In other words, distribution of velocities within the courtyard

changes at horizontal and vertical levels depending on the position of the openings.

Table 1: Average values of all air flow velocities measured on the D axis at heights

0.00H to 1.00H within the courtyard

Courtyard configuration

Average velocity value (m/s)

Opening area (module)

Up wind Down wind

Lateral face 1 + lateral

face 2

Total

BSL-SUZ 1,40 0 0 0 0

BSL–9 1,45 0 1 0 1

BSL–14 1,74 0 0 4 4

BSL–1 1,87 1 0 0 1

BSL–2 2,02 1 1 0 2

BSL–13 2,18 1 1 2 4

1

Average Values Measured at the C – D Axis

00,5

11,5

22,5

3BS

L-SU

Z

BSL-

9

BSL-

10

BSL-

11

BSL-

14

BSL-

1

BSL-

2

BSL-

15

BSL-

12

BSL-

3

BSL-

13

BSL-

7

BSL-

16

BSL-

4

BSL-

8

BSL-

5

BSL-

6

Courtyard Configurations

m/s

Figure 11: Changes of the average values measured at the C – D axes within the

courtyard As shown in Table 1 and Figure 11:

• The non-opening covered courtyard type (BSL-SUZ) has the lowest air flow velocity.

• For opposite upwind and downwind surfaces, the larger the opening, the higher the

velocity, in direct proportion.

• If opposite upwind and downwind surfaces contain different opening rates, the larger

ore the upwind surface opening, the more the velocity increase significant.

• Contribution of the openings situated on the lateral faces extending in parallel with

the wind within the courtyard to increase the velocity is less than the contribution of

the openings situated on the upwind and downwind surfaces. In other words, for

arrangements where the courtyard openings’ areas are equal, average speeds are

lower in choices where openings are situated on the lateral surfaces only.

• For choices with equal total opening areas, the ones having openings on their lateral

surfaces and distributed on all upwind and downwind surfaces provide lower

velocities than the ones having openings in the wind direction only.

1

Acknowledgements

The indications presented in this article are based on the research project named

“Experimental Study of the Surface Opening Effects on Air Flows to be incurred by the wind

in courtyard buildings”, which is supported by Istanbul Technical University Research

Activities and constitute a basis to the M.Sc. thesis of Enes Yaşa.

References

1) Ansley, R.M., Melbourne, W., Vickery, B.J., 1977. “Architectural Aerodinamics”, Applied Science Pub., London.

2) Awbi, H.B., 1994. “Design Consideration For Naturally Ventilated Buildings” Renewable Energy.

3) [3] Carlo Ratti, Dana Raydan and Koen Steemers, 2003 “Building form and environmental performance: archetypes, analysis and an arid climate” Energy and Buildings, Volume 35, Issue 1, January 2003, Pages 49-59

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