oe iv

:mikxerdmrp cxe ,on`p acp ,oeqlcpn `xfr ,jeh l`kin

zkxrnd xikfn:aaeg l`wfgi

�Û gr dpybb"ryz Û

l ` x y i z e c l e z x w g l o e r a x

zil`xyid zixehqidd dxagdÛmilyexi

okezd

287bxaphqxet xi`i:miizxagd eixywde zi`pzd zextqa 'ux`d mr'

321xcx` mxei:mipe`bd ztewza zi`xwd dcrl zipaxd dcrd oia rxwd

351odk mzei:`nexe oeei zeaxz l` zicedid dlkydd ly dqgi :'wpr iab lr qppk'

379onbew lh:ly izextq lcenl iyi` xetiq oia :raha mippeazn micedi milikyn

zexe`pd

zxewia ixace mixtq

395jilx` ixe`:ozeyabzdae ozeedzda l`xyia rawd zelitz ,xyiilt `xfr

398litpea oae`x:Moshe Idel, Kabbalah in Italy, 1280–1510: A Survey

406x`e`a dl`:Kenneth B. Moss, Jewish Renaissance in the Russian Revolution

411ofg xi`n:1948±1933 xrepd ziilr :onfd icli ,odkd dxeac

415oc sqei:1964±1948 miazkn ztilg :qiie sqeie mely myxb ,(jxer) secf mrep

425xexc laei:dpicn oepike ine`l jepig :zclen xeriy ,ipernyÎxencz ilh

1966±1954

431xwgnd zextqn

434zkxrna elawzpy mixtq

XXIp`a mixivwzzilb

[(b"ryz) gr dpy ,l`xyi zeclez xwgl oerax ± oeiv]

miizxagd eixywde zi`pzd zextqa 'ux`d mr'

z`nbxaphqxet xi`i

dwizrd zra zicedid dxagd xwge 'ux`d mr' .`

uegny zinexde zihqipldd dtewzd on ixehqid xewn s`a xkfen epi` 'ux`d mr' x`ezd

ly ditxbeixehqida ihppinec mxeb jtd iaihwlew myk 'ux`d mr' ,z`f mr .l"fg zextql

zifkxnd dxcyl laewn iepik ynyn `ed .cenlzde dpynd ztewze ipyd ziad ztewz

egnv ,miyextd ollkae ,zepeyd zezkd .ipyd ziad ztewza zicedid dxagd ly ('oendd')

.l`xyi ux` icedi axwa dvetpd miigd zxevk qtzp envr `ede ,'ux`d mr' rwx lr1zecdi

iepikl qxcpq c` ita dzkf ,dkxc it lr dxezd zeevn z` dniiwy ,ef‘common Judaism’.2

`l `idy it lr s` ,'ux`d mr' zecdi ly dxeaib z` eyia ze`xl eywiay in yi s`

.zexiyi zeiecr dixg` dxized3

zekldd .ifkxn ciwtz 'ux`d mr'l rcep oaxegd xg`ly zicedid dxagd xwga mb

elrty in ly mnler xar l` ekxc siwydl oelg mipeixehqidl eyniy epiipra zewqerd

.minkgd ly mvnevnd lbrnl uegn4zicedid dxagd z` onceb oihxn x`iz ,lynl ,jk

inegza minkgd ly mzeknqn xrpzdy ,'ux`d mr' ly ezipaza diipyd d`na lilba

*ztewza dxdha dlik` ,ily xehwecd zceara iyingd wxtd lr qqean xn`nd ly oey`xd ewlg

.`"ryz ,milyexia zixard dhiqxaipe`d ,miizeaxzde miixehqidd dixywde zexdh zkqn :mi`pzd

zrd azk mrhn mi`xewl dpezp mb izcez .d`p dnly 'text ly dxeqnd eziigpda dazkp dceard

.zeaeygd mdizexrd lr

1:e`x ef gexa mixe`izlMorton Smith, ‘Palestinian Judaism in the First Century’, Israel:

Its Role in Civilization, ed. Moshe Davis, New York 1956, pp. 67–81; Emil Schürer,

The History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus Christ (175 BCE–135 AD), A

new English version, revised and edited by Geza Vermes and Fergus Millar, 1–4,

Edinburgh 1973–1987; 2, pp. 395–399

2) 'libx'd icedid oia ddfn s` qxcpqordinary Jew:e`x .ux`d mr oial (Ed P. Sanders,

Judaism: Practice and Belief 63 BCE–66 CE, London–Philadelphia 1994, p. 229; idem,

Jewish Law from Jesus to Mishna: Five Studies, London–Philadelphia 1990, p. 205

3:e`x .envr qxcpq ly ezcearn cakp wlg ycwen df oerih qeqialEd P. Sanders, Jesus and

Judaism, London 1985:e`x z`f znerl .Thomas Kazen, Jesus and Purity Halakhah: Was

Jesus Indifferent to Impurity?, Winona Lake 2010, pp. 272–273

4:x`yd oia e`xSacha Stern, Jewish Identity in Early Rabbinic Writings, Leiden 1994, pp.

114–119'ux`d mr' oia ddfn oxhy .oialcommon peoplezveaw cbpk mze` cinrn `ede ,

.minkgd

288bxaphqxet xi`i]2[

.miifkxn dkld5dixehqidd xe`iza zeaiyg el dziidy l"fg zextqa megz oi`y `et` dncp

.ux`d mr zekld enk l`xyi ux` icedi ly zizxagd

.zibelecezn dkean xxern 'ux`d mr'a miwqerd l"fg zexewna ixehqidd oeird ,z`f mr

ze`vei zeprh ,dnbecl ?mixcben miizxag mixywdl dl` zexewn mi`zdl ozip m`d

;ilaad cenlza wx mi`pzl zeqgein ux`d mr cbp ozetixga otec6mrn zepey zewgxd

minec md j` ,`ye` inkg ly mzpyna xwira miriten 'dxeag'l dlaw ikildze ux`d

zeccea zexeqn zeriten dnecwd dpynae ;dcedi xacn zkl dlawd ipicl zepiga dnkn

drtezl rbepd lka zecbepn zekxrd elrd mixwegdy `et` `lt oi` .ux`d mr lr cala

.ef

.xyt`d zcina drtezd z` mvnvl ywia xlkia mdxa`7'ililbd ux`d mr' exeaiga

et`y miyextdy ,f`c dycgd zixad ixweg axwa zhlyd dcnrd z` zegcl ywia `ed

.'ux`d mr'n lcazdl8ewgxzd `akek xa cxn xg`ly dtewza lilbd inkg wxe j` ,ecicl

ux`d mrn dwgxda zewqerd zekldd on zeaxy dcaerd lr zqqean ef dprh .ux`d mrn

.`ye` xec inkg ,`aiwr 'x icinlzl yxetna `ztqezae dpyna zeqgein9ezyiba ,xlkia

mipdek ly znvnevn dveawl epeek 'ux`d mr' cbp minkgd zeprhy cer xeaq ,znvnvnd

.zicedid diiqelke`d llkl `le diipyd d`nd ly diipyd zivgna lilba dlrty10

'lirt izxag gpen' ± zkynzn zizxag drtez 'ux`d mr'a d`ex xniidpte` oxd` ,cbpn

5Martin Goodman, State and Society in Roman Palestine A.D. 132–212, London–Portland

1983, pp. 77, 102–104

6mpn` ef miqgi zkxrn ,eixacl .oendd oial minkgd oia miqgid lr epeica jk lr cnr odk diry

:e`x .ilaaa wx miievn ynn ly d`py iielib la` dgezn dziidShaye J.D. Cohen, ‘The Place

of the Rabbi in Jewish Society of the Second Century’, The Galilee in Late Antiquity,

ed. Lee I. Levine, New York 1992, pp. 157–173, esp. p. 166xzeia mitixgd miiehiad .

ux`d mr :xfrl` 'x xn`' :mdipiae ,a"r±`"r hn migqt ,ilaaa dibeqa miriten ux`d mr cbp

dtek eli`k ux`d mrl eza `iynd lk xne` xi`n 'x did `ipz' ;'mixetikd meia exgepl xzen

eip ,xe`ia mr zizxewia dxecdn ,iyily wxt migqt ilaa :oixaer el` wxt ,clee i"y .'ix` iptl

lynl jk .minecwd zexewnd ly ilaad ceaird swid lr cnr ,239±231 'nr ,q"yz milyexi±wxei

ly dqbd ezebdpzd iptn dxdf`l ,zexdh zlik` ly diraa ewqr mxewnay ,xi`n 'x ixac ektd

xe`l migqta dibeqd ly i`nzqd ceaird lr cer .mitqep miilaa zexewn z`xyda ,ux`d mr

:e`x laaa dxezd icnel ly zihqihil`d dqitzdJeffrey L. Rubenstein, The Culture of the

Babylonian Talmud, Baltimore 2003, pp. 123–142

7.c"kyz milyexi ,ccl` l`xyi zipnxbn mbxz ,ililbd ux`d mr ,xlkia mdxa`

8.11 'nr ,my

9qgiin xlkia oze` mbe ,i`ny ziale lld zial zeqgeind zenecw zekld xtqn zeniiw ,z`f mr

mixwgn ,oel` dilcb cvn dtixg zxewia btq `ed ef ezyib lr .diipyd d`nd rvn` ly lilbl

.('dxdh zekld ly onegz' :exn`n jeza) 164 'nr ,f"kyz aia` lz ,` ,l`xyi zecleza

10dl`d zexifbd lky yxetna dpey`x mrt mi`ven ep` o`k dpde' :42 'nr ,(7 dxrd ,lirl) xlkia

ie dnexza lke`d odk oiiprl zerbepze`ceea dl minecd lk xiaqdl ef zyxetn dpyna ynzydl y

.'dxenb

]3[zi`pzd zextqa 'ux`d mr'289

.l`xyi ux` i`xen` ly mipey`xd zexecl cre zi`penygd dtewzd on ± epeylk11`ed

zi`pzd dtewzd seqn mkg mbe ,dzexveeid onf lr cnln epi` dkldd xqFn ly epnfy gipn

.dnecw dkld xeqnl leki12mr ly zllek dpenz llkl mipeebn zexewn jxek xniidpte`

ly mavne ,dfn ziad ztewzn dnecwd 'dxeag'd :zepey zertez cgi zexywp day ,ux`d

.dfn diipyd d`nd seqa lilbd ipa13s`e ,oendd ipa mrd iheyt eid ux`d inr ,eixacl

.mdilrn df ler elwdy ixd zeevne dxez lern exrpzd `ly14,xniidpte` ly ehan zcewpn

mr' byendcinrdl dtewzd lk jldna zizcd dbdpdd icia didy gekd z` swyn 'ux`d

.'izxagd zecnrnd mleq zizgza' dxezne zeevnn xrpzny in z`15

wicvdl ick dtwide 'ux`d mr' zrtez ly elld mixe`izd ipy oia xrtd mvra `et` ic

dkxrl zrbepd ,zibelecezn dira cer o`k siqedl yi ,mle`e .zexewnd ly zycegn dpiga

zeizkldd zeigpddy gipdl ozip m`d .zicedid dxagd zeclezl xewnk l"fg zextq ly

?ziynn ze`ivn zebviin 'ux`d mr'l rbepd lka16ebdp mnvr minkgd m` mb ,seq seq

m`d ,'ux`d mr' mnvr oial mpia epik oze`y ,zexg` zeveawn mnvr z` elicade mzpynk

?elld zeveawd ly mled xe`iz wtql dleki zlcaznde zipcygd mhan zcewp

myl 'ux`d mr' lr l"fg zexewn ly mkxr z` xnyle ef dira lr xabzdl oeiqipa

11mi`penygd zklnn ly dzenvrzd inin zicedid dxagd zecleza wxt :ux`d mr ,xniidpte` oxd`

dceard .19 'nr ,b"lyz ,milyexia zixard dhiqxaipe`d ,xehwec zcear ,mi`pzd ztewz seq cre

:zilbp`a dnqxetAharon Oppenheimer, The Am Ha-Aretz: A Study in the Social History

of the Jewish People in the Hellenistic-Roman Period, Leiden 1977gqepl od zeiptdd lk .

.ixard

12.14 'nr ,my

13ixacl .ux`d mrn dwgxdd ly zekldd on zeax zefkexn oday ,dxeagd zekldl qgia lynl jk

eywia dl` zenecw zekld zxfra ,mle`e .ziad ztewzn zenecw zexeqn lr zeqqean od xniidpte`

epi` xniidpte` ,`wr `c .(145 'nr) xeaivd llkl dxdhd z` aigxdl oda ewqry `ye` inkg

(dxeagd ly ipebx`d dpand ,lynl) ihxe`z ote`a epecip zekld eli` dl`ya drxkdl miccn wtqn

.(ccead xagd ipic) dxdhd lr dxinyd z` dyrnl dkld aigxdl ecrep eli`e

14ux`d mr axwa dxezd zrici i` `id oaxegd ixg` dnvred xniidpte` ixacly ztqep dpekz

,g"pyz milyexi ,dne`d mewiya dpai jxc :dnewzl oaxegn ,zxc` mdxa` :eeyd .(107 'nr ,my)

.293±232 'nr

15.24 'nr ,my

16cwnzdle miihxe`z zeidl miieyry miizkld mipeicn mlrzdl dnbnd drawzd ef dira xe`l

:e`x .mipey milbrn axwa dkldd lr dctwdd zcin lr zexiyi miriavnd ,cala miyrnaShaye

J.D. Cohen, ‘The Rabbi in Second Century Jewish Society’, Cambridge History of

Judaism, 3: The Early Roman Period, ed. William Horbury, Cambridge 1999, pp.

922–990; Hayim Lapin, Rabbis as Romans: The Rabbinic Movement in Palestine,

100–400 CE, Oxford–New York 2012, pp. 98–125 (‘Provincial Arbitration: Cases and

Rabbinic Authority’)sq` zexdhl mirbepd miyrnd z` .Bruce Nielsen, Earth, Seed and

Food: The Social Setting of Levitical Purity Rules in the Judaisms of the First Four

Centuries, Dissertation, Jewish Theological Seminary, 1993,oqlip ly ezprh oeivl die`x .

.ux`d mr z`neha wqer zexdh ipiipra minkgd ipta mi`aend miyrnd on cg` `l s` ik

290bxaphqxet xi`i]4[

zexewnd z` `exwl xlin hx`eihq dpexg`l rivd ,l`xyi ux`a zicedid dxagd xe`iz

.zexg` zeipaxÎ`l zeveawl zeqgiizdd rwx lr ux`d mr lr17mixyw eniiw mixrd ipa m`

lre dxdhd lr mdipira epn`p `le mdilr epbzd 'ux`d mr'y ixd ,minkgd mr miaexw

midefn 'ux`d mr'y ,dpyi dxryd zelrdle aeyl xlin z` dliaed ef dpgad .zexyrnd

,miixtkd mr18mixvepd axwa mipbRd dnc`d icaer itlk dai`d on xfbp mdil` qgide¨¨.minexde19zpgaen zizxag dveawk 'ux`d mr' z` zedfle jiyndl ,df oexg` oeiqip mle`e

,zexg` zeveaw cvl20m`ez epi` miixtk mr ux`d mr ly iedifd mvr .letk iyew xxern

jkn daeyg .`weec i`lwgd xywdl zelaben opi` ea zewqerd zeklddy dcaerd z`

meyiil zepzip ode 'ux`d mr'l izxag litext lk zewtqn opi` zei`pzd zeklddy dcaerd

.zicnrnÎzizxag zedf lk zxqg zizkld zipazk epipta riten 'ux`d mr' .mixywd oeebna21

'ux`d mr' byend ly ixehqidd xwgnl ziaihpxhl` dyib rivdl ywan ip` ,z`f xe`l

.zi`pzd dtewza22zxbqna xvep ,l"fg zextql uegn xken epi`y ,df byen ik `id izgpd

dreaw dveaw lr riavn epi`e ,'lirt izxag byen' gxkda epi` `ed .inipt izkld giy

oi` ,mpn` .zizxagd dixehqidd xwgl ekxr z` lhal ick jka oi` ,z`f mr .zxcbene

dixebhw j` ,oezp mipiipr avn ly xiyi sewiy 'ux`d mr'a zewqerd zeklda ze`xl

m` .izxagd agxna dghaa ldpzdl ick minkgd z` ynyl dcrep ef dcixtne zpbx`n

ly ycgn oebx`a etwzyi izxagd agxna miygxznd miipan miiepiy ik gipdl ozip ,ok

17Stuart S. Miller, Sages and Commoners in Late Antique ’Erez Israel, Tübingen 2006,×

pp. 301–338minkgd oia xrtd z` winrdl zywand ,zgeexd dyibd itlk zrlew zxewiaa .

izlak mnvr z` minkgd ixe`iz z` zqtez ef dyiby dcaerd lr xlin riavn ,zexg` zeveawl

:siqen `ede .onidn dipira aygp ux`d mr ly eneiw j` ,mipin`‘Or is it that the ammei

ha-arez serve as an all too convenient foil to the rabbis and as a proof that there never×

really was much of a “rabbinic” society to speak of’?

18zeawraSolomon Zeitlin, ‘The Am Haarez’, Jewish Quarterly Review, 23 (1932–1933),

pp. 45–61:mb e`x .Louis Finkelstein, The Pharisees: The Sociological Background of

Their Faith, Philadelphia 19623, pp. 754–761

19.336±330 'nr ,(17 dxrd ,lirl) xlin

20llk oi` ,mle`e .`nexc ipae `ixah ipa ,ixetiv ipa :inlyexia zexkfend zepey mixr ipa oebk

byen elek lk `edy ,ux`d mrl ,zxcben zizxag zedf odl yiy ,dl` zeveaw zeeydl mewn

.minkgd ly izkld

21lv` df micnel ,mixef` mze`a mixb md .mixagd ly mipkyk ux`d inr mixkfen miax mixwna

.(oldl e`xe ,b±a iinc ,`ztqez ;g±f zexdh ,dpyn) weyd eze`a mixgeqe df z` df mixwan ,df

ka ievn ux`d mrdn lr zrvend dpgadl oi`e ,mkgde xagd miievn mday zenewn mze` l

.jenqzy

22mewnd o`k oi` .mii`pz zexewn xgana wx oc igkepd xn`nd ,zrvend zixwgnd dyibd zygndl

dxrd ,lirl) bxaphqxet :df alya e`x df oiiprl .ux`d mr zekld zegztzd ly siwn gezipl

'l l`xyi :e`x mi`xen`d dtewza ux`d mrl qgia xreynd iepiyd lr .300±205 'nr ,(ziakek

±75 'nr ,e"qyz milyexi ,miixehqid mihaid :cenlzd ztewza l`xyi ux`a minkgd cnrn ,oiel

.199±193 'nr ,(11 dxrd ,lirl) xniidpte` ;79

]5[zi`pzd zextqa 'ux`d mr'291

miiepiy lr riavn 'ux`d mr'a zewqerd zei`pzd zecigid gezip ,ok`e .izkldd megzd

.zizxagd zxbqna ecewtzae byend ly ezxcbd mvra elgy zkl iwigxn

mirbepd zi`pzd dtewzd jldna eygxzdy gztn ikildz ipy lr cenrp mi`ad mitirqa

dcixtn dixebhw ly dzwzrd `ed oey`xd jildzd .'ux`d mr' beizd ly dpzynd ciwtzl

ipyn cg` lka .(b±a mitirq) zelcaid zlehp zaxern zxbqnl iplca izzik xywdn ef

zn` ztlgd `ed ipyd jildzd .dpey izxag ciwtza 'ux`d mr' beizd yniy mixywdd

sirq) zexyrnde zenexzd megzl zexdhd megzn zi`pzd dtewzd jldna dcxtdl dcind

mr' byend mda riteny mipeyd mii`pzd zexewnd oia gznd ik ,oerhl ywan ip` .(c

,miixehqid mikildz ly svx swyn 'ux`d23izkld megz ly ycegnd oebx`a milbzn mde

.mipzyn miizxag mixywda df24

mi`nhd on zelcaidd zxeqne 'ux`d mr' .a

dctwd i`a dpiit`zdy zicedid dxagd axwa dveawl iepik 'ux`d mr'a ze`xl laewn

`ed ux`d mr gpend' :xniidpte` ly egeqipa .zexdhe zexyrn :miifkxn minegz ipy lr

dnler fkxna ecnry zeevna zlflfn `idy jka zpiite`n ef dveaw ...lirt izxag byen

.'zexdhe ux`a zeielzd zeevn :zecdid ly25oeit`l miitivtq miizkld minegza zecwnzdd

.mdipia qgid edne dl` minegz ecgiizp dna dl`yd z` zxxern 'zeevnl ux`d mr'26m`

zexdh inegzl cgiizn `ed recn ,zeifkxn zeevna lflfny inl qgein 'ux`d mr' myd

23zeklda zexzeqd zenbnd z` ayiil un`znd ,175±164 'nr ,my ,xniidpte` ly ekxcn dpeya

'mdipia zexkpzdl d`iad `l ux`d inr mr mrbna miyextd ly mzexidf' :lynl jk .ux`d mr

lr cirdl ick oda yiy dcin dze`a daxw lr zecirn (dxeagd ly=) el` zekld' ;(165 'nr)

.(171 'nr) 'zewgxzd

24`l` dwgxda dkexkd zizkld dixebhwk `l riten ux`d mr byend zi`pzd zextqd ileya

`ziixa `ed ixwird xewnd .(xniidpte` ly epeylk 'dxezl ux`d mr') dxez cnl `ly inl oeivk

yniy `ly in `ed ux`d mry zinzq drc dtqep dileyae ,(a"r fn zekxa) ilaaa wx dritend

xarn .ilaaa minrt xtqn minkgde mipwfd znerl miaven ux`d inr ,cere z`f .minkg icinlz

,lirl e`x) ilaaa mii`pzd zexewnd ly ceaird zcin .i ,b ;d ,a zea`a riten df iepik ,jkl

xywda miriten zexewnay minecwd mb .elld zexewnd on miaxl rbepa wtq zxxern (6 dxrd

sxhvn epi`y ,(zinx`a mb ievnd) cxtp yeniy jka ze`xl `et` yi .dxez cenil ly wdaen

.zi`pzd zextqd iagxa ux`d mr zenc ly iawrd xe`iza alzyn epi`e miizkldd zexewnl

25xniidpte`19 'nr ,(11 dxrd ,lirl)±cnv lr qqean (7 dxrd ,lirl) xlkia ly extq mb .20

.(ux`d mr ly ez`neh :ipy wxt ;zexyrnde ux`d mr :oey`x wxt) df minegz

26,rny z`ixw `xew epi`) a"r fn zekxaa `ziixaa zeriten miiwn epi` ux`d mry zetqep zeevn

`ziixa ik xkip .(dxez cenlzl mlcbn epi`e mipa el yi ,dfefne ziviv el oi` ,oilitz gipn epi`

.dveawd ly dizepekz lr driavn xy`n xzei rny z`ixwa zekexkd zeevnd z` zhxet ef zilaa

dxrd ,lirl) oilhiiv wiqn zexyrne dnexz lr dctwd i`a wxe j` my`en ux`d mry dcaerd on

,wtq llkn `vei epi` dfd oeeika wqid mb .zexg` zeevne mibge zay lr citwd ux`d mry ,(18

axwzdl `ly miripna `l` zevx`d inr ly mdizepekz xe`iza miwqer mpi` zexewnd ixdy

292bxaphqxet xi`i]6[

z` hrn `l wiqrnd qetih ,ziriayd lr ceygy in lr lynl lg epi`e `weec zexyrne

yeniyd ly eizeclez dn :il`ehqwh xexia micwdl epilr ziy`x ,mle`e ?zi`pzd dkldd

m`d ?mipey miizkld mixywda eze` mixikfnd zexewnd oia qgid edne 'ux`d mr' gpena

cr mlrpy jildz epipta seygz ef han zcewp ?miiepiy ea zedfl ozipy e` reaw epaen

.eppeir fkxna cenri `ede mixwegd ipirn dk

dtewzd ly dteql cr 'ux`d mr' byend zrted z` zegcl xlkia ly epeiqip zexnl

.mipey`x mi`pz ly mzpyna xkfen xak `edy dcaerd on mlrzdl xyt` i` ,zi`pzd

:yextd cbpk ux`d mr z` miaivn mde ,lld zial i`ny zia oia zwelgna riten `ed27

zay ,`ztqez) 'oixizn lld ziae ux`d mr af mr yext af lk`i `l mixne` iiny ziay'

.(4 'nr ,onxail zxecdn ,eh ,`28icinlz ,qxg ilk ly zn z`neh lr oeica ,xg` dxwna

mrl zcreind ef oial mdil` zpeeknd dwiqtd oia dcbpd mibivn i`ny ziae lld zia

.qxcn z`neh lr eic citwn epi`y ,ux`d29bven dnecwd zi`pzd zxeqna xak ,ok m`

,ux`d mr ly ef dpekz .mixedhd minkgl e` miyextl cebipk `aen `ede ,`nhk ux`d mr

zexewna mb df llkae ,zi`pzd dtewzd lk jxe`l zxken ,dxdh lr citwn epi`y ink

.zexdh zpynay `ye` inkg oia zewelgna oebk ,xzei mixge`n30

byend ik xnel wcven df xywda .zexyrne zenexzl rbepd lka zilkza dpey avnd

z` xyewd zi`pzd dtewzd ziy`xn xewn s` oi` .`ye` xec iptl riten epi` 'ux`d mr'

zenexz zyxtd i` ly ze`ivnd .zexyrne zenexz ipiipra zepn`p xqegl 'ux`d mr'

ly ezenca mzpyna zbvein dppi` `id j` ,mipey`xd z` mb oaenk dwiqrd zexyrne

.'ux`d mr'31dwgxd ly icrlad xywdl 'ux`d mr' byend cgiizn dnecwd dpyna

,a ,d iinc ,`ztqez) 'ux`d mr lr zay zni`y' mi`ven ok` ep` zay iabl ,z`f mr .mdil`

.(85 'nr ,onxail zxecdn

27.(f ,a dbibg) 'miyextl qxcn ux`d mr icba' :dpyna mb riten yextl ux`d mr oia cebipd

.dzencwl zeqqean zei`x opyi j` ,mipta dxkfed `l `id minkgd zeny da miriten oi`y xg`n

,lirl) bxaphqxet ;49 'nr ,f"iyz milyexi ,mi`pzd zextql ze`ean ,oiihyt` megp awri :e`x

dtewzd jldna xak dpaed `ly ,dnecw dkld ztwzyn ef dpyna .83±77 'nr (ziakek dxrd

.(240±236 'nr ,my) zi`pzd

28in mb `ed ,dkldd y`xa xkfend ,xfrl` oa oerny 'xy xeaq ,119 'nr ,(7 dxrd ,lirl) xlkia

`ly dxdh dvxt okid cr d`xe `ea xfrl oa oerny 'x 'n`' :i`ny zia mya ef dkld xn`y

exn` `l` zecpd mr oilke` eid `l mipey`xdy dcpd mr xedh lk`i `l xnel mipey`xd exfb

ux`d mr af mr yext af lk`i `l 'ne` iiny ziay ,dxiar lbxd iptn dafd mr afd lk`i `l

zwelgnn mixfbp mpi` xfrl` oa oerny 'x ixac ixdy ,dwegx dxryd ef mle`e .'oixizn lld ziae

.ef oirn zwelgn xfgyi `edy dxexa daiq oi`e ,dixg`ly dklda dritend lld ziae i`ny zia

.'dafd mr afd lk`i `l' :dpynl deeyn `ztqezdy dnecw zwelgn idef

29micnl ep` `ztqezd on .603 'nr ,lcp`nxwev zxecdn ,ai±`i ,d zeld` ,`ztqez ;ci ,` zeiecr

.i`ny zia icinlzn cg` mr `yepa oc ryedi 'xy

30.a±` ,g ;d±a ,f zexdh

31mrl zxywp i`nc oiipra lecb odk opgei zpwza zwqerd `ziixady jk lr ecnr xak mixweg

weya mipwezn mpi`y zexRn yygd ,`ztqezd gqep itl ,z`f znerl .ilaaay gqepa wx ux`d¥

]7[zi`pzd zextqa 'ux`d mr'293

,oldl e`x) mipwezn mpi` eizexRy yygd sqep xzei xge`n alya wxe ,d`nehd on¥.(c sirq32

d`nehl xywa 'ux`d mr'a miwqer xzeia minecwd zexewndy dxwn df oi`y dnec

miyeniy oeebn miievn `xwna .byend ly i`xwnd eyxeya wcwecn oeirn dlery itk ,`weec

,'(ze)vx`d inr'\'ux`d mr' sexivl33zextqa eirten z` zn`ez zg` zernyn wx j`

;a ,k my ;fk ,c `xwie) xeaivd llkl oeekn 'ux`d mr'y d`xp ze`xwn xtqna .zi`pzd

xzei znvnevn zhly dveawl d`xpd lkk qgiizn `ed mixg` mixywda .(d ,eh 'a mikln

lk elld ze`xwna zieelp `l dfd x`ezl ,jk oiae jk oia .(gi ,` edinxi ;bk ziy`xa)

yi` mzql qgiizn l"fg zextqa 'ux`d mr'y drcd zgeex ,z`f xe`l .zilily dnip

.mrd llkl oeeknd i`xwnd iepikd on xfbp `ede ,l`xyi34minkgd lv` ep`vn `l ,mle`e

ahewa aven cinz `ede 'l`xyi (yi`)' ly zilxhip d`xeda ux`d mr iehiaa yeniy

.mkgd e` xagd ,yextd zlrnl cebip ± ililyd

orhn cinz `yepd ,i`pzd 'ux`d mr' ly eceqi ik ,xniidpte` rivd xak z`f xe`l

xak' :eixacl .dingpe `xfr ixtqa zevx`d inr oial dlebd iay oiay dai`a ,ilily

zeceqi oial ,mipn`p zeceqi oia zicedid dxaga dpgad yi ,ipyd ziad ini ziy`xa

.'ux`d mrl dwifa miriten mipexg`d xy`k ,milleaznl e` mixkepl xzei miaexwd35o`kn

,onxail zxecdn ,i ,bi dheq ,`ztqez :e`x .illk avnk qtzp `l` zitivtq dveaw s`l qgein epi`

"r ck ,`i h dheq ,inlyexi ;235 'nrdheq ,ilaa ;(948 'nr ,zixard oeyll dincw`d zxecdn) `

.75 'nr ,(11 dxrd ,lirl) xniidpte` ;20±19 'nr ,(7 dxrd ,lirl) xlkia :e`xe .`"r gn

32oial (b sirq ,oldl e`x mibyend oia qgid lr) dfn xage yext oia cebipdy jkl wdaen iehia

mixne` iny zia' :e ,e iinc ,dpyna `vnp zexyrnd megz z` dligzkln llk `l dfn ux`d mr

alya dpek xUrnk rcepy in .'xyrnl s` mixne` lld ziae xagl `l` eizif z` mc` xekni `l§¥z` swez eyi dycgd zixaa ,mpn` .zexdhl ezepn`pa wx rcepy 'xag' znerl ,'xyrn' iepika df

dyxtdd zaeg mvr lr zwelgn oi` j` ,miayr ipinn mb yixtdl micitwn mdy jk lr miyextd

izn) zwelgn mixxernd miiyextd dxdhd ibdpn micner jkl cebipa .(an ,`i qwel ;bk ,bk izn)

ci±h ,gi qwela .zexyrn zyxtda cgiizn yextdy d`xp cg` mewna .(k±` ,f qewxn ;bk±` ,eh

`edy jka mixg`d oial envr oia lican yextd .lltzdl mi`ad qkene yext lr lynl xteqn

yextd oia cebipdy o`kn wiqdl epilr m`d .dpew `edy dn lk z` xyrne reaya miinrt mv

d`xpy itk .'dpew `edy dn lkn xyrn' yextd ik al miyp ?zexyrnd zeevn meiwa oenh mixg`l

`edy z`e lke` `edy z` xyrn' `edy in :zexyrnd lr 'on`p'd ly ezxcbd weica ef ,oldl

gwel `edy dn z` mb xyrl xingny in ly dxzi dctwd ef .(a ,a iinc) 'gwel `edy z`e xken

epi` qwela qkend oial yextd oia cebipdy `et` d`xp .mzyxtd wtq lr jneq epi`e mixg`n

ilra :zeevwd ipy oia lcadl oeekn `ede ,ux`d mre yextd ,zeveawd izy oia lcadd z` m`ez

.o`kn ,ezepn`p xqega recid ,qkende ,o`kn ,'mipn`p'ke 'mixyrn'k milaewnd zcgeind zepn`pd

33.242±239 'nr ,a"nyz milyexi ,e ,zi`xwn dictelwivp` ,'ux`d mr' ,oenlh edixny :e`x

34cigil iepik jted dveawd myy drtezd .59 dxrd ,398 'nr ,(1 dxrd ,lirl) ynxeE xxiy :e`x

ektd l"fg oeylae `xwna llek my miynynd ,l`xyie ieb miiepika lynl ,l"fg zextqa zxken

.hxtd ly iepikl

35.20±19 'nr ,(11 dxrd ,lirl) xniidpte`

294bxaphqxet xi`i]8[

zeevna ecitwd `ly in ea ellkpe ,xken izxag cnrn did ux`d mry ,wiqdl ywan `ed

zxxern ef drvd mle`e .(dpyn) dteq cre (`xfr) dziy`xn ,ipyd ziad ztewz lk jldna

miixkpd zevx`d inr oia ,ozedna zepey zertez izy oia ddfn `id ,ziy`x .miax miiyw

k .zi`pzd zextqa icedid ux`d mr oial `xfr wa`p mnryzepey zeveaw lelkl ozip cvi ¦?zg` zkynzn zizxag drteza dl`36xewn s`n epl xken epi` 'ux`d mr' byend ,zipy

`xfr xtqa 'ux`d mr' oiay oeinca oi`e ,zi`pzd zextqd cr ipyd ziad ztewzn sqep

.zizxagÎzixehqid drtez dze` ly dzeikyndl ynn ly zecr meyn dpyna ezenc oiae

.cala zizextq `id mirtend ipy oia dwif zniiw m`y ,d`xp z`f xe`l

,dpde .yextd znerl xen`k ux`d mr aven l"fg zextqa xzeia minecwd eirtena

,'zevx`d inrn lcapd' sexivd on dlerd cebipl weica liawn yextl ux`d mr oia cebipd

.dingpe `xfr ixtqa xfegd37,ux`d mrn milcape miyxety in z` mixikfn zexewnd ipy

zinx`l `xwnd oeyln wzrnd `l` ,y"xte l"ca ,milrtd ipy oia oi` igkepd xywdae38

.minkg oeylle39ux`d mrl yextd oia cebipd z` zpbrn `ide zwdaen zipeyld dwifd

ux`d mr cbpk yext ± micnvd oia dlawdl ,ok lr xzi .ef zitivtq zi`xwn zipaza

zaiq :zexewnd ipy ly mzizyza cnerd iyily aikxn sqep ± zevx`d inr cbpk lcapde

inrn dwgxdl mikxc ly akxen jxrn mibivn dingpe `xfr ixtq .d`neh `id zelcaidd

.mdn zelcaidl mxebd `id ux`d inr ly mz`neh ik mda ybcen jk jezae ,ux`d40mixyd

36mil`xyi ly mzllkd xacae `xfra mixkfend zevx`d inr ly zipz`d mzedf xaca wtq miiw ,ok`

zaiy inia zelcaidd zl`y ?'zeixkpd miypd' eyxeb mpne`d ,xec dpipei :e`x .mkeza elb `ly

dn`zd lk oi` ,xniidpte` ly ltxernd egeqip zexnl ,z`f mr .154±99 'nr ,e"qyz milyexi ,oeiv

miyextde minkgdy dl` oial micedi eaygp `le oeiv zaiy ztewza elcaedy in oia zizxag

.oihelgl mixg` miripnn mz` rbnn exdfp

37lke') hk ,i dingp ;('mdizarzk ux`d inrn mielde mipdkde l`xyi mrd elcap `l') ` ,h `xfr

.('midl`d zxez l` zevx`d inrn lcapd

38.'`rx`c `nnr on eyxtz`e :ux`d inrn elcade' :`i ,i `xfrl `zhiytd mebxza lynl e`x

39.dpgad ly oaena `l` zewgxzd ly d`xeda ynyn epi`y hrnk l"ca lretd mi`pzd oeyla

.minkgd oeyla ycegn `ede zewgxzde zecxtid ly zernyna llk `xwna riten epi` y"xt ,cbpn

miirevwnd migpend zegztzdl' ,onpiid wgvi ;5246 'nr ,i ,(c) 'yxt' jxr ,dcedi oa oelin :e`x

oeyl ,ciecpa `a` ;108 'nr hxtae ,115±108 'nr ,(f"yz) eh ,eppeyl ,'(yxt .a) `xwnd yexitl

i`xwnd l"ca yxeyd ly dxndd .339 'nr ,` ;`"lyz±f"kyz aia` lz ,a±` ,minkg oeyle `xwn

licai f` xne` `edy itl ef dyxt dxn`p dnl' :`ad yxcna znbcen minkg oeyla y"xt yxeya

zxecdn ,hpw `wqit ,xacna ixtq) '...ocxid xara dyn yixtdy `l` il oi` ,mixr yly dyn

e`x .(225 'nr ,oihylwpit zxecdn ,dtw `wqit ,mixac ixtqa dliawna oke ,214 'nr ,uiaxed

.(c"r bv ,qiiee zxecdn) ak±`k zekld ,`i wxt ,zeixrc `zlikn :mb

40:e`x dingpe `xfr ly dibele`ci`a dxdhd ciwtz xaca hxetn oeiclSaul M. Olyan, ‘Purity

Ideology in Ezra-Nehemiah as a Tool to Reconstitute the Community’, Journal for the

Study of Judaism, 35 (2004), pp. 1–16mpi`y d`neh ly mihaid dnk lr riavn mb o`ile` .

xaca dqitzd ,ux`d z` ze`nhnd zexard megz zagxd :`xfr icia eycgzde dxeza miievn

.ezegkepa ycwnd z` `nhl ixkpd ly zexyt`de ,zipdekd zlyeyd z`neh

]9[zi`pzd zextqa 'ux`d mr'295

;` ,h) 'mdizarzk zevx`d inrn mielde mipdkde l`xyi mrd elcap `l'y `xfrl mixtqnŸŸznvren ef dprh .('oedze`nhk ...`zpicnc `nnr on ...eyxtz` `l' :`zhiyta enebxze

zevx`d inr zcpa `id dcp ux` dzyxl mi`a mz` xy` ux`d' :`xfr ly dkenqd ezpigza¦¦¦ldpzdl zxyt`n mb zelcaidd .(`i my) 'mz`nha dt l` dtn de`ln xy` mdizarezaŸªz`nhn lcapd lke dlebdn miayd l`xyi ipa elk`ie' :gqt oaxwa xn`py itk ,dxdhaª

.(`k ,e my) 'l`xyi idl` 'dl yxcl mdl` ux`d ieb41 ¥¥Ÿux`d mrl xedhd yextd oia dnecwd dpyna cebipdy `et` xxaznlr gqep `nhd

.`xfr xtqay zevx`d inr z`nehn zelcaidd zyixc ceqi42df il`ehqwh xywd jezn

ixehqid xyw lr dcirn dpi` zipeyld dwifd ,ok m` .zi`pzd zextqd l` migpend e`aed

mr .xniidpte` orhy itk ,zepeyd zetewza 'zevx`d inr\ux`d mr' epeky zeveawd oia

dppi` dingpe `xfr ixtqay zevx`d inrl dpynay ux`d mr oia zibyend dwifd ,z`f

miiebd on zelcaida d`exd ,xzei dnecw zxeqna zpbern `id .mi`pzd ly dycg dxivi

.mi`nh miaygpd micedin zelcaidd ikxc zriawl lcen43`nhd xfd on zelcaidd zxeqn

mipey miqetxewa liawna davrzde `xfr xtqn dly zekldde milind xve` z` da`y

iay' mr dxenb zedcfd jezne ,`xfr ycigy dibelepinxhl dneca .o`xnew zextq my`xae

,'dlebd44micedi mze` ,zgyd ipan od ze`nehd lkn od milcapy ink zkd ipa mnvr e`x

41i ,minid ixac xtqa zerce zepen` ,zti dxyxacn df weqt ik dxeaq ,291 'nr ,f"lyz milyex

.l`xyi ldwl etxhvdy mixba

42zxkend zixehqidd dbltnl qgeind ,'miyext' x`ezd ly exewnl yxcidl jxev oi` igkepd xywda

dveawd ly dny xaqdl mb `xfr lr eknqpy in yi ,mpn` .miwecvd mr dzeaixi lya xwira

:e`x .zixehqiddSamuel S. Cohon, ‘Pharisaism: A Definition’, Joshua Bloch Memorial

Volume: Studies in Booklore and History, ed. Abraham Berger, New York 1960, pp.

65–74zexewnd dl eqgii dveawd ly diepik zeawra .jetd zegztzd oeeik lelyl oi` ,z`f mr .

.dingpe `xfr ly lcend zeawra ,ux`d mrn dyixtd z` miicenlzd

43mixwgn :miigl dxhr ,'minrl l`xyi oia ,jyeg ipa oial xe` ipa oia licand' ,yny oxd` :e`x

,mixg`e oix`iea l`ipc zkixra ,iwqaexhinic onlf miig 'text ceakl zipaxde zicenlzd zextqa

dzeeyd jkitle izin`d l`xyik dnvr z` dz`x zkd ,yny ixacl .220±209 'nr ,q"yz milyexi

zeigpd mixywd xtqna zeriten zi`pzd zextqa mb ,z`f mr .mixkpd oial l`xyi x`y oia

oileg ,`ztqeza miritend mipind mr rbnd ixeqi`l oeincd lr riavd xnxy .zeliawn zelcaid

:e`x .503 'nr ,lcp`nxwev zxecdn ,`k±k ,aAdiel Schremer, ‘Seclusion and Exclusion:

Rethoric of Separation in Qumran and Tannaitic Literature’, Rabbinic Perspectives on

the Dead Sea Scrolls, eds. Steven Fraade and Aharon Shemesh, Leiden–Boston–Köln

2006, pp. 127–145daxw daexw ux`d mrl qgia dnecwd ziyextd dkldd ik xeaq ip` ,cbpn .¦:e`x .ef dqitzn zexfbpd dwgxdd zekldle 'xfd z`neh'l rbepa zizzikd dcnrl dxziYair

Furstenberg, ‘Outsider Impurity: Trajectories of Second Temple Separation Traditions

in Tannaitic Literature’, Tradition, Transmission, and Transformation: From Second

Temple Literature through Judaism and Christianity in Late Antiquity, eds. Menahem

Kister et al., Leiden (Forthcoming).52 dxrd ,oldl e`x df oiipra cer .

44± dcedi xacn zelibn ,'miptan o`xnew ly mlerd :dpyn oiae `xwn oia' ,oenlh edixny ixacl

296bxaphqxet xi`i]10[

`ly in lk z` eqtze ,mnr rbn lk exq` ,mpeda axrzdln erpnp md .zkl uegn exzepy¦.miiebke mixenb mi`nhk zkl etxhvd45.miyext mnvr z` epik mdy okzii s`46

en`zede eaver eay ote`d lr mb zecirn ,dllka o`xnew zextqe ,ipyd ziad zextq

xg` aewrl ozip .zepeyd zezkd ly zecnrl dingpe `xfr ixtqa oceqiy zelcaidd ikxc

dfn cgid jxql cre milaeid xtq jxc dingpn ef zil`ehqwh zxeqn ly dzelylzyd

miniiwn ea zekexkd zenecwd zekldde 'ux`d mr' byend ik d`xp ep` .dfn dnecwd dpynle

.miqetxewd oia mixkipd milcadd s` lr ,dtewzd zepa zeizzik zeqitzl dwecd dwif

zifkxnd dzernyny ,dxezd z` miiwl dl`ae dreaya zeaiigzdd zx`ezn i wxt dingpa

dl`a mi`ae mdixic` mdig` lr miwifgn ...mrd x`ye' :ux`d mr mr oi`eyipd xeqi` `id¦lk z` zeyrle xenyle midl`d car dyn cia dpzp xy` midl`d zxeza zkll dreayae

gwp `l mdizpa z`e ux`d inrl epizpa ozp `l xy`e .eiwge eihtyne epipc` 'd zevnŸª¦¥ŸŸ,zelcaid zaegne dxezd meiwl dreayn zakxend ,ef zipaz .(`l±hk ,i dingp) 'epipal

,44±43 'nr cgeinae ,48±10 'nr ,a"pyz milyexi ,mixg`e iyexa obn zkixra ,xwgn zepy mirax`

mr micwz xqg ote`a edcfd md .'l`xyi ux`l mipey`xd miayd' xeza mnvr ebivd cgid ixteq

ipira ektd md jk .da xacn `xwndy s` ef zixehqid dtewz lr oihelgl egqt j` oeiv iay

.wync zixa zlibn y`xa yxetny itk ,laa zelb xg`l mipey`xd oeiv iayl mnvr

45.`xfr lv` miievnd miyeniyl aexw zkd zextqa dwgxdd igpen xve` .(43 dxrd ,lirl) yny

zixa :mi`ad zenewna riten leerd iyp` e` zgyd ipa znerl zkd zxcbdl l"ca lreta yeniyd

rhwa .13±11 ,g ;10 ,d ;1 ,d xeh cgid jxq ;4±3 ,f ;15 ,e wync1Q34 fr. 3 ii 6:l`xyi lr xn`p

ef zernynae ef dxeva `xwna ritend ,axrzdl xeqi`d .'minrd lekn ycewl jl lcadl mpzze'

yi` axrzi `ele' :zkl uegny inn zewgxzdd ixcbl cgid jxqa cgiizn ,a l`ipcae h `xfra wx

.(8 ,h ;23 ,g ;24 ,f cgid jxq) 'ezvr mre epeda ycewd iyp`n

46aexn epyxt[y mircei mz`e' :mixicdnd zenlyd itl ,dxezd iyrn zvwn zxbi` ly dpeyl jk

:e`x ;8±7 ,b) 'dl` abl[ mdn]r `ealne dl`d mixaca axrzdn[e] \[mz`nh lekne m]rdElisha

Qimron and John Strugnell, Miqsat Ma’ase ha-Torah, Qumran Cave 4:5 [Discoveries

in the Judaean Desert, 10], Oxford 1994, p. 58mze` zxfra mlyed `ede ixhpnbxt hqwhd .(

oeyll cebipa ,o`k y"xt lreta yeniyd .d`nehd on dwgxde zeaxrzd ,mrdn dyixt :miaikx

xzei zexge`n zelibna slged y"xt ik erivd mixicdnd .zepey mikxca xaqed ,zka zlaewnd

my) miyext myd z` dvni`y zitivtqd dveawd on mnvr z` licadl ick ,x"eq i`xwnd lreta,

:lynl jk) mz` zexgz jezn miyextl dxiyi dfinxk df yeniy ze`xl ozip ,oiteligl .(111 'nr

Daniel R. Schwartz, ‘MMT, Josephus and the Pharisees’, Reading 4QMMT: New

Perspectives on Qumran Law and History, eds. John Kampen and Moshe J. Bernstein,

Atlanta 1996, pp. 67–80,miyext mnvr z` mipkn zkd ipa ditly ,ef zixwgn zxeqn cbpk .(

aexn epyxt[ede eplcaede' :zxbi`d z` zxg` milydl lbiqÎxy` xa xevil` dpexg`l rivd

miax mitexiv mpyi zekenqd zexeya .'mdn]r `ealne dl`d mixaca axrzdn [epxdfede min]rd

.o`k mb `exwl rivn lbiqÎxy` xa df it lre ,(axrzd ,lrn ,darez ,miyp) i±h `xfrl mifnexd

m` .mrd x`yn zkd zyixt lr `le minrd on l`xyi z` zelicand zeevnd lr xacn azekd

:e`x .`xfr mebxzn zexiyi o`k xfbp y"xt lretd ,ef d`ixw lawpElitzur A. Bar-Asher Siegal,

‘Who Separated from Whom and Why? A Philological Study of 4QMMT’, Revue de

Qumran, 98 (2011), pp. 229–256

]11[zi`pzd zextqa 'ux`d mr'297

,eizeevn z` xenyl awri z` deevn mdxa` df wxta .ak wxt milaeid xtqa aey driten

ixac xekf ipa dz`e' :mi`nhd mixkepd on zewgxzdl rbep eixac ly icrlad mpkez j`

l`e mdiyrnk yrz l`e mz` lk`z l`e miebd on lcad .jia` mdxa` zeevn z` xenye¦.'dnc`d on zxki erxf ik orpk zepa rxf lkn dy` gwiz ot jl xnyd ...mz` rxzz47lr ¦

.ztzeyn zelirte dlik` opiipry zelcaid zeyixc cer milaeid lra siqed oi`eyipd xeqi`

z` eilr lawnd acpznd :o`xnewn jxqd zextqa riten ef zipaz ly iyily leblb

:leerd iyp`n lcaidl yxcp zkd zeevn

lk ytp lkae al lka dyn zxez l` aeyl xq`a eytp lr m[i]wi c[gid] zvrl `ad lke

zxdhl erbi `l xy`e lerd iyp` lekn lcadl cgid iyp` zvr [it] l[r dxe]zd on dlbpd

dxez lkl mdit lr cgid iyp`n yi[` aeyi `]l xy`e cgia ez` lkei l`e ycewd iyp`

`]l[e mpedn] ycwd iyp`n yi` lk`ei l`e dcear[ae oeda enir x]eag[i] `l xy`e htyne

.ladd iy[p` l]k lr epryi `le d[ne`n mcin gwi48

eilr lawny zeaiigzda ,ef xg` efa ,hexita zexkfp milaei xtqa zeizivnzd zeigpdd

.df xywda mi`zn epi`y oi`eyipd xeqi` hrnl ,zkl cnrend49

dl` mixeqi` .ez`nehn miraepd ux`d mrl daxw ixeqi` zllek zi`pzd zextqd mb¦iinc zpyn .iznbn ceairl mikef mdy `l` mincewd zexewna eritedy mixeqi`l miliawn

.ux`d mr z`nehn wgxznd xagd lr milhend rbn ixeqi` ipy dbivn ,b ,a50xagl dneca

:`nhd ux`d mrn zelcaidd df dxwna mb zcner zetxhvdd jildz cwena ,zkd

xag zeidl eilr lawnd

gl epnn gwel epi`e yaie gl ux`d mrl xken epi`

.ezeqka elv` egx`n `le ux`d mr lv` gx`zn epi`e

'eke dwc dnda lcbi `l s` xne` dcedi 'x

l el exn`.llkl el` e`a `

47dxezl mipevigd mixtqd ,`pdk mdxa` zxecdn it lr `aen .(mibelica) k±fh ,ak milaeid xtq

.dqx 'nr ,` ,l"yz milyexi :v"c ,mipevig mixtq x`ye miaezkl mi`iapl

484QSdit lr zenlyd mr) 10±7 zexey ,`4QSbxacn zelibn ,oexniw ryil` :it lr `aen .(`

dl` mixeqi` ly ,xzei caern ,xg` gqep .219 'nr ,r"yz milyexi ,` ,miixard mixeaigd :dcedi

oeinca oc (43 dxrd ,lirl) yny .(218 'nr ,my ,oexniw) 19±10 zexey ,d xeh cgid jxqa riten

irhwl oeincd dyrnl j` ,ef dcewpa cgid jxq oial milaeid xtq oia4QSxg`l enqxety ,

.xzei wdaen ,yny ly exn`n

49lcad' :xn`p ,my ,milaeia .zexewnd on cg` lka d`neha zpbern dwgxdd zaeg ik al miyp

oiae eegzyi micyle egafi miznl' :hxetn s`e ;'...d`neh mdiyrn ik mzi` rxzz l`e ...miiebdn

lkne mz`nehn jxiqde jkxai minyd idl`e oeilr l` jxfri awri ipa dz`e ...elk`i mixawd

leka `nhe eiptl dcpl mdiyrn leke' :wenipa dwgxdd iaeig z` miiqn cgid jxqe .'mdizebby

.(20±19 ,d cgid jxq) 'mped

50,b sirqa ,oldl aeyp df oiiprl ?yextd oial ux`d mr z`neh lr citwnd xagd oia qgid edn

.iinc `ztqeze dpyn ly gezipd xg`l

298bxaphqxet xi`i]12[

zizkldd zxeqnl mitzey mi`pzd lk ik xkip ,dcedi 'xl minkg oia zwelgnd zexnl

.ux`d mr mr rbnd ixeqi` xaca ziqiqad51yygl xywp `ed mby ,iyily daxw xeqi` ¦¦:(464 'nr ,lcp`nxwev zxecdn ,h ,b) dxf dcear `ztqeza riten ,d`neh

xi`n 'x ixac zelecb `l la` zephw ± zepa odn oigwele

.dilr zlawne dlecb mixne` minkge

xi`n 'x ixac zelecb `le zephw `l ± zepa odl oipzep oi`

.eiab lr zexdh dyrz `ly zpn lr enr wqete dlecb el ozep mixne` minkge

lwp ,z`f mr .`ad sirqa weqrp jkae dkldd ihxta miwlgp `ye` inkg df dxwna mb

oi`e ...zepa odn oigwele' :minkge xi`n 'x miwlgp dihxtay ,dnecwd zizyzd lr cenrl

mr mr rbn ixeqi`k zegqepnd zekld yelya mipc `ye` inkg ,ok m` .'zepa odl oipzep¦mixkfpd mixf mr rbnd ixeqi`l zeaexw dl` zekld .oi`eyipae gexi`a ,xgqna :ux`d

lke` zgiwl ,('xeagi `l xy`e' ,'rxzz l`e') zegx`zd millekd ,ipyd ziad zextqa

gwz ot jl xnyd') oi`eyipe ('mpedn ycewd iyp`n yi` lk`ei `le' ,'mz` lk`z l`e')

.('dy`

dkldd ik xkip ,dnecwd zizkldd zxeqnl mii`pzd mixeqi`d oia oeincd cvl ,dpde

zwlegn zekldd on zg` lk .zipeeikÎcg dwgxda ztxebd zelcaidd z` dxind zi`pzd

oi` ;`nhp `ly yai lke` epnn zgwl ozip j` ,ux`d mrl xac xeknl oi` .zerlv izyl

z` xiqn `ed cer lk zial e`iadl ozip j` ,elv` gx`zdl ux`d mr ly ezia l` zkll

.(dxdh lr zexney od cer lk) zepa mdn zgwl ozip j` ,zepa mdl xeqnl oi` ;eicba

xy`e' :dingp ixacl cebipa .i`pzd ceaird ly ezilkze eite` milbzn ef dpexg` dcewpa

mrn=) odn oigwele' :dkldd zraew ,'epipal gwp `l mdizpa z`e ux`d inrl epizpa ozp `l¦¥ŸŸda`y zi`pzd dkldd mb ,zkd zextql dneca ,ok m` .'zepa odl oipzep oi`e ...zepa (ux`d

itlk myei `ed j` ,dingpe `xfr ixtqay ixkpd xywdd on ux`d mr mr rbnd xeqi` z`¦zgwl ozip j` ,zepa 'icedid ux`d mr'l zzl oi` .cala iwlg ote`a 'icedid ux`d mr'

,cgid jxqa xen`l cebipae .(ezeqk `ll) egx`l ozip j` ,eziaa enr rrexzdl oi` .eizepan

,yai lke` ux`d inr cin zgwl ozip.dne`n mdl zzl xq`p ik m`52

51z` exikd ,i`ny ziae lld zia ,mincwend mi`pzd xak ik oerhl ywap `ad sirqa ,efn dxzi

.iinc dpyna dritend dkldd

52,lirl) ixn`n e`x xge`nd i`pzd dleblb lye dwgxdd zxeqn ly iyextd ceaira hxetn oeicl

dwgxda dxewny dwgxdd zaegl miceair ly mibeq ipy `et` dlbn zi`pzd zextqd .(43 dxrd

dyixtd ikxc z` zex`zn ux`d mrl zerbepd zekldd .milaeid xtqae dingpa mixkpd on

,lirl] xnxy) mipind on dwgxdd ipica dievn zxg` dhiy .zhlgen zeplca icil `eal ilan mdn

o`k mixiihvn minkgd ,d`xn xnxyy itke ,mixkpd lr xzi miwgxen mipind .([43 dxrd

on dyixt zex`zn ux`d mr zekld ,ok m` .ldwd jezn mixg` wigxdl yi ik mixaeqy ink

xarna jexk df iepiy oix`iea ipira .mixg`d ly diigc zex`zn mipind zekld eli`e mi`nhd

]13[zi`pzd zextqa 'ux`d mr'299

lr lwdl ecrepy miipia ixcb da erawpe izhiy ote`a dnvnev zelcaidd zcin ,ok m`

.`nhd ux`d mr mr rbnd53zeawra ,cgid jxqae milaeid xtqa hlgend leciad oia xrtd ¦m` .zepey zeipiite` zeyib swyn dpyna ziwlgd zewgxzdd oial ,dingpe `xfr ixtq

dikxxid zriawl dl` zekld elvip minkgd ixd ,hlgen wezip yxcp o`xnew zextqa

okqn xacd oi` cer lk ely mia`ynd z` lvpl ozip j` ,xac ux`d mrl zzl oi` :dxexa

lcadd mr cg` dpwa dler zelcaidd zcina lcaddy ixwn df oi`y dnec .dxdhd z`

zizzikd dyibd oial ,izxag iepiy zlaedl zpeeknd ,zillkd ziyextd dyibd oia

.zqpkznd54

ea zekexkd zelcaidd zeaege 'ux`d mr' byend a`ey epnny ibyend xywdd ,mekiql

iehia `l` mrd aexl ilxhip iepik minkgd oeylay 'ux`d mr'a ze`xl oi` ik micnln

.yextl yi mdny dl` ly mz`neh z` oiivnd ,izzik ite` lra55byena yeniyd ik epi`x

lcend it lr ,d`neh ly itivtqd xywdd z` m`ez minecwd mii`pzd zexewna ux`d mr

mrl zqgeind d`nehd mb ,o`xnew zextqa leerd iyp` z`nehl dneca .`xfr xtq ly

m`e dxdh ipiipra ie`xk citwd `ly iptn m` ,epnn lcaidl miyextd z` daiig ux`d

zcin lr epcnll ick mz`nehn zelcaida oi` ,mle`e .miyextd ly dxingnd mziihp iptn

.zeevn meiwa zevx` inr mze` ly mleflf

:e`x .oaxegd xg`l minkgd ly ziqwecezxe`d dcnrl ,ziad ztewzl zipiite`d ,zizzik dtyn

Daniel Boyarin, Border Lines: The Partition of Judeo-Christianity, Philadelphia 2004,

pp. 44–67aexn miyxet miyextd .zexaecnd zeveawd ly ocnrnn raep lcaddy okzii ,z`f mr .

.micedi mpi`y ink mdipira miaygpd mipind z` miriwen j` ,ux`d mrl aygpd xeaivd

53ixcb drivnd ,zi`pzd dkldl ,sxeb ote`a zxqe`d ,zip`xnewd dkldd oia ipiite`d lcadd lr

,r"yz milyexi ,d`nehd zqitza mihaid :zi`pzd dkldl o`xnewn ,mrp cxe :lynl e`x ,miipia

.109 'nr

54dzwif aih z` oegal yi ,dzegztzd ikildz lye zi`pzd zextqd ly zeakxend lya ik ixa

dcnrd z` zen`ezd zenbne zekld cceal ozip ,z`f mr .cxtpa dxwn lka ziyextd dkldl

mipey`x mixedxd :dcedi xacn zelibne dkldd zeclez xwg' ,onqef awri d`xdy itk ,ziyextd

"dxezd dyrn zvwn" zlibn xe`loi`y s` ,epiptly dxwna .76±11 'nr ,(o"yz) hp ,uiaxz ,'

(oldl e`x) zenecwd zei`pzd zekldd ,dl` mipiipra ziyextd dkldd lr zipevig zecr epicia

:e`x dl` zeyib oeit`l .zeizzikd zeyibd oia epl mixkend milcadd mr cg` dpwa zelerAlbert

I. Baumgarten, The Flourishing of Jewish Sects in the Maccabean Era: An Interpretation,

Leiden 1997, pp. 42–80

55,266 'nr ,onxail zxecdn ,` ,b dkeq ,`ztqeza ux`d mr ly ezrted z` oiadl yi df rwx lr

ux`d inr oda exikd ,zay axrn zelecb mipa` oiqzia dilr eyake dyrn' :daxr heaig oiipra

.'zayd z` dgec daxr heagy oicen oiqzia oi`y itl ,zaya mipa` zgzn me`ivede ,mexxbe e`ae

iepik df oi` .miyxetd oiqziad zk cbpk aven ux`d mr ,dpyna mecwd yeniyl liawna ,o`k

oiqziad z` ddfp m` cgeina mixazqn mixacd .izzikd cebipd z` swyn `ede mrd llkl ilxhip

.56±48 'nr ,my ,onqef :e`x .xeaivd on eyxty miiqi`k

300bxaphqxet xi`i]14[

zelcaid `ll dxdh :zExag zekld ly oleblb .b

zegtl ,ez`neh lya ux`d mrn yextl envr lr lawn xagd ik epi`x mcewd sirqa

zextqa ux`d mrl xagd oia miqgid ly cigid xe`izd df oi` ,mle`e .ziwlg dcina

gx`zdl `lye ux`d mrl lke` xeknl `ly ,iinc zpyna miritend mixeqi`d cnv .zi`pzd

xagy dyixc lk oi` ,dpynl cebipa ,`ztqeza .iinc `ztqezay dliawnd on mixqg ,elv`

g zeidl ywany in envr lr lawny zeieaiigzdde ,ux`d mrn wgxzi.ozedna zepey xa

mixfbp `ztqezd ly dyibl dpynd zyib oia milcadd ik ,oerhl ywa` igkepd sirqa

ze`ivn ztwyn dpynd m` .dl` zekld exvep mkezay mipeyd miizxagd mixywdd on

`ztqezd ixd ,mi`nhl mixedh oia mvnevn rbna zpiit`znd ,zizzik s`e zbletn zizxag

.zepeebn zenxep zeniiwzn dkezay ,ztzeyn zxbqn jeza ux`d mrl qgid z` zavrn

migznd ,exvep eay izxagd rwxd z` epl x`zl migxeh mpi` mii`pzd zexewndy s` ,jke

xywdd itelig z` seygl miriiqn ux`d mr ly ecnrn xaca mdn milerd miiniptd

.izxagd

i inc `ztqeze dp yn :ze xagd ip i it`n .1

.on`pde xagd ly mzxcbd z` (jetd xcqa ik m`) zekinqa zebivn `ztqezd od dpynd od

a wxt i inc ,dpy na wxt i inc ,`ztqez

on`p zeidl eilr lawnd [a]drax` eilr lawnd [a]56mixac

z`e xken `edy z`e lke` `edy z` xyrn:xag zeidl eze` milawn

.ux`d mr lv` gx`zn epi`e ,gwel `edyux`d mrl zexyrne dnexz ozi `ly

ux`d mr lv` gx`znd s` xne` dcedi 'xux`d mrl zexdh dyri `lye

56ixac' d"c ,a"r l zexekaa i"yx .zeieaiigzd yely wx zexkfen 'mixac drax`' zxzekd zgz

zexdh dyri `lye ux`d mrl xyrne dnexz ozi `ly' :d`ad oeyla `ztqezd z` `ian ,'zexiag

.'gwel `edy z`e xken `edy z`e lke` `edy z` xyriye dxdha oileg lk`iye ux`d mr lv`

:onxail owzn i"yx zeawra .zExagd ixacn wlg od jenqa zeritend on`pd zeaeg ,ekxc itl

jted `ede gqep cr s` lr qqean epi` df oewiz ,`wr `c .iriax i`pzk ,'on`p zeidl eilr lawne'

on`p zeidl eilr lawne' htynd z` svxa `exwl ozip `l .xzei s` dywl `ztqezd oeyl z`

gewl 'lke` `edy z` xyrn' htynd ik ,rivdl wgcp onxail ok lr .'lke` `edy z` xyrn

idn dl`yd .zg`k z`xwpe dheyt ef dkld `weec mle`e .eiptly l` xagzn epi`e a dpynn

zxeqnd on zxxerzn mb ef diray al miyl ie`x .dgezt `et` zx`yp ziriaxd zeaiigzdd

milawn mixac drax` eilr lawnd lk' :132 'nr ,xhky zxecdn ,`n wxt ,` gqep ,ozp 'xc zea`a

dnexz ozep epi`e (3) dwc dnda lcbn epi`e (2) zexawd zial jled epi` (1) xag zeidl eze`

zqqean o`k zxeqnd .'dxdha oileg lke`e (5) ux`d mrl zexdh dyer epi`e (4) ux`d mrl xyrne

lrae ,(5±3) mipexg`d mi`pzd zyely ly dniyxd one zxzekd on xkipy itk ,`ztqezay ef lr

.dnilydl dqip ozp 'xc zea`

]15[zi`pzd zextqa 'ux`d mr'301

cvik on`p epi` envr lr el exn` .on`p.dxdha oileg lke` `diye

.mixg`ly lr on`p `di

xag zeidl eilr lawnd [b]on`p zeidl eilr lawnd

gwel epi`e yaie gl ux`d mrl xken epi``edy z`e xken `edy z`e lke` `edy z` xyrn

`le ux`d mr lv` gx`zn epi`e gl epnnxi`n 'x ixac ux`d mr lv` gx`zn oi`e gwel

.ezeqka elv` egx`non`p ux`d mr lv` gx`znd 'e` minkge

dwc dnda lcbi `l s` xne` dcedi 'xon`p `di on`p epi` envr lr xi`n 'x mdl 'n`

`di `le wegyae mixcpa uext `di `le?ilr

.yxcnd ziaa ynyne miznl `nhnzeidln erpnp `l miza ilra ly mdinin el 'n`

.llkl el` e`a `l el exn`jezay odizexit ok it lr s`e df lv` df oilke`

.oipwezn mdiza

.on`pd ly epic edn dl`ya miwlgp `ztqeza xi`n 'xe dpyna dcedi 'x57minkgd ipy

xyrn' :eci zgz `ay xac lkn xyrl ezctwdl dceqia zrbep on`pd zxcbd ik minikqn

p md j` ,'gwel `edy z`e xken `edy z`e lke` `edy z`zegx`zd m` mdipia miwlg

dpi` ux`d mrl daxwd zcin ,ok` .ezepn`p zcin lr `id mb drityn ux`d mr lv`¦,z`f znerl .eci zgz xaery dn lk xyrl on`pd ly ezctwd zcin lr zexiyi dcirn

ixdy ,ezxdh lr citwnd xagd zxcbd ly dala cner gexi`d oiipry jk lr wleg oi`

,ok`e .mpwzl ozipy zexyrnl cebipa ,`nhidl ilan ux`d mr zial llk qpkidl ozip `l

mi`pz bivn `edy `l` ,ux`d mrn wgxzdl yxcp xagdy mikqn dpyna dcedi 'x mb

.xagd ly eizecinl `l` ux`d mr rbnl mixeyw mpi`y ,mitqep

,`ztqezd ly `tiqa mbe dpynd iwlg ipya .`ztqeza xagd on zeyixca xxerzn iyewd

lr mihxt siqedl mirivn mdy `l` ,ziqiqad dxcbdl minikqn mi`pzd ,on`pd lr oeica

mi`pz ly ziaihpxhl` dxcq riztna dbivn `ztqezd ly `yixd ,dpde .dnecwd dniyxd

dpynd oia zizifg dxizq zniiw ,efn dxzi .dpynay dniyxd on znlrzne xagd oiipra

ux`d mrl xeqnln rpnp xagd m`d .envr lr lawn xagdy zeieaiigzdd seba `ztqezl

ixack ,zexyrne dnexz ecia xqen epi` wx `edy e` ,dpyna xn`py itk ,lke` xac mey

axwa zgeexd dcnrd z` dligz bivp ?zexzeqd zeigpdd z` lklkl ozip cvik ?`ztqezd

57oeird meia ze`vxd :dcedi xacn zelibna mipeir ,'miiqi`de dxeagd cgid' ,oiax miig zrcl

oia dlawdd ,122±104 'nr ,f"iyz milyexi ,xeeil awri zkixra ,wipweq l"` ly exkfl iyilyd

ezepn`p z` gikedl yxcp cnrend .dxeagl sxhvdl czrzd on`pd mby zcnln xagl on`pd

,(11 dxrd ,lirl) xniidpte` dgc xak oiax zrc z` .zexag envr lr lawl ick zexyrn zekldl

jkl xkf lk oi` ,on`pd eilr lawny mipiipra zepcd zeklda ik ,oiivl yi' :azekd ,163±159 'nr

'dxeagl lawzn `edy yxetna xn`p eilry ,xagl cebipa z`fe ,`edylk llk dfi`l lawzn `edy

,'dxeagd ipta' envr lr laiw on`pdy rivn envr xniidpte` mb jenqa cin ,z`f mr .(162 'nr)

witdl ozip `l ,izpadl .yyg ila xegql dxeagd ipa mileki ez`y jeezn mxeb oirnl jtd `ede

.zexyrn ipiipr lr on`p zeidl wfgeny ink ,'on`p' ly znvnevn dxcbd xy`n xzei zexewnd on

302bxaphqxet xi`i]16[

xaqd rivp dixg`le ,zg` dhiy llkl `ztqezd z`e dpynd z` cg`l zywand ,mixwegd

.zeixehqid zeklyd lra ,itelg

.akxene bxecn jildz xfgyl onxail z` dripd zexewnd oia dxizqd58zeyixcd ,eixacl

i`pz od ,ux`d mrl dnexz zxiqn i` e` dxdha oileg zlik` oebk ,`ztqeza zexkfend

`ed ,dxeagl sxev xak mc`dy xg`l ,jynda wx .dxeagl sxhvdl ywany inl oey`x

jeeza .ux`d mrn wgxzdl yxcpe dpynay zexingnd zeieaiigzdd z` envr lr lawn

gztl siqen mc`d mkldnay ,`ztqeza ze`ad zeklda mihxetnd ,mitqep mialy miievn

:dxdh lr dctwdd zepnein z`59

eze` oicnln jk xg`e eze` oilawn drpiva dlgzn bdep did m` ± eilr lawl `ad [i]

oicnlne eze` oilawn mlerl 'e` oerny 'x .eze` oilawn jk xg`e eze` oicnln e`l m`e

oiklede eze`.

cala mitpkl `l` ilr lawn ipi` 'n` m` .zexdhl oilawn jk xg`e mitpkl oilawne [`i]

.on`p oi` zexdhd lr s` mitpkl eilr law `le zexdhl eilr law .eze` oilawn

lld ziae ycg xyr mipy zeqkl mei miyly oiwynl 'e` iiny zia ?oilawn izn cr [ai]

.mei miylyl dfe df 'e`

zeiteqd zeaegl (`ztqeza a dkld) zenicwnd zeaegd oiay jynznd jildza ,ok m`

zExaga bdpzdl jixv mc`d ,oey`x alya :mi`ad mialyd z` xaer cnrend ,(dpynd)

,onxail zrcl miici zxdh ,'miitpkl milawn' jk xg` .(i dkld) dxeagl uegn60jk xg`e

ixg` ,seqal .(`i dkld) dxdha oileg ilke` ly zepey zexneg od eixacly ,zexdhl

,mei miyely xg`l `l` miwyn oiiprl xag dyrp epi` `ed ,dxeagl eze` elaiw xaky

.(ai dkld) i`ny zia zhiyl yceg xyr mipy xg`l wx ,zeqkl ,xenb xage

zrc lr mb dlawzd ,jex` cg` jildzl zepeyd zekldd z` zxyewd ,ef zipexwr dyib

.miaexnd mialyd z` edyna mvnvl eqipy in eid ik m` ,mixg` mixweg61oi` ,z`f mr

58,209 'nr ,e"hyz wx`eip ,` ,mirxf xcq ,`ztqezl jex` xe`a :dheytk `ztqez ,onxail le`y

.216

59.71±70 'nr ,onxail zxecdn ,ai±i ,a iinc ,`ztqez

60miicik 'miitpk' ly yexitd z` xyew ,215 'nr ,` ,(58 dxrd ,lirl) dheytk `ztqez ,onxail

xifpd zxez' :(1122 'nr ,dincw`d zxecdn) b"r dp ,`i e xifp ,inlyexid oeyll–el yiy oia

gaf z` (weqtd oeylk) eitk lr sipdl xifpd ly ezlekil `id dpeekd .'mitpk el oi`y oiae oitpk

.oldl e`x mle`e .zexedh eiciy in `et` `ed 'mitpk lra' .minlyd

61) dkipg ,zepn`p :mialy dyely lra jildz x`iz xpfeipinitiation) zepexih ,(novitiatedkld .(

e a`ede zepn`pl dkef mc`d eay ,df jildz ly mipey`xd miwlgd z` odizy zetwyn `i dkld

oke eziaay dn lkl ezctwd megz z` aigxn `ed ,okn xg`l .mixedh eidi eicie elk`ny b`ec

:e`x .(dpynde ai dkld it lr) eicbalJacob Neusner, ‘The Fellowship in the Second Jewish

Commonwealth’, Harvard Theological Review, 53 (1960), pp. 125–142xniidpte` ipira .

zebxc zxqd ly bxecn jildz mitwyn miaexnd dlawd ialy ,139±129 'nr ,(11 dxrd ,lirl)

,23±13 ,e xeh) cgid jxqa x`eznd jildzd on ez`xyd z` lawn `ede ,cnrend ly d`nehd

]17[zi`pzd zextqa 'ux`d mr'303

laxeqn jk lk jildz .dfd xefgyd ceqia ievnd iceqid iyewd z` xeztl ick mdizervda

.cgid zcrl zbxecnde zipctwd dlawa elit` ep`vn `l62zexiaqd xqegn cal ,cere z`f

mikildz ipy dyrnl x`zn svxa riteny dn ik syeg aexw oeir ,xfgeynd jildzd ly

.milcap

,dxe`kl ?'milawn izn cr' :dl`ya zgzet ,i`ny ziae lld zia mixkfen day ,ai dkld

oilawn jk xg`e mitpkl oilawne' :`i dklda exkfedy dlawd ialy lr zaqen ef dl`y

:miycg dctwd inegzl miqgiizn i`ny ziae lld zia ef dl`yl mzaeyza ,mle`e .'zexdhl

dklda xen`l xarn ,mitqep dlaw ialya miwqer mdy gipp m` ,cbpn .'zeqk'e 'miwyn'

dielz zxzep dkldd y`xa dritend dl`ydy ixd ,dlaw inegz (!) drax` xnelk ,`i

.xiee`a63yxity in yi ?'milawn izn cr' dl`yd `yep edin :sqep iyew zxxern ai dkld

,zencewd zeklda xen`l m`zda ,dxeagd ipa lr z`f64mewn did df yexit itly `l`

dnk cr' :jk dl`yd z` yxtl xzei xiaq ,jkitl .'izn cr' `le 'milawn izni`n' le`yl

.'zexag ixac ± micnrend ± mdilr elawi65lr zl`eyd ,ai dkld oia lcad yiy `vnp

.'eze` milawn' :dnvr dxeaga zewqerd ,diptly zekldl ,cnrend66

dveaiy lr miriavn ai±`i zekld ly dtivx d`ixwa mikexkd miiywd ,ok ik dpd

d`xp ,z`f mr .igkepd dxywda ,`ztqezay zekldd lkn dnecwd ,ai dkld ly ipynd

miwyn ,dlaw :gztn igpen dyely mixkfp ef dklda .ixewnd dxywd z` xfgyl ozip ik

.zeqkle miwynl (zeaiigzd=) dlawa dkexk zexagdy migipn i`ny ziae lld zia .zeqke

`ed xagd ly eizeieaiigzd zxbqna zeqkae miwyna wqerd sqepd cigid xewnd ,dpde

dielz mday zeqk ipiipre miwyn ipiipr cgi miriten ef dpyna wx .b ,a iinc ,epzpyn

cnrend ly ezeaiigzd lr dxen l"aw lretd ,`ztqeza ai dklda enk ,dpyna .zexagd

`ed okn xg`l ,zexdh `nhn `ed okn xg`l ,oihelgl `nh cnrend dligz :(d`ad dxrda e`x

zn`ez dpi`e zizek`ln ef d`eeyd ,mle`e .oihelgl xedh `ed xac ly eteqae cala miwyn `nhn

.`ztqezd oeyl z`

62;23±13 ,e cgid jxq :zkl dlawd jildz z` mix`zn zexewn xtqn4QSb 8–13,lirl] oexniw)

;(221 'nr ,[48 dxrd4Q265 4 iijxq ,elld zexewnd lkn .139±137 ,a micedid zngln ,qetqei ;

.cnrend lr dxiwge dyixce lxeb ly miaaq xtqn llekd ,xzeia akxend jildzd z` bivn cgid

ine dxenb dxdh ,dxenb d`neh :cala dxdh zebxc yely llek `ed jildzd zeakxen zexnl

:e`x zizzikd `xwnd zepyxt rwx lr ef miipia zbxc ly dzexveeid lr .miwyn wx `nhny

123 'nr ,(ziakek dxrd ,lirl) bxaphqxet±.158

63' :ef diral al my ,zil`ehqwhd ezeyibxa ,18 dxrd ,121 'nr ,(7 dxrd ,lirl) xlkia"izn cr"

.'zwelgnd rlql didy oiiprd lr zyxetn dravd `ll ...oiiprl epeyla jenq epi`

64on`pa dil oilawnc dxdha xdcfi`c dil opifg dnk' :yxtn (a"r l zexeka) meyxb epaxl qgeind

dnk ,xnelk' :71 'nr ,iinc `ztqez ,xvwd xe`iaa ,onxail ly ekxc mb jky d`xp .'zexdhd lr

.'xagl epwifgpy ick ,zexaga bedpl jixv onf

65.my zexeka ilaaa zvaewn dhiyd it lr i"yx

66'eze` oilawn dnk cr' :zexeka ilaaa gqepd icr aexa riten 'eze`' `yendy s` ik al miyp

.`ztqezd ly gqepd icr lka xqg `ed ,(119 owihe i"k hrnl)

304bxaphqxet xi`i]18[

.dxeagl etexiv lr `le67xak i`ny ziae lld zia ixaca miritend miaikxd lk ,ok m`

:d`ad d`eeydd on ze`xl ozipy itk ,dpyna miriten

b ,a dp ynai ,a `ztqez

lawndxag zeidl eilrizn cro ilawn?

epnn gwel epi`e yaie gl ux`d mrl xken epi`gl'e` iiny ziao iwynlmei miyly

elv` egx`n `le ux`d mr lv` gx`zn epi`eezeqkazeqklycg xyr mipy

mei miylyl dfe df 'e` lld ziae

igkepd dxywd jezn `ly i`ny ziae lld zia zwelgn z` yxtl yiy `et` d`xp

.dpynd rwx lr zexiyi `l` `ztqeza68jixv xag zeidl ywand mc` ,dpynd it lr

:dl`yd `et` zxxerzn .gexi`e lke`a xgqn :ux`d mr mr rbn ly mibeq ipyn rpnidl¦dpyi `ny e` ,xag x`eza diikf myl ux`d mr mr mixywd mevnv lr dxdvda ic m`d¦dn ,efky dtewz zyxcp ok` m`e ?ef zeaiigzd gikedl mc`d yxcp dkldnay dtewz

envr lr lawl mc`d jixv onf dnk :mzl`ya i`ny ziae lld zia miwlgp jk lr ?dkxe`

:dpynay zekldd xcq z` zen`ez mdizeaeyz ?xag aygiiy iptl elld zewgxdd z`

`ede ,gexi`l dxikn oia lcad miiw i`ny zia zrcl .zeqk okn xg`le dpey`xa miwyn

ineiÎmei `ed erahny ,ux`d mr mr xgqnn yceg jynl zerpnidd .dwgxdd ite`n raep¦znerl .xagd ly zycegnd zixgqnd zepbx`zdd z` gikedl ick dwitqn ,diignl igxkde

.xagk mc`d wfged df jildz ly eteqa .xzei dkex` dwica jixvn gexi` ,z`f69

ux`d mr zeclez z` xi`n dpynd rwx lr lld ziae i`ny zia zwelgn ly dxe`ia

jka yie ,i`ny ziale lld zial zncew dpynay dkldd ,ziy`x .zenilyn zepiga izyn

zelcaidd zxeqnle ipyd ziad ipa ly mnlerl ef dpyn ly dzekiiy z` zn`l ick

dkldd oiay xrta ,jkl xarn .mcewd sirqa dagxda dx`ezy itk ,ef dtewzn zxkend

67drax` eilr lawnd' :`ztqeza b dkld ly laxeqnd geqipa swzyn l"aw lreta letkd yeniyd

lr .`ztqezd jynda `i±i zeklda mb riten letkd yeniyd .'xag zeidl eze` milawn mixac

zeklydd lr .df lreta odly labend yeniya zexkip `ztqeza ai dklde dpynd df rwx

.86 dxrd ,oldl e`x dxeagd cqen ly ezegztzd zpad lr jkl yiy zeixyt`d

68oebk ,mixwn mpyi ik epi`x .`ztqeze dpynd iqgi xaca zncwen dgpd lk gipn ippi` o`k ixaca

zeticr oi`e ,zwelgn dze` ly zepey ze`qxb zebivn `ztqezde dpynd mday ,on`pd zxcbda

ly zekexr zegte zenecw zexev `ztqeza `evnl miywand mb ,caa ca .dzxag ipt lr zg`l

.dpyna zenecw zekld lr zeaqen eidi `ztqeza zeklddy zexyt`d mvr lr miwleg mpi` ,dkldd

sexiva `ztqezde dpynd zeliawn ,oey`x gqt zkqn :`zwizr `ztqez ,oncixt 'i `ny :e`x

.10 'nr ,a"qyz ob znx ,illk `ean

69mc`d dkldnay ,zepbx`zdd ztewza o`k xaecny ,iaihpxhl` xaqd rivdl did ozip ,dxe`kl

md) dlwnl i`ny zia zrc z` jted df xaqd mle`e .miiyi`de miixgqnd eixyw z` wzpl yxcp

.xiaq zegt `ed jkitle (zepbx`zd onf xzei mixyt`n

]19[zi`pzd zextqa 'ux`d mr'305

ux`d mr zekld ly inpicde dpzynd oiite` dlbzn `ztqeza zxge`nd efl dnecwd

.izxagd oxywda

:zexagd cqen ly zecbepn zeqitz izy zebviin (ai±`i) `ztqeza zekenqd zekldd izy

jildz z` zx`zn `i dkld .ux`d mrn zizxag zelcaid znerl dxdh iigl dxykd

.'miitpk' zxdh lr citwdl cnel `ed ,ziy`x .dxdh lr citwdl ywand mc`d ly dxykdd

,'miitpk' yxtl yiy xazqn j` ,miici zxdhl ixethn iehiak z`f yxit onxail ,xen`k

.micbad zxdh jxc lr ,mixg` mipyxt zeawra70micba zxdh :xken cnv milawn ep` jka

.'zexdh' ,milk`n zxdh okn xg`le71xzeia xeng qxcn z`neha `nhpy cba ly epic

didi ozipy iptl ,zecipe miaf mr rbna lynl ,cbad on d`nehd weliql be`cl yi jkitle

xagd zxykd jildz .dlw d`neha oitiwra s` mi`nhpd ,milk`nd zxdh lr citwdl

`vei ligzd' :ezxdh lr xenyl cneld cli xaery jildzl dnec ef dkldaqpkpee icba

mixedheteb z` xenyl rcei did ...okin l`xyi erpnp `le zexdh eiab lr oiyer oi`e

eteb ab lr oilke`zexdh.'...72zxdh lr dctwdl zncew micbad zxdh lr dxinyd

dxykda llk miwqer mpi` ,i`ny ziae lld zia mb dz`e ,dpynd z`f znerl .milk`nd¦ux`d mr ly miwynn rpnidl yxcp xagd .ux`d mr z`nehn zewgxzda `l` dxdh iigl

,(milk`nl miitpkd on) dxykdd xcq z` dbivnd ,`i dkldl cebipa .ezeqkn wgxzdle

miwynd ef zxbqna .eicbane ux`d mr ly eilk`nn zipnfÎea dwgxd zyxec ai dkld

.xzeia ddeabd zepneind znx z` miyxec mdy s` mipey`x mixkfen

,xen`k .xg` oiiprn mb cenll ozip ,dxdh iigl dxykdk ,`ztqeza jildzd ite` lr

zeniyx oia lcadd z` znwnnd ,zihqipenxd dcnra mifge` eizeawra mikledde onxail

z` envr lr lawn mc`d .jildzd ly eizevw ipya `ztqezae dpyna zeaiigzdd

`l` dpedk zepzn zzl `l (`) :dxeagl uegn ezeida cer `ztqeza zeritend zeieaiigzdd

70miitpk zernyny rivd ,121 'nr ,(7 dxrd ,lirl) xlkia ,z`f znerl .(58 dxrd ,lirl) onxail

etpka rbpe ecba spka ycw xya yi` `yi od' :ai ,a ibg ly epeyl ceqi lr ,zeqkd zxdh `id

dxekf` itl od `xwna dirten it lr od .heytd xaqdd ok` edf .'oiid l`e cifpd l`e mgld l`

xtqa zx`ezny itk ,milk`n e` sqk dkeza xexvl x`yd oia dyniy cbad spk ,zi`pzd zextqa

yygn zeiwy jeza lke` lr mixney ep`y enk .cbad spk jeza ycewd xya ly ezxixv ibg

ewigxdl ick ca jeza mdilk`n lr xenyl mipencwd mb ewwfp jk ,jelkl mr rbna `eai `edy

xexa dzrn .mi`pzd ztewza dxdh ilke` mb ebdp jke ibg lv` xkfend odkd bdp jk .d`nehd on

cbad z`neh ixdy ,'on`p oi` zexdhd lr s` miitpkl eilr law `le zexdhl eilr law' :htynd

liql be`cl yi jkitle ,xzei dxengzxdh lr dctwdd iptl cer cbad z` z`nhnd d`nehd we

.milk`nd

71,d zexdh ;b ,` zenai ,dpyn :lynl e`x .xedh lke` `ed mewn lka 'zexdh' byend zernyn

mrl xag xn`i `l' :72 'nr ,onxail zxecdn ,k ,a iinc ,`ztqez ;a ,` dcp ;(zexdh oiyer) e±b

;73 'nr ,` ,b ,my ;'ux`d mr cia zexdh oiglyn oi`y ,xag ipeltl oze ef xkk jlid ux`d

.375 'nr ,a ,` dbibg ,`ztqez

72.663 'nr ,lcp`nxwev zxecdn ,i ,b zexdh ,`ztqez

306bxaphqxet xi`i]20[

;e`nhiiy yygn ux`d mr lv` eizexdh oikdl `l (a) ;xag odekl73oileg lek`l (b)

ef drvdy `l` ,ezxdh znx z` xiabn mc`d dxeagl zetxhvdd xg`l ,mzhiyl .dxdha

j` ,'zexdh' jk xg`e 'miitpk' envr lr lawn cnrend ,`i dkld it lr .dceqin ziywen

ick !jildzd zligz iptl cer dxdha lek`l yxcp xak cnrend ,onxail ly ekxc itl

'zexdhl dlaw' oial (a dkld) 'dxdha oileg lke`' oia oigadl onxail wgcp df iyew xeztl

.(`i dkld)74ollkae ,envr lr lawn cnrendy zeieaiigzdy zehyta gipdl ozip ,oiteligl

opi` ,dxdha oileg zlik`e zexdhd lr dxinymicwn i`pz,onxail zrck ,zetxhvdl

od `l`ziteqd zilkzdzeawra wx ,zexg` milina .xag aygidl ywan mc`d dnyly

lr laiwy zeieaiigzd oze` yeninl zyxcpd zepneind z` gztn `ed dxykdd jildz

in elit` .eilk`n zxdhl xaer okn xg`le ecba zxdha ligzn mc`d .dligzkl envr

`edy cr ,dxeagl sxhvn `edy xg`l cenll jiyndl jixv ,dligzkln drpva bdep didy

.dxykdd jildz ly eteqa dxdha oileg lke`l jted

ly zepey zeqitz zetwynd ,zexewn ly zeveaw izy `et` zellek `ztqezde dpynd

zcxtp dveaw envr lr lawn xagd odn zg` lka .ux`d mrl qgid lye zexagd cqen

`ly mc` ekldnay jildz zx`zn `ztqezd .zepey zexhnl z`f dyer `ede zeaeg ly

dpi` dpynd eli`e ,jk myl zyxcpd zepneind z` gztn dxdh lr dligzkln citwd

mrn dwgxd zleki gikedl yxcp mc`d xag aygidl ick .dxdhd zbyd mvra llk zwqer

erbn z` mvnvl gilvd mc`dy rbxn .zexdhd lr on`p aygp `ed z`f zeawrae ,ux`d

.zexdh ipiipra zixeaivd ezepn`pa wtwtl oi` zexdhd lr miceygd mr

mrl zzl zxqe` dpynd m` .ux`d mrl qgia cgeina hlea `ztqezl dpynd oia gznd

zpizpl wx mvnevn `ztqeza xeqi`d ixd ,('yaie gl el xken epi`') lke` ly beq lk ux`d

`ny ux`d mrl xeqnl miyyeg ep` ,dyecw mda yiy ,dl` milk`n wx .xyrne dnexz

73:qetcde hxetxr i"k z` sicrne ,'ux`d mrl zexdh dyri `lye' :dpie i"k gqep z` dgec onxail

dyery xagd zbxcnl ribd `l `ed jkitle xag epi` oiicr mc`d ,ekxc itl .'ux`d mr lv`'

ynn ly lcad oi` ,izrcl .(73 'nr ,onxail zxecdn ,` ,b iinc ,`ztqez) ux`d mr xear zexdh

.95 dxrd ,oldl e`x .cg` oiiprl zepeekn odizye ze`gqepd oia

74dxrd ,lirl] dheytk `ztqez) dxdha oileg zlik` ly zenx oia dpgadd lr zqqean drvdd

ecitwd `l j` dxdha elk` ,'zqpkd ipa' mr ddfn onxaily ,xzei dkenpd dnxa .(215 'nr ,` ,[58

,`"r bk ,b a iinc ,inlyexi) 'zexyrn'e 'zehqid' ,'zetcn' oebk ,mixag ly zecgein zexngd lr

ztqez envr lr lawn mc`d dxeagl zetxhvdd xg`l .(124 'nr ,zixard oeyll dincw`d zxecdn

zeveaw izy exvep jke ,mzq dxdha oileg ilke`n mixagd z` zelicand zeizcewp zexngd ly

`l` zexzi zexngd mibviin mpi` inlyexia miritend mibyend ,`wr `c .dxdha milke` ly

epi`e iwa epi` ux`d mr ,mnvr mii`pzd zexewnd itl ,mdil` qgiay minegz ly zxken dniyx

zxecdn ,a ,a iinc ,my ;670 'nr ,lcp`nxwev zxecdn ,c ,h zexdh ,`ztqez ;` ,i zexdh) on`p

ick ux`d mr cenll jixvy zebdpdd z` dxicbn dl` minegz zniyx ,ok m` .(68 'nr ,onxail

z`nehne scn z`nehn wgxzdl cenll eilr .ux`d mr aygidl wiqtdle dxdhd lr xenyl lkeiy

.zexyrnd zxdh lr xenyle hqid

]21[zi`pzd zextqa 'ux`d mr'307

cnel `ede ,cala xagd ly elk`nl zlaben oilegd zxdh lr zeixg`d ,cbpn .m`nhi

oi` `ztqezd it lr ,eppeica xzeia zifkxnd dcewpd efe ,dyrnl .dxdha oileg lek`l

z` `nhiy yygd hrnl ,zixgqn `le zizxag `l ,llk ux`d mrn wgxzdl yxcp xagd

oaenk zegipnd ,`ztqezay zekldd x`yn dlerd dpenzd mb ef ,dpde .dpedkd zepzn

.df lv` df migx`zne miybtp ux`d mre xagy eil`n75dpyna zExagd ly dzedn ,ok m`

dxdh lr ziyi`d dctwdd zybcen `ztqeza eli`e ,ux`d mrn dtiwnd dwgxdd `id

.xyrnde dnexzd zxdh lr zeixg`de

mi izxag mixywd ipy oia zexag ze kld .2

dl` mixe`iz ,izprhl .zExagd cqen ly mipey mixe`iz `et` mirweyn zi`pzd zextqa

eavery gipp m` `l` mze` oiadl ozip `l ok lre ,mihxta wx mdipia miwlgp mpi`

,xniidpte`e oel` oebk ,miax mixweg .mipey miizxag mixywda76'dxeag'd ik egipd ¤zkl zepiga dnke dnkn dncy ,ziad ztewzn mecw cqen `id zi`pzd zextqa zx`eznd

,z`f znerl .cgidzeawra ,oaxegd xg`l wx ecqep zexeagdy dpexg`l rivd mieapxia

`ye` xecae dpai xeca oxewn zExagd zekld lk ,eixacl .dxdhd ipic lr dctwda oeitxd

.jkl zicerii zxbqn zxivi zervn`a dxdhd ipic z` miiwl mixagd lr lwdl ecrep ode77

z` zedfl epicia yiy dnec ,eprvdy zexewnd zcxtde il`ehqwhd gezipd rwx lr ,mle`e

.xagd ly zekldd eaver mkezay miizxagd mixywdd oeebn78

zia ixac mb d`xpd lkk miaqen odilry ,b ,a iinc zpyna xagl zepzipd zeigpdd

zecdi ly izzikd xywdd z` oixyina zen`ez ,(ai ,a my ,`ztqez) i`ny ziae lld

elld zekldd zveaw ly dz`eeydn dler jk .mcewd sirqa x`ezy itk ,ipyd ziad

inkg ly myxcn zian zexge`nd dxeagd zekldl cebipae ,o`xnewn mikxqd zextql

zeaxzd z` llkk zen`ez dxeagl dlawd zekldy ,zgeexd dprhd enk `ly .`ye`

75± gi ,a :lynl e`xayei e` ynyn didy xag ± g±e ,b ;ux`d mr lv` cnely xag ly epa

.ux`d mr ly e`zyna

76.142±140 'nr ,(11 dxrd ,lirl) xniidpte` ;161 'nr ,(9 dxrd ,lirl) oel`

77zcear ,ipy zia inia l`xyi ux`a zicedid dxagd axwa sebd zxdh lr dctwdd ,mieapxia opg

.55±54 'nr ,e"qyz ,milyexia zixard dhiqxaipe`d ,xehwec

78mixacd j` ,diite`ae dxeagd ipica eygxzdy miiepiy lr zeizcewp zexrd mixwegd lv` ep`vn

cinlz m` dl`ya mi`pzd oia zwelgnd ,lynl ,jk .zyaebn zixehqid dpenz ickl mitxhvn mpi`

lr dyxtzd (71 'nr ,onxail zxecdn ,bi ,a iinc ,`ztqez) zexag ixac eilr lawl jixv mkg

bviin ,eilr lawl jixv epi` mkg cinlzy xeaqd ,le`y `a` .xge`nl mcwen oia lcadd rwx

.(216 'nr ,` ,[58 dxrd ,lirl] dheytk `ztqez) ziad ztewzn dnecw zxeqn onxail zrcl

,`weec xge`n aly zbviin dxeagl zetxhvda mkg cinlz lr dlwddy xeaq ,z`f znerl ,jaxe`

,e"nyz milyexi ,zerce zepen` iwxt :l"fg ,jaxe` '` mixt`) xzei zevetp ektd zexeagd eay

.153±152 'nr ,(11 dxrd ,lirl) xniidpte` :mb e`x .(524 'nr

308bxaphqxet xi`i]22[

,ziad ztewza l`xyi ux` icedi ly zizzikd79oeinc miiw ik zcnln zwiecn d`eeyd

.i`ny ziae lld zia zwelgne dpynd :dnecwd zexewnd zveawa wx ynn ly

yxcp cnrend cgid zcrl dlawd jildza .zecnren ztewz ly dneiw mvr ,ziy`x

lxebd `vi xy`ke eixac lr lekd el`ype' :ogape wcap `ed mday mialy xtqn xearl

.'wgxi e` axwi cgid zvr lr80sxevn `ed ,dpy okxe`y ,dl` ogan zetewz zeawra

mzpyna wxy cnln dliawnd zi`pzd zextqa oeird .miaxd iwynl jk xg`e miaxd zxdhl

lr xzi .dpy ly e` yceg ly ,zxcben zecnren ztewz driten i`ny ziae lld zia ly

.zecnrena e` dpiga ztewza jexk zetxhvdd jildz ik dpnn rnzyny dcigid dkldd ef ,ok

milawn' oiipra diipyde 'oicnlne oilawn' oiipra dpey`xd ,`ztqeza zekenqd zekldd

cnn lk oda oi` j` ,dxykd jildz mpn` zex`zn ,'zexdhl milawn jk xg`e miitpkl

.aevw onf oda oi`y i`ceeae ,dpiga ly81

rbnd ,recik .dxeagle cgil dlawd jildza migll miyai milk`n oia dpgadd ,zipy

rbna mixzen zka mixenb mixag wx jkitle ,ddeab dxdh zbxc wwef mixedh miwyn mr

.'miaxd dwyn' mr82ziae lld zia ixacae ,b ,a iinc zpyna driten dliawn dpgad

,ux`d mr icia mb xedh xzepy ,yai lke` ux`d mrn lawl ozip .dilr miaqend i`ny

xnyidl mileki miyai milk`n ,ok m` .eicin e`nhp i`ceeay ,miwyne migl milk`n znerl

zcgiin miwynd zxdh lr dctwdd eli`e mixedh zegt miyp` ly mdicia dxdha

dxdhd ly zenxd izy ,z`f znerl .miwizeed cgid ixag z` s`e ezaiaqn xagd z`

zeynyn opi` ,(milk`n=) 'zexdh'e (micba=) 'miitpk' ,`ztqeza dkenqd dklda zexkfend

daiaql zekiiy dl` zebxc .cgid l` mieelpd ly dxdhd zbxc zriawl zizzikd zextqa

bedpl cnely in lye clid ly dxykdd jildzl zeipiite` od ,epi`xy itke ,zxg` zizkld

.dxdha

jxq it lr .dnecwd dkldl dpynd z` zxyew zelcaidd zaeg ly dzeicrla ,ziyily

oiiprl zepeekn olek j` zeieaiigzd ly dxcq envr lr lawn cgid zcrl sxhvnd ,cgid

:leerd iyp` lkn lcaidl ± cg`

79:e`xSaul Lieberman, ‘The Discipline in the So-Called Dead Sea Manual of Discipline’,

Journal of Biblical Literature, 71 (1952), pp. 199–206dxeagd oia mieeynd mixwgn zxiwq .

:e`x zibeleceznd mkxc ly d`eeyde cgid oiaeSteven D. Fraade, ‘Qumran Yahad and

Rabbinic Haburah: A Comparison Reconsidered’, Dead Sea Discoveries, 16 (2009), pp.

433–453aly dxeaga d`xy oiaxe ,ipy zia zezk cvl dxeagd z` aivdy ,onxail znerl .

oiae cgid ly zlcaznd dyibd oia xrtd z` yibcn (61 dxrd ,lirl) xpfeip ,cgid ly mecw

.dxagd llka iepiy ripdl dxeagd ly oeiqipd

80.(220 'nr ,[48 dxrd ,lirl] oexniw zxecdn) 16±15 zexey ,e xeh ,cgid jxq

81,onxail zxecdn ,c ,b iinc ,`ztqez) i`ab jtd xagdy dxwna zixyt` dxeagd on diigc mb

.'ezxeagn eze` oigec' :(74 'nr

82.(220 'nr ,[48 dxrd ,lirl] oexniw zxecdn) 21±20 zexey ,e xeh ,cgid jxq

]23[zi`pzd zextqa 'ux`d mr'309

xy`e ...dryxd jxca mikledd lerd iyp` lekn lcadl eytp lr zixaa miwi xy`e

cgid iyp`n yi` aeyi `l xy`e ...xac lka epnn wgxi ik ...epedae ezceara enr cgii `l

`el xy` dne`n lek mcin gwi `ele dzyi `le lek mpedn lkei `el xy`e ...mdit lr

...xigna83

.`nhd ux`d mrn zelcaidd :dnecwd dpynd it lr zExagl dlawd zivnz mb ef

aeyl ozip ipyd ziad zecdi ly dnlera dl` zekld ly izzikd xywdd rwx lr

zelitk lr cenrl yi jk myl .ziyextd zizxagd zxbqna 'zExag'd ly daih z` oiit`le

yxcp miyextd xwgn .yexte xag :mecwd i`pzd caexa df cvl df miynynd mibyend

.dpyna mipecpd mixagd oiae ef dveaw oia qgid zl`yl zeax84zekld z` epcceayn ,dzr

izzikd xywda elld zeveawd izy oia qgid ly xe`iz rivdl epicia yi ,zenecwd zExagd

iaven yextd od xagd od ,dnecwd dklda .ziad ztewz ly,`nhd ux`d mrl cebipa m

lke` epi`e ux`d mr icban wgxzny ink x`ezn yextd .mipey mixywda mixkfen md j`

zxecdn ,eh ,` zay ,`ztqez ;f ,a dbibg ,dpyn) eilk`n z`e eicba z` `nhiy yygn ez ¦̀ezaiaqn envr z` lican `ed .envr zxdhl dpezp yextd ly ezb`c .(4 'nr ,onxail

,dxdh lr micitwn mpi`y ,mixg`d miaygp eipirae ,ely ddeabd dxdhd zbxc zervn`a

zewgxd zeqgein xagl ,yextd znerl .miyextd zkl ixyt` oeit` hlgda edf .ux`d mrl

,ux`d mr mr ixgqne izxag rbn lk ly ipeviw mevnv zellekd ,zkl zewigxn zeizxag¦.on`pk rcep `ed ozekfae

,dxdh lr mzctwdae mdiig gxe`a ecgiizdy ,miyextd ly illkd mxfd jezay xazqn

on dwgxd ly zepey zenx eniiwzd ,miyhyehne miagx eizeleab eid mixacd rahny s`

lbrn z` dpiit`e miax axwa zyxyen dziid dxdhd lr ziyi`d dctwdd .d`nhd daiaqd¦envr lr lawl yxcp `l ,zcgein zepn`pa zekfl ywiay in ,jkitl .minkgde miyextd

epi`y inn zhlgen zelcaid zervn`a ,ogaen cnrna xcbzdl `l` dxdhd lr dxinyd z`

830 zexey ,d xeh ,my.(218 'nr) 17±1

84mieapxia :e`x mi`pzd zextqa mixagl miyextd oia qgid `yepa xagnd ly dtiwn zxiwqe oeic

,mixagd oial miyextd oia zedfl yi m` dl`ya ewlgp mixwegd .59±29 'nr ,(77 dxrd ,lirl)

laewn zeveawd oia iedifd .ziyextd zedfl zifkxn dxdhd dziid dcin efi`a mzkxrdl m`zda

scxp my md mixagd ,398 'nr ,a ,(1 dxrd ,lirl) xxiy it lr ,lynl ,jk .dtewzd xwga xzeia

lkn miyextd z` wzpn `ede ,zeveawd izy oia oihelgl cixtdl rivn oiwaix ,cbpn .miyextl

) dxdhl zekiiyElias Rivkin, ‘Defining the Pharisees: The Tannaitic Sources’, Hebrew

Union College Annual, 40–41 [1969–1970], pp, 205–249xeaq ,z`f znerl ,mieapxia .(

miyextd lr zexewnd ,eixacl .zepey zetewzl mikiiy mdy `l` dxdh lr ecitwd el`e el`y

day ,oaxegd xg`ly dtewzl mlek mikiiy mixagd lr zexewnd eli`e ziad ztewz z` min`ez

zegcl mieapxia wgcp ezhiy zxbqna .dwfgl ick enwed zexeagde dylgp dxdhd lr dctwdd

,icn dtixg ef dprh ,izrcl .(56 'nr ,my) dpai ztewzl i`ny ziale lld zial miqgeind zexewn

.dnecwd dklda mixagd zegkepn mlrzdl ozip `le

310bxaphqxet xi`i]24[

.ezxdh lr citwn85zepn`pa xeaiva drcepy ,zinipt zecb`zd mixaga `et` ze`xl ozip

.mci zgzn `veiy dn lk ly dxdhd zxinyae dxdhl86

,a iinc `ztqeza dritend zeieaiigzdd zxcq ,minecwd zExagd ipiit`nl xenb cebipa

`ztqeza zetqep zeklda mbe df xewna .ux`d mrn zelcaid ly aikxn lk zllek dpi` ,b

`nhi `l enr ybtnay xdfidl wx eilr .ux`d mr mr miiyi` mixyw miiwl jiynn xagd¦oaenk dgipnd ,`ye` inkg ly zexdh zpyn z` zn`ez ef avn zpenz .eizexdh z` dld

z` ux`d mr ly eziaa ciwtdl leki s` xagde xagd ly eziaa ievn ux`d mry eil`n

.eicba z`e eilk87xagd oae ,zeveawd oia oi`eyip ixyw zx`zn iinc `ztqez ,efn dxzi

.ux`d mr lv` cenll jled s`88

ep` ,zi`pzd dtewzd seqa lilba eavery ,`ye` inkg ly xagd zeklda ,ok m`

scxp iepikl 'xag' gpend jtd dl` minkg ly mzpyna wx .ycg izxag jxrnl mirceezn

`edy jez ,cgein miig gxe` envr lr lawl yxcp `ed jk myl .dxdh lr citwny inl

eilke`e eicba zxdh lr xenyl cnel `ed ef zxbqna .jkl eze` dxiyknd dxeaga xfrp

lr xenyl mircei mpi`y `l` ,dpiga lkn el miaexwd ,ux`d inr ly mcvl ldpzdle¦.dxdha zenexz zyxtd ly zexiy xeaivl wtqn mb xagd df avna .mdilk`n zxdh

xind `le ux`d mr axwa lertl jiyndy ink xagd xiihvn iinc `ztqezd on ,dyrnl

myl dxdha milke`y in ly dxeagl sxhvdl epevxn xga ik m` ,zizveawd ezekiiy z`

lr dctwdd zbxcl zizlidw zekiiy oia dn`zd xcrid awr .dxdhd lr ziyi`d dxinyd

zixhpelee zecb`zd ly dzkinza wx ynnzdl ef zizc dti`y dziid dleki ,dxdhd

)voluntary association.(89

85daxw ilra md mrahn mixagd' :129 'nr ,(11 dxrd ,lirl) xniidpte` ixacl aexw df xe`iz

miyextdy cera mle` ,mda mixingn mixagy minegz mze`a mixdfp miyextd oky ,miyextl dxzi

zniiw onceb oihxn ixacl .'zexebq zexeagl ekiizyd mixagd ixd zizxag zipgex drepz eid

,qetqei ly eixe`iz itl ,miyextd ly zwdaen dpekz dpi` dxdhd .zeveawd izy oia ziwlg dtitg

) miyextd ly 'gekd qiqa' z` zexeaga d`ex `ed .mxear ifkxn oiipr edfy dcen `ed j`Martin

Goodman, The Ruling Class of Judaea, Cambridge 1987, p. 83.(

86,lirl epi`xy itk .dnecwd dxeagd ly zepbx`zdd zcin `id dgezt zxzepy zifkxn zg` dl`y

lr `l j` ('eilr lawn') eizeieaiigzd lr zexacn xaga zewqerd zenecwd zekldd ,67 dxrd

haid .jiiy `ed dil`y zizxag zxbqn lk zepiivn opi` od .('eze` milawn') dxeagl ezetxhvd

dnecwd dklda xagdy cnll icka jka yi m`d .xzei zexge`n zeklda wx yxetna riten df

?zexyrne zenexz ipiipra on`pk xeaiva xken did j` dveawa cbe`n did `ly ,on`pl dnec did

lr) ?xgqna xzi cnrn el dpwdy x`ez ,zexdhd megza on`pl x`ez did xagd mb `ny ,ok m`

did ok` xagdy okzii ,oiteligl .(ci±f ,e `xiq oa :lynl e`x on`pl xag oia zihpnqd daxwd¦dnciw ztzeynd zecb`zdd zervn`ae ,dzepbx`zd ikxc lr rcin mey epl oi`y s` dxeagl jiiy

.dxdhd lr zixeaivd dxinyd z` dxeagd

87.a±` ,g ;e±a ,f zexdh

88.72±71 'nr ,onxail zxecdn ,hi±eh ,a iinc ,`ztqez

89:mixn`nd zteq` z` e`x zinexd zigxf`d zeaxzd lre dl` zeiecb`zd lr zillk dxiwqlJohn

S. Kloppenborg and Stephen G. Wilson (eds.), Voluntary Associations in the Graeco-

]25[zi`pzd zextqa 'ux`d mr'311

lk da oi`y dxdh lr dctwd zex`zn zexdh zpynae iinc `ztqeza ux`d mr zekld

x`znd ieew z` raewd megzk qtzidl dxdhd dlcg df alya .zizxag dcxtd ly aikx

izkld megza dkldd iiepiy .zizcd zepievnd ly iyi`d megza dxzep `ide ,miizxagd

,zi`pzd dtewzd jldna izxagd jxrnd ly ycegnd epebx`a ceqi ikildz `et` mityeg df

.diipyd d`nd seq ly lilbl ziad ztewz ly milyexin

dzcixi mr .ux`d mr zeklda swzynd izxagd iepiyd ly cg` cnn wx edf mle`e

minkgd e`x ,zi`pzd dtewzd ly dteq z`xwl ,izxag lecia ly irvn`k dxdhd ly

miil`xd miizxagd milcadd z` xzei mdipira m`zy ,iaihpxhl` dpgad ilk reawl oekpl¥sirqa .mipey miizxag milbrn oia ziynn dcxtdl lertl ick mzrcl ea dide mztewza

minkgd e`x miizxagd milbrnd hehxya dxdhd ciwtz mevnv mry ,ze`xdl ywap `ad

mi`pzd ipira .zexyrnde zenexzd megz ,ycg megz it lr ux`d mr z` xicbdl jxev

dxdhdy dryn ,miycg zeceqi lr zizxagd zelcaidd z` qqal xyt` df megz ,mipexg`d¦lcaidl yiy dl` itlk epeek oziy`xn ux`d mr zekldy xg`n .df cnna cwtzl dlcg

zegkep lra megzl m`zda df izkld byen xcbed ,oi`eyipae xgqnae gexi`a lynl ,mdn

.zexyrnde zenexzd megz :zizxag

zexyrnl d`nehn .c

dy cg dxcbd ly dzrted ?ux`d mr e df i` .1

xi`n 'x oia zwelgn zxkfp (464 'nr ,lcp`nxwev zxecdn ,i ,b) dxf dcear `ztqeza

ixac dxdha eileg lke` epi`y lk ?ux`d mr edfi`e' :ux`d mr ly ezxcbd lr minkgl

diccv xe`izl czi mixwegl dyniy ef zwelgn .'xyrn epi`y lk mixne` minkge ,xi`n 'x

Roman World, London–New York 1996ly mi`ad mipiit`nd z` oiivl aeyg eppiiprl .

zelz `ll ,zeiecb`zdd lk ly zifkxnd zelirtd dziid ztzeynd dlik`d :elld zeiecb`zdd

rwx lr e` szeyn `venn ,(dclib) szeyn irevwn qxhpi`n drap `id m` oia ,ozexveeid zaiqa

:e`x .zizc zelirtRichard S. Ascough, ‘Forms of Commensality in Greco-Roman

Associations’, Classical World, 102 (2008), pp. 33–45`l zecb`zdl zekiiyd ,cere z`f .

.zlaben dxhnl dcrep zecb`zdd ixag ly zexywzdde ,mc`d ly zizxagd ezedf z` dxind

lilba zexeagd ef dcewpa .da mixagd ikxevl dlrte ztzeyn zil`ehix zelirta dwqr `id

edf .zncew zizxag zxbqn lkn mc`d z` driwtdy ,'cgi'l xy`n elld zeiecb`zdl xzei zenec

:e`x .cltpiie ly ekxcl cebipa ,ohxbne`a hxal` wcva yibcdy iceqi lcadAlbert I.

Baumgarten, ‘Graeco-Roman Voluntary Associations and Ancient Jewish Sects’, Jews

in a Graeco Roman World, ed. Martin Goodman, Oxford 1998, pp. 93–111; Moshe

Weinfeld, The Organizational Pattern and the Penal Code of the Qumran Sect: A

Comparison with Guilds and Religious Associations of the Hellenistic-Roman Period

(Novum Testamentum et Orbis Antiquus, 2), Göttingen 1986

312bxaphqxet xi`i]26[

.ef zizxag dveaw ly mipeyd90mr z` mixikfnd miaxd zexewnd zexnl ,riztn ote`a

lr ceygy ink wxe j` ux`d mr z` xicbdl mixgea minkg ,`weec zexdhl xywa ux`d

.zexyrnd91ux`d mr xcba epi` cala zexdh lr citwn epi`y in minkgd ipiray rnyn

dnewne ux`d mr ly ezxcbd xaca ef zwelgn ly daih lr cenrl ick ,z`f mr .llk

oiipr dfi` lr xxale driten `id eay mlyd xywda oiirl epilr ,zi`pzd dkldd zecleza

ly dteqa miritend minkg ixacy oerhl ywa` .(i±h zekld ,my) zaqen `id izkld

minkgd ly oeiqipd rwx lr xzeia xiaqd ote`a mix`azn ,dl zgtqp dxrdke ,dcigid

.iaihpxhl` megz aiaq zizxagd zelcaidd z` ycgn opekl zi`pzd dtewzd seqa

xak odn dnky ,ux`d mrn dwgxdd zekld zxbqna driten minkge xi`n 'x zwelgn

lwiy ote`a zebven zekldd .d`lnd zil`ehqwhd dcigia dzr oiirp .a sirqa ,lirl epi`x

:zewelgn yely zellek ode ,odiab lry zetqezl zenecwd zekldd oia oigadl epilr92

.miphw oia milecb oia ± zegtye micar ux`d mrn oigwel

.miphw oiae milecb oia ± zegtye micar ux`d mrl oixkene

zepa odn oigwele

.xi`n 'x ixac zelecb `l la` zephw (1)

.dilr zlawne dlecb mixne` minkge

zepa odl oipzep oi`

xi`n 'x ixac zelecb `le zephw `l (2)

.eiab lr zexdh dyrz `ly zpn lr enr wqete dlecb el ozep mixne` minkge

odkd l`pzp oa oernyl dy` `iydy owfd l`ilnb oaxa dyrne

.eiab lr zexdh enr dyrz `ly zpn lr enr wqte93

mr iab lr zexdh dyriy xagd z` oitek oi`y ,jixv oi` xne` l`ilnb oa oerny oax

.ux`d

90ux`d mr'ae 'xi`n 'x ly ililbd ux`d mr'a miwqer xlkia ly extqa iriayde iyiyd miwxtd

miqetihd ly mdizepekz z` hhxyl oeiqipd z` ahid mibviin dl` miwxt .'dcedi 'x ly ililbd

.dl` zexcbd izyl m`zda ux`d mr ly mipeyd

91mixg` zexewna mb df x`ez ynyn jk .zexyrn zeyxtd lr ceygd `ed 'xyrn epi`y lk'

.(f ,e ;` ,b iinc)

92.mixg`d gqepd icra zernyn ilra miiepiy oi` ;dpie i"k it lr `aen

93oax jkitle ,ux`d mr ly cnrna did odekd l`pzp oa oernyy dxe`kl rnyn o`k xywdd on

m`d .zexdh elv` oikz `l (qetcae hxetxr i"ka riten jk) ezay dpzd dxdha lk`y l`ilnb

?odek `edy s` dxdh lr citwn epi` llky zegp cnrnn mc`l eza z` `iyi l`ilnb oaxy okzii

okzii ,(1310 'nr ,b"pyz milyexi ,d ,cren xcq ,dheytk `ztqez) onxail xirny itk ,mpn`

,`ztqez :eeyd) ycewd zxdh lr lk` owfd l`ilnb oax eli`e dnexzd zxdh lr lk` df oernyy

minkgdy `l` ux`d mr did `edy gipdl oi` ,ok m` .(387 'nr ,onxail zxecdn ,b ,b dbibg

zeipicnd zriaw myl ,zedeab dxdh zebxc oia xrt did eay ,df mecw dxwn elvip xzei mixge`nd

.zeihpeelx eid `l xak zenecwd zepgaddy drya ux`d mrl qgia

]27[zi`pzd zextqa 'ux`d mr'313

?ux`d mr edfi`e (3)

.xyrn epi`y lk mixne` minkge ,xi`n 'x ixac dxdha eileg lke` epi`y lk

mzepwl e` zegtye micar ux`d mrl xeknl dlabd lk oi` ik zcnln dpey`xd dkldd

oi`e zepa (dkldd y`xa xkfedy ux`d mrn ,xnelk=) odn oigwel' :oi`eyipl cebipa ,epnn

ux`d mr zepan eli` :ef dkld ly dihxta miwlgp minkge xi`n 'x .'zepa odl oipzep

mi`pzd ,o`k mbe o`k mb ?sxeb xeqi` `ed zepa mdl `iydl xeqi`d m`de ,z`yl xzen

dkxc z` dpyz ux`d mr ly ezay `ceel ozip m`d .dxdhd lr dxinyd on micxhen

,zexdhd z` `nhz xag za eay avn rpnp cvik ?(1 zwelgn) dxdh lr xenyl ligzze

miavnd ipya ,minkg zrcl ?(2 zwelgn) ux`d mr ziaa `id xy`k ,xedhd lke`d z`

miiepnd zExag ixac dnvr lr zlawn ux`d mr za .dxdhd lr xenyz zady `ceel ozip

`idy i`pza ux`d mrl `ypidl dleki xag zae ,dxdhd lr dctwdl mirbepd i`nc zkqna

ziaa ± dxdha oyixtdl daegy zexyrne zenexz oebk ± zexdh mr wqrzdl yxciz `l

lwn l`ilnb oa oerny oax .dxdha mzxiny lr zeixg` zgwl dleki dpi` `id eay df

lv` zexdh oikdl xagd za lr zetkl lkei `l ux`d mr `linny xeaq `ed .xzei cer

xingn xi`n 'x z`f znerl .ux`d mrl `ypiz dlecby dripn lk oi` ,jkitl .ux`d mr

oavnl onvr z` mi`zdl egilvi `l zepad ezrcly d`xp .oi`eyipd zexyt` z` mvnvne

mre ,xagd ziaa dxdhd zeyixcl lbzqdl dplkez `l zelecb ux`d mr zepa .ycgd

.eziaa zexdhd z` oikz xagd zay dtvi ux`d

ux`d mrn migwel' :dnecwd dkldd ly dzlegz swida zepc zepey`xd zewelgnd izy

zwelgn dtqep okn xg`l .dkez l` zexiyi zealeyn ode ,'zepa mdl mipzep oi`e zepa

.dwgxd ixeqi` mze` lr dxfg zaqenk `l` dze` yxtl oi` igkepd dxywday ,ziyily

ixeqi` zekld epyp eil` qgiay 'ux`d mr' `ed in :dl`ya dpc ef ziyily zwelgn

.mincewd mipeica ahid zalzyn ,'dxdha eileg lke` epi`y lk' ,xi`n 'x zrc ?oi`eyip

lbql iyew yi oi`eyipay ,epcnl xaky dn lr xac siqed `l xi`n 'xy dxe`kl d`xp s`

xywda ddinz zxxern minkg zrc mle`e .dxdhd lr dctwdd ly zyxcpd dnxl zad z`

a ,mdixac itl .igkepddcaera wxe j` dverp ux`d mr iabl dirad ,ziyilyd zwelgn

ux`d mrk mc`d zxcbdl dcixen e` dlrn dpi` dxdhd lr dctwdde ,xyrn epi` `edy

ipiipra zeyixc mnvr minkg eaivd zencewd zewelgna recn ,jk m` .enr oi`eyipd xeqi`le

in mr oi`eyip wx liabdl yiy xnel ozip cvik ?ux`d mr mr oi`eyip ly dxwna dxdh¦`l` epl oi` ?dxdh zeaeg ly dlawa oi`eyipd z` zepzdl zra da j` ,xyrn epi`y

ozyely z` `exwl ozip `le diptly miizyd mr zayiizn dpi` ziyilyd zwelgndy xnel

.cgi94

94minkg ixac gqep ,(dvpxit i"k ,okpin i"k ,qetc) a"r fn zekxa ,ilaa ly gqepd icr zvwn itl

mdixac z` yxtp m` minkg ixac z` ayiil ozip ,ok` .'ie`xk eizexit xyrn epi`y lk' :`ed

z` wgeca yxtl okzii ,ef d`ixw itl .'dxdha xyrn epi`y lk' jxc lr ,ilaal daexw jxca

314bxaphqxet xi`i]28[

zewelgnd izy .mdilr giken mpepbqe ,zexewn ipyn `et` zakxen epiptay dcigid

oi`eyipa zepcd ,zenecwd zekldd jezl zexiyi zebex` minkgl xi`n 'x oia zepey`xd

mecwd hqwhd lr zaqen ziyilyd zwelgnd z`f znerl .oxcba zewqer ode ,ux`d mr mr¦dpezp dpi` ux`d mr ly ezedf mincewd mialya m` ?'ux`d mr edfi`e' :zipyxt dxrdk

dpi` ziyilyd zwelgnd ,ok m` .oeicd `yepl ezxcbd zkted zgtqpd dxrda ixd ,wtqa

.dzxeva mb `l` dipkza wx zicegii

ly mecwd xeqi`d .dpecpd dcigid zeedzd ly xiaq xefgy rivdl ozip df rwx lr

oecp ,(a sirq) dlrnl ex`ezy dwgxdd ixeqi` zveawa alzynd ,ux`d mr mr oi`eyip¦mde ,ef diral ewwfp minkg od xi`n 'x od .dxdhd lr dctwdd zxbqna dpey`xae y`xa

ziaa dxdhd z` miiwle jiyndl ziyrnd zexyt`l m`zda ,mipey zepexzt dl erivd

`l` ,minkgl xi`n 'x oia zwelgnd aey dgqep xzei xge`n alya .ux`d mr ziaae xagd

lr minkg ly dlwnd mzrc z` eknq mi`pzd ,dzrn .xg` oiiprl dhqed `id mrtdy

dqitz daved ecbpky ixd ,ux`d mr ly dqitz dze` zqgein xi`n 'xl m` .miycg zeceqi

epi`y in wx epid ux`d mr :(lirl exkfedy dl` mze` gxkda `l) minkg ly dycg

`yepy xg`n ,dxdhd ly xywda llk zelg opi` oi`eyipd lr zelabdd ,dzrn .xyrn

ef dxrd mpn` m` .xyrn epi`y in itlk zepeekn od `l` ,zelcaidl ceqi ynyl lcg df

z` yigndl ick jka yi ,hqwhd zxewian d`xpy itk ,mcwend oeicd lr ztqez `id

dxcbda mb jexk didy ,df jildz .zexyrnd l` zexdhd on zizkldd db`cd ly dhqdd

zexewna mb dlbzn ,ux`d mr ly zycegnd.mixg`

i inc `ztqeza zexy rnl zexdhn .2

,zexyrne zenexz zyxtd ,ihpeelxe ycg cwen aiaq ux`d mr zekld ly ycegnd oebx`d

.b±a miwxt iinc `ztqeza zekix`a ze`aend ,ux`d mr zekld ly oxeciqa mb swzyn

epzne e`ynae xagd ipica zewqer ,`ye` inkg mi`pzd ixac ollkae ,a wxta zekldd lk

mrz` xyrn epi` ux`d mry jkl oniq lk oi`e ,cala zexdh ly xywda ux`d mr ¦,a) ux`d mrl zexdh lik`dle xeqnl ,glyl mixeqi` miriten wxtd seq z`xwl .eizexR¥¥cvik zx`zn `ide ,df oiipra dkiynn b wxt zgizt mb .(72 'nr ,onxail zxecdn ,ak±k

:(73 'nr ,` ,b) ux`d mr xear zexdh oikdl ozip

,`nqg xfrl 'x myn xn`y eig` ozp 'x myn mleynd oa iqei 'x cird

.ux`d mrl zexdh oiyer oi`y

df wx e` ,xi`n 'x zrck ,oileg zxdh lr citwn epi`y in lk `ed ux`d mr m`d :jk zwelgnd

dlabn oi` ,minkg zrcl ?dnexzd zxdh z` gihadl leki epi`y xg`n ie`xk yixtdl leki epi`y

znxeb ez`nehy in ly dxwna xdfidl yi j` ,dxdha mdileg milke` mpi`y in mr oi`eyip lr

lawl ozip m` wtq j` ,zepeyd zewelgna minkgd zcnr lr xybl ozip jk .yixtdl `ly el

.z`f gikez iinc `ztqezl oldl d`eeydde ,epiptay `ztqezd gqep itl df yexit

]29[zi`pzd zextqa 'ux`d mr'315

.dxdha oileg ly ezqir el dyer la` ,dxdha dnexz ly ezqir el dyri `l

.efe ef lhepe `a ux`d mre dyitk jezl ozepe dlg dpnn yixtn

.dxdha oileg ly mizf el dyer la` ,dxdha dnexz ly mizf el dyri `l

.odizy z` lhepe `a ux`d mre xag ly eilk jezl ozepe dnexz odn yixtn

zxbqna epi`x xaky dn mr cg` dpwa dler 'ux`d mrl zexdh oiyer oi`' zecrd oeyl

dyrz `ly zpn lr enir wqete' :l`ilnb oax ly dyrnae minkgl xi`n 'x oia zwelgnd

.'eiab lr zexdh95dnexzl xeqi`d z` znvnvnd ,xe`ia oeyl dtqep o`k `ziixaa mle`e

.'dxdha dnexz ly ezqir el dyri `l' :`weec96`ztqezd zrcl 'zexdh'd zernyn ,ok m`

.mitqep zexewna ep`vny itk ,dxedh dnexz wxe j` `id zx`and97zxqe` o`k dkldd

onyle dqirl mze` carle ,dnexz mdy mizif e` ,dnexz elek `edy gnw lawl xagd lrdxykedy iptl dnexz laiwy ux`d mr odekl ipiite` dfk avn .dxdhd lr dxiny jez

`ede ,mixedh milk`n laiwy dnexzd on oikdl oiipern ux`d mr odek eze` .d`neh lawl

`nhiz dnexzdy iynn yyg epyiy iptn ,xq`p df reiq .jka el riiql xagd on ywan

95zeyrl' ;(` ,b iinc ,`ztqez) 'ux`d mrl zexdh zeyrl' :miaexw miiehia miievn zeziixad izya

zexdhd z` xagl `ian ux`d mr ,oey`xd dxwna .(i ,b dxf dcear ,my) 'ux`d mr ab lr zexdh

mr lv` zexdhd z` zeyrl dietv xagd za ipyd dxwna ,z`f znerl .eliaya oze` oikn `ede

iinc ,`ztqeza dpde .dxdf` dze`l mipeekn miiehiad ipyy d`xp ,ok m` .el d`eyp `idy ,ux`d

dxrd ,lirl e`x) 'ux`d mr lv` zexdh dyri `ly' eilr lawn dxeagl cnrendy ep`vn ,a ,a

qpkp cnrendy iptl cery ,(210 'nr ,` ,[58 dxrd ,lirl] dheytk `ztqez) yxtn onxail .(73

yxtl ozip ,mle`e .ux`d mr zian envr ely zexdhd z` wigxdl citwdl jixv `ed dxeagl

.eizexdha ux`d mrl riiqln xagd z` dxidfnd ,dxf dcear `ztqeza xen`l liawna ef digpd

96zextqa 'zexdh' mzqy ,ezprh z` df xewn lr qqal ywan ,106±104 'nr ,(7 dxrd ,lirl) xlkia

.odek `ed zexdh oze`l xywa xaecnd 'ux`d mr'e ,dxdh dyxcp da wxy ,dnexz od zi`pzd

dnexzd zxdhl zexewnd aex z` qgiin `ed jkitle ,'yxetnd on mezq cnlii' zpigaa `id ezhiy

.(64±63 zexrd ,163±162 'nr ,[9 dxrd ,lirl] oel` :e`x ef dcewpa xlkia ly ezyib ziigcl)

dziid `l zexdhd zxcbdy `ztqeza `xnind ly ziniptd zepyxtd on cnl ip` ,ef dyibl cebipa

.mi`pzd oia dreaw

97ixdy ,d`nh dnexza xaecny gipdl yi e`nhpy 'zexdh' sexyl digpd driten eay mewn lka

dpyna minrt xtqn zeriten dl`k zekld .mi`nh oileg sexyl dyixc lr mewn meya eprny `l

oke) c±b ,d zexdh zpyna ep`vn ,lynl ,jk .mkg ly enya `le mzqa cinz j` ,`ztqezae

wtq ly dxwna zexdh dyry in ly dxwna ,(666 'nr ,lcp`nxwev zxecdn ,c ,e my ,`ztqez

'xe dcedi 'x ly mdita ,ze`ad zeipyna z`f znerl .'etxyii zeipyde zeielz zepey`xd' :d`neh

nh ody wx zexdhd lr xn`p ,iqei,95 'nr ,onxail zxecdn ,g ,e iinc ,`ztqeza .zexedh e` ze`

riten sqep xewn .dnexzl i`ceea dpeekde ,'zetxyp ux`d mr ly eizexdh lk' :llkd riten

oil`yp' :cala dnexzl mvnevn 'zexdh' gpend ea mbe ,mleynd oa iqei 'x ly ezecrl zekinqa

zl`y dfa m` el xne` `l` ,sexy `v ,lek` `v el xn`i `ly calae eizexdh lr ux`d mrl

,a my dkldd z` yxtl yi mb jk .(73 'nr ,ck ,a iinc ,`ztqez) 'xedh zl`y dfa m`e ,`nh

.'zexdha elik`n `ny yyeg eia` oi` ux`d mr en` ia` xg` jled didy xag oa' :71 'nr ,eh

,ze`nehl diiwp oeyl `ed 'zexdh'y yxit (217 'nr ,` ,[58 dxrd ,lirl] dheytk `ztqez) onxail

.e`nhpy yeygl yie ux`d mr cia zeievnd zenexz od dl` 'zexdh'y yxtl xazqn j`

316bxaphqxet xi`i]30[

,l`xyil mikiiyd oileg ly mizife gnw carl xagl xzen ,z`f znerl .dfd odekd ly eziaa

aemze` gipne dnexze dlg yixtn xagd .dxdha dnexz e` dlg exear yixtdl mb jk jez

.mdilral dpedkd zepzn z` xiardl yxcp wx ux`d mre ,xagl creind ilka98

ux`d mr zeklda ziptz zcewp ztwyn `id ik ,dler dxywda dkldd z`ixwn ,dpde

,ux`d inr mipdek itlk wxe j` oeekn 'zexdh' ly d`neh iptn yygd ,dzrn .`ztqeza

`ztqezd oday ,b±a zekld mb weqrl zekiynn df yyga .mznexz z` `nhl milelry

.dpedk zepzn ux`d mr odek icil xeqnl zxqe`99epi`y ux`d mr mzq ly dxwna ,cbpn

epi` `edy yeygl wx yi df qetihl qgiae ,dxdhd lr dctwdd i`a dira lk oi` ,odek

zxyxy ly cwena cnery `ed df yyg .mipwezn mpi` eizexte zexyrne zenexz yixtn¥iptn yygl wx `l` dxdhd zl`yl xkf lk oi` jli`e o`kn .(ci ,g±d) ze`ad zekldd

oewizl b`c ux`d mry gipdle lwdl ozip mizrl .ux`d mr ly mipwezn izlad eizexR¥;szey xeza e` yny xeza zexRd z` owzl leki xagd mixg` mixwna ;(d dkld) zexRd¥¥xcben elld zeklda xen`d ux`d mr ,dxwn lka .eala xyrn `ed xzeia rexbd dxwnae

`ztqeza ux`d mr zcigi .ez`nehl zeqgiizd lk oi`e zexyrne zenexz yixtn epi`y ink

b) mipdekl wx d`nehl yygd z` dnvnv ,(a wxt) `nhd ux`d mra `et` dgzt iinc

.(b wxt jynd) xyrn epi`y ux`d mra dniizqde ,(`

,b wxta yixtn epi`y dfe a wxta `nhd df ,ux`d mr ibeq ipyl dletkd zeqgiizdd

oa' :mipey ep` ,eh ,a wxta .mixywdd ipya zxfegd zg` dklda hlea iehia icil d`a

recia m` .zexdha elik`n `ny yyeg eia` oi` ux`d mr en` ia` xg` jled didy xag

driten ,d ,b wxta ,z`f znerl .'qxcn mi`nh eicbae xeq` df ixd zexdha elik`ny

98oihib) ilaaa dgqep it lr `ziixal ozipy yexitd on zecewp dnka dpey o`k rvend yexitd

meyn xn`y eig` opgei 'x meyn mleynd oa iqei 'x cird' :mipey`xd iyexit it lre (`"r aq

dpnid lhepe ,dxdha eileg zqir oiyer la` ,dxdha ux`d mr zlg oiyer oi` :`nqg oa xfrl` 'x

oi`e ;yyeg epi`e odizy z` lhep ,lehil ux`d mr `ayke ,`zegp`a e` `yitka dgipne dlg ick

eilka dgipne dnexz ick dpnid lhepe ,dxdha eileg mizif oiyer la` ,dxdha eizif znexz oiyer

htyn z` dhinyn `ziixad .'yyeg epi`e odizy z` lhep ,lehil ux`d mr `ayke ,xag ly

itl ,dkldd sebl zxzek wx jka dz`xy meyn d`xpk ,'ux`d mrl zexdh oiyer oi`y' :dgiztd

slgzd jke .'dxdha dnexz ly ezqir' hnype ,'dxdha ux`d mr zlg oiyer oi`' :ilaad oeyl

eywzd jkn d`vezk .dlg dpnn mipzepy l`xyi ly dqirl odek ly dnexz zqirn dxwnd

dlg miyixtn dpnny 'eileg zqir' oiae `yixa 'ux`d mr zlg' oia lcadd z` xicbdl mipey`xd

lka .('oiyer oi`' d"c ,o"anxde ,'oiyer oi`' d"c ,my ,i"yx :e`x) zepey zervd elrede ,`tiqa

zyxtdae mixedh oileg zpkda wx riiqn xagd .mix`ean mixacd `ztqezd gqep itl ,dxwn

wgcp (222 'nr ,` ,my ,dheytk `ztqez) onxail .ux`d mr odekl xedh lke` zpkda `le dnexz

.ilaal m`zda `ztqezd z` yxtl

99oa oerny oaxe iax ,lynl ,jk .dxdh oiiprl ynyl jiynn 'ux`d mr' byend ,mipdekl qgia

iinc ,`ztqez) dnexz zlaw oiiprl xag edin cirdl on`p ux`d mr m` dl`ya miwleg l`ilnb

mr m`d :dxdh ipiipra ux`d mr ly ezepn`pl rbep o`k oeicd .(86 'nr ,onxail zxecdn ,c ,d

.cala xedh odekl dzxdh lr xenyl yiy dnexzd z` xeqnl on`p ux`d

]31[zi`pzd zextqa 'ux`d mr'317

oi` ,ux`d mr en` ia` lv` jled didy xag oa' :zexyrnd megza mrtd ,dliawn digpd

exikd ,onxail mdae ,`ztqezd ipyxt .'oipwezn opi`y mixac elik`n `ny yyeg eia`

ux`d mr ly xg` beqa oecl zxaer `ztqezdy gipdl `l` dxxa oi` ef dcewpay jka¥.a wxta oecpd dfn100xg` efa zexcbdd izy ly ozrted xyt z` exiaqd `l md ,z`f mr

.ycgd xywda dkld dze` ly ycegnd dgeqip z` e` ef

avn edf ik d`xp ,dxf dcear `ztqeza minkg ixac yexita lirl rvedy gezipd xe`l

lr ,ux`d mr ly ezenc z` ycgn dxicbn `ztqezd o`k mbe o`k mb .iinca mb mipiiprd

yiy df `ed in ycgn mixicbn minkgy itk .ez`neha zewqerd zekldd seba dtqed ici

,zinzq dcigi iinc `ztqeza ztqep mb jk ,enr oi`eyipn rpnidl101z` ycgn zpgead ¦zeihpxdewd xqeg .zycegnd ezxcbd zeawra ux`d mr lv` gexi`d z`e ineiÎmeid rbnd

dxdh lr dctwdd ly yxetn mevnv jez b wxtl a wxtn xarnde ,iinc `ztqez ly

,ycg megzl ux`d mr zekld ly ozhqd z` mitwyn ,(b wxt zligza) dnexzd megzl

ly drtezdy s` ,jke .dxdhd lr citwn epi`y ink ux`d mr ly ezxcbd zgz xzegd

ly ezenc mr dzdef `id ,`pc zncwn mi`pzl zxken zexyrne zenexz lr zepn`pd xqeg

elit`e lke` zxiqna ,gexi`a :zelcaidd iaeig z` dil` dgtiqy xg`l wx ux`d mr

.oi`eyipa102

ycgn xcbed ux`d mr ekldnay jildzd z` wiecna mwnl mixyt`n mpi` zexewnd

ux`d mr `ye` inkg ly mdita xak ,cg` cvn .zexyrne zenexz yixtn epi`y ink

zecr epl oi` aly meya ,xg` cvn .zeccea zekld xtqna zexyrne zenexzl dwifa xkfen

dctwdn erpnp m` 'ux`d mr' x`ezl ekf mipdekd zegtle ,dxdhd oiipr ly zhlgen dwigcl

100on`p xag znerl zexdhl xag :ux`d mre xag ly zeiernyn izy oia licadl yi ,onxail ixacl

oke ;20 dxeye 18±17 zexey lr ,225 'nr ;44 dxey ,217 'nr ,my ,dheytk `ztqez) zexyrnl

elk`ny ux`d mr ly eziaa llk lk`i `l zexdhl xagy `id ezgpd .(32 dxey ,270 'nra ezhiy

citwnd on`p eze`l zepet zexyrn zyxtdae gexi`a zewqerd b wxta zeigpdd lk jkitle ,`nh

lawp m` mb ,izrcl .dxdh lr citwn epi`y s` xag o`k dpekn `ede ,zexyrne zenexz lr

elylzyd cvik xiaqdl jxev yi ,cg` dpwa miler mpi`y ,mipey mipaena miynyn migpend mze`y

.dfn df

101ux`d mr zekld lk ,mipey mi`pz ly zeny mb ux`d mr zeklda mixkfen eay ,a wxtl cebipa

.mzqa epyp zexyrne zenexzl zerbepd b wxta

102ievn epi`y zelcaid ly haid miiw xyrn epi`y 'ux`d mr' riten oday zekldd lka ,jkitl

iepik `ed ux`d mr ,epi`xy itk .'zexyrnd lr on`p epi`y in' :liawn gpen xkfen oday zeklda

qgia mi`pzd ipeica mb dler df `yep .elv` gx`zdl iyew yi jkitle mipwezn mpi` eizexRy inl¥zenexz mdn yixtdl ila ux`d mrl zexR xeqnl leki epi` xag ,cere z`f .(a ,a iinc) 'on`p'l¥,onxail zxecdn ,ci ,b iinc ,`ztqez ;ai ,e iinc) z`f dyri `l ux`d mry dgpd jezn ,zexyrne

zzl ozip `ly miwqet dxf dcear `ztqeza minkg ,sirqd y`xa epi`xy itk ,seqal .(77 'nr

,z`f znerl .ux`d mr byend ynyn zelcaidd icnnn cg` lka .xyrn epi`y ux`d mrl zepa

xwira ynyn ,ipelt mc` lv` zepwl ozip m` reawl jxev yi xy`k ,ozne `yn ly mixywda

.(e ,e my ;e±d ,c iinc :e`x) zenecwd zeipyna xak ,'zexyrnd lr on`p' e` 'xyrn' byend

318bxaphqxet xi`i]32[

.`weec zi`pzd dtewzd idlyl zkiiyd drtez ef dxenza ze`xl yi ,mewn lkn .dxdhd lr

zpenz fkxna zexyrne zenexz lr dctwdd ly dzavdl minxebd z` oegal yi df xywda

izkld megz ly eizepekza z`f zelzl yi m`d .mipexg`d mi`pzd ly zizxagd mlerd

deevnn zexrpzdd znxa e` ,zexdhl zepiga dnkn ezaxw lya lecial gep ilk didy ,df¦ly ecnrnl sqep cd 'ux`d mr' ly eyeciga yi ,jk oiae jk oia ?zeagx zeaky axwa ef

.ef dtewza zifkxn zilklke zizxag dibeqk zexyrnd megz103

mekiq .d

pzd zextqa 'ux`d mr' ly eileblba oeirdgiyd ly ekxr z` oegal epze` `iad zi`

xary ,df byen .zi`pzd dtewza l`xyi ux`a zicedid dxagd xwgl mecwd izkldd

onqn epi` ,mi`pzd ini seql cr ipyd ziad ztewz ly zenecwd zekldd on mileblb xtqn

zizkld dixebhw ,z`f mr .dizepekz z` hhxyl ick eic xexa epi`e zpgaen zizxag dveaw

mixywd xtqn lr driavn `id efky xezae ,izxagd agxna zeldpzdd z` zegpdl dcrep ef

dcxtdd zeyixc z` ligdl eywia mdilre minkg elrt mkezay mipgaen miizxag

.zelcaidde

mdixywd xg`e miizkldd mikildzd xg` aewrl ep`eaa epzeyxl cnerd ixwird ilkd

zi`pzd zextqd zcxtd zervn`a wxe ,zexewnd zxewia `ed ef dtewza miizxagd

it lr .elld mikildza ixehqid oeir mixyt`nd mi`pzd exvep dizetewzle dizexewnl

alyd .'ux`d mr' zekld zegztzda miifkxnd mialyd xg` epawr gztn zexewn xtqn

zextqn zxkend zizzikd zeipicnd z` m`ez ,i`ny ziae lld zia zpyna bveind ,oey`xd

mz`nehn zlcazn zeipicn evni` miyextd ollkae zepeyd zezkd ,df xywda .ipyd ziad

mixg` miiehial d`eeyda zelwn zi`pzd zextqa zeritend zeigpdd ,mpn` .mixfd ly

z` zetwyn od j` ,milaeid xtq zeawra crevd cgid jxq oebk ,zelcaidd zxeqn ly

mnler lr zecnln zekldd ,df alya .dl deelpd izkldd giyd z`e zizzikd zxbqnd

lcaidl mnvr lr milawn mde ,miyextd mdae ,dxdhd lr dctwdd mr midefny in ly

.mixagd zbxca s` daiaqd on

lilbl xarnd mr d`xpd lkk ,ycg izxag xywda zeycg mipt elaiw dl` zeigpd

.zpgaen dveaw s` dpiit` `l dxdhd lr dxinyd ,df xywda .`akekÎxa cxn zeawra

dxykd ly jildz xearl eyxcp dxdhd lr dctwda oiihvdl micceak eywiay in ,jkitl

103'x ly agxpd weqira ahid ztwzyn ef dtewza `weec zexyrnd megz ly zizxagd ezeaiyg

:lynl e`x .miagxp mixef`a zexyrn xzid myl zeleabd zriawa zr dze`a `iypd dcedi

ecdn) g ,gi zelid` ,`ztqez,i`xtq l`eny :e`x oiiprd lkl .zeliawne (617 'nr ,lcp`nxwev zx

`ziixa' ,onqef awri .21±1 'nr ,(f"kyz) el ,uiaxz ,'(a) oaxegd xg`ly ze`ivna ziriay zevn'

idly lr `ed mb riavn ,282 dxrd ,257±245 'nr ,(e"lyz) dn ,uiaxz ,'l`xyi ux` inegzc

.el` zekld ly oaevira rixkn alyk zi`pzd dtewzd

]33[zi`pzd zextqa 'ux`d mr'319

ilan dxdha oileg zlik` lr zicegii dctwd miiwl elki md mye ,dxeagd zxbqna cenile

.dxdha zexyrne zenexz yixtdl mixg`l riiql liawnae ,miizxagd mdixyw z` wzpl

dctwdd ly dzkitd mr ,caa ca .`ye` inkg ly mzpyna ux`d mr zekld ly oiite` edf

ly dkxr ca`e zizxag dpigan avrn mxeb ynyln dwqt `id ,iyi` oiiprl dxdhd lr

ycgn opekl eywia minkgd xy`k ,ztqep zegztzdl liaed df avn .mi`nhd on dwgxdd

ipira zegtl .zexyrne zenexz zyxtd lr dctwdd zebxc jnq lr zeizxagd zepgadd z`

diiqelke`d on ogaen wlg wx day ,zizxagd avnd zpenz z` dpn`p swiy df megz ,minkgd

.dcxtdde zekiiyd ilbrn z` eaiaq reawl eywia mde ,dpedkd zepzn lhpa z`yl jiynd

miaiegnd mipdekl qgia zegtl ,dxdh ipiiprl mb ynyl 'ux`d mr' byend jiynd ,liawnae

.jka

lr laewe zenecwd zeklda xfrl` oa oerny 'x opeazn zi`pzd dtewzd seqa ecnera

.'!dxdh dvxt okid cr d`xe `ea' :dxdhd ly dcnrna dcixid104jexk df oirn iepiy ,ok`

mb swzynd ,`akekÎxa cxn xg`l dxdhd ly dcnrna dcixil xarn .mitiwn mikildza

,ibele`kx`d `vnna105dtewza zicedid dxagd ly diite`a iceqi iepiyl `et` micr ep`

,dnecwd dtewzd on xarnd ze`vez z` mityeg 'ux`d mr' zekld ly dl` mileblb .ef

miiniptd dizeleaby dxag l` ,miizxagd x`znd ieew z` eppek zeizkldd zewihwxtd day¦.mze` eaiviy miifekix zecqen dl mixqge eyhyeh106ly ogek ce`n labed dl` zeaiqpa

miqgid z` avrl ,zizzikd mlerd zpenz ly dzipaza ewvepy ,zeizkld zexeqn oze`

,zeiplca zeizkld zexeqn mcia ewifgd mipexg`d mi`pzd .zi`pzd dtewzd seqa miizxagd

did `l j` ,zexyrne zenexz lr ecitwd `ly inl qgia laben ote`a enyii md oze`y

migiyw zeleab zlra ,zpgaen zizxag zxbqn ly dzxivil dl` zexeqn lvpl mcia

.mixg` oiae mpia ecixtiy

104.4±3 'nr ,onxail zxecdn ,bi ,` zay ,`ztqez

105dxdh zekld zxinyl zeibele`ikx` zeiecr :dxdhd ly dibele`ikx`d ,xlc` ozpei :e`x df oiiprl

,oli`Îxa zhiqxaipe` ,xehwec zcear ,cenlzd ztewz seq cre zi`penygd dtewzdn l`xyi ux`a

.315±307 'nr ,`"ryz

106lcad miiw ik ,xlin oiivn ef dtewza zicedid dxagd ly dwnwngd zedfl ycwend exn`na

xg`ly dtewzd oial ,zepgaen zeveaw xtqn epipta mihhxynd ,ziad ztewzn mi`vnnd oia iynn

.dgiywe dxexa dxcbdn zwnegd zicedi zedf mitwyn dtewzd dze`n miibele`kx`d mi`vnnd .okn

miyinb mze` exized ,mipey migpena yeniy jez ,zeleab ziieezda ewqr i`ce eixacly ,l"fg mb

:e`x .oeeknaStuart S. Miller, ‘Stepped Pools, Stone Vessels, and other Identity Markers

of “Complex Common Judaism”’, Journal for the Study of Judaism, 41 (2010), pp.

214–243zeveaw oiae mpia zeleab xevia ly izhiy weqir minkgl qgiil efixtd mipexg` mixweg .

zxzeg 'ux`d mr' zekld ly ozegztzd znbny dncp ,ok` .ef dnbn biiql ywan xline ,zexg`

.elrt md eay ihxwpewd izxagd xywdd on zenlrzd jez ,minkgd ly dfk iplca xe`iz zgz

SUMMARIESXXII

matters of purity. This fundamental change reflects the attempt to reset early legal

traditions of separation within second century Galilee. In this context, purity

played no role in shaping social contours, thus the laws of separation were finally

redirected towards an alternative halakhic issue. Only at this stage was the

am ha-aretz characterized as being neglectful in matters of tithing. This charged

issue may have roughly corresponded to contemporary social demarcations, and

as such served the rabbis in their attempt to map out their undefined social

surroundings. Consequently, tithing annexed the laws of separation from the am

ha-aretz.

THE SPLIT BETWEEN THE RABBANITE AND KARAITE COMMUNITIES

IN THE GEONIC PERIOD

by Yoram Erder (pp. 321–349)

Two main groups of sources are available for investigating the relations between

Rabbanites and Karaites during the Geonic period, namely, literary sources and

documents from the Cairo Geniza. Recently, it has been claimed that while literary

sources originating in Spain point to contentious relations between the two

communities, the Geniza documents show that ‘Rabbanites and Karaites coexisted

peacefully’ in Egypt and the Land of Israel under Fatimid rule. This study argueså

that the sources paint a more complicated picture.

Evidently, the Karaites cannot be seen as a completely separate ‘sect’, since

there is plenty of evidence of cooperation between the members of the two

communities. The Geniza documents, however, demonstrate that the relations

between the two communities were often characterized by harsh disputes.

An important factor affecting the relationship between the two communities

was the attitude of the Muslim authorities towards them. Muslim rulers viewed

the Rabbanites, Karaites and Samaritans as three factions that constituted the

Jewish people. This government policy forced the three communities to maintain

a certain degree of cooperation. Rabbanite leaders often sought to improve their

relations with the Karaites due to latter’s political power in the Fatimidå

administrative structure. However their cooperation in political matters was not

necessarily replicated in the field of internal relations between these communities.

SUMMARIES

AM HA-ARETZ IN TANNAITIC LITERATURE AND ITS SOCIAL CONTEXTS

by Yair Furstenberg (pp. 287–319)

This article re-examines the historical significance of the rabbinic term am ha-aretz.

More than any other halakhic term, the uniquely rabbinic am ha-aretz has long

served historians as a primary category for describing Jewish society in Palestine

during antiquity. This group is characterized by its specific neglect of purity laws

and tithing, and has come to represent the ‘common Judaism’ and the religious

orientation of those outside rabbinic circles. The laws pertaining to am ha-aretz

have been utilized to describe rabbinic policy towards these other groups, which

reflects rabbinic awareness of their marginal status. However, all such discussion

has been based on the assumption that the term am ha-aretz designates in rabbinic

literature a more or less defined historical group, and that the laws concerning it

reveal some of their characteristics. This perspective, however, is erroneous, since

am ha-aretz functions first and foremost within a well-defined halakhic discourse.

Thus, one cannot infer directly from the halakhic ruling to the specific social

setting. At the same time, through a close analysis of this system of laws from

a source critical perspective we learn of the fundamental changes which took

place in this field during the tannaitic period, as the rabbis attempted to incorporate

it into a changing social setting.

The article traces three stages regarding the laws of am ha-aretz which assume

diverse social frameworks. The contrast between the impure am ha-aretz and the

pure Pharisee, which appears in the earliest rabbinic sources, is based directly on

Ezra’s separatist model. At this stage, rabbinic laws of separation regarding trade,

fellowship and marriage with am ha-aretz closely resemble sectarian rulings with

a characteristic Pharisaic twist. These laws of separation were directed towards

the haver, associate, who was assumed to be pure, as all Pharisees were. This

sectarian-like framework was to be completely redesigned in later laws pertaining

to the haver. Here, the separation from am ha-aretz has been minimized, and one

was required to undergo a training period in order to become a haver, skilled in

CONTENTS

287 Yair Furstenberg : Am Ha-Aretz in Tannaitic Literature and Its Social Contexts

321 Yoram Erder : The Split between the Rabbanite and Karaite Communities in

the Geonic Period

351 Yotam Cohen : ‘Like Dwarfs on the Shoulders of Giants’: The Approach of

the Jewish Maskilim to Ancient Greek and Roman Culture

379 Tal Kogman : Jewish Maskilim Observe Nature: A Personal Story or a Literary

Model of the Enlightenment?

Books and Reviews

395 Uri Ehrlich : Ezra Fleischer, Statutory Jewish Prayers: Their Emergence and

Development

398 Roberto (Reuven) Bonfil : Moshe Idel, Kabbalah in Italy, 1280–1510: A Survey

406 Ela Bauer : Kenneth B. Moss, Jewish Renaissance in the Russian Revolution

411 Meir Chazan : Dvora Hacohen, The Children of the Time: Youth Aliyah

1933–1948

415 Joseph Dan : Noam Zadoff (ed.), Gerschom Scholem and Joseph Weiss:

Correspondence 1948–1964

425 Yuval Dror : Tali Tadmor-Shimoni, National Education and Formation of State

in Israel

431 Research

434 Books Received

XXI Summaries

ZION

Editors:

EZRA MENDELSOHN, NADAV NA’AMAN, VERED NOAM,

MICHAEL TOCH

Editorial Secretary:

YEHEZKEL HOVAV

�VOLUME LXXVIII • 3 • 2013

A QUARTERLY FOR RESEARCH IN JEWISH HISTORY

THE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF ISRAEL • JERUSALEM