Agriculture - Target UPSC
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Transcript of Agriculture - Target UPSC
Agriculture
Introduction ........................................................... 9
Definition .................................................................. 9
Types of Agriculture ................................................. 9
Subsistence Agriculture ....................................... 9
Nomadic Herding ................................................. 9
Plantation agriculture ......................................... 9
Shifting agriculture .............................................. 9
Livestock Ranching .............................................. 9
Commercial Grain Farming ................................. 9
Timeline of Agriculture in India ................................ 9
Early History......................................................... 9
Vedic period & Post Mahajanapadas period .... 10
The Mauryan Empire ......................................... 10
Early Medieval ................................................... 10
Medieval ............................................................ 10
Colonial Era ........................................................ 10
Post-Independence ........................................... 10
Status of Agriculture in India .................................. 11
Presently: ........................................................... 11
Challenges: ......................................................... 11
Ministries ................................................................ 11
Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare .. 11
Ministry for Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and
Dairying .............................................................. 11
Soil ............................................................................ 14
Definition ................................................................ 15
Factor Affecting Soils .............................................. 15
Parent Material ................................................. 15
Relief .................................................................. 15
Climate (Again) .................................................. 16
Natural Vegetation ............................................ 16
Components ........................................................... 16
Clay .................................................................... 16
Gravel................................................................. 16
Loam .................................................................. 16
Sand ................................................................... 16
Silt ...................................................................... 16
Soil Profile .............................................................. 16
Basics ................................................................. 16
O Horizon ........................................................... 17
A Horizon ........................................................... 17
E Horizon............................................................ 17
B Horizon ........................................................... 17
C Horizon ........................................................... 17
R Horizon ........................................................... 17
Types of Soil ........................................................... 17
Major Soil Groups ................................................... 18
Basics ................................................................. 18
Alluvial Soils....................................................... 18
Black Soils .......................................................... 18
Red Soils ............................................................ 19
Laterite Soils ...................................................... 19
Forest- Mountain Soils ...................................... 20
Arid- Desert Soils ............................................... 20
Saline- Alkaline Soils ......................................... 20
Peaty- Marshy Soils ........................................... 21
Soil Process ............................................................ 21
Podzolization ..................................................... 21
Laterization ........................................................ 21
Gleization ........................................................... 21
Salinization ........................................................ 22
Desalinization .................................................... 22
Solonization or Alkalization .............................. 22
Solodization or dealkalization ........................... 22
Desertification ................................................... 22
Salinization ........................................................ 22
Water logging .................................................... 22
Erosion ............................................................... 22
Some Terms ............................................................ 23
Soil Texture ........................................................ 23
Soil Structure ..................................................... 23
Crops........................................................................ 26
Basics ...................................................................... 27
Terms ................................................................. 27
Factor Affecting ................................................. 27
Classification of Crops ............................................ 28
Based on End Usage .......................................... 28
Based on Season ................................................ 28
Based on Climate ............................................... 29
Based on Agronomics ........................................ 29
Based on Duration of Crops .............................. 30
Based on Cultural Method/Water .................... 30
Based on Root System ....................................... 30
Based on Economic Importance........................ 30
Based on No. of Cotyledons .............................. 30
Based on length of photoperiod required for
floral initiation ................................................... 30
Major Crops in India ............................................... 30
Wheat ................................................................ 30
Rice ..................................................................... 31
Pulses ................................................................. 31
Millets ................................................................ 31
Maize.................................................................. 31
Cotton ................................................................ 32
Tea ...................................................................... 33
Coffee ................................................................. 34
Rubber ............................................................... 34
Sugarcane .......................................................... 34
Jute .................................................................... 34
Gram .................................................................. 35
Tur ...................................................................... 35
Tobacco .............................................................. 35
Other crops ............................................................ 35
Groundnut ......................................................... 35
Seasmum ........................................................... 35
Mustard ............................................................. 36
Linseed ............................................................... 36
Castor Seed ........................................................ 36
Pepper ............................................................... 36
Cardamom ......................................................... 36
Chillies................................................................ 36
Turmeric ............................................................ 36
Ginger ................................................................ 36
Cashew nut ........................................................ 36
Mango ................................................................ 36
Apple .................................................................. 36
Banana ............................................................... 37
Orange ............................................................... 37
Grapes ................................................................ 37
Minor Forest Produce ....................................... 37
Systems & Patterns in Agriculture ............. 40
Farming Systems .................................................... 40
Basics ................................................................. 40
Wetland Farming ............................................... 40
Garden Farming ................................................. 40
Dryland Farming ................................................ 40
Rainfed Farming ................................................ 40
Mixed Farming................................................... 40
Specialized Farming ........................................... 40
Diversified Farming ........................................... 41
Cropping Systems ................................................... 41
About: ................................................................ 41
Mono-Cropping ................................................. 41
Multiple Cropping ............................................. 41
Mixed cropping ............................................. 41
Inter-cropping ................................................ 41
Row intercropping ......................................... 42
Strip-intercropping ........................................ 42
Parellel cropping ............................................ 42
Synergestic Cropping ..................................... 42
Multi storey cropping .................................... 42
Sequential Cropping .......................................... 42
Alley cropping .................................................... 42
Relay cropping ................................................... 42
Ratoon cropping ................................................ 42
Crop Rotation .................................................... 43
Cropping Pattern .................................................... 43
About ................................................................. 43
Factors................................................................ 43
Cropping Zones....................................................... 44
Wheat Zone ....................................................... 44
Rice zone ............................................................ 45
Jowar Bajra Zone ............................................... 46
Cotton Zone ....................................................... 46
Millet- Maize Zone ............................................ 46
Fruit & Spice Zone ............................................. 46
Others ................................................................ 46
Agricultural Inputs ............................................ 48
Land ........................................................................ 48
Introduction ....................................................... 48
Issues .................................................................. 48
Suggestions ........................................................ 48
Categorization of Land ...................................... 48
Seeds ...................................................................... 48
Introduction ....................................................... 48
Govt Efforts ........................................................ 48
Green Revolution .............................................. 49
Genetic Modified crops ..................................... 49
Hybrid Seeds ...................................................... 49
Food Fortification .............................................. 49
Bio fortification: ................................................ 50
Conventional fortification vs. biofortification .. 50
Recent Crop/Horticulture Varieties in News .... 50
Irrigation ................................................................. 50
Intro: .................................................................. 50
Classification ...................................................... 51
Based on Source ............................................ 51
Based on Delivery Technique........................ 53
Based on Storage ........................................... 55
Miscellaneous Types ..................................... 56
Irrigation Project Types ..................................... 56
Local Water Harvesting Techniques ................. 57
Schemes ............................................................. 57
Fertilizers ................................................................ 58
Introduction ....................................................... 58
Classification ...................................................... 58
Composition ...................................................... 58
Benefits .............................................................. 59
Issues ................................................................. 59
Bio-fertilizers ..................................................... 59
Government Initiatives ..................................... 59
Manure................................................................... 60
Introduction ....................................................... 60
Role .................................................................... 60
Benefits .............................................................. 60
Classification ...................................................... 60
Concentrated organic manures ........................ 61
Pesticides ............................................................... 62
Introduction ....................................................... 62
Usage in India .................................................... 62
Issues ................................................................. 63
Benefits .............................................................. 63
Farm Mechanisation .............................................. 63
Introduction ....................................................... 63
Significance ........................................................ 63
Issues ................................................................. 63
Government ...................................................... 63
Agricultural Credit .................................................. 64
Intro ................................................................... 64
Mechanism of Agriculture Credit...................... 64
Characteristics of Agricultural Credit................ 64
Issues ................................................................. 64
Negotiable Warehouse Receipt ........................ 65
e-NAM ................................................................ 65
Insurance ................................................................ 65
Intro ................................................................... 65
Govt Efforts ........................................................ 65
Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) ... 66
Restructured Weather Based Crop Insurance
Scheme ............................................................... 66
Challenges .......................................................... 66
Agricultural Outputs......................................... 67
Procurement .......................................................... 67
Procurement Policy for Food grains ................. 67
Centralized Procurement System ..................... 67
Decentralized Procurement System ................. 67
Storage ................................................................... 67
Introduction ....................................................... 67
Need ................................................................... 67
Merits ................................................................. 68
Types of Storages .............................................. 68
Underground Storage Structures .................. 68
Surface Storage Structures ............................ 68
Improved Grain Storage Structures .............. 68
Warehousing...................................................... 69
Role of Warehousing ..................................... 69
Types of Warehouses .................................... 69
Warehousing in India .................................... 69
Cold Storage ....................................................... 70
Integrated Cold Chain Availability Platform ..... 71
Transport ................................................................ 71
Introduction ....................................................... 71
Marketing/ Selling .................................................. 71
Introduction ....................................................... 71
Marketing Methods ........................................... 72
Importance ........................................................ 74
Agricultural Produce Market Committee ......... 74
Government Efforts ........................................... 75
Agricultural Bodies ............................................ 76
National Cooperative Development Corporation ... 76
About ................................................................. 76
Objective............................................................ 76
National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing
Federation of India Ltd ........................................... 76
About ................................................................. 76
Functions ........................................................... 76
Food Corporation of India ...................................... 76
About ................................................................. 76
Objectives .......................................................... 77
Commission for Agricultural Costs & Prices (CACP) 77
About ................................................................. 77
Small Farmers’ Agribusiness Consortium ............... 77
About ................................................................. 77
Functions ........................................................... 77
Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export
Development Authority (APEDA) ........................... 78
About ................................................................. 79
Mandated Responsibilities ............................... 79
National Bank for Agriculture and Rural
Development (NABARD) ......................................... 79
About ................................................................. 79
Functions ........................................................... 79
Indian Council of Agricultural Research.................. 79
About ................................................................. 80
Functions ........................................................... 80
Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) .......... 80
About ................................................................. 80
National Bee Board ................................................ 80
About ................................................................. 80
Objectives .......................................................... 80
The Tea Board of India ........................................... 80
About ................................................................. 80
Objectives .......................................................... 80
The Coffee Board of India ...................................... 81
About ................................................................. 81
Allied Agricultural Practices ......................... 82
Agroforestry ........................................................... 82
Introduction ....................................................... 82
National Agroforestry Policy, 2014 ................... 82
Livestock & Animal Husbandry ............................... 83
Introduction ....................................................... 83
Branches ............................................................ 83
Dairy ............................................................... 83
Poultry ............................................................ 83
Meat ............................................................... 83
Wool ............................................................... 83
Aquaculture .................................................... 83
Insects ............................................................ 83
Constraints ......................................................... 84
Government Initiatives ..................................... 84
Rashtriya Gokul Mission ................................. 84
National Livestock Mission ............................. 84
National Artificial Insemination Programme . 84
National Cattle and Buffalo Breeding Project 85
Animal Husbandry Startup Grand Challenge . 85
National Animal Disease Control Programme
(NADCP) .......................................................... 85
National Mission on Bovine Productivity ....... 85
20th Livestock Census report ............................ 85
Fisheries ................................................................. 86
Introduction ....................................................... 86
Facts ................................................................... 86
Importance of Fisheries for India ...................... 86
Challenges .......................................................... 86
Government Schemes ....................................... 86
Blue Revolution aka Neel Kranti Mission ....... 86
Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana ...... 87
National Fisheries Action Plan-2020 .............. 87
Dairy Sector ............................................................ 87
Introduction ....................................................... 87
Facts ................................................................... 87
Importance ........................................................ 87
Challenges .......................................................... 87
Government Schemes ....................................... 88
National Dairy Plan......................................... 88
Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme
........................................................................ 88
Operation Flood ............................................. 88
Horticulture ............................................................ 88
Introduction ....................................................... 88
Facts ................................................................... 88
Branches ............................................................ 89
Features of Horticulture in India ...................... 89
Benefits .............................................................. 89
Challenges ......................................................... 89
Suggestion ......................................................... 89
Government Schemes ....................................... 90
Mission for Integrated Development of
Horticulture (MIDH) ....................................... 90
National Horticulture Mission (NHM) ............ 90
Operation Green ............................................ 90
Revolutions............................................................. 91
Sustainable Agricultural Practices ............. 92
Mulching ................................................................ 92
Introduction ....................................................... 92
Types .................................................................. 92
Mulching Materials ........................................... 92
Importance ........................................................ 92
Zero Tillage ............................................................. 92
Introduction ....................................................... 92
Merits ................................................................ 93
Demerits ............................................................ 93
Importance ........................................................ 93
Facts ................................................................... 93
Agro Economics ...................................................... 94
Introduction ....................................................... 94
Principles ........................................................... 94
Interlinked Elements ......................................... 94
Organic Farming ..................................................... 95
Introduction ....................................................... 95
Concept .............................................................. 95
Principles ........................................................... 95
Components ...................................................... 95
Facts ................................................................... 95
Scope ................................................................. 95
Eco-Farming ....................................................... 95
Zero Budget Natural Farming ................................. 96
Introduction ....................................................... 97
Benefits .............................................................. 97
Wheels of ZBNF ................................................. 98
Issues .................................................................. 98
Permaculture .......................................................... 98
Introduction ....................................................... 98
Characteristics ................................................... 98
Significance ........................................................ 99
Intensive Agricultural Practices .............................. 99
Introduction ....................................................... 99
Practices ............................................................. 99
Merits ............................................................... 100
Demerits .......................................................... 100
Vertical Farming Systems ..................................... 100
Introduction ..................................................... 100
Merits ............................................................... 100
De-Merits ......................................................... 100
Systems ............................................................ 101
Hydroponics ......................................................... 101
Introduction ..................................................... 101
Functions.......................................................... 101
Aquaponics ........................................................... 102
Introduction ..................................................... 103
Benefits ............................................................ 103
Integrated Pest Management .............................. 103
Introduction ..................................................... 103
Approaches ...................................................... 103
Components .................................................... 103
Integrated Nutrient Managements ...................... 104
Integrated Farming Systems ................................. 104
Introduction ..................................................... 104
Benefits ............................................................ 104
National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture ........ 104
Introduction ..................................................... 104
Objectives ........................................................ 104
Other Such Practices ............................................... 106
Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative ........................... 106
Introduction ..................................................... 106
Benefits ............................................................ 106
System of Rice Intensification (SRI) ...................... 106
Introduction ..................................................... 106
Principles ......................................................... 106
Merits .............................................................. 107
Demerits .......................................................... 107
Saguna Rice Technique (SRT) ............................... 107
Introduction ..................................................... 107
Important Principles: ...................................... 107
Conservation Agriculture ..................................... 107
Climate Smart Agriculture .................................... 107
Introduction ..................................................... 107
Pillars ............................................................... 107
Features ........................................................... 108
Natural Vegetation of India ........................ 109
Introduction ......................................................... 109
Moist Tropical Forests .......................................... 109
Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests or Rain Forests
......................................................................... 109
Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests .................... 109
Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests .................. 110
Littoral and Swamp Forests ............................ 111
Dry Tropical Forests ............................................. 111
Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests ....................... 111
Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests ...................... 112
Tropical Thorn Forests .................................... 112
Montane Sub-Tropical Forests ............................. 112
Sub-tropical Broad-leaved Hill Forests ........... 112
Sub-tropical Moist Pine Forests ...................... 112
Sub-tropical Dry Evergreen Forests ................ 113
Montane Temperate Forests ............................... 113
Montane Wet Temperate Forests .................. 113
Himalayan Moist Temperate Forests ............. 113
Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests ....................... 113
Alpine Forests ....................................................... 114
Miscellaneous .......................................................... 115
Terms ................................................................... 115
Introduction
Definition ➢ Agriculture is the science, art and practice of cultivating plants and livestock.
➢ Aka it is the science or practice of farming, including cultivation of the soil for the growing of crops and the
rearing of animals to provide food, wool, and other products.
➢ It was the key development in the rise of sedentaryhuman civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species
created food surpluses that enabled people to live in cities
Types of Agriculture
Subsistence Agriculture ➢ It is the cultivation of small and scattered holdings with the help of draught animals and family members with
primitive techniques. It is practiced by majority of farmers across the world.
Nomadic Herding ➢ It is based upon the rearing of animals on natural pastures. This practice is performed by the people of
semiarid and arid regions. This is a subsistence type of activity.
Plantation agriculture ➢ It was introduced in India by Britishers and involves growing and processing of a single crop purely meant for
sale.
➢ Examples include plantations of Tea, Rubber, Coffee, Cocoa etc.
➢ Practiced mainly in Assam, sub-Himalayan, West Bengal, Nilgiri, Annamalai and Cardamom Hills.
Shifting agriculture ➢ Aka Jhum Agriculture. It involves clearing of forest land by felling and burning and then growing crops.
➢ The land is abandoned in 2-3 years after the fertility of the soil is lost. It is practiced by nearly 250 million
people, especially in North East India and in the tropical rain forests of South America, Central and West
Africa, and Southeast Asia.
Livestock Ranching ➢ Under this system of farming, the major emphasis is laid on rearing animals.
➢ Unlike nomadic herding, the farmers live a settled life. This type of farming has developed on a commercial
basis in areas of the world where large plots of land are available for animal grazing, such as the low rainfall
areas of North America, South America and Australia.
Commercial Grain Farming ➢ This type of farming is a response to farm mechanization and is the major type of farming in the areas with
low rainfall and population.
➢ These crops are prone to the vagaries of weather and droughts, and monoculture of wheat is the general
practice.
➢ Prairies, steppes, and temperate grasslands of South America, Australia&New Zealandare the main areas for
this type of farming.
Timeline of Agriculture in India
Early History ➢ By 9000 BCE, Wheat& Barley were domesticated in the Indian subcontinent. This was soon followed by
domestication of sheep and goat.
➢ During the Indus Valley Civilization, cotton was well developed&rice was also cultivated.
➢ Mixed farming was developed. Around 4500BCE, irrigation developed.
Vedic period&Post Mahajanapadas period ➢ In the later Vedic texts, there are evidences of use of iron, this led to cultivation of a wide range of cereals,
vegetables, and fruits is described. The soil was ploughed several times.
➢ Meat and milk products were part of the diet as animal husbandry was important.
The Mauryan Empire ➢ Soils were categorized and meteorological observations for agricultural use were prepared.
➢ In addition, the administration facilitated construction and maintenance of dams, and provision of horse-
drawn chariots.
Early Medieval ➢ The Tamil people cultivated a wide range of crops such as rice, sugarcane, millets, black pepper, various
grains, coconuts, beans, cotton etc.
➢ Systematic ploughing, manuring, weeding, irrigation and crop protection was practiced for sustained
agriculture.
➢ Spice trade involving gained momentum as India started shipping spices to the Mediterranean.
Medieval ➢ There were advancements in Irrigation technologies along with division of agricultural 'Zones' into producing
rice, wheat or millets.
▪ Cultivation of tobacco (introduced by the Portuguese) spread rapidly. ▪ Malabar Coast became the home of spices, especially black pepper. ▪ New species of fruit, such as the pineapple, papaya, and cashew nut, also were introduced by the
Portuguese. ➢ Land management was particularly strong especially during the regime of Akbar, under whom Todarmal
formulated and implemented elaborated methods for agricultural management.
Colonial Era ➢ Agriculture in India during this time was marked by a downward spiral. The new methods of land revenue
system led to massive agrarian distress and poverty.
➢ In addition, deliberate de-industrialisation led to massive pressure of land leading to further poverty.
➢ The emphasis on commercial cropsover food crops led to series of famines and increases risks for agriculture.
➢ The state of agriculture during the interwar period was even more tragic and marked by high population
growth but almost stagnant food output. The crisis was most acute in Bengal leading to infamous Bengal
famine of 1943.
Post-Independence ➢ India was faced problems initially, like of food shortage, war with Pakistan and refugee crisis. Thus, tackling
food shortage became utmost priority and formed the basis of first five-year plan.
➢ Gradually, there was a more coherent and balanced approach to agricultural development.
▪ “Agenda of Land reforms”→ development of Dams →“Temples of Modern India”. ▪ Grow More Food Campaign (1940s) and the Integrated Production Programme (1950s) focused on food
and cash crops supply respectively. ▪ Later, land reclamation, land development, mechanization, electrification, use of chemicals-fertilizers in
particular, and development of agriculture oriented 'package approach' of taking a set of actions instead of promoting single aspect soon followed under government supervision.
▪ Production reforms from 1960s: Green Revolution; Yellow Revolution (Oilseed 1986-1990), Operation Flood (Dairy 1970-1996), and Blue Revolution (Fishing 1973-2002) etc.
▪ Institutional support- Indian Council of Agricultural Research; Dairy Development Board; National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development
➢ Post 1991, Growth in agricultural sector benefiting from the earlier reforms and the newer innovations of
Agro-processing and Biotechnology.
Status of Agriculture in India Presently: ➢ Food security as well as export house for the world; Contract farming along with e-commerce in agriculture is
propelling agricultural sector; Organic farming has become a major potential for export.
Challenges: ➢ Declining public expenditure, small landholdings, exposure to global glut in agri-commodities, inadequate
governance capacity continue to create problems for India's farmers.
Ministries Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare ➢ Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers Welfare
▪ Statutory: Coconut Development Board, National Cooperative Development Corporation, Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Authority, Registrar of Multi State Cooperative Societies.
▪ Attached Office: National Rainfed Area Authority. ▪ CPSE: National Seeds Corporation Ltd. (NSC) ▪ Autonomous / Cooperative bodies: NAFED, Small Farmers Agribusiness Consortium (SFAC). Various boards
/ institutes for horticulture, plant health management, Agro marketing etc. ➢ Department of Agricultural Research & Education
▪ Autonomous body: Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) ▪ Central Agro universities @Imphal (Manipur), Pusa (Bihar), Jhansi (UP)
Ministry for Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying ➢ Dept of Fisheries
➢ Dept of Animal Husbandry and Dairying
▪ Statutory:National Dairy Development Board (NDDB)
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Soil
Definition ➢ Soil is the thin top layer on the earth’s crust comprising rock particles mixed with organic matter.
➢ Pedology is the study of soils in their natural environment.
➢ Pedogenesis is the natural process of soil formation that includes a variety of processes such as weathering,
leaching, calcification etc.
Factor Affecting Soils Parent Material ➢ The rocks from which soils are formed are called parent materials.Mostly,it determines the colouration,
mineral composition and texture of the soil.
➢ Exceptions, the soil formed may or may not have the same physical properties as the parent rock.
➢ Rocks come under the influence of many processes and factors that changes the physical as well as chemical
properties of rock like weathering, climate change, etc.
➢ In Indian Conditions, parent material is generally categorized into: ▪ Ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks
• Oldest rocks of Pre-Cambrian era, formed due to solidification of molten magma about 4 billion years ago.
• Features: Forms the ‘Basement Complex’ of peninsular India; basically granites, gneisses and schists; rich in ferromagnetic materials and give rise to red soils on weathering (due to the presence of iron oxide)
▪ Cuddapah and Vindhyan rocks
• Ancient sedimentary rocks (4000 m thick);
• Features: Upon weathering, they give rise tocalcareous (containing calcium carbonate) and argillaceous (consisting of or containing clay) soils; devoid of metalliferous minerals.
▪ Gondwana rocks
• Sedimentary rocks
• Features: Much younger than others; upon weathering, they give rise to comparatively less mature soils; It is more or less of uniform character but of low fertility.
▪ Deccan basalts
• Formed due to a volcanic outburst over Peninsular India gave rise to Deccan Traps.
• Features: formation of fissures; Rich in titanium, magnetite, aluminium and magnesium;uponweathering, they give rise to soils of darker colour; high moisture holding capacity → regur or black cotton soil.
Relief ➢ Second most important factorin places with steep slopes like the hilly regions, edges of plateaus etc. ➢ Soil erosion on barren slopes is rampant, and it hinders soil formation.
▪ Example: Chambal ravines, higher reaches of the Himalayas where there is minimal or no forest cover (most on the steep southern slopes) etc.
➢ The areas of low relief or gentle slope generally experience deposition and have deep soils. ▪ Example: Indo-Gangetic plain.
➢ Exceptions: river basins where the soil layers are sufficiently deep.
Climate (Again) ➢ Temperature and rainfallplay most important role in soil formation; It determines the effectiveness of
weathering of the parent material, the quantity of water seeping through the soil and the type of microorganisms present therein.
➢ As, two different parent materials may develop the same soil in the same type of climate.Similarly, the same parent material may produce two different types of soils in two different types of climates. ▪ The crystalline granites produce laterite (reddish clayey soils) soil in relatively moist parts of the
monsoonal region and non- laterite soil in drier areas. ▪ Hot summer and low rainfall develop black soil as is found in some parts of Tamil Nadu irrespective of the
parent rock. ▪ In Rajasthan, both granite and sandstone give birth to sandy soil under arid climate. ▪ In arid and semi-arid regions, evaporation always exceeds precipitation. There is little vegetation, and the
soils badly lack humus content. Hence the soils are invariably of light colour. ▪ In Rajasthan and the adjoining arid and semi-arid regions, an excess of evaporation makes soils lime
accumulating. Hence, the soil is pedocal in nature. ▪ In cold climates of the Himalayan region, the process of vegetation decay is very slow, and the soils are
acidic in nature.
Natural Vegetation ➢ It reflects the combined effects of relief and climate. ➢ It influences formation & development of soil:The decayed leaf material adds much-needed humus to soil
thereby increasing its fertility; The densely forested areas contain some of the best soils in India.
Components Clay ➢ very fine particles;Compacts easily; Forms large, dense clumps when wet;Low permeability to water;
therefore, upper layers become waterlogged.
Gravel ➢ Coarse particles; Consists of rock fragments.
Loam ➢ About equal mixtures of clay, sand, slit, andhumus; Rich in nutrients; Holds water but does not become
waterlogged.
Sand ➢ Sedimentary material coarser than slit;Water flows through too quickly for most crops;Good for crops and
plants requiring low amounts of water.
Silt ➢ Sedimentary material consisting of very fine particles between
the size of sand and clay;Easilytransported by water.
Soil Profile Basics ➢ The vertical section of the soil showing the various layers from
the surface to the unaffected parent material is known as a soil profile. The various layers are known as horizons.
➢ Each layer differs in feel (texture), colour, depth and chemical composition.
O Horizon ➢ It is a surface horizon that is comprised of organic material at various stages of decomposition. ➢ It is most prominent in forested areas where there is the accumulation of debris fallen from trees. ➢ Layers dominated by organic material; Some O layers consist of undecomposed or partially decomposed
litter (such as leaves, needles, twigs, moss, and lichens).
A Horizon ➢ It is a surface horizon that largely consists of minerals (sand, silt, and clay) and with appreciable amounts of
organic matter. This horizon is predominantly the surface layer of many soils in grasslands and agricultural lands.It is part of the top soil.
➢ Here, organic matter is mixed with mineral matter. ➢ This layer is depleted of (eluviated of) iron, clay, aluminium, organic compounds, and other soluble
constituents.
E Horizon ➢ It is a subsurface horizon that has been heavily leached (of clay, iron, and aluminium oxides, which leaves a
concentration of resistant minerals, such as quartz, in the sand and silt sizes). ➢ It is typically light in color& is present only in older, well-developed soils, and generally, occur between the A
and B horizons.
B Horizon ➢ It is a site of deposition of certain minerals that have leached from the layer(s) above. ➢ Thus,iron, clay, aluminium and organic compounds accumulate in this horizon (illuviation (opposite of
eluviation)).
C Horizon ➢ Asubsurface horizon; least weathered; aka saprolite; formed of large unbroken rocks. ➢ It may accumulate more soluble compounds (inorganic material).
R Horizon ➢ It largely comprisescontinuous masses of hard rock. ➢ Soils formed in situ will exhibit strong similarities to this bedrock layer. ➢ These areas of bedrock are under 50 feet of the other profiles.
Types of Soil ➢ The soil is classified on the basis of the proportion of particles of
various sizes. ▪ If the soil contains a greater proportion of big particles, it is
called sandy soil. ✓ Water can drain quickly through the spaces between the
sand particles; ✓ So, sandy soils tend to be light in color, well aerated and
dry. ▪ If the proportion of fine particles is relatively higher, then it is
called clayey soil. ✓ Clay particles, being much smaller, pack tightly together,
leaving little space for air. ✓ Unlike sandy soil, water can be held in the tiny gaps
between the particles of clay. ▪ If the amount of large and fine particles is about the same,
then the soil is called loamy. ✓ Loamy soil is a mixture of sand, clay and another type of
soil particle known as silt. ✓ The loamy soil also has humus in it. It has the right water
holding capacity for the growth of plants.
➢ Crops vs Soils ▪ Clayey and loamy soils are both suitable for growing cereals like wheat, and gram. Such soils are good at
retaining water. ▪ For paddy, soils rich in clay and organic matter and having a good capacity to retain water are ideal. ▪ For lentils (masoor) and other pulses, loamy soils, which drain water easily, are required. ▪ For cotton, sandy loam or loam, which drain water easily and can hold plenty of air, are more suitable.
Major Soil Groups Basics ➢ Geologically, Indian soils can broadly be divided into soils of peninsular India and soils of extra- peninsular
India. ➢ The soils of the Extra-Peninsula (Indo- Gangetic-Brahmaputra plains) are formed due to the depositional
work of rivers and wind. They are very deep. They are often referred to as transported or azonal soils. ➢ The soils of Peninsular India are formed by the decomposition of rocks in situ, i.e. directly from the
underlying rocks. They are transported and redeposited to a limited extent and are known as sedentary soils.
Alluvial Soils ➢ About
▪ These are formed mainly due to silt deposited by Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra rivers[Rocks of the Himalayas forms the parent material]
▪ In coastal regions, they are formed due to wave action. ▪ It is the largest soil group covering about 45.6% the total area&supports> 40% of India’s population.
➢ Characteristics ▪ Immature; have weak soil profiles; loamy soil type- highly porous; Pebbly and gravelly soils are rare;
Kankar (calcareous concretions) beds are present along the river terraces; Porosity and texture provide good drainage and other conditions favourable for agriculture; replenished itself.
➢ Chemical properties ▪ Low in Nitrogen; Adequate in potash, phosphoric acid (phosphate) and alkalis (lime); ▪ Wide range of Iron oxide and lime.
➢ Distribution ▪ Along theIndo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra plains except in few places where the top layer is covered by desert
sand. ▪ Present in deltas of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery, where they are called
deltaic alluvium (coastal alluvium). ▪ Some alluvial soils are found in the Narmada, Tapti valleys and Northern parts of Gujarat.
➢ Crops ▪ Best suited for agriculture; responds well to the canal and well/tube-well irrigation. ▪ They yield splendid crops of rice, wheat, sugarcane, tobacco, cotton, jute, maize, oilseeds, etc.
➢ Geological Divisions ▪ Geologically, the alluvium of the Great plain of India is divided into newer or younger khadar and older
bhangar soils.
Black Soils ➢ About
▪ The parent material= volcanic rocks that were formed in the Deccan Plateau.
▪ In Tamil Nadu, gneisses and schists form the parent material. ▪ These are the region of high temperature and low rainfall.
➢ Characteristics ▪ Highly argillaceous (containing clay) with a large clay factor, 62%or
more; uploads type black soils havelow fertility while those in the valleys are very fertile; have high retentive of moisture; gets sticky during rainy season; shrinks during summers (develops deep cracks).
▪ The lower layers can still retain moisture. The cracks permit oxygenation of the soil to sufficient depths. ➢ Chemical properties
▪ The black colour is due to the presence of a small proportion of titaniferous magnetite or iron and black constituents of the parent rock.
▪ In Tamil Nadu and parts of Andhra Pradesh, the black colour is derived from crystalline schists and basic gneisses.
➢ Color ▪ 10% of alumina;9-10% of iron oxide;6-8% of lime & magnesium carbonates; ▪ potashis variable (less than 0.5%); phosphates, nitrogen & humus are low.
➢ Distribution ▪ Spread over 16.6% of the total areaacross Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, parts of Karnataka, Telangana,
Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. ➢ Crops
▪ Best suited for cotton crop aka regur and black cotton soils. ▪ Other major crops:wheat, jowar, linseed, virginia tobacco, castor, sunflower and millets. ▪ Rice and sugarcane are equally important where irrigation facilities are available; Large varieties of
vegetables and fruits are also successfully grown on the black soils.
Red Soils ➢ About
▪ It forms one of the largest soil group of India. ▪ The main parent rocks are crystalline and metamorphic rocks like acid
granites, gneisses and quartzites. ➢ Characteristics
▪ The texture of these soils can vary from sand to clay, the majority being loams.
▪ Uplands are poor, gravelly, and porous |Lowlands are rich, deep dark and fertile. ➢ Chemical properties
▪ Acidic with fair alkali content. ▪ poor in lime, magnesia, phosphates, nitrogen & humus; | Rich in potash & potassium.
➢ Color ▪ The red colour is due to the presence of iron oxide.
➢ Distribution ▪ Found in regions of low rainfall; Covers 10.6 % of the total area. ▪ Spread across Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, south-east of Maharashtra, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Chota Nagpur plateau; parts of south Bihar, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh; Aravallis and the eastern half of Rajasthan (Mewar or Marwar Plateau), parts of North-Eastern states.
➢ Crops ▪ The red soils are mostly loamy, thus with the proper use of fertilisers and irrigation techniques, give a
goodyield of cotton, wheat, rice, pulses, millets, tobacco, oilseeds, potatoes and fruits.
Laterite Soils ➢ About
▪ Formed due to weathering; under conditions of high temperature and heavy rainfall with alternate wet and dry periods.
▪ Heavy rainfall promotes leaching (nutrients gets washed away by water) of soil whereby lime and silica are leached away, and a soil rich in oxides of iron and aluminium compounds is left behind.
▪ Laterite soils are red in colour due to little clay and more gravel of red sand-stones.
➢ Chemical properties ▪ Rich in bauxite or ferric oxides; Poor in lime, magnesia, potash and nitrogen; High phosphate content in
some areas; Wetter areas may have high humus content. ➢ Distribution
▪ Covers 2.48 lakh sq km; spread across the summits of Western Ghats at 1000 to 1500 m above mean sea level, Eastern Ghats, the Rajmahal Hills, Vindhyan, Satpuras and Malwa Plateau.
▪ They are well developed in south Maharashtra, parts of Karnataka etc. and are widely scattered in other regions.
➢ Crops ▪ Low fertility due to intensive leaching, but when manured and irrigated, they are suitable for growing
plantation crops like tea, coffee, rubber, cinchona, coconut, arecanut, etc. ➢ Economic Value
▪ Laterite and lateritic soils provide valuable building material. ▪ These soils can be easily cut into cakes but hardens like iron when exposed to air. ▪ As it is the end-product of weathering, it cannot be weathered much further and is durable.
Forest- Mountain Soils ➢ About
▪ The desert soils consist ofaeolian sand (90 to 95%) and clay (5 to 10%). ▪ The formation of these soils is mainly governed by the characteristic
deposition of organic matter derived from forests and their character changes with parent rocks, ground- configuration and climate.
➢ Chemical properties ▪ Rich in humus; deficient in potash, phosphorus and lime; require a good
deal of fertilisers for high yields. ➢ Distribution
▪ Covers 2.85 lakh sq km or 8.67% of total area; ▪ In the Himalayan region, such soils are mainly found in valleys, less steep and north facing slopes. ▪ The south-facing slopes are very steep&exposed to denudation and hence do not support soil formation. ▪ Forest soils occur in Western and Eastern Ghats also.
➢ Crops ▪ Suitable for plantations of tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits in the peninsular forest region. ▪ Wheat, maize, barley and temperate fruits are grown in the Himalayan forest region.
Arid- Desert Soils ➢ About
▪ The presence of sand inhibits soil growth. ▪ Desertification of neighbouring soils is common due to the intrusion of
aeolian sand (wind action). ➢ Chemical properties
▪ Poor in organic matter; ▪ They are alkaline with varying degree of soluble salts like calcium
carbonate.Calcium content increases downwards, and the subsoil has ten times more calcium.
▪ High phosphate content; Low Nitrogen in most areas where nitrates are absent. ➢ Distribution
▪ Cover a total area of 1.42 lakh sq km (4.32%); Spread across arid and semi-arid regions of Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana.
▪ Sandy soils without clay factor are also common in coastal regions of Odisha, Tamil Nadu & Kerala. ➢ Crops
▪ Phosphates and nitratesmake these soils fertile wherever moisture is available. ▪ In large areas, only the drought resistant and salt tolerant crops such as barley, cotton, millets, maize and
pulses are grown.
Saline- Alkaline Soils ➢ About
▪ Here, thetopsoil is impregnated with saline and alkaline efflorescence’s (become covered with salt particles).
▪ Undecomposed rock fragments, on weathering, give rise to sodium, magnesium and calcium salts and sulphurous acid.Some of the salts are transported in solution by the rivers.
▪ In regions with the low water table, the salts percolate into subsoil and in regions with good drainage, the salts are wasted away by flowing water.
▪ But in places where the drainage system is poor, the water with high salt concentration becomes stagnant and deposits all the salts in the topsoil once the water evaporates.
▪ In regions with the high sub-soil water table, injurious salts are transferred from below by the capillary action as a result of evaporation in the dry season.
➢ Distribution
▪ Spread across 68,000 sq km of area.; found in canal irrigated areas and areas of a high sub-soil water table.
▪ Parts of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab (side effects of improper or excess irrigation), Rajasthan and Maharashtra have this kind of soils.
▪ The accumulation of these salts makes the soil infertile and renders it unfit for agriculture.
Peaty- Marshy Soils ➢ About
▪ Have large amount of organic matter and a considerable amount of soluble salts.
▪ The most humid regions have this type of soil. ➢ Chemical properties
▪ Deficient in potash and phosphate; They are black, heavy and highly acidic.
➢ Distribution ▪ Spread across Kottayam and Alappuzha districts of Kerala. ▪ Also occur in the coastal areas of Odisha and Tamil Nadu, Sundarbans of West Bengal, in Bihar and
Almora district of Uttarakhand. ➢ Crops
▪ Most of the peaty soils are under water during the rainy season but as soon the rains cease; they are put under paddy cultivation.
Soil Process Podzolization ➢ A process of soil formation:formation of Podzols and Podzolic soils. ➢ Podzolization is the negative of calcification [The calcification process tends to concentrate calcium in the
lower part of the B horizon, whereas podzolization leaches the entire solum of calcium carbonates] ➢ The other bases along with calcium are also removed and the whole soil becomes distinctly acidic. In fact, the
process is essentially one of the processes of acid leaching.
Laterization ➢ The term laterite meaning brick or tile and was originally applied to a group of high clay Indian soils found in
Malabar hills of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Maharashtra. ▪ It refers specifically to a particular cemented horizon in certain soils which when dried, become very hard,
like a brick. ➢ Laterization is the process that removes silica, instead of sesquioxides from the upper layers and thereby
leaving sesquioxides to concentrate in the solum.
Gleization ➢ It is a process of soil formation resulting in the development of a glei (or gley horizon) in the lower part of the
soil profile above the parent material due to poor drainage condition (lack of oxygen) and where waterlogged conditions prevail. Such soils are called hydro-orphic soils.
Salinization ➢ It is the process of accumulation of salts, such as sulphates and chlorides of calcium, magnesium, sodium and
potassium, in soils in the form of a salty (salic) horizon.It is quite common in arid and semi-arid regions. ➢ It may also take place through capillary rise of saline ground water and by inundation with seawater in
marine and coastal soils. ➢ Salt accumulation may also result from irrigation or seepage in areas of impeded drainage.
Desalinization ➢ It is the removal of excess soluble salts by leaching from horizons or soil profile (that contained enough
soluble salts to impair the plant growth) by ponding water and improving the drainage conditions by installing artificial drainage network.
Solonization or Alkalization ➢ The process involves the accumulation of sodium ions on the exchange complex of the clay, resulting in the
formation of sodic soils (Solonetz). ➢ All cations in solution are engaged in a reversible reaction with the exchange sites on the clay and organic
matter particles.
Solodization or dealkalization ➢ The process refers to the removal of Na+ from the exchange sites. This process involves dispersion of clay.
Dispersion occurs when Na+ ions become hydrated. ➢ Much of the dispersion can be eliminated if Ca++ and or Mg++ ions are concentrated in the water, which is
used to leach the soonest. These Ca and Mg ion can replace the Na on exchange complex, and the salts of sodium are leached out.
Desertification ➢ Definition: Productive potential of arid or semi-arid land falls by at least 10% due to human activity and/or
climate change. ➢ Symptoms: Loss of native vegetation; increased wind erosion; salinization; drop in water table; reduce surface
water supply. ➢ Remediation: Reduce overgrazing; reduce deforestation; reduce destructive forms of planting, irrigation, and
mining. Plant trees and grasses to hold soil.
Salinization ➢ Definition: Water that is not absorbed into the soil and evaporates leaves behind dissolved salts in topsoil. ➢ Symptoms:Stunned crop growth; lower yield; eventual destruction of plant life. ➢ Remediation: Take land out of production for a while; and/or install underground perforated drainage pipes;
flush soil with freshwater into separate lined evaporation ponds; plant halophytes (salt-loving plants) such as barley, cotton, sugar beet and/or semi-dwarf wheat.
Water logging ➢ Definition: Saturation of soil with water resulting in a rise in the water table. ➢ Symptoms: Saline water envelops deep roots killing plants; lowers productivity; eventual destruction of
plant life ➢ Remediation: Switch to less water-demanding plants in areas susceptible to water logging; utilize
conservation- tillage farming; plant water logging-resistant trees with deep roots; take and out of production for a while; and/ or install pumping stations with drainage pipes that lead to catchment-evaporation basins. ▪ Loam soils generally contain more nutrients and humus than sandy soils, have better infiltration and
drainage than silty soils and are easier to till than clay soils. ▪ If the topsoil is brown or black, it is rich in nitrogen and is good for crops. If the topsoil is grey, yellow, or
red, it is low in organic matter and poor for crops.
Erosion ➢ Splash Erosion:1st stage of erosion process; occurs when raindrops hit bare soil.
▪ The explosive impact breaks up soil aggregates so that individual soil particles are ‘splashed’ onto the soil surface.
➢ Sheet Erosion: the uniform movement of a thin layer of soil across an expanse of land devoid of vegetative cover. ▪ Raindrops detach soil particles, which go into solution as runoff occurs and are transported downstream to
a point of deposition. ➢ Rill Erosion:When sheet flows begin to concentrate on the land surface, rill erosion occurs.
▪ While sheet erosion is generally invisible, rill erosion leaves visible scouring on the landscape. This type of erosion occurs when the duration or intensity of rain increases and runoff volumes accelerate.
➢ Gully Erosion:Rill erosionevolves into gully erosion as duration or intensity of rain continues to increase and runoff volumes continue to accelerate.
▪ It is generally defined as a scoured-out area that is not crossable with tillage or grading equipment.
Some Terms Soil Texture ➢ It refers to the relative proportion of particles or it is the relative percentage by weight of the three soil
separates viz., sand, silt and clay or simply refers to the size of soil particles. ➢ Loam: A type of soil texture with good water holding capacity and drainage suitable for cultivation of variety of
crops.
Soil Structure ➢ The arrangement and organization of primary and secondary particles in a soil mass is known as soil
structure.
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Crops
Basics Terms ➢ Crops:A crop is a plant or animal product that can be grown and harvested extensively for profit or
subsistence. Crops may refer either to the harvested parts or to the harvest in a more refined state. ➢ Cropping pattern refers to the proportion of area under different crops at any given point of time in a unit
area. ➢ Crop Arrangement:
▪ Temporal Arrangements (time) refers to the yearly sequence of growing different crops on a piece of land.
▪ Spatial Arrangements (space/land) refers to the arrangement of crop/s on a piece of land in various patterns.
➢ Crop diversification refers to the addition of new crops or cropping systems to agricultural production on a particular farm considering the different returns from value-added crops with complementary marketing opportunities
➢ Crop rotation: Crops are changed in the field from year to year according to a planned sequence rather than the same crop being grown in the same field again and again.
➢ Cropping System is a broader term than cropping pattern and includes the sum total of all crops and the practices used to grow those crops on a field or farm. It comprises of all components, such as water, soil, technology etc. required for the production of a particular crop and the interrelationships between them and the surrounding environment.
➢ Cropping Intensity: It refers to number of crops cultivated in a piece of land per annum. ➢ Gross Cropped Area: It is the total area sown once as well as more than once in a particular year.
Factor Affecting ➢ Agronomic/Technical
▪ Climate and soil type (irrigation, topography, fertility, drainage etc.); ▪ Availability of required inputs (fertilizer, chemical, credit, tractors etc.); ▪ Plant/seed of high genetic quality; ▪ Management techniques and quality managers; ▪ Abundance of labour.
➢ Economic ▪ Flow of market signals and communication and information systems, Ex: regarding prices in the market,
supply- demand etc; ▪ Venture capital and entrepreneurship; ▪ Transparency of input and outputprices; ▪ Information on export standards, market demand and relative profitability;
▪ Efficient marketing systems. ➢ Government Policy
▪ Non-distortionary policy to avoid discrimination among crops. (eg. MSP Policy); ▪ Efficient research and extension programmes, without any bias for major crops or against high value
crops; ▪ Contract-farming opportunities; ▪ Rural credit; ▪ Off-farm employment opportunities; ▪ Marketing systems including quality standards; ▪ Involvement of the private sector.
Classification of Crops Based on End Usage ➢ Food Crops
▪ The crops which are grown as food for the producer's family or for the producer's own livestock. ▪ Generally, produced at small scale (subsistence level) | Ex: wheat, rice, jowar etc
➢ Cash Crops ▪ The crops that are especially used for profit rather than consumption by a family. ▪ They can be consumed directly or processed into other products, such as sugar and biofuel. ▪ They consist of foods like tobacco, tea, coffee, cardamom, fruits and vegetables, grains, etc. ▪ They are sold, but some are not edible. Cotton and tobacco are examples of non-edible cash crops.
➢ Plantation Crops ▪ It refers to those crops which are usually cultivated as a single crop on an extensive scale in a large
contiguous area, owned and managed by an Individual or a company. ▪ These plantation crops are of high value commercial crops of greater economic importance. The crops
include tea, coffee, rubber, cocoa, coconut, arecanut, oil palm, cashew, cinchona etc. ➢ Horticulture crops
▪ The science and art of growing and caring for plants, especially flowers, fruits, and vegetables. ▪ The word horticulture comes from Latin and means "garden cultivation" ▪ Whereas agronomy (a branch of agriculture) refers to the growing of field crops, horticulture refers to
small-scale gardening. ➢ All food crops can be cash crops but not all cash crops can be food crops. Food crops can be eaten by someone
somewhere and so have a cash value. Food crops can be sold, which would make them cash crops as well.
Based on Season ➢ Kharif Crop:
▪ The crops grown in monsoon months from June to Oct-Nov;Require warm, wet weather at major period of crop growth, also required short day length for flowering. Ex:Cotton, Rice, Jowar, bajara. ✓ Northern States: Rice, Cotton, Bajra, Maize, Jowar, Tur ✓ Southern States: Rice, Maize, Ragi, Jowar, Groundnut
➢ Rabi Crop: ▪ The crops grown in winter season from Oct to March month. Crops grow well in cold and dry weather.
Require longer day length for flowering. Ex:Wheat, gram, sunflower etc. ✓ Northern States: Wheat, Gram, Rapeseeds and Mustard, Barley ✓ Southern States: Rice, Maize, Ragi Groundnut, Jowar
➢ Zaid Crop: ▪ The crops grown in summer month from March to June. Require warm-dry weather for major growth
period and longer day length for flowering. Ex:Groundnuts, Watermelon, Pumpkins, Gourds. ✓ Northern States: Vegetables, Fruits, Fodder ✓ Southern States: Rice, Vegetables, Fodder
Based on Climate ➢ Tropical Climate Crop: They grow well in warm & hot climate. Ex:Rice, sugarcane, Jowar etc ➢ Temperate Climate Crop: They grow well in cool climate. Ex:Wheat, Oats, Gram, Potato etc
Based on Agronomics ➢ Cereals
▪ They are cultivated grasses grown for their edible starchy grains. Larger grains used as staple food are cereals.
▪ Ex: Rice, wheat, maize, barley and oats. The important cereal of world is rice. ➢ Millets
▪ They are also annual grasses of the group cereals. But they are grown in less area or less important area whose productivity and economics are also less.
▪ These are staple food of poor people. In India pearl millet is a staple food in Rajasthan ✓ Major millets (based on area production and productivity and grain size)
o Sorghum /Jowar; Pearl Millet /Bajra/cumbu; Finger millet or ragi, etc ✓ Minor millets (based on area production and productivity and grain size)
o Fox tail millet; Little millet; Common millet; Barnyard millet; Kodomillet, etc ➢ Pulses or Grain Legumes
▪ Major source of protein in Indian diet; Economically, pulses are cheapest source of protein. ▪ It is cultivated to enrich the soil, to utilize the residual moisture and to give revenue in a shorter period. ▪ Ex: Red gram; Black gram; Green gram; Cowpea; Bengalgram; Horsegram; Dewgram; Soyabean; Peas, etc
➢ Oil Seed Crops ▪ These crops are cultivated for the production of oil. ▪ Either for edible orindustrial or medicinal purpose. They containfat. ▪ Groundnut or peanut; Sesamum or gingelly; Sunflower; Castor; Linseed or flax; Niger; Safflower; Rapeseed
& Mustard; 45 – 50% oil content is present in these seeds. ➢ Sugar Crops: Juice extracted from
▪ Sugar stem used for jaggery or sugar ✓ Number of by products like Molasses, bagasse, press-mud; ✓ Molasses used for alcohol and yeast formation; Bagasse for paper making and fuel; ✓ Press- mud used for soil amendment; Trash (green leaf + dry foliage)- the waste is used for cattle feed;
▪ Sugar beet: Tuber for extraction of sugar ✓ Tubers and tops are used as a fodder for cattle feed.
➢ Starch Crops or Tuber Crops ✓ Potato; Tapioca or cassava; Sweet potato, etc
➢ Fibre Crops ▪ Epidermal hairs of seed coats are the economic portion;Lint (cappas- seed) has industrial value (fibre); ▪ Stalk is of fuel nature, garment purpose, seed for cattle feed and Oil is edible;
➢ Cotton ▪ Karunganni; Uppam cotton; American cotton or Cambodium cotton; Egyptian cotton or Sea island cotton
➢ Stem Fibres ▪ Jute; Mesta; Sun hemp; Sisal hemp, etc
➢ Narcotics ▪ Stimulates Nervous System- Tobacco; Betelvine; Arecanut, etc
➢ Forage and Fodder Crops ▪ The entire vegetative part is used as green fodder; ▪ The stalks and leaves are the major economic portion for hay making; ▪ Hay is cut into pieces and mixed with concentrated animal feed and is fed to animals.
➢ Grasses ▪ Napier grass; Para grass; Bermuda grass; Guinea grass; Rhodes grass, etc
➢ Legumes ▪ Lucerne (Alfalfa); Egyptian clover (Bersemm); Indian clover (Fodder senji); Sirato; Stylo; Subabul, etc
➢ Plantation Crops ▪ Tea (leaf); Coffee (seed); Rubber (milk exudation); Cocoa (Seed).
➢ Spices and Condiments
▪ Products of crop plants are used to flavor taste and sometime color the fresh preserved food. Ex:ginger, garlic, chili, cumin onion, coriander, cardamom, pepper, turmeric etc.
▪ Medicinal plants include cinchona, isabgoli, opium poppy, senna, belladonna, rauwolfra, iycorice. ▪ Aromatic plants such as lemon grass, citronella grass, palmorsa, Japanese mint, peppermint, rose, jasmine,
henna etc.
Based on Duration of Crops ➢ Seasonal crops:A crop completes its life cycle in one season. Ex:rice, Jowar, wheat, etc. ➢ Two seasonal crops: Crops complete its life cycle in two seasons. Ex:Cotton, Turmeric, Ginger. ➢ Annual crops: Crops require one full year to complete its life cycle. Ex:Sugarcane. ➢ Biennial crops: Crops requires two year to complete its life cycle Ex:Banana, Papaya. ➢ Perennial crops: Crops live for several years. Ex:Fruit crops, mango, guava etc.
Based on Cultural Method/Water ➢ Rain fed: Cultivation of crop mainly based on the availability of rain water. Ex:Jowar, Bajara, Mung etc. ➢ Irrigated crops: Crops cultivated with the help of irrigation water. Ex:Chili,sugarcane, Banana, papaya etc.
Based on Root System ➢ Tap root system:The main root goes deep into the soil. Ex:Tur, Grape, Cotton etc. ➢ Fiber rooted:The crops whose roots are fibrous shallow & spreading into the soil. Ex:Cereal crops, wheat, rice
etc.
Based on Economic Importance ➢ Cash crop: Grown for earning money. Ex: Sugarcane, cotton. ➢ Food crops: Grown for raising food grain for the population and & fodder for cattle. Ex: Jowar, wheat, rice
etc.
Based on No. of Cotyledons ➢ Monocots or monocotyledons: Having one cotyledon in the seed. Ex:all cereals & Millets. ➢ Dicots or dicotyledonous: Crops having two cotyledons in the seed. Ex:all legumes & pulses and almost all the
trees.
Based on length of photoperiodrequired for floral initiation ➢ Photoperiodism: The effect of light on plant. Most plants are influenced by relative length of the day & night,
especially for floral initiation, depending on the length of photoperiod required for floral ignition, plants are classified as: ▪ Short-day plants: Flower initiation takes place when days are short less than ten hours. Ex:rice, Jowar,
green gram, black gram etc. ▪ Long day’s plants: require long days are more than ten hours for floral initiation. Ex:Wheat, Barley, etc. ▪ Day neutral plants: Photoperiod does not have much influence for phase change for these plants.
Ex:Cotton, sunflower, etc.
Major Crops in India Wheat ➢ About
▪ 2ndmost important crop; Main food crop in north and north-western India; Rabi Crop.
➢ Climatic Conditions ▪ Requires a cool growing season and a bright sunshine at the time of
ripening. ▪ Winter temperature from10°-15° C and summer temperature from 21°-
26° C; 50-75 cm of annual rainfall evenly distributed over the growing seasons.
➢ Extra ▪ The Ganga-Satluj plains in the northwest and black soil region of the Deccan.
▪ The major wheat-producing states are Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan and parts of Madhya Pradesh.
▪ India is 4th largest wheat producer with about 1/8th of world output.
Rice ➢ About
▪ Staple food crop of India; Kharif Crop; Aus, Aman and Boro are varieties of rice in Kharif, Rabi and Zaid seasons.
➢ Climatic Conditions ▪ High temperature (above 25° C); High Humidity with average rainfall
above 100 cm. ➢ Extra
▪ Plains of North and North-Eastern India, coastal areas and the deltaic regions. ▪ With help of Irrigation: Punjab, Haryana, West UP and Parts of Rajasthan. ▪ Other areas: West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu. ▪ Staple food crop of India; India is the second largest producer after China.
Pulses ➢ About
▪ Major source of protein in a vegetarian diet; Major Pulses: Tur (arhar), urad, moong, masur, peas and gram.
➢ Climatic Conditions ▪ less moisture and survive even in dry conditions; Gram prefers 20°-25°
temperature and 40-50 cm rainfall. ➢ Extra
▪ Major pulse producing states in India are Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Maharashtra and Karnataka.
▪ India is the largest producer and consumer. ▪ Leguminous plants-Help in restoring fertility.
Millets ➢ About
▪ Jowar, bajra and ragi are important millets in India; Have high nutritional value.
➢ Climatic Conditions ▪ Jowar is a rain-fed crop mostly grown in the moist areas which hardly
needs irrigation. (Kharif- 26°-33° C;Rabi- above 16°C). ▪ Bajra grows well on sandy soils and shallow black soil (Temperature- 25°-
30° C; rainfall- 40-50 cm). ▪ Ragi is a crop of dry regions and grows well on red, black, sandy, loamy and shallow black soils
(Temperature- 20°-30° C; rainfall- 50-100 cm). ➢ Extra
▪ Major Jowar producing States were Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. ▪ Major Bajra producing States were: Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Haryana. ▪ Major ragi producing states are: Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andra, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim,
Jharkhand and Arunachal Pradesh. ▪ Alternative to rice; India leads world production in millets.
Maize ➢ About
▪ Is used both as food and fodder; A Kharif Crop; In some states like Bihar- Rabi crop also.
➢ Climatic Conditions ▪ Temperature between 21°C to 27°C and grows well in old alluvial soil;
50-100 cm rainfall. ▪ Requires four and a half frost free months in a year.
➢ Extra ▪ Major maize-producing states are Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana,
Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. ▪ Used as Food and fodder crop; Production of crop increased due to use of HYV seeds, fertilisers and
irrigation; Rich in protein.
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Cotton ➢ About
▪ Fibre Crop;Kharif Crop and requires 6 to 8 months to mature. ▪ Cotton grows well in drier parts of the black cotton soil of the Deccan
Plateau. ➢ Climatic Conditions
▪ It requires high temperature (21° -30° C), light rainfall (50-100 cm) or irrigation, 210 frost-free days and bright sun-shine for its growth.
➢ Extra ▪ Major cotton-producing states are-Maharashtra, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh. ▪ Originated in India; 2ndlargest producer in world; Light weight crop; Non-perishable raw material. ▪ Cotton quickly exhausts fertility of soil; hence regular use of manure and fertilisers is required.
Tea ➢ About
▪ Plantation Crop ➢ Climatic Conditions
▪ Grows well in tropical and sub-tropical climates endowed with deep and fertile well-drained soil, rich in humus and organic matter.
▪ Ideal temperature- 20°-30° C;Requires warm and moist frost-free climate all through the year.
▪ Frequent showers (150-300 cm) evenly distributed over the year ensure continuous growth of tender leaves.
➢ Extra ▪ Tea is a labour-intensive industry; It requires abundant, cheap and skilled labour.
▪ Major tea-producing states are Assam, hills of Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri districts, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Kerala. Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Meghalaya, Andhra Pradesh and Tripura are also tea-producing states in the country.
▪ Tropical and sub-tropical climates; Well drained soil where does not stagnate; One of the major foreign exchange earners of India.
Coffee ➢ About
▪ The Arabica variety initially brought from Yemen is produced in the country.
➢ Climatic Conditions ▪ Requires hot and humid climate with temperature varying between 15°-
28° C and rainfall from 150-250 cm; Hot and humid climate. ▪ Harmful: Prolonged drought& frost; Stagnant water. ▪ Soil:Iron and calcium, humus and minerals rich soil ideal- well drained
rich friable loams Must be properly manured (to retain & replenish fertility).
➢ Extra ▪ Initially, its cultivation was introduced on the Baba Budan Hills and even today its cultivation is confined to
the Nilgiri in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. ▪ India produces about 4% of world coffee production; Arabica variety is popular. ▪ Almost 50% of Indian production is exported.
Rubber ➢ About
▪ Equatorial Crop, but under special conditions it’s also grown in tropical and sub-tropical areas.
➢ Climatic Conditions ▪ Moist and humid climate with rainfall of more than 200 cm. and
temperature above 25°C. ▪ Harmful: Dry spell and low temperature. Daily rainfall followed by strong
sun is very useful. ➢ Extra
▪ Mainly grown in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Garo hills of Meghalaya; Rubber plantations were first established in Kerala in 1902.
▪ Important industrial raw material; India is 3rd largest producer in world.
Sugarcane ➢ About
▪ Tropical as well as subtropical crop; Main source of sugar, gur (jaggary), khandsari and molasses.
➢ Climatic Conditions ▪ Hot and humid climate with a temperature of 21°C to 27°C and an annual
rainfall between 75cm and 100cm; Can be grown on a variety of soils and needs manual labour from sowing to harvesting;
▪ Soil:Black, Laterite ➢ Extra
▪ The major sugarcane-producing states are Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Bihar, Punjab and Haryana; Needs manual labour for its cultivation; Perishable.
Jute ➢ About
▪ Known as Golden fibre ➢ Climatic Conditions
▪ Grows well on well-drained fertile soils in the flood plains where soils are renewed every year.
▪ Temp: 27°C; Rainfall: 120-150 cms | Soil:Light sandy or clayey loams. ➢ Extra
▪ Major jute producing states are West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Odisha and Meghalaya. ▪ Used for making gunny bags, mats, ropes, yarn, carpets etc. ▪ Jute getting replaced by synthetic fibres due to low cost and durability of artificial fibres.
Gram ➢ About
▪ Rabi crop; best grown on loamy soil. ➢ Climatic Conditions
▪ Temp: 20-25°c; Rainfall 40-50 cm. ➢ Extra
▪ Rajasthan, MadhyaPradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Maharashtra ▪ Most important of all pulses; Single or mixed crop with wheat, barley,
linseed or mustard.
Tur ➢ About: Kharif crop chiefly; Dry crop mixed with other kharif crops ➢ Climatic Conditions:Temp: 20-25°C; Rainfall 40-50 cms ➢ Extra
▪ Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka. ▪ 2ndmost important millet of India; Seldom grown as single crop.
Tobacco ➢ About: Tropical and sub- tropical climate; Freedom from frost Needs fertile soils and heavy
doses of fertilisers. ➢ Climatic Conditions: Temp: 16-35°C; Rainfall: 100cms. ➢ Extra:Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat; 4th largest producer and 6th largest exporter of
tobacco.
Other crops Groundnut ➢ About:Kharif crop ➢ Climatic Conditions:Temp: 21-27°c; Rainfall: 50- 75cms; ➢ Extras:
▪ Enemies: Frost, Prolonged drought, Continuous rain, Stagnant water ▪ Producing States: Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Gujarat,
Maharashtra ▪ Accounts for more than 50% of the oilseeds produced in the country
Serves as an important rotation crop because it synthesizes atmospheric nitrogen and increases soil fertility
Seasmum ➢ About:Rabi crop ➢ Climatic Conditions:Temp: 21-23°c; Rainfall: 45- 50cms; Soil: Well drained light loam ➢ Extras:Odisha, Rajasthan, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh
Mustard ➢ About:Rabi crops ➢ Climatic Conditions:Cool climate is suitable ➢ Extras:Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh; Single crop or mixed with wheat, barley and gram
Linseed ➢ About:Rabi Cool; Dry crop ➢ Climatic Conditions:Temp:20°c; Rainfall:75cms; Soil: Clayey, black, Alluvial ➢ Extras:Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh& Maharashtra
Castor Seed ➢ About:Almost whole area of castor seed is rain-fed Kharif crop (north) Rabi crop (South) ➢ Climatic ConditionsTemp: 20-25°c; Rainfall: 50- 75cms;Soil: Sandy loams (peninsula) &Alluvial
(Satluj- Ganga plains) ➢ Extras:Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Rajasthan;
Pepper ➢ About:Tropical crop ➢ Climatic Conditions:Temp: 10-30°c; Rainfall: 200- 300cms; Soil: Loamy ➢ Extras:Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu; The plant progresses as a vine and needs support of other
trees
Cardamom ➢ Climatic Conditions:Temp: 15-32°c; Rainfall: 150- 300cms; Soil: Red, Laterite and Loamy ➢ Extras:Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu; Shade loving plant and grown under shade- trees Used in
Ayurveda
Chillies ➢ Climatic Conditions:Temp: 10-30°c; Rainfall: 60- 125cms; Soil: Black and Loamy ➢ Extras:Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Odisha
Turmeric ➢ About:Tropical crop; Soil: Sandy or loamy ➢ Producing States:Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu; ➢ Extras: King of spices; Used: Condiment, Healing remedy, Textile Dye
Ginger ➢ About:Tropical and sub- tropical crop ➢ Climatic Conditions: Temp: 10-25°c; Rainfall: 125- 250cms; Soil: Sandy, clayey, Loamy; Red and
Laterite ➢ Producing States:Kerala, Meghalaya, Sikkim, West Bengal, Odisha and Mizoram Origin: China
Cashew nut ➢ Climatic Conditions:Temp: 16-25°c; Rainfall: 50-350cms; Soil: Laterite (West coast) and Sandy (East
coast) ➢ Extras:Goa, Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh&Maharashtra
Mango ➢ Climatic Conditions:Temp: 20-30°c; Rainfall: 75-250cms; Soil: prefer rich clayey loams ➢ Extras:Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Odisha, Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka
Apple ➢ About:Temperate fruit crop
➢ Climatic Conditions:Temp: 21-24°c; Rainfall: 100-125cms; Soil: Loamy, Rich in organic matter ➢ Extras:Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttaranchal, Arunachal Pradesh
Banana ➢ About:Tropical and sub- tropical crop and sub-tropical crop ➢ Climatic Conditions:Temp: 20-30°c; Rainfall: >150cms; Soil: Well drained, Rich in
moisture and Humus ➢ Extras:Spread all over India, Peninsular India provide ideal conditions Tamil Nadu and
Maharashtra ▪ Fruit ripens very quickly; Refrigerated boats to ship from tropics to US/EU market;
Banana producing regions nearest to major markets have trade advantage
Orange ➢ Climatic Conditions:Soil: Textured sand loams, well- drained; Root penetration up to
2-4meters is best ➢ Extras:Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal- Darjeeling, Himachal Pradesh- Kangra valley,
Meghalaya- Khasi and Jaintia hills, Andhra Pradesh- Hyderabad and Aurangabad, Karnataka- Kodagu district, Kerala- Wayanad, Tamil Nadu- Nilgiri, Maharashtra- Nagpur and Pune | ▪ Orange orchards are rain-fed grown at height of 600- 1500m
Grapes ➢ About:Sub-tropical crop ➢ Climatic Conditions:Long summer and short winter;Low water supply in growing
period and bright sunshine in mature stage. ➢ Extras:Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir and Punjab
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka | The plant gives only one crop during summer but in South India the plant grows throughout the year and yields two crops a year.
Minor Forest Produce ➢ About
▪ MFP is defined under The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, popularly known as the Forests Rights Act (FRA)
▪ The definition of MFP includes bamboo and cane, thereby changing the categorization of bamboo and cane as “trees” under the Indian Forest Act 1927.
▪ PESA, 1996 and Recognition of Forest Rights Act, 2006 conferred ownership of MFP to forest dwellers. ▪ Forest Rights Act also recognizes and vests individual forest-dwellers with forest rights to own and dispose
minor forest products from forests where they had traditional access. ➢ Mechanism for marketing of Minor Forest Produce (MFP) through Minimum Support Price (MSP) and
development of value chain for MFP ▪ Launched in 2014, the scheme is designed as a social safety net for improvement of livelihood of MFP
gatherers by providing them fair price for the MFPs they collect and ensure sustainable harvesting of MFPs. ▪ These tribals’ then sell the MFPs in village marketplaces. ▪ If the market prices fall below MSP, the state government agencies move in to procure the produce ▪ Ministry of Tribal Affairs is the nodal ministry for this scheme.
➢ Significance of MFP in India ▪ Around 100 million forest dwellers depend on Minor Forest Produces for food, shelter, medicines and cash
income. (Report of the National Committee on Forest Rights Act, 2011) ▪ Trials’ derive 20-40% of their annual income from Minor Forest Produce on which they spend major
portion of their time ▪ As per the Haque Committee Report, May 2011, the procurement value of 14 major MFPs is estimated Rs
1900 Crores (including tendu & bamboo)
▪ This activity has strong linkage to women’s financial empowerment as most of the Minor Forest Produces are collected and used/sold by women.
➢ Extra ▪ Recently, Centre revised the minimum support price (MSP) for minor forest produce, offering much-
needed support to tribal gatherers in view of the "exceptional and very difficult" circumstances prevailing in the country due to the coronavirus pandemic
▪ Ministry of Tribal Affairsincreased the MSP of 49 products which are collected by tribals from forests ▪ This is done under a Centrally Sponsored scheme known as “Mechanism for marketing of Minor Forest
Produce (MFP) through Minimum Support Price (MSP) and development of value chain for MFP” as a measure of social safety for MFP gatherers.
▪ Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development Federation of India (TRIFED), the nodal agency for the scheme, had recommended the increase to ensure more disposable income for tribals.
▪ MSP for MFPs is revised once in every 3 years by Pricing Cell constituted under the Ministry of Tribal
Affairs.
Systems & Patterns in Agriculture
Farming Systems Basics ➢ Farm is a piece of land with specific boundaries, where crop and livestock enterprises are taken up under
common management ➢ Farming is the process of harnessing solar energy in the form of economic plant and animal products ➢ System is a set of components which are interdependent and interacting
Wetland Farming ➢ Wet land:soils flooded or irrigated through lake, pond or canal and land is always in
submerged condition ➢ Wetland farming: is the practice of growing crops in soils flooded through natural flow of
water for most part of the year
Garden Farming ➢ Garden land: soils irrigated with ground water sources ➢ Garden land farming: Growing crops with supplemental irrigation by lifting water from
underground sources.
Dryland Farming ➢ Dry land: soils purely depends rainfall for moisture ➢ Dryland farming: is the practice of crop production entirely depending upon rainfall and
the moisture conserved in the soil ▪ This is practiced in areas where annual rainfall is less than 750mm. ▪ The crops may face moisture stress frequently due to erratic distribution or failure of
monsoon
Rainfed Farming ➢ Crop production in areas where rainfall is more than 750mm (i.e assured rainfall areas). ➢ Here moisture stress will be minimum. Soil conservation is given more importance
Mixed Farming ➢ Mixed farming is defined as a system of farming on a particular farm which
includes crop production, raising livestock, poultry, fisheries, bee keeping etc. to sustain and satisfy as many needs of the farmer as possible.
➢ Subsistence is important objective of mixed farming. While higher profitability without altering ecological balance is important in farming system.
➢ Advantages ▪ It offers highest return on farm business, as the by- products of farm are
properly utilized ▪ [The crop by-products such as straw, fodder etc. is used for feeding of livestock and in return they provide
milk; Manures available from livestock to maintain soil fertility] ▪ It provides work throughout year;Efficient utilization of land, labour, equipment and other resources. ▪ It helps in supplying all the food needs of the family members.
Specialized Farming ➢ The farm in which 50% or more income of total crop production is derived from a single crop is called
specialized farming
Diversified Farming ➢ A diversified farming has several production enterprises or sources of income but no
source of income equal as much as 50% of the total income. It is also called as general farming.
Cropping Systems About: ➢ The cropping system of a region is a cumulative result of long-term agricultural practices, social customs and
traditions, physical conditions, Government policies, monetary considerations and historical factors. ➢ The change in land use pattern and cropping pattern is vastly affected by irrigation expansion, infrastructure
development, penetration of rural markets, development and spread of short duration and drought resistant crop technologies, rapid urbanization.
➢ The higher cultivable area has been achieved by bringing large acreage of uncultivable land into cultivation.
Mono-Cropping ➢ It refers to growing of only one crop on a piece of land year after year. ➢ It may be due to climatic and socio-economic conditions or due to
specialisation of a farmer in growing a particular crop. ➢ Ex: Groundnut or cotton or sorghum are grown year after year due to
limitation of rainfall, while in canal irrigated areas, under a waterlogged condition, rice crop is grown as it is not possible to grow any other crop.
➢ Sole cropping: One crop variety grown alone in a pure stand at normal density.
➢ Monoculture: Repetitive growing of the same sole crop in the same land.
Multiple Cropping ➢ It is the practice of growing two or more crops in the same field within a given year. ➢ It is the intensification of cropping in time and space dimensions, i.e. a greater number of crops within year
and a greater number of crops on same piece of land in any given period.
Mixed cropping ➢ Growing of two or more crops simultaneously intermingled without row
arrangement is known as mixed cropping. ➢ It is a common practice in most of dryland tracts in India. ➢ The objective is subsistence farming; to meet the family requirement of
cereals, pulses and vegetables. ➢ Ex: Sorghum, Bajra and cowpea are mixed and broad- casted in rainfed
conditions (with low rainfall situations) to avoid complete crop failures and with ascertaining the minimum yields
Inter-cropping ➢ Base crop: The primary crop which is planted/ sown at its optimum sole
crop population in an intercropping situation. ➢ Intercrop: This is a second crop planted in between rows of base crop
with a view to obtain extra yields with intercrop without compromise in the main crop yields
➢ Requirements: ▪ The timing of peak nutrient demands of component cropsshould not overlap. ▪ Competition for light should be minimum among the component crops. ▪ The difference in maturity of component crops should be at least 30 days.
➢ Ex: Maize + Cowpea (1:1); Sorghum + Redgram (2:2); Groundnut + Redgram (6:1); Potato + Mustard (3:1); Wheat + Mustard (8:1)
Row intercropping ➢ Growing two or more crops simultaneously where one or more crops are
planted in rows. ➢ It is a variation in space dimension. ➢ Ex: maize + greengram (1:1), maize + blackgram (1:1), groundnut + redgram
(6:1).
Strip-intercropping
➢ Two or more crops are planted in the same field in alternate strips. ➢ Strips are wide enough to permit independent cultivation but narrow enough for the
crops to interact. ➢ Ex: groundnut + redgram (6:4) strip.
Parellel cropping ➢ Growing of two crops simultaneously which have different growth habits and no competition among
themselves ➢ Ex: Blackgram with maize; Soybean with cotton
Synergestic Cropping ➢ Yields of both crops are higher than of their pure crops on unit area basis ➢ Ex: Sugarcane + Potato
Multi storey cropping ➢ Cultivation of more than two crops of different heights simultaneously on a piece of
land in any certain period
➢ Ex: Coconut + Pepper + cocoa + pineapple
Sequential Cropping ➢ It can be defined as growing of two or more crops in a sequence on same piece of land in a farming year. ➢ The succeeding crop is planted after the preceding crop has been harvested.There is no competition ➢ Its various types are:
▪ Double Cropping: Growing two crops on the same land in a year in sequence. Ex: rice→cotton ▪ Triple Cropping: Growing three on the same land in a year in sequence. Ex: Triple cropping:
rice→rice→pulses ▪ Quadruple: Growing four crops on the same land in a year in sequence. Ex:tomato→ridge
gourd→amaranthus greens→baby corn.
Alley cropping ➢ It is a system in which food crops are grown in alleys formed by hedge rows
of trees or shrubs. ➢ The essential feature of the system is that hedge rows are cut back at
planting and kept pruned during cropping to prevent shading and to reduce competition with food crops.
➢ The space between two rows called alleys;The intercrops are raised in the alley space
➢ Ex: cotton, sorghum, blackgram | Ex: Subabul raised at 6 m row spacing;
Relay cropping ➢ In a long duration base crop, growing two sets of inter-crops one after another is called
relay intercropping ➢ Ex: Redgram- base crop 180 days; Groundnut/onion/coriander-I set of intercrops; Samai/
thenai/panivaragu- 2nd set of intercrops
Ratoon cropping
➢ Ratooning is a method of harvesting a crop which leaves the roots and the lower parts of the plant uncut to give the ratoon or the stubble crop. Crop regrows out of roots or stalks after harvest of crops.
➢ Benefit: The crop matures earlier in the season+ It can also decrease the cost of preparing the field and planting.
➢ Ratooning is most often used with crops which are known to give a steady yield for three years under most conditions eg sugarcane, banana, pineapple. However, this method cannot be used endlessly as the yield of the ratoon crop decreases after each cycle.
➢ Ex: Sugarcane (8 ratoons in Cuba) ▪ Banana- one plant crop followed by two ratoon crops normally ▪ Sorghum and Lucerne fodder- many ratoons 1stcutting 70 DAS and thereafter every 35-40 days ▪ Pineapple crop is extensively ratooned.
Crop Rotation ➢ The practice of growing of different crops on a piece of land is a pre- planned succession. ➢ The principle behind is to utilise the available resources to the fullest extent in order to harvest the maximum
in a unit land without affecting the soil health. Ex- Rice-Red Gram -Banana ➢ Practical examples of effective crop rotation:
▪ Leguminous crops should be grown before non-leguminous crops ✓ Because legumes fix atmospheric N into the soil and add organic
matter to the soil. ▪ Crops with tap roots (deep rooted like cotton) should be followed by
those which have fibrous (shallow rooted crops like sorghum or maize) root system. ✓ This facilitates proper and uniform use of nutrients from the soil.
▪ More exhaustive crops should be followed by less exhaustive crops ✓ Because crops like potato, sugarcane, maize etc. need more inputs such as better tillage, more
fertilizers, greater number of irrigations etc. ▪ Selection of crop should be based on need or demand ▪ Crops of same family should not be grown in succession
✓ Because they act as alternate hosts for insect pests and diseases ▪ The selection of crops should suit farmers financial conditions ▪ The crop selected should also suit to the soil and climatic condition
Cropping Pattern About ➢ Cropping pattern refers to the proportion of area under different crops at any given point of time in a unit
area.
Factors ➢ Geographical factors
▪ Soil ✓ Soil conditions: soil pH, salinity, ground water table, soil topography and soil texture ✓ Soil pH: tea grows in acidic soil where coconut needs alkaline soil to grow well ✓ Salinity: Crops do not grow well in saline soil. So, we need to develop saline tolerant varieties for saline
area. But few crops like tomatoes and broccoli may grow in moderately saline water ✓ Ground water table: Shallow rooted crops do not grow well in that area where water table is low ✓ Soil topography: Sesame, pineapple, zinger, turmeric etc., grows well in that land which are not under
flood water but pulses, oil seeds grows well in those land where little flood water comes usually ✓ Soil texture: Sweet potato, groundnut, water melon grows well in sandy land but rice needs clay or
sandy clay soil ✓ Soil water: Rice needs more soil water than any other crops
▪ Terrain
✓ Slope also determine nature of crop| Example: Tea in hilly areas whereas, rice and jute in plains ▪ Climate
✓ Humidity: Some crops like tea grow well in high humidity. ✓ Day length: Potato grows well in short day length whereas wheat, onion need long day length. ✓ Rainfall: Tea needs heavy rainfall whereas barley and chickpea grow in arid climate. ✓ Temperature: In temperate countries wheat grows well whereas in sub-tropical area rice is grows well.
➢ Infrastructural facilities ▪ Irrigation, transport, storage, trade and marketing, post-harvest handling and processing etc.
➢ Social factors- Land Tenancy, Size of land holdings, Size of fields, etc ▪ Financial condition: Poor farmer cannot grow expensive crops like sugarcane, Banana etc. (high initial cost) ▪ Transport problem: Poor communication as well as conveyance facility ▪ Market price: Good market price influence the farmer to grow more crops as well as diversify the set of
crops to be grown (+technology + storage, etc.) ▪ Food habit: The crops that are not present in the food habit in a locality are usually not grown at that
locality ▪ Storage facility: Where there is no storage facility, farmers of that locality usually do not grow vegetables
(short life) ▪ Attitude of farmer: Sometimes farmers do not want to adopt modern technology
➢ Economic factors ▪ MSP: Minimum Support Price provided to farmers for production of crops Demand based cropping pattern:
Cotton cultivation in Vidarbha, Maharashtra, Rice in Punjab and Jute in West Bengal ➢ Technological factors
▪ If there is no extraction facility, farmer will not cultivate oil seeds ▪ If there is no shelling facility farmer will not go for corn cultivation. ▪ Enhanced varieties, cultural requirements, mechanization, plant protection, access to information, etc. are
the factors involved. ➢ Areal factors
▪ It is determined on the basis of areal strength of individual crops. ▪ The first, second and third ranking crops of an areal unit may be called as the dominant crops of that unit. ▪ These crops, if occupying more or less the same percentage of the total cropped area, shall be competing
for area with each other and the farmer will decide which crop may fetch him more profit in a given year under the prevailing rainfall and demand, supply and commodity price condition.
▪ Or in the determination of cropping patterns of an area, the minor crops (crops occupying insignificant proportion of the total cropped area) are eliminated.
➢ Relative yield: With respect to the size of the field + other important factors (input cost, etc.) ➢ Imbalance in pattern of food grain: Change in consumption pattern; Race for remunerative returns; Sowing
of one type of crops ➢ Government Policies: MSP; Promotion of cash crops; Nature of policy, crop insurance schemes and facilities to
influence farmer to grow a particular crop of a certain area ➢ Production Inputs: It is the direct regulator of cropping pattern of region. If there are no available inputs,
farmer will not go for production. ➢ Role of man: The role of man in the cultivation of certain crops in a region is also quite important. Man, by his
technological advancement, can ameliorate the physical limits.
Cropping Zones Wheat Zone ➢ This region covers the entire north-western India including the state of
Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan. ➢ The major sub-regions are:
▪ Wheat-Maize-Sugarcane: This region comprises a great part of wheat regions, covering West Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu.
▪ Wheat-Jowar-Bajra in Indus Plain covering Punjab and Haryana.
▪ Wheat-Jowar-Bajra in Vindhyan scarp land and Malwa Bundelkhand plateau.
Rice zone ➢ Rice is considered as the major crop in the vast region stretching from lower Gangetic plain to Brahmaputra
valley in the east and the circum-coastal alluvial tracts of the peninsula region. ➢ Though rice displays overall dominance, considering the secondary importance of other crops, this region may
be subdivided into following zones: ▪ Rice-Jute-Tea: This association of crops occurs in far east, near Assam Valley, north-west Bengal and
lower Gangetic plains. ▪ Rice-Pulses-Millets-: This association occurs in the western section of the former zone, covering central
Bihar,eastern Madhya Pradesh and eastern Uttar Pradesh. ▪ Rice-Millets: This zone comprises the entire Andhra Pradesh, southern Orissa and some parts of Tamil
Nadu. ▪ Rice-Coffee-Spices: This zone is found in the southern extremity of Kerala and Tamil Nadu.
Jowar Bajra Zone ➢ This crop combination is practised in drought prone region (rainfall 50-100 cm).
▪ Jowar-Cotton in Maharashtra. ▪ Jowar-Cotton-Oilseeds-Millets in Karnataka and Maharashtra. ▪ Jowar-Wheat in entire Rajasthan, Haryana and some parts of Uttar Pradesh. ▪ Bajra-Jowar-Pulses in Rajasthan desert and semi-desert areas.
Cotton Zone ➢ It predominates in the black cotton soil (regur) region in the North West India. ➢ It covers the Deccan trap region and Gujarat plain. ➢ The different sub-regions are
▪ Cotton-Jowar-Bajra grows in close association with one another in the Maharashtra and Western Madhya Pradesh
▪ Cotton-Oilseeds combination developed in Gujarat ▪ Cotton-Pulses-Rice region developed in Narmada banks and Eastern Gujarat.
Millet- Maize Zone ➢ The cultivation of millet, maize and ragi are found in close association with other major cereals like bajra,
wheat, rice etc. ➢ Maize cultivation dominates in Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh. In Himachal Pradesh, Maize-
Barley-wheat combination has developed, particularly in the foothills of the Himalayas. Some parts of the Aravalli have the peculiar crop combination of Maize-Cotton-Oilseeds-Millets-Wheat. Ragi cultivation predominates in South of Karnataka.
➢ Maize has wide adaptability and compatibility under diverse soil and climatic conditions. ➢ It is cultivated in sequence with different crops under various agro-ecologies of the country
Fruit & Spice Zone ➢ This is the smallest region among the different crop regions. ➢ High-altitude hilly areas come under the territory of this region. The ‘Duns’ and valleysin Himalayas, foothills
of Nilgiri, Annamalai, Palni and Cardamom hills in Tamil Nadu and Kerala may be classified as fruit and spice region. Here, the dominant agricultural activity is fruit orchards and plantations.
Others ➢ Plantation and Other Commercial Crops- Crops under this category include sugarcane, tobacco, potato, jute,
tea, coffee, coconut, rubber and other crops, such as spices and condiments.
➢ Some of them are seasonal, some annual and some perennial. Most of them require specific environmental conditions and from the point of view of cropping patterns, they are concentrated in some particular regions. Besides, certain horticultural crops, such as apple, mango and citrus, are important.
➢ In the case of plantation-crops, intercropping with pulses and fodder crops is common. ➢ Spices and condiments are generally grown on fertile soils. Chillies are rotated with jowar, whereas onion,
coriander, turmeric and ginger are grown as mixed crops with other seasonal crops.
Agricultural Inputs
Land
Introduction ➢ Land is the solid surface of the Earth that is not permanently covered by
water. The vast majority of human activity throughout history has occurred
in land areas that support agriculture, habitat, and various natural
resources.
➢ India accounts for more than 18% world population but we have barely
2.5% of land & 4% of water resources.
➢ Size and quality of land has direct bearing on agriculture productivity and
farmers’ income.
➢ Land is a state subject
▪ AsperWorld Bank, India has close to 60% of its land as agricultural land and is the second largest agricultural land globally.
Issues ➢ Rising population, division of land among heirs→ fragmentation of landholding
Suggestions ➢ Land Consolidation: the government led division of agricultural land and its reallocation to landless people.
➢ Land Acquisition: Govt acquiring private land for industrial or infrastructure development.
➢ Land Reforms: the government led division of agricultural land and its reallocation to landless people.
➢ Model Agriculture Land Leasing Act, 2016: Protects land owner from illegal occupation by tenant farmer
▪ Helps tenant farmer get bank loans using leasing agreement as proof. ➢ Small-marginal farmers should be encouraged to join manufacturing/ service sector jobs
➢ Digitisation of Recordslike Bhoomi project of Karnataka, Bhudhaar project of Andra Pradesh, etc
Categorization of Land ➢ Marginal→ Below 1.00 hectare
➢ Small→1.00-2.00 hectare
➢ Semi- Medium→ 2.00-4.00 hectare
➢ Medium→ 4.00-10.00 hectare
➢ Large→ 10.00 hectare and above
Seeds
Introduction ➢ A seed is an embryonic plant enclosed in a protective outer covering. The
formation of the seed is part of the process of reproduction in seed plants,
the spermatophytes, including the gymnosperm and angiosperm plants.
➢ As land is a limited resource so next logical step is to improve the yield per
land→ high quality seeds, etc (like HYV+ GM crops+ Hybrid Seeds) is one of
the solutions
Govt Efforts ➢ Recently, Government allowed 100% FDI through automatic route
➢ Seed Village: By Agriculture Ministry→ Group of farmers in a village given
training to produce seeds of various crops so they can fulfill seed demand of their own & neighbouring
villages
➢ Seed Bank: By Agriculture Ministry→a depository that stores seeds to preserve genetic diversity & supply
seeds during natural calamities and unforeseen conditions.
➢ Draft Seeds Bill 2019→ to replace the Seeds Act, 1966, to regulate the quality of seeds for sale, import,
export.
Green Revolution ➢ Aim: To increase the agricultural productionwith high yielding variety. Introduced in late 1960’s.
➢ Why: Food crisis during 1960’s; Minimal foreign help like US
➢ PhaseI:Mid 1960s to mid-1970’s→Focus on wheat & rice; under states like Punjab, Haryana & Tamil Nadu
➢ Phase II:Mid 1970s to mid-1980’s→ HYV made available to other states but more focus on wheat & rice
Genetic Modified crops ➢ About:These are the corps whose DNA is modified using genetic engineering methods
▪ Ex: Bacterium Bacillus thuringiensis genes inserted in cotton→ Bt. Cotton [resistant to bollworm pests] ▪ Likewise, other GM varieties for crops like Maize, Soyabean, Brinjal, etc.
➢ Regulation:Env Protection Act 1986→power to GEAC (Genetic Engg Appraisal Comm) to conduct studies-
recommend-approval GM seeds for cultivation. Final approval w/Environmental Ministry
➢ Issues:Biosafety concerns;Trait fee;Terminator Gene; Cartagena protocol (protect BD);SDG 2.5 (protect
genetic variety of plants & animals)
➢ Suggestions:
▪ GEAC role should be robust; ▪ approval of GM crops:
o without terminator gene; o with Disease, pest & drought resistant; o with Longer shelf life; o with Shorter crop duration & for Non-Food crops
Hybrid Seeds ➢ In agriculture and gardening, hybrid seed is produced by cross-pollinated plants.
➢ Hybrids are chosen to improve the characteristics of the resulting plants, such as better yield, greater
uniformity, improved color, disease resistance.
➢ They have a replacement rate of 1yr v/s other 3yr.
➢ India’s seed replacement rate is lower due to multiple factors- poverty, non-availability, etc.
➢ Example: Hybrid Cotton.
Food Fortification ➢ About:
▪ It is the deliberate addition of one or more micronutrients to food so as to correct or prevent a deficiency and provide a health benefit.
▪ These nutrients may or may not have been originally present in the food before processing. ▪ Food fortification is a “complementary strategy” and not a replacement of a balanced & diversified diet
to address malnutrition. ➢ Benefits:
▪ safe method of improving nutrition; ▪ socio-culturally acceptable way to deliver nutrients to people; ▪ cost effective and delivers quick results; ▪ Can improve the health of a large section of the population, all at once; ▪ Ease burden on central and state government wrt other schemes like ICDS, Mid May Meal Scheme, PDS,
etc ➢ Need:
▪ To address the issue of Hidden Hunger, if left untreated may lead to Night Blindness, Goitre, Anaemia and various birth defects.
o Hidden hunger is a lack of vitamins and minerals. o Hidden hunger occurs when the quality of food people eat does not meet their nutrient requirements,
so the food is deficient in micronutrients such as the vitamins and minerals that they need for their growth and development
▪ According to the National Family Health Survey (NFHS-4): o 58.4 percent of children (6-59 months) are anaemic; o 53.1 percent women in the reproductive age gro up are anaemic; o 35.7 percent of children under 5 are underweight; o Around 50-70% of these birth defects are preventable, caused due to deficiency of Folic Acid.
Bio fortification: ➢ Biofortification is fortification done through agronomic practices (soil management and crop production),
conventional plant breeding, or modern biotechnology.
➢ In conventional breeding, varieties with particularly high concentration of desired nutrients are used.
➢ These are cross-bred with varieties with other desirable traits (such a virus resistance, drought tolerance,
high yielding, etc.) from the target areas to develop biofortified varieties that have high levels of
micronutrients.
➢ Extras:
▪ Agronomic biofortification entails application of minerals such as zinc or iron to soil. ▪ Biofortification through biotechnology involves genetic modification (GM).
➢ Examples of Biofortified crops in India
▪ Pearl millet (iron), wheat (zinc), sorghum (iron), rice (zinc), cowpeas (iron) and lentils (iron and zinc); ▪ Dhanshakti (biofortified pearl millet or bajra) is the first iron biofortified crop to be officially released in
India; ▪ Golden Rice is being developed as a potential new way to address vitamin A deficiency; ▪ CR Dhan 310 by ICMR contains high protein & zinc.
Conventional fortification vs. biofortification ➢ In conventional fortification nutrient levels are increased during processing of the crops.
➢ However, biofortification increases nutrient levels in crops right from the time of plant growth.
➢ Biofortification is better than conventional fortification as it is easy to implement and can reach more
people.
Recent Crop/Horticulture Varieties in News ➢ Pusa Basmati 1718→Rice variety resistant to bacterial leaf scorch
➢ Pusa Sambha 1850→A high yielding, non-basmati, medium slender grain, blast resistant rice variety
➢ Pusa Aditi→Grape hybrid released for its commercial cultivation in NCR region
➢ Pusa Sona→Onion variety has been released apart from various other horticulture crops such as melons,
cucumber, cauliflower etc.
➢ Pusa Yashasvi; HD-3226→ New wheat variety released by Indian Agricultural Research Institute
▪ Benefits? Has higher content of protein and gluten along with zinc; this has also high levels of resistance against all major rust fungi- yellow/stripe, brown/leaf and black/stem.
➢ Pokkali Variety of Rice; Vyttila-11→better yield; the Jyoti variety of rice popular in Kerala.
➢ Wheat Variety; MACS 6478→ Developed by Agharkar Research Institute
Irrigation
Intro: ➢ Irrigation is the artificial process of applying controlled amounts of water to land to assist in production of
crops.
➢ Ithelps to grow agricultural crops, maintain landscapes, and revegetate disturbed soils in dry areas and
during periods of less than average rainfall.
➢ It also has other uses in crop production, including frost protection,suppressing weed growth in grain fields
and preventing soil consolidation.
➢ Water needs to be applied to crops in the exact amount and on time. In this context, irrigation becomes
important in order to reduce risks associated with agriculture.
➢ Facts:Only 46% of India’s net sown area is irrigated and rest continues to depend on monsoons.
➢ Benefits:
▪ Itincreases crop yield, protects from famine and also helps in cultivating superior crops with the water supply as per need of the crops.
▪ Itmaintains moisture in the soil, as it is necessary for the germination of seeds. ▪ Crops like rice, jute, sugarcane, etc. need more water, which can be fulfilled only through irrigation. ▪ New and high-yielding seeds need additional water through irrigation for higher productivity.
Classification ➢ About: As perStatistical Year Book of India, 2017, MOSPI
▪ Canals→16278; Tanks→1842; Tube-wells→31126; Other Wells→11312; Other Sourcei→7542
Based on Source ➢ Tank Irrigation:A tank is a water storage system developed by constructing a small bund of earth or
stones built across a stream. The water impounded by the bund is used for irrigation.
▪ The ratio of tank irrigated land to the total irrigated area of the
country has reduced from 14% in the 1960-61 to about 4.6%in 2000-
01, primarily due to increase in well and tube well irrigation and
partly due to fall in the tank irrigation.
▪ Distribution:
✓ In peninsular area, tank irrigation is prevalent in Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka plateau, eastern Madya Pradesh, eastern Maharashtra, Orissa and Kerala.
✓ Outside the Peninsular plateau, West Bengal, Bihar, Bundelkhand area of Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat have tank irrigation.
▪ Merits:Natural tanks; low cost of construction; generally constructed on rocky bed; longer life span;
sometimes fishing activities are also carried out.
▪ Demerits:Drying up; siltation;evaporation; lifting & carrying of water to the fields becomes a costly
exercise.
➢ Wells:A well is a hole dug in the groundto obtain the ground water. ▪ This method is being used since time immemorial to lift the ground
water for irrigation, drinking, bathing and for other purposes.
▪ An ordinary well is about 3-5 metres deep but deeper wells may go
up-to 15 metres.
▪ Distribution:
✓ Popular where ground water is plenty, areas like: large part of the Great Northern Plain, the deltaic regions of the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery, parts of the Narmada and the Tapi valleys and the weathered layers of the Deccan Trap and crystalline rocks and the sedimentary zones of the Peninsula.
✓ However, the greater part of the Peninsular India is not suitable for well irrigation due to rocky structure, uneven surface and lack of underground water.
✓ Also, Large dry tracts of Rajasthan, the adjoining parts of Punjab, Haryana, and Gujarat and some parts of Uttar Pradesh have brackishground water which is not fit for irrigation and human consumption and hence unsuitable for well irrigation.
➢ Tube Wells ▪ A tube well is a deeper well (generally over 15 metres deep) from
which water is lifted with the help of a pumping set operated by an
electric motor, a diesel engine or solar power.
▪ A tube well cannot be constructed everywhere and requires some geographical conditions favouring
its installation, such as:
✓ sufficient quantity of ground water; The water level should be nearly 15 metres; regular supply of cheap electricity; The soil in the immediate neighbourhood of the tube-well should be fertile.
▪ Distribution:
✓ More than three fourths of India’s tube wellsare functioning inTamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Punjab.
▪ Merits:
✓ simplest and cheapest source of irrigation; an independent source of irrigation; More reliable during periods of drought
✓ Several chemicals such as nitrate, chloride, sulphate, etc. are generally found mixed in well water. They add to the fertility of soil when they reach the agricultural field along with well water.
▪ Demerits:
✓ Limited area can be irrigated; well may dry up either due to draught or otherwise; may draw a lot of groundwater from its neighbouring areas and make the ground dry and unfit for agriculture; not possible in areas of brackish groundwater; requires capital investment.
➢ Canal Irrigation ▪ A canal is an artificial channel that is constructed to carry water to
the fields to perform irrigation. The water is taken either from the
river, tank or reservoirs.
▪ Background
✓ It used to be the most used source of irrigation up-to 1960s, but in the 1970s wells and tube wells became most used source of irrigation and now, canals constitute the second most important source of irrigation in India.
▪ Barrage:An artificial obstruction placed in a river or water course to
increase the depth of water.
▪ Types & Distribution:
✓ Inundation canals provide irrigation in the rainy season. However, when water resides the canal dries up. Thus, they have been converted in perennial canals.
✓ Perennial Canals are those which are taken off from perennial rivers by constructing a barrage across the river. Most of the canals in India today are perennial.
✓ Areas: Northern plains of India where Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Bihar account for about 60% of the canal irrigated area of the country.In south and central India, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa and Tamil Nadu are important states of canal irrigation.
▪ Merits:
✓ An effective source of irrigation in areas of low-level relief, deep fertile soils, perennial source of water and extensive command area.
✓ Provides perennial irrigation and supply water; saves crops from drought conditions; helps increase the farm production; Brings sediment along with it that adds fertility to the soil.
✓ Some are multipurpose projects; Initially, its capital intensive but later the operations become quite cheap.
▪ Demerits:
✓ Waterlogging;Excessive flow of waterin the fields raises the ground water level; Capillary action brings alkaline salts to the surface and makes large areas unfit for agriculture
✓ Issues of reh in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra; health issues like widespread malaria; suitable for plain areas only.
Based on Delivery Technique ➢ Micro Irrigation
▪ It is defined as the methods in which low volume of water is applied at low pressure
& high frequency.
▪ The system has extensive network of pipes at operated at low pressure. At pre-
determined spacing outlets are provided for emission water generally known as
emitters.
➢ Surface Irrigation:This method uses the force of gravity to distribute the water, which then seeps into the soil. It’s also known as flood irrigation. ▪ One of the most common and oldest methods of irrigation is surface
irrigation.
▪ Surface irrigation can be divided into furrow, border strip or basin
irrigation. This method is not as efficient as other options because
there is a tendency to use too much water in order to saturate the land.
▪ Merits:
✓ Requires less manual labour; able to cover a large plot of land in a shorter amount of time; ▪ Demerits:
✓ Loss of water occurs due to percolation; Potential overwatering and wasteful runoff due to frequent erosions; Standing water can harm crops
➢ Basin Irrigation ▪ It is the most common form of surface irrigation, particularly in
regions with layouts of small fields.
▪ If a field is levelled in all directions, is encompassed by a dyke to
prevent runoff, and provides an undirected flow of water onto the
field, it is herein called a basin.
▪ It may be furrowed or corrugated, have raised beds for the benefit of
certain crops, but as long as the inflow is undirected and
uncontrolled into these field modifications, it remains a basin.
➢ Furrow Irrigation ▪ It avoids flooding the entire field surface by channelling the flow along
the primary direction of the field using 'furrows,' 'creases,' or
'corrugations'. Water infiltrates through the wetted perimeter and spreads
vertically and horizontally to refill the soil reservoir.
▪ Furrows are often employed in basins and borders to reduce the effects
of topographical variation and crusting.
➢ Border Irrigation ▪ Border irrigation can be viewed as an extension of basin irrigation to sloping, long rectangular or
contoured field shapes, with free draining conditions at the lower end. Water is applied to individual
borders from small hand-dug checks from the field head ditch. When the water is shut off, it recedes
from the upper end to the lower end.
▪ Soils can be efficiently irrigated which have moderately low to moderately high intake rates but, as
with basins, should not form dense crusts unless provisions are made to furrow or construct raised
borders for the crops.
▪ Sloping borders are suitable for nearly any crop except those that require prolonged ponding.
➢ Sprinkler Irrigation ▪ It is themethod of applying water to the land in a manner that
mimics natural rainfall.
▪ Water is distributed through a system of pipes, usually by pumping,
and is then sprayed into the air through sprinklers that break up the
water into small drops that uniformly fall to the ground.
▪ Merits:
✓ Suitable for varying sizes of land (both large and small plots); adjusts water flow properly; avoids water loss; Ability to administer fertilizers and chemical treatments
▪ Demerits:
✓ Initial cost high; electricity cost to maintain the pressure; wind interference; issue of clogged nozzle; need of constant water supply; suitable for high value crops only.
➢ Drip Irrigation ▪ It is also known as trickle irrigation
▪ Water is delivered at or near the root zone of plants, drop by drop.
▪ Merits:
✓ Water-money-labour-time efficient; reduces evaporation; prevents fungal disease; discouragesweed growth; highly efficient in usage of fertilizers; no runoff.
▪ Demerits:
✓ Sensitivity to clogging; Moisture distribution problem; Salinity hazards; High cost compared to furrow; High skill is required for design, install and operation
➢ Subsurface Irrigation ▪ It is similar to the drip/trickle method in that it distributes water
through tubes and emitters.
▪ But in this method, the tubes are buried below the surface of the
ground.Developed in 1960s in Israel.
▪ Merits:
✓ Almost eliminates water evaporation in hot & aid conditions; discourages weed growth; prevents damage from animals & machinery; prevents soil erosion
➢ Centre-Pivot Irrigation ▪ It involves a self-propelled system in which a single pipeline
supported by a row of mobile towers is suspended 2 to 4 meters
above ground. Water is pumped into the central pipe and as the
towers rotate slowly around the pivot point, a large circular area is
irrigated.
▪ Sprinkler nozzles mounted on or suspended from the pipeline
distribute water under pressure as the pipeline rotates. The nozzles
are graduated small to large so that the faster moving outer circle receives the same amount of water
as the slower moving ones on the inside.
▪ Merits:
✓ Uniformity of applied water; No human labour required; operates at lower pressure; conserves energy; Reduces surface runoff or deep percolation; provides opportunity for fertigation
▪ Demerits:
✓ High installation cost; requires an energy source; Operation and maintenance of these systems require different skills than surface irrigation; Not suitable for irrigation of fields of rectangular or square shape
➢ Manual Irrigation ▪ These systems have low requirements for infrastructure and technical equipment but
need high labour inputs. Irrigation using buckets or watering cans is to be found, for
example, in most rural areas and peri-urban agriculture around large cities.
Based on Storage ➢ Dams
▪ A dam is a hydraulic structureconstructed across a river to store water on its upstream side. It is an
impervious or fairly impervious barrier put across a natural stream so that a reservoir is formed.
▪ Types
✓ Gravity Dams: These dams are heavy and massive wall-like structures of concrete in which the whole weight acts vertically downwards. These dams resist the horizontal thrust of the water entirely by their own weight.
✓ Buttress Dam: is a gravity dam reinforced by structural supports. These dams have a solid, water-tight upstream side that is supported at intervals on the downstream side by a series of buttresses or supports.
✓ Earth Dams: They are trapezoidal in shape. Earth dams are constructed where the foundation or the underlying material or rocks are weak to support the masonry dam or where the suitable competent rocks are at greater depth.
✓ Arch Dams: These are designed so that the force of the water against it, known as hydrostatic pressure, presses against the arch, compressing and strengthening the structure as it pushes into its foundation or abutments.
➢ Spillways and energy Dissipators ▪ It is a channel that carries excess water over or around a dam or other
obstruction.
▪ An energy dissipator is a device that is used to convert concentrated storm
water runoff to sheet flow and is constructed at the end of all storm sewers or
channels that outfall into a buffer.
➢ Sluices and outlets ▪ A sluice is an artificial channel for conducting water, with a valve or
gate to regulate the flow.
▪ An outlet is a small structure which admits water from the
distributing channel to a water course of field channel.
▪ Thus, an outlet is a sort of head regulator for the field channel delivering water to the irrigation
fields.
Miscellaneous Types ➢ Terracing: A terrace is an embankment or ridge of earth constructed across a slope to control runoff
and minimize soil erosion. ▪ It reduces the length of the hill side slope, thereby reducing sheet and rill erosion and prevents gully
formation.
➢ Beaver Dams: Thesebuilt by beavers to provide ponds as protection against predators. ▪ Theyhelp in capturing and retaining water, which helps keep water in streams
longer the dry season.
▪ Dam building skills of beavers helps restore degraded streams,increases
species variety.
➢ Weirs & Barrages ▪ Raised hum like structure across the river usually associated with
small shutters for flow control.
➢ Ditch Irrigation ▪ It is a rather traditional method, where ditches are dug out and seedlings are planted in
rows.
▪ The plantings are watered by placing canals or furrows in between the rows of plants.
▪ Siphon tubes are used to move the water from the main ditch to the canals.
➢ Localised Irrigation ▪ It is a system where water is distributed under low pressure
through a piped network, in a predetermined pattern, and applied
as a small discharge to each plant or adjacent to it.
▪ There are three main categories:
✓ Drip irrigation ✓ Spray or micro-sprinkler irrigation ✓ Bubbler irrigation- where a small stream is applied to flood small basins or the soil adjacent to
individual trees
Irrigation Project Types ➢ Major project
▪ This type of project consists of huge surface water, storage reservoirs and flow diversion structures. The area envisaged to be covered under irrigation is of the order over 10000 hectares.
➢ Medium project
▪ These are also surface water projects but with medium size storage and diversion structures with the area under irrigation between 10000 hectare and 2000 hectare.
➢ Minor project
▪ The area proposed under irrigation for these schemes is below 2000 Ha and the source of water is either ground water or from wells or tube wells or surface water lifted by pumps or by gravity flow from tanks. It could also be irrigated from through water from tanks.
Local Water Harvesting Techniques ➢ Taalab/ Bandhis/Samand- Reservoirs
▪ Natural, such as ponds or man-made lakes; Served the purpose of irrigation and drinking;
▪ When the water in these reservoirs dried up, the pond beds were used for cultivation.
➢ Johads
▪ Small earthen check dams built in Rajasthan to capture and conserve rainwater, thus improving percolation and recharging ground water.
➢ Baoris/Bers
▪ Very old community wells in Rajasthan used mainly for drinking; Built by banjaras for their drinking water needs; Could hold water for a long time because of almost negligible water evaporation
▪ These are ground water recharge structures& are built to evade floods but the
connected buildings created channel for the water. ➢ Jhalaras
▪ Man-made tanks in Rajasthan and Gujarat, essentially meant for community use and for religious ritesbut not for drinking.
▪ They are ground water bodies which are built to ensure easy and regular supply of water to surrounding areas.
▪ The Jhalaras collect subterranean seepageof a talab or a lake located upstream ➢ Step Wells or Water Temples
▪ Used for harvesting rainwater and providing water for drinking purposein arid parts. It is famously called water temple.
▪ Initiated due to the need to ensure water supply during the period of drought. ▪ Rani ki vav stepwell at Patan, Gujarat was added to the list of UNESCO World
Heritage sites recently.
Schemes ➢ National Rural Drinking Water Mission 2009
▪ under Drinking Water Dept; Centrally Sponsored Scheme→ Core Scheme; 2019- subsumed under a new scheme namely Jal Jeevan Mission
▪ Aim:To provide every rural person with safe water for drinking, cooking & domestic needs; w/Additional focus on areas affected by Arsenic, Fluoride & chemical contamination; Encephalitis disease etc.
➢ Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana, 15
▪ under Agro Ministry:Centrally Sponsored Scheme → Core Scheme; ▪ Aim: To improve the irrigation coverage, reduce wastage of water, under 4 pillars
✓ Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme: to finish the ongoing national irrigation projects at a faster pace.
✓ Watershed Dev:Setup water harvesting structures like check dams, Nala bund, farm ponds, tanks etc. ✓ Har Khet to Pani: To distribute water to each and every farm. ✓ Per Drop more Crop:Improve the water usage efficiency through Micro-irrigation devices such as drips,
sprinklers, pivots, rain-guns. ✓ Fertilisation:Mixing water-soluble fertilizers in drip system. ✓ Mulching: a simple process of covering the bare soil with straw, wood chips, shredded bark etc. to
reduce the water evaporation, soil erosion and weed growth. ➢ Namami Gange Yojana, 15
▪ It is a revamped scheme- under Water resource dept; 100% funded by union
▪ Purpose: To make Ganga pollution free in the next 5 years through Sewage/ Effluent Treatment Plants, Information, Education & Communication
➢ Jal Kranti Abhiyan, 15
▪ under Water Resource Dept- Money is channelled from other schemes like PM KSY, NRDWP, MGNREGA ▪ Purpose: to create- dugwells, watershed, artificial recharge tanks etc- water assets.
➢ Jal Shakti Abhiyan, 19
▪ under Jal Shakti Ministry- to Conserve Water- in 2 phases ▪ Focus on→ Conserve Water→ Rainwater harvesting, Renovation of traditional water bodies/tanks, bore
well recharge structures, watershed development, Water reuse, intensive afforestation ➢ Jal Jeevan Mission, 19
▪ under Jal Shakti Ministry; ▪ Focus:rainwater harvesting, groundwater recharge&household wastewater for reuse in agri. ▪ Objective:Har Ghar Jal (piped water supply); To all rural households by 2024; To Cities with million;
population will be encouraged to achieve it in current year (2020) itself ➢ ATAL Bhujal Yojana, 19
▪ under Jal Shakti Ministry; Funding by Union & World Bank (50:50) ▪ Purpose: for selected areas facing extreme water shortages viz. Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh ▪ To ensure Ground water management and behavioural change
➢ Dam Rehabilitation and Improvement Program (DRIP), 12
▪ DHARMA webportal: to monitor safety of dams in India, minimize loss of life and property damage in case of dam overflow / disaster
➢ National Hydrology Project
▪ Aim Remote Sensing for water resources, flood forecast etc ➢ Indices
▪ Composite Water Management Index: By Niti Aayog-> Divides India into non-Himalayan states, North-Eastern and Himalayan states & Union Territories; & ranks them against nine themes and 28 indicators against the base year 2017-18.
➢ Kisan Urja Suraksha evam Utthaan Mahaabhiyan (KUSUM)
Fertilizers
Introduction ➢ Fertilizers are chemical substances supplied to the crops to increase their
productivity. The fertilizers contain the essential nutrients required by the
plants, including nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorus.
➢ [Ideal Ratio: 4:2:1 but India- 8:3:1 for N:P:K]
➢ India is second largest consumer of urea fertilizers after China; It is one of
the eight core industries
Classification ➢ Primary fertilizers are based on the type of nutrients they supply to soil such as nitrogenous (urea),
phosphatic (di-ammonium phosphate (DAP)) and potassic (muriate of potash (MOP)) fertilizers.
➢ Secondary fertilizer includes calcium, magnesium and sulphur while micronutrients include iron, zinc, boron,
chloride etc
Composition ➢ Urea:Use of Haber process⇒ natural gas (methane) converted into ammonia (NH3) → further processing to
create Urea.
➢ Phosphorous: ~80-85% demand is met via import; use of ISRO's remote Sensing technology to identify the
potential mines for rock phosphate.
➢ Potash:100% demand is met via import.
Benefits ➢ Manmade inorganic salt; can also be prepared in factories; Rich in plant nutrients- Nitrogen, phosphorus &
potassium
Issues ➢ Soil & groundwater pollution; Subsidized urea smuggled to non-agro purposeand also to Bangladesh &
Nepal; does not provide any humus to the soil.
Bio-fertilizers ➢ These are specific types of living organisms like symbiotic bacteria, cyanobacteria (also called blue-green
algae), seaweeds etc. that can bring about nutrient enrichment of soil in many different ways.
➢ They are the preparations containing live or latent cells of efficient strains of nitrogen fixing, phosphate
solubilizing or cellulolyotic micro-organisms used for application to seed or composting areas with the
objective of increasing the numbers of such micro-organisms and accelerating those microbial processes
which augment the availability of nutrients that can be easily assimilated by plants.
➢ Bio-fertilizers harness atmospheric nitrogen with the help of specialized micro- organisms which may be free
living in soil or symbiotic with plants.
➢ There are two types of Nitrogen fixers
▪ Symbiotic: Rhizobium, inoculants for legumes. ▪ Non-symbiotic: For cereals, millets and vegetables. ▪ Bacteria
✓ Aerobic:Azatobacter, Azomonas, Azospirillum. ✓ iAnaerobic: Closteridium, chlorobium ✓ Facultative anaerobes: Bacillus, Eisherichia
▪ Blue green algae- Anabaena, Anabaenopsis, Nostoe ✓ Phosphate solubilizing micro-organisms; ✓ Cellulolytic and lignolytic microorganisms; ✓ Sulphur dissolving bacteria; ✓ Azolla.
Government Initiatives ➢ Nutrient Based Subsidy
▪ under Min of Chemicals & Fertilizers; funded by the union; ▪ government announces a fixed rate of subsidy (in Rs. Per Kg basis), on each nutrient of subsidized P&K
fertilizers, namely Nitrogen (N), Phosphate (P), Potash (K) and Sulphur (S) ▪ It is applicable to 22 fertilizers (other than Urea)
➢ Soil Health Card:
▪ under Agri Min; Centrally sponsored scheme; Under the scheme, the government plans to issue soil cards to farmers which will carry crop-wise recommendations of nutrients and fertilisers required for the individual farms to help farmers to improve productivity through judicious use of inputs.
▪ 12 Parameters [Micro Nutrients-> NPK| Micro Nutrients-> Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn, Bo| Secondary Nutrients-> Sulphur+ Physical parameters-> pH, Organic Carbon & Electrical Conductivity]
➢ Neem Coating of Urea:
▪ under Min of Chemicals & Fertilizers; Mandatory since 2015 for fertilizer companies to neem coat urea before selling.
▪ Benefits:Prevent diversion;improves Nitrogen absorption by plants;reduce pest & disease attack;slows the dissolution rate.
➢ Direct Benefit Transfer of Fertilizers:
▪ under Min of Chemicals & Fertilizers ▪ How: Govt pays to those fertilizer companies who sold the product to farmers with Aadhar card, etc
through point of sale devices ▪ Benefits:Prevent diversion of subsidized urea
Manure
Introduction ➢ Manures are plant and animal wastes that are used as source of plant
nutrients. They release nutrients after their decomposition.
➢ Manures can be grouped into bulky organic manures and concentrated
organic manures.
➢ Facts:
▪ 25% crop loss on account of pests, weed, diseases but India’s per hectare pesticide consumption is far less than first world.
▪ We should encourage organic pesticides and biocontrol agents; adopt Integrated Pest Management approach& Spread awareness
Role ➢ They bind the sandy soil and improve its water holding capacity; They open
the clayey soil and help in aeration better root growth;
➢ They add plant nutrients in small percentage and also add micro nutrients ranging from bulky organic
manures- FYM, compost from organic waste, night soil, sludge, sewage, sheep folding, green manures,
concentrated organic manures- oilcakes (edible, non-edible), blood meal, fish meal, bone meal.
Benefits ➢ It can be prepared in the fields; provides humus to the soil; relatively less rich in plant nutrients.
Classification ➢ Farm Yard Manure
▪ A traditional manure type; easily available; made from decomposed mixture of cattle dung & urine with
straw & litter used as bedding material and residues from the fodder fed to the cattle. ➢ Compost Manure
▪ Made up of decomposed well- rotted organic manure. ▪ Composting is largely a biological process in which micro-organisms of both types, aerobic (require oxygen
for deep development) and anaerobic (functions in absence of air or free oxygen), decompose the organic matter and lower down the C:N ratio of refuse. The final product of composting is well rotted manure known as compost.
➢ Sheep & goat dropping
▪ It is also valuable organic manure. It contains about 0.5 to 0.7 % N, 0.4 to 0.6% P2O5 and 0.3 –1.0% K2O. It is effective to all types of crops.
Concentrated organic manures ➢ Oil cakes
▪ These oil cakes are of two types. ✓ Edible oil cakes- suitable for feeding cattle. ✓ Non-edible oil cakes-not suitable for feeding cattle.
▪ Oil cakes are quick acting organic manure. Though they are insoluble in water, their nitrogen became quickly available to plants in about a week or in 10 days after application.
➢ Bone Meal
▪ Bones from slaughter houses, carcasses of all animals and from meat industry constitute bone meal, which is the oldest phosphatic fertilizer used. It also contains some Nitrogen.
➢ Fish meal
▪ Fish manure or meal is processed by drying non-edible fish, carcasses of fish and wastes from fish industry.
▪ It contains 4.0-10.0 % nitrogen, 3.0-9.0 % P and 0.3 to 1.5 % K. ▪ Fishmeal is quick acting organic manure and is suitable for application to all crops on all soils.
➢ Green Manuring
▪ It is a practice of ploughing in the green plant grown in the field or adding green plants from outside and incorporating them into the soil for improving the physical structureas well as fertility of the soil i.e soil improvement and soil protection.
▪ They increase the percentage of organic matter (biomass) in the soil, thereby improving water retention, aeration and other soil characteristics. Leguminous plants are largely used as green manure.
▪ Ex:Sannhemp, Dhaicha, Pillipesara, Shervi, Urd, Mung, Cowpea, Ber- seem, Senji, etc. ➢ Green leaf Manuring
▪ It refers to adding the green leaf and green twigs from legume plants or trees to a field and then incorporating them into the soil by ploughing.
▪ Ex:Glyricidia, wild Dhaicha, Karanj (pongamia), leucaena.
Pesticides
Introduction ➢ Pesticides are substances that are meant to control pests.
➢ The term pesticide includes all of the following: herbicide, insecticides,
nematicide, molluscicide, piscicide, avicide, rodenticide, bactericide, insect
repellent, animal repellent, antimicrobial, and fungicide.
➢ The most common of these are herbicides which account for approximately
80% of all pesticide use.
Usage in India ➢ India is the fourth-largest producer of pesticides in the world. According to a
report by database Research and Markets, the Indian pesticides market was
worth Rs 197 billion in 2018.
➢ Pesticide market is further projected to reach a value of Rs 316 billion by 2024, growing at a Compound
Annual Growth Rate of 8.1% during 2019-2024.
Issues ➢ Harmful Effects on Farmers: Experts believe that chronic low-level pesticide exposure is associated with a
broad range of nervous system symptoms such as headache, fatigue, dizziness, tension, anger, depression, and
impaired memory, Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease, among others.
➢ Harmful Effect on Consumers: Pesticides go up the food chain by working their way through the environment
and into the soil or the water systems after which they are eaten by aquatic animals or plants and ultimately
humans. This process is called Biomagnification.
➢ Harmful Effect on Agriculture: Continued use of pesticides for decades has contributed significantly to the
current ecological, economic and existential crisis of the Indian agriculture sector.
➢ Regulatory Issues: Although agriculture is a state subject producing, education and research are governed
under the Insecticides Act, 1968 which is a central Act, and hence state governments have no direct role in
amending it.
▪ It is due to this that an estimated 104 pesticides that are still produced/ used in India, that have been banned in two or more countries in the world.
Benefits ➢ Save farmers' money by preventing crop losses to insects and other pests
➢ Primary benefits are direct gains from the use of pesticides
▪ Controlling pests and plant disease vectors: Improved crop yields; Improved crop/livestock quality; Invasive species controlled.
▪ Controlling human/livestock disease vectors and nuisance organisms: Human lives saved and disease reduced; Diseases controlled include malaria, with millions of lives having been saved or enhanced with the use of DDT alone; Animal lives saved and disease reduced
▪ Controlling organisms that harm other human activities and structures: Drivers view unobstructed; Tree/brush/leaf hazards prevented; Wooden structures protected
➢ Secondary benefits are effects that are more long-term i.e wrt monetary benefits
Farm Mechanisation
Introduction ➢ Mechanised agriculture is the process of using agricultural machinery to
mechanise the work of agriculture, greatly increasing farm worker
productivity.
➢ It means the higher usage of combine harvesters, land levellers, cultivators,
tractors, reapers, threshers, trolleys and mechanical pickers etc.
Significance ➢ increase productivity of land and labour by increasing work output per unit time;provides employment
opportunities to rural youth in production, operation, and repair-maintenance of machine
➢ Labour augmenting technological progress
Issues ➢ Small-Marginal farmers lack resources; Customized machinery is reqd; Low tracter utilization in India but
exports world’s largest
Government ➢ Green Revolution- Krishonnati Yojana→ Sub-Mission on Agricultural Mechanisation (SMAM): to address
above challenges.
Agricultural Credit
Intro ➢ Under Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food & Public Distribution;
Mechanism of Agriculture Credit ➢ Priority Sector Lending: PSL was introduced to ensure that vulnerable sections of the society get access to
credit and that there is an adequate flow of credit to employment intensive sectors like agriculture and MSME.
➢ Interest Subvention Scheme (ISS) was launched for short term crop loans in 2006-07. 2% interest subvention is
given to farmers, which is reimbursed to banks (through RBI and NABARD). Additionally, 3% prompt
repayment incentive (PRI) is provided for good credit discipline.
➢ Kisan Credit Card (KCC) Scheme, introduced in 1998, aimed at providing adequate and timely credit with
flexible and simplified procedure for agriculture related and also consumption requirements of farmer
households.
➢ Self Help Group - Bank Linkage Programme (SHG-BLP) aimed at harnessing the flexibility of an informal
system with the strength and affordability of a formal system. The SHG-BLP model accepted informal groups
as clients of banks – both deposit and credit linkage & allowed collateral free lending to groups.
➢ Joint Liability Groups (JLG) Scheme was initiated by NABARD in 2006 to enhance credit flow to share
croppers/tenant farmers who do not have land rights.
➢ Under Warehousing Development and Regulatory Authority, 2007
▪ Small and marginal farmers produce little marketable surplus, and often deprived of the remunerative prices even during bumper crops, so without borrowing they can never buy inputs for the next cropping cycle.
▪ The share of North Eastern States <1% in total agricultural loans. ▪ Agriculture credit target for the year 2020-21 has been set at ₹15 lakh crore, financed by NABARD. PM
Kisan Credit Card will be provided to those who doesn't have one.
Characteristics of Agricultural Credit ➢ Sources of Credit: Institutional Sources accounted for 72% of agricultural credit whereas non-institutional
sources such as money-lenders and relatives constituted 28%.
➢ Among institutional credits-Scheduled Commercial Banks (79%), Cooperatives (15%), Regional Rural Banks
(5%) and MFIs (1%).
➢ Loan waivers: Loan waivers worth Rs. 2.4 lakh crore (Almost 1.4% of GDP) were given since 2014-15.
➢ Increased share of Short-term loans: Share of short-term loans in agricultural credit increased from 51% in
2000 to 75% in 2018.
Issues ➢ Traditionally, rural agrarian credit needs were net primarily through money-lenders, which led to large scale
indebtedness
➢ Skewed agency share in institutional credit: Dependency on scheduled commercial banks in agricultural &
allied credit is still large (~78-80% of the credit). Though co-operative institutions (~15%) and Regional Rural
Banks (~5%) play a significant role in extending agricultural credit, their share is highly skewed geographically
➢ Regional Disparity in Agricultural Credit: States falling under central, eastern and north eastern regions are
getting very low agri-credit as % of their agri-GDP.
➢ Poor deployment of agricultural credit to allied sectors (~6-7%) despite a share of 38-42% in agricultural
output indicates neglect of allied sectors by the banks.
➢ Banks insist on land records from a farmer seeking credit for agricultural activities.
Negotiable Warehouse Receipt ➢ About:
▪ It was launched in 2011, under Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food & Public Distribution. ▪ Farmers can seek loans from banks against the warehouse receipts issued to them against their storage. ▪ These receipts issued by the warehouses registered with the Warehousing Development and Regulatory
Authority (WDRA) would become a fully negotiable instrument backed by a Central legislation. ➢ How: Pledge it in the banks to obtain loans for the next cropping cycle& Trade it via the commodity exchange
markets or e-NAM
➢ Benefits:prevents the distress sale of agriculture produce; sell at his own price
➢ Update: e-NWR, estd in 2017, will be integrated with e- NAM portal.
▪ Depositor can save the logistics expenses and will have better income. ▪ Farmers can sell the produce across the Nation at better price without the hassle of going to mandi. ▪ Farmers with their produce in WDRA accredited warehouses can avail the benefit of pledge loan, if
required. ▪ Price stabilization by matching supply and demand through time and place utility.
e-NAM ➢ It was launched on 14th April 2016 as a pan-India electronic trade portal linking Agricultural Produce Market
Committees (APMCs) across the States.
➢ It provides for contactless remote bidding and mobile-based anytime payment for which traders do not need
to either visit mandis or banks for the same.
➢ Already 585 mandis in 16 States and 2 Union Territories have been integrated on e-NAM portal and will be
soon expanded to cover additional 415 mandis, which will take the total number of e-NAM mandis to 1,000.
Insurance
Intro ➢ Though agriculture sector is a minor contributor to India’s GDP, but large proportion of our population
depends on agriculture.
➢ Agriculture depends on Monsoon, pests, disease, etc but has low insurance penetration &low density
Govt Efforts ➢ 2002: Agriculture Insurance Company of India Ltd. (AIC) was setup.
➢ Recently, the Union Cabinet has approved the revamp of the Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) and
the Restructured Weather Based Crop Insurance Scheme (RWBCIS).
Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) ➢ The Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana was launched in 2016 and is being administered by the Ministry of
Agriculture and Farmers Welfare.
➢ It provides a comprehensive insurance cover against the failure of the crop thus helping in stabilising the
income of the farmers.
➢ Scope:All food & oilseed crops and annual commercial/horticultural crops for which past yield data is
available.
➢ Premium: The prescribed premium is 2% to be paid by farmers for all Kharif crops and 1.5% for all rabi
crops. In the case of annual commercial and horticultural crops, the premium is 5%.
➢ The scheme is implemented by empanelled general insurance companies. The selection of the
Implementing Agency (IA) is done by the concerned State Government through bidding.
Restructured Weather Based Crop Insurance Scheme ➢ It was launched in 2016 and is being administered by the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare.
➢ Aim:to mitigate the hardship of the insured farmers against the likelihood of financial loss on account of
anticipated crop loss resulting from adverse weather conditions relating to rainfall, temperature, wind,
humidity etc.
➢ WBCIS uses weather parameters as “proxy” for crop yields in compensating the cultivators for deemed
crop losses.
Challenges ➢ State Governments not paying their share of money in PM Fasal Bima Yojana, private insurance companies
rejected / delaying claim settlements.
Agricultural Outputs
Procurement
Procurement Policy for Food grains ➢ The Central Government extends price support to paddy and wheat through the FCI and State Agencies
across the country. The procurement policy is open ended.
➢ Under this policy, whatever wheat and paddy are offered by farmers, within the stipulated period and
conforming to the specifications prescribed by Government of India, are purchased at Minimum Support
Price (MSP) by the State Government agencies including Food Corporation of India (FCI) for Central Pool.
▪ However, if producer/farmer gets better price in comparison to MSP, they are free to sell their produce in open market i.e. to private trader/ anyone.
➢ Objective: To ensure that farmers getremunerative prices for their produce and do not have to resort to
distress sale.
➢ Aim: To service the National Food Security and other welfare schemes of the Government so that subsidised
food grains are supplied to the poor and needy, and tobuild up buffer stocks of food grains&to ensure food
grain security.
Centralized Procurement System ➢ Under Centralized Procurement System, the procurement of food grains in Central Pool are undertaken
either by FCI directly or State Government agencies procures the food grains and handover the stocks to FCI
for storage and subsequent issue against GOI allocations in the same State or movement of surplus stocks to
other States.
➢ The cost of the food grains procured by State agencies is reimbursed by FCI as soon as the stocks are
delivered to FCI as per cost-sheets issued by GOI.
Decentralized Procurement System ➢ The scheme of Decentralized Procurement of food grains was introduced by the Government in 1997-98 with
a view to enhancing the efficiency of procurement and PDS and encouraging local procurementto the
maximum extent thereby extending the benefits of MSP to local farmers as well as to save on transit costs.
This also enables procurement of food grains more suited to the local taste.
➢ Open Market Sale Scheme
▪ The Food Corporation of India (FCI)sells excess stocks out of Central Pool through Open Market Sale Schemein the open market from time to time at predetermined prices
▪ Objectives: ✓ To enhance the supply of food grains during the lean season and deficit regions; ✓ To moderate the open market prices; ✓ To offload the excess stocks; ✓ To reduce the carrying cost of food grains.
Storage
Introduction ➢ Storage is an important marketing function, which involves holding and preserving goods from the time they
are produced until they are needed for consumption.
Need ➢ The agricultural and horticultural crops production has been steadily increasing due to advancement in
production technology and high yielding varieties development, but improper handling and storage of these
commodities results in high losses before reaching to the consumers.
➢ Storage is the most important aspect of food supply chain that ensures food security and round-the-year
quality food supply of a country.
➢ According to World Bank Report, the food grains and perishables wasted due to improper storage could be
sufficient to feed one third of world poor population.
➢ Improper handling and storage of the food grains leads to its qualitative and quantitative losses.
Merits ➢ Ensure continuous flow of goods in the market.
➢ Prevent quality of perishable and semi-perishable products from deterioration.
➢ Ensure stabilization of prices by adjusting demand and supply.
➢ Provide employment and income through price advantages.
➢ Enables states to meet a catastrophe or emergency situation.
Types of Storages
Underground Storage Structures ➢ They are dugout structures similar to a well with sides plastered with cowdung; may be lined with stones
or sand and cement; may be circular or rectangular in shape.
➢ The capacity varies with the size of the structure.
➢ Merits
▪ They are safer from threats from various external sources of damage, such as theft, rain or wind. ▪ They can temporarily be utilized for some other purposeswith minor adjustments; and ▪ The underground storage structures are easier to fill up owing to the factor of gravity.
Surface Storage Structures ➢ Food grains in a ground surface structure can be stored in two ways - bag storage or bulk storage.
➢ Bag storage
▪ Each bag contains a definite quantity, which can be bought, sold or dispatched without difficulty;
▪ Bags are easier to load or unload; easier to keep separate lots with identification marks on the bags;
▪ Inspection becomes easier wrt good vs infested bads; ▪ The problem of the sweating of grains does not arise because the surface of the bag
is exposed to the atmospheres. ➢ Bulk or loose storage
▪ The exposed peripheral surface area per unit weight of grain is less. Consequently, the danger of damage from external sources is reduced; and
▪ Pest infestation is less because of almost airtight conditions in the deeper layers
Improved Grain Storage Structures ➢ For small-scale storage
▪ PAU bin: This is a galvanized metal iron structure. Its capacity ranges from 1.5 to 15 quintals. Designed by Punjab Agricultural University.
▪ Pusa bin: This storage structure is made of mud or bricks with a polythene film embedded within the walls.
▪ Hapur Tekka: It is a cylindrical rubberised cloth structuresupported by bamboo poles on a metal tube base, and has a small hole in the bottom through which grain can be removed.
➢ For large scale storage
▪ CAP Storage (Cover and Plinth): It involves the construction of brick pillars to a height of 14" from the ground, with grooves into which wooden crates are fixed for the stacking of bags of foodgrains. ✓ The structure can be fabricated in less than 3 weeks. ✓ It is an economical way of storage on a large scale.
▪ Silos: In these structures, the grains in bulk are unloaded on the conveyor belts and, through mechanical operations, are carried to the
storage structure. The storage capacity of each of these silos is around 25,000 tonnes.
Warehousing ➢ A warehouse is a building for storing goods. Warehouses are used by manufacturers, importers, exporters,
wholesalers, transport businesses, customs, etc.
➢ They are usually large plain buildings in industrial parks on the outskirts of cities, towns, or villages.
Role of Warehousing ➢ Scientific storage
➢ Financing
➢ Price Stabilization
➢ Market Intelligence
Types of Warehouses ➢ On the basis of Ownership
▪ Private warehouses: These are owned by individuals, large business houses or wholesalers for the storage of their own stocks. They also store the products of others.
▪ Public warehouses:The warehouses, which are owned by the govt. and are meant for the storage of goods.
▪ Bonded warehouses: These warehouses are specially constructed at a seaport or an airport and accept imported goods for storage till the payment of customs by the importer of goods. These warehouses are licensed by the government for this purpose. The goods stored in this warehouse are bonded goods.
▪ Following services are rendered by bonded warehouses: ✓ The importer of goods is saved from the botheration of paying customs duty all at one time
because he can take delivery of the goods in parts. ✓ The operation necessary for the maintenance of the quality of goods - spraying and dusting, are
done regularly. ✓ Entrepot trade (re-export of imported goods) becomes possible.
➢ On the basis of Type of Commodities Stored
▪ General Warehouses: These are ordinary warehouses used for storage of most of food grains, fertilizers, etc.
▪ Special Commodity Warehouses: These are warehouses, which are specially constructed for the storage of specific commodities like cotton, tobacco, wool and petroleum products.
▪ Refrigerated Warehouses: These are warehouses in which temperature is maintained as per requirements and are meant for such perishable commodities as vegetables, fruits, fish, eggs and meat.
Warehousing in India ➢ Central Warehousing Corporation (CWC)
▪ It is a statutory body estd under ‘The Warehousing Corporations Act, 1962’; It is a Mini Ratna Central Public Sector Enterprise (CPSE)
▪ Aim: To provide reliable, cost-effective, value-added, integrated warehousing and logistics solution in a socially responsible and environment friendly manner.
▪ Functions: ✓ To acquire and build godowns and warehouses at suitable places in India. ✓ To run warehouses for the storage of agricultural produce, seeds, fertilizers and notified
commodities for individuals, co-operatives and other institutions. ✓ To act as an agent of the govt. for the purchase, sale, storage and distribution of the above
commodities. ✓ To arrange facilities for the transport of above commodities. ✓ To subscribe to the share capitalof state Warehousing corporations ✓ Special storage facilities have been provided by the Central Warehousing Corporation for the
preservation of hygroscopic and fragile commodities. ✓ The corporation has also evolved techniques for the storage of spices, coffee, seeds and other
commodities.
✓ It also provides services in the area of clearing & forwarding, handling & transportation, disinfestation, fumigation etc.
➢ State Warehousing Corporations (SWCs)
▪ Separate warehousing corporations were also set up in different States in the country. ▪ The total share capital of the State Warehousing Corporations is contributed equally by the concerned
State Govt. and the Central Warehousing Corporation. ➢ Warehousing Development and Regulatory Authority (WDRA)
▪ It was set up by the Government of India in 2010. ▪ Aim:to ensure implementation of the provisions of the Warehousing (Development & Regulation) Act,
2007. ▪ Objective: To implement Negotiable Warehouse Receipt (NWR) System in the country, which would
help farmers to store their produce in scientific storage godowns nearby their farms and to seek loan from banks against their NWR.
▪ Function: To make provisions for the development and regulation of warehouses which inter alia includes negotiability of warehouse receipts, registration of warehouses, promotion of scientific warehousing of goods, improving fiduciary trust of depositors and banks, enhancing liquidity in rural areas and promoting efficient supply chain.
➢ Food Corporation of India (FCI)
▪ Apart from CWC and SWCs, the Food Corporation of India has also created storage facilities. ▪ The Food Corporation of India is established under the Food Corporations Act 1964& is the single
largest agency which has a capacity of 26.62 million tonnes. ▪ Objectives:
✓ Effective price support operations for safeguarding the interests of the farmers ✓ Distribution of food grains throughout the country for Public Distribution System; and ✓ Maintaining satisfactory level of operational and buffer stocks of food grains to ensure National
Food Security. ▪ Shanta Kumar Committee, 2014 was setup to address the issues and challenges related to FCI
Cold Storage ➢ About
▪ Despite, India being the largest producer of fruits and second largest producer of vegetables in the world, per capita availability of fruits and vegetables is quite low because of post-harvest losses, which account for about 25% to 30% of production.
▪ Perishability is responsible for high marketing costs, market gluts, price fluctuations etc. At low temperature, perishability is considerably reduced and the shelf life is increased and thus the importance of cold storage or refrigeration.
➢ Need for Cold Storage
▪ For preserving perishable commodities like milk, meat, eggs, vegetables, fruits, ornamental flowers and other floricultural goods; Provides longer shelf life; reduces spoilage
➢ Status of Cold Storage in India
▪ The estimated annual production of fruits and vegetables accounts for 18% of our agricultural output. ▪ There is a vast scope for increasing the production,as the lack of cold storage and cold chain facilities are
becoming major bottlenecks in tapping the potential. ▪ The cold storage facilities now available are mostly for a single commodity like potato, orange, apple,
grapes, pomegranates, flowers, etc. which results in poor capacity utilization. ➢ Storage of foods and Storage Conditions
▪ Foods that are alive at the time of storage, distribution and sale e.g. fruits and vegetables, ▪ Foods that are no longer alive and have been processed in some form e.g. meat and fish products, and ▪ Commodities that benefit from storage at controlled temperature e.g. beer, tobacco, khandsari, etc.
Integrated Cold Chain Availability Platform ➢ It is envisaged to be a national database that enables active linkage between multiple cold-chain assets
across owners, promoting integration of use though collaboration.
➢ It is a joint effort of various institutions like National Horticulture Board, Agricultural and Processed Food
Products Export Development Authority, Ministry of Food Processing Industries and National Centre for Cold-
chain Development.
➢ Aim: To facilitate access to impartial information on integrated cold chain capacitiesand movement of
goods.
➢ Intended users: include cold-chain asset owners, farm producers, processors, retailers, government
agencies.
➢ The platform is aimed to yield following benefits:
▪ Direct access to nationwide cold storage capacity and flow of Information to users and regulators on operational availability.
▪ It will allow Farmer producer organizations (FPOs) to plan movement of perishable items movement across country.
▪ Also, the government would be empowered to plan viable public procurement mechanisms on the basis of available cold-chain infrastructure.
▪ It will allow alignment of cold storages with marketing act by getting considered as transaction platforms, without the physical diversion of produce to non- cold-chain yards.
▪ The platform will add transparency to cold-chain development, to regional availability and about trade lanes for perishables. Also, an improved demand-supply gap analysis can be done regarding future cold- chain development.
Transport
Introduction ➢ Ensuring accessibility to food in a country of India's size is a herculean task. The food grains are transported
from the surplus States to the deficit States.
➢ FCI undertakes movement of food grains in order to:
▪ Evacuate stocks from surplus regions ▪ Meet the requirements of deficit regions for NFSA/TPDS and Other Schemes ▪ Create buffer stocks in deficit regions
➢ Dept. of Food and Public Distribution under Min. of Consumer Affairs closely monitors the movement of
food grains and co-ordinates with FCI and Railways. About 40 million tonnes of food grains are transported by
FCI across the country in a year. More than 85% of the movement of stocks is undertaken by rail
Marketing/ Selling
Introduction ➢ The National Commission on Agriculture defined agricultural marketing as a “process which starts with a
decision to produce a saleable farm commodity and it involves all aspects of market structure of system,
both functional and institutional, based on technical and economic considerations and includes pre and
post- harvest operations, assembling, grading, storage, transportation and distribution”
➢ Agricultural marketing primarily concerns with the buying and selling of agricultural products. It refers to all
the activities, agencies and policies involved in the procurement of farm inputs by the farmers and the
movement of agricultural produce from the farms to the consumers.
➢ The Indian council of Agricultural Research includes three important:
▪ Assembling (concentration) ▪ Preparation for consumption (processing) and ▪ Distribution.
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Marketing Methods ➢ Traditional Marketing Methods:
▪ They generally start with sale by farmer and involve a number of intermediaries at different levels from rural markets to terminal markets. (refer infographic).
▪ Close to 50% of the agricultural produce in India is sold via these channels. ➢ Cooperative based marketing:
▪ Aim: to eliminate middlemen through direct purchase of agriculture products using marketing network of NAFED (National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation of India Limited)
▪ Ex: Anand Pattern Cooperatives (APC), Chicory contract farming coordination in Jamnagar Gujarat and Kerala Horticulture Development Program (KHDP).
➢ National Agriculture Market (eNAM):
▪ It is a pan-India electronic trading portal which networks the existing APMC mandis to create a unified national market for agricultural commodities.
▪ The market facilitates farmers, traders and buyers with online trading in commodities. The market is helping in better price discovery and providing facilities for smooth marketing of their produce.
▪ Features: ✓ 2016, Agriculture Ministry launched it. ✓ Aims: to connect the existing 580+ APMC mandis across India through a web portal; enabling interstate
and intrastate trade of agricultural commodities; remove the information asymmetry; help in real time price discover.
▪ Budget 2020, Negotiable Warehousing Receipts (e-NWR) will be integrated with e- NAM ➢ Farmer Producer Organizations (FPO):
▪ It is a legal entity formed by primary producers, viz. farmers, milk producers, fishermen, weavers, rural artisans, craftsmen. It can be a producer company, a cooperative society or any other legal form which provides for sharing of profits/benefits among the members.
▪ FPO is one type of Producer Organisation where the members are farmers. ▪ Benefits:farmers will have better collective strength for better access to quality input, technology, credit
and better marketing access through economies of scale for better realization of income. ➢ Commodity & Futures markets:
▪ Futures contracts are used as hedging instruments in agricultural commodities. Hedging is a common practice that insures the farmer against a poor harvest by purchasing futures contracts in the same commodity.
▪ There is a three-tier regulatory structure for conduct of futures trading- recognized/registered commodity associations/exchanges then SEBI & then The Department of Consumer Affairs, Ministry of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution, Government of India is at the top level
▪ Benefits:Efficient Price Discovery for Farmers; More Liquidity to Market; Removing Middlemen ▪ Ex:The National Commodities and Derivatives Exchange (NCDEX) is an online commodities exchange
dealing primarily in agricultural commodities in India. ➢ Private sector initiatives:
▪ Several start-ups and businesses have created innovative pilot solutions for agricultural markets. ▪ Ex: Indian Tobacco Company’s e-choupal
➢ Contract Farming:
▪ It is a form of agricultural production carried out according to an agreement between a buyer and farmers, which establishes conditions for the production and marketing of a farm product or products.
▪ Contract lawfalls under concurrent list, however agriculture falls under state list ▪ Benefits:The producer can reduce the risk of fluctuating market price and demand while buyer can
reduce the risk of non-availability of quality produce ▪ Present laws on contract farming only include one or two farm commodities and are limited to marketing
only. Thus, The Government has brought Model Contract Farming Act in 2018 & Tamil Nadu became the first state to enact it.
➢ Gramin Agricultural Markets (GrAMs):
▪ Launched by Agricultural Ministry in 2018; ▪ Aim: to develop and upgrade existing 22,000 rural haats (Rural Primary Markets) into GrAMs will be
linked to e-NAM and will remain outside the APMC Act regulation.
Importance ▪ Monetizing the Produce; ▪ Acting as a source of market information and price signal; ▪ Reducing the role of intermediaries; ▪ Encouraging capital formation and investment in technology; ▪ Value addition in agriculture by increasing access of agricultural produce to downstream industries.
Agricultural Produce Market Committee ➢ About:
▪ It is a statutory market committee constituted by a State Government in respect of trade in certain notified agricultural or horticultural or livestock products, under the APMC Act, 2003 issued by that state government
➢ Objective:
▪ Increasing transparency in the pricing systems; To prevent exploitation of farmers; to make the marketing system effective and efficient; to provide extension services to farmers; To provide incentive prices to farmers; to provide value addition in agriculture and also data generation for agri-market information systems.
▪ Elimination of the unhealthy and unscrupulous practices, reducing marketing costs, and providing facilities to the producer-seller in the market.
▪ To promote an orderly marketing of agricultural produce by improving the infrastructure facilities. ➢ Facts:
▪ There are about 2477 principal regulated markets based on geography (the APMCs) and 4843 sub-market yards regulated by the respective APMCs in India
▪ The typical amenities available in or around the APMCs are: auction halls, weigh bridges, godowns, shops for retailers, canteens, roads, lights, drinking water, police station, post-office, bore-wells, warehouse, farmers amenity center, tanks, Water Treatment plant, soil-testing Laboratory, toilet blocks, etc.
➢ Status:
▪ Currently, all States and UTs except Union Territories of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Dadra-Nagar-Haveli, Daman and Diu, Lakshadweep and States of Bihar, Kerala and Manipur are under respective Agricultural Produce Marketing (Regulation) Acts.
➢ Issues:
▪ Institutional Issues like licensing barriers;incidences of high market charges; absence of standardized grading mechanism of agricultural produce;
▪ Infrastructural Issues like limited access of Agricultural Produce Markets; poor Infrastructure in Agricultural Markets; poor economic viability of agricultural infrastructure projects;
▪ Market information system issues like absence of real time informational channels; information to farmers is limited; poor awareness among farmers;
▪ Absence of a National Integrated Market; ▪ Limited public investment; ▪ Low price realization for farmers; ▪ High wastages in the supply chain; ▪ Artificial creation of food and nutritional insecurity.
Government Efforts ➢ Model APMC Act, 2003: aimed to facilitate amendment of the existing Rules
➢ Model Agricultural Produce and Livestock Marketing (Promotion & Facilitation) Act, 2017
➢ Consumer/Farmer Market (Direct Sale by the Producer): Ex: Apni Mandi of Punjab, Rythu Bazaars in Andhra
Pradesh, Shetkari Bazar in Maharashtra etc.
➢ Agri Export Policy;
➢ eNAM;
➢ AGMARKNET:a G2C e-governance portal that caters to the needs of various stakeholders such as farmers,
industry, policy makers and academic institutions by providing agricultural marketing related information from
a single window
➢ Gramin Agricultural Markets (GrAMs);
➢ AGRIDEX:country’s first agriculture futures index called AGRIDEX announced by National Commodity and
Derivatives Exchange
➢ Formation and Promotion of Farmer Produce Organizations (FPOs);
➢ Model Contract Farming Act in 2018;
➢ Pradhan Mantri Gram Sadak Yojana (PMGSY);
➢ Pradhan Mantri Kisan SAMPADA Yojana;
➢ Mega Food Park Scheme;
➢ Agri-infrastructure development fund etc;
➢ Kisal Rail: to ensure their safe, reliable and fast transportation of vegetables, fruits and other perishables
Agricultural Bodies
National Cooperative Development Corporation About ➢ NCDC is a statutory corporation set up under National Cooperative Development Corporation Act, 1962.
➢ NCDC functions through its Head Office at New Delhi and multiple Regional Offices.
➢ The NCDC has the unique distinction of being the sole statutory organisation functioning as an apex financial
and developmental institution exclusively devoted to cooperative sector.
➢ NCDC is a major financial institution for cooperatives, and has recently startedMission Sahakar 22, which
aims to double farmers’ income by 2022.
Objective ➢ The objectives of NCDC are planning and promoting programmes for production, processing, marketing,
storage, export and import of agricultural produce, foodstuffs, industrial goods, livestock and certain other
notified commodities and services on cooperative principles.
National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation of India Ltd About ➢ It is an apex organization of marketing cooperatives for agricultural produce in India.
➢ It was founded on 2 October 1958 to promote the trade of agricultural produce and forest resources across
the nation.
➢ It is registered under the Multi-State Co-operative SocietiesAct.
➢ NAFED is now one of the largest procurements as well as marketing agencies for agricultural products in
India.
➢ With its headquarters in New Delhi, NAFED has four regional offices at Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata,
apart from 28 zonal offices in capitals of states and important cities.
Functions ➢ To facilitate, coordinate and promote the marketing and trading activities of the cooperative institutions,
partners and associates in agricultural, other commodities, articles and goods
➢ To undertake purchase, sale and supply of agricultural, marketing and processing requisites, such as
manure, seeds, fertilizer, agricultural implements and machinery etc.
➢ To act as a warehouseman under the Warehousing Act and own and construct its own godowns and cold
storages
➢ To act as agent of any Government agency or cooperative institution, for the purchase, sale, storage and
distribution of agricultural, horticultural, forest and animal husbandry produce, wool, agricultural requisites
and other consumer goods
➢ To act as an insurance agent and to undertake all such work which is incidental to the same
➢ To collaborate with any international agency or a foreign body for the development of cooperative
marketing, processing and other activities for mutual advantage in India or abroad
Food Corporation of India About ➢ It is a statutory body set up in 1965 under the Food Corporations Act 1964. It was established against the
backdrop of major shortage of grains, especially wheat.
Objectives ➢ To provide remunerative prices to farmers.
➢ To help in transforming the crisis management oriented food security into a stable security system to ensure
availability, accessibility and affordability of food grains to all people at all times so that no one, nowhere and
at no time should go hungry.
➢ Ensuring food security of the nation by maintaining satisfactory level of operational buffer stocks of food
grains.
➢ Distribution of food grains throughout the country for Public Distribution System.
➢ Effective Price Support Operations for safeguarding the interest of farmers.
Commission for Agricultural Costs & Prices (CACP) About ➢ It is a statutory body set up in 1965 under the Food Corporations Act 1964. It was established against the
backdrop of major shortage of grains, especially wheat.
➢ The CACP is an attached office of the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare. The Commission for
Agricultural Costs & Prices (CACP since 1985, earlier named as Agricultural Prices Commission) came into
existence in January 1965.
➢ It is mandated to recommend minimum support prices (MSPs) to incentivize the cultivators to adopt modern
technology, and raise productivity and overall grain production in line with the emerging demand patterns in
the country.
➢ MSP for major agricultural products are fixed by the government, each year, after considering the
recommendations of the Commission.
➢ As of now, CACP recommends MSPs of 23 commodities, which comprise 7 cereals (paddy, wheat, maize,
sorghum, pearl millet, barley and ragi), 5 pulses (gram, tur, moong, urad, lentil), 7 oilseeds (groundnut,
rapeseed-mustard, soyabean, seasmum, sunflower, safflower, nigerseed), and 4 commercial crops (copra,
sugarcane, cotton and raw jute).
Small Farmers’ Agribusiness Consortium About ➢ It was established as a Society in January 1994 to facilitate agri-business ventures by catalysing private
investment through Venture Capital Assistance (VCA) Scheme in close association with financial institutions.
➢ The role of State SFACsisto aggressively promote agribusiness project development in their respective States.
➢ Management: The Society is governed by Board of Management which is chaired, ex-officio, by Hon’ble Union
Minister for Agriculture and Farmers Welfare as the President and the Secretary, Department of Agriculture,
Cooperation and Farmers Welfare, Government of India, is the ex-officio Vice-President.
Functions ➢ Promotion of development of small agribusiness through VCA scheme.
➢ Helping formation and growth of Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) / Farmer Producer Companies (FPCs).
➢ Improving availability of working capital and development of business activities of FPOs/FPCs through Equity
Grant and Credit Guarantee Fund Scheme.
➢ Implementation of National Agriculture Market (e-NAM) Electronic Trading platform.
Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA)
About ➢ It was established by the Government of India under the Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export
Development Authority Act 1985. It replaced the Processed Food Export Promotion Council (PFEPC).
➢ APEDA, under the Ministry of Commerce and Industries, promotes export of agricultural and processed food
products from India.
Mandated Responsibilities ➢ Fruits, Vegetables and their Products;
➢ Meat and Meat Products;
➢ Poultry and Poultry Products;
➢ Dairy Products;
➢ Confectionery, Biscuits and Bakery Products;
➢ Honey, Jaggery and Sugar Products;
➢ Cocoa and its products, chocolates of all kinds;
➢ Alcoholic and Non-Alcoholic Beverages;
➢ Cereal and Cereal Products;
➢ Groundnuts, Peanuts and Walnuts;
➢ Pickles, Papads and Chutneys;
➢ Guar Gum;
➢ Floriculture and Floriculture Products;
➢ Herbal and Medicinal Plants.
National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) About ➢ It is a statutory body established in 1982 under Parliamentary act-National Bank for Agriculture and Rural
Development Act, 1981.
➢ It is responsible for the development of the small industries, cottage industries, and any other such village
or rural projects.
➢ It a development bank focussing primarily on the rural sector of the country. It is the apex banking
institution to provide finance for Agriculture and rural development.
➢ It headquarter is located in Mumbai
Functions ➢ Aimed at building an empowered and financially inclusive rural India through specific goal-oriented
departments which can be categorized broadly into three heads: Financial, Developmental and Supervision.
➢ It provides refinance support for building rural infrastructure.
➢ It prepares district level credit plans to guiding and motivating the banking industry in achieving these targets.
➢ It supervises Cooperative Banks and Regional Rural Banks (RRBs) and helping them develop sound banking
practices and integrate them to the CBS (Core Banking Solution) platform.
➢ It provides training to handicraft artisans and helps them in developing a marketing platform for selling these
articles.
Indian Council of Agricultural Research
About ➢ Itwas established on 16 July 1929 as a registered society under the Societies Registration Act, 1860.
➢ It is an autonomous organisation under the Department of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE),
Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare, Government of India.
➢ It is headquartered at New Delhi. With 102 ICAR institutes and 71 agricultural universities spread across the
country this is one of the largest national agricultural systems in the world.
Functions ➢ It is the apex body for coordinating, guiding and managing research and education in agriculture including
horticulture, fisheries and animal sciences in the entire country.
➢ The ICAR has played a pioneering role in ushering Green Revolution and subsequent developments in
agriculture in India through its research and technology development that has enabled the country to increase
the production of food grains by 5.6 times, horticultural crops by 10.5 times, fish by 16.8 times, milk by 10.4
times and eggs by 52.9 times since 1950-51 to 2017-18.
Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) About ➢ It ispopularly known as Pusa Institute, began in 1905 at Pusa (Bihar) with the generous grant from an
American philanthropist, Mr. Henry Phipps.
➢ Following a devastating earthquake in 1934, the institute was shifted to Delhi on 29th July 1936.Post-
independence, the institute has been renamed as Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI).
➢ The green revolution that brought smiles to millions of Indians bloomed from the fields of IARI with the
development of famous wheat varieties which contributed to massive production.
➢ IARI continues to be the leading institution for agricultural research, education and extension in the country.
National Bee Board About ➢ SFAC registered the NBB as a society under the Societies Registration Act, 1860 in 2000 and it was
reconstituted (with the secretary as chairman) in June 2006.
Objectives ➢ Overall development of beekeeping by promoting scientific beekeeping in India to increase the productivity
of crops through pollination and increase the honey production for increasing the income of the
beekeepers/farmers.
The Tea Board of India About ➢ It is a statutory body under the Ministry of Commerce.
➢ The Board is constituted of 31 members (including Chairman) drawn from Members of Parliament, tea
producers, tea traders, tea brokers, consumers, and representatives of Governments from the principal tea
producing states, and trade unions.
➢ The Board is reconstituted every three years.
Objectives ➢ Rendering financial and technical assistance for cultivation, manufacture and marketing of tea;
➢ Export promotion;
➢ Research and Development activities;
➢ Extend financial assistance in a limited way to the plantation workers and their wards through labour welfare
schemes;
➢ Collection and maintenance of Statistical data and publication.
The Coffee Board of India About ➢ It is a statutory organization that was constituted under Section (4) of the Coffee Act, 1942.
➢ It functions under the administrative control of the Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India.
➢ The Board comprises 33 Members including the Chairperson, who is the Chief Executive and it functions from
Bangalore.
➢ The Board mainly focuses its activities in the areas of research, extension, development, market intelligence,
external & internal promotion for coffee.
Allied Agricultural Practices
Agroforestry
Introduction ➢ Agroforestry is a collective name for land-use systems and technologies
where woody perennials (trees, shrubs, palms, bamboos, etc.) are
deliberately used on the same land-management units as agricultural crops
and/or animals, in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal
sequence.
➢ Agroforestry is a sustainable management mechanism for land that:
▪ increases overall production,
▪ combines agricultural crops, tree crops, forest plants and animals simultaneously, and
▪ applies management practices that are compatible with cultural practices of the local population.
➢ How trees improve soils:
▪ Litter or Mulch
▪ Increase nutrient content of soil
✓ Nutrient Uptake from deeper layers of soil
✓ Nutrients from the atmosphere
✓ Nitrogen Fixation
▪ Protection from soil erosion: Tree roots and stems reduce surface run-off, nutrient leaching and soil
erosion
➢ Benefits:
▪ Food, Fodder, Wood, Fuel and Fertilizers
▪ India’s 65% timber needs met through farm grown trees;
▪ 1stHalf of its fuel wood is sourced from farm forestry
▪ Helps in fighting Climate Change- Carbon sequestration
▪ Prevents Deforestation, Promotes Soil and Water Conservation
National Agroforestry Policy, 2014 ➢ In February 2014, India became the first nation in the world to adopt an agroforestry policy. Agroforestry
was earlier covered as a part of other policies e.g. the National Forest Policy, the Green India Mission etc.
➢ The Policy aims to improve coordination, convergence and synergy between various elements of
agroforestry, scattered across various existing missions, programme and schemes under different
ministries—agriculture, rural development and environment.
➢ Objectives:
▪ Promote agroforestry to increase farm income and livelihoods of rural households, especially the small and
marginal farmers.
▪ Protect and stabilise ecosystems, and promote resilient cropping and farming systems to minimise the risk
during extreme climatic events.
▪ Simultaneously provide raw material to wood-based industries. Thus, create new avenues for rural
employment, and reduce pressure on the forests.
▪ To develop capacity and strengthen research in agroforestry and create a massive people’s movement for
achieving these objectives.
▪ Impetus to simplification of rules and land tenancy reforms
▪ Provision for Loans and Insurance for trees
▪ Provision for R & D, Quality Seeds
▪ Provision for PPP model for non-farm land
▪ Emphasis on awareness and education
Livestock& Animal Husbandry
Introduction ➢ Livestock is commonly defined as domesticated animals raised in an
agricultural setting to produce labor and commodities such as meat, eggs,
milk, fur, leather, and wool.
➢ The breeding, maintenance, and slaughter of livestock, known as animal
husbandry.
➢ Animal Husbandry is a component of modern agriculture that has been
practiced in many cultures since humanity's transition to farming from
hunter-gatherer lifestyles. Animal husbandry practices have varied widely across cultures and time periods,
and continues to play a major economic and cultural role in numerous communities.
➢ Also, Animal husbandry is the branch of agriculture concerned with animals that are raised for meat, fibre,
milk, eggs, or other products. It includes day-to-day care, selective breeding and the raising of livestock.
Branches
Dairy
➢ India is the largest producer of milk in the world.
➢ Milk production 2018-19 was 187.7 million tonnes (6.47% more than previous year).
➢ The per capita availability of milk is around 394 grams per day.
Poultry
➢ Poultry production in India has taken a quantum leap in the last four decades, emerging from an
unscientific farming practice to commercial production system.
➢ Currently the total Poultry population in our country is 851.81 million and egg production is around 103.3
billion numbers during 2018-19. The per capita availability is around 79 eggs per annum.
Meat
➢ Meat production in the beginning of Twelfth Plan (2012-13) was 5.95 million tonnes which has been
further increased to 8.1 million tonnes in 2018- 19.
Wool
➢ Wool production in the beginning of Twelfth Plan (2012-13) was 46.1 million Kg and increased to 48.1
million Kg in 2014-15 but declined to 40.4 million Kgs in 2018-19.
Aquaculture
➢ the farming of aquatic organisms including fish, molluscs, crustaceans and aquatic plants and implies
some form of intervention in the rearing process to enhance production, such as regular stocking, feeding,
protection from predators, etc.
➢ Farming also implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated.
Insects
➢ Ex: Beekeeping, Silviculture, etc
Constraints ➢ Incapability of central and state governments to deliver the promised and expected results;
➢ Non-availability of superior quality breeding bulls;
➢ Poor quality of semen produced by many of the laboratories;
➢ Inadequate skills of paravets resulting in poor conception and infertility;
➢ Inadequate support for paravets for supply of liquid nitrogen, frozen semen, health care and technical
guidance;
➢ Shortage of fodder resources;
➢ Absence of field-oriented conservation strategy for indigenous breeds;
➢ Lack of coordination among various agencies engaged in livestock husbandry;
➢ Poor extension services to motivate small farmers to adopt dairy husbandry for income generation.
➢ Ineffective control of animal diseases;
➢ Lack of skills and quality services to farmers for improving productivity;
➢ Lack of Access to credit; Lack of access to organized markets; Loss of pastures;
➢ Poor quality Control; Non-preference for indigenous species.
Government Initiatives
Rashtriya Gokul Mission ➢ To develop and conserve indigenous breeds of bovine population;
➢ To enhance milk production and to make it more remunerative to the farmers;
➢ Breed improvement programme or indigenous cattle breeds to improve their genetic makeup and
increase the stock.
➢ Upgradation of nondescript cattle using elite indigenous breeds like Gir, Sahiwal, Rathi, Deoni, Red Sindhi
➢ Distribution of disease free high genetic merit bulls for natural service.
➢ Includes:Gokul Gram (Integrated Indigenous Cattle Centres); Gopalan Sangh (Breeder’s Societies); National
Kamdhenu Breeding Centres
National Livestock Mission ➢ To ensure quantitative and qualitative improvement in livestock production systems and capacity building
of all stakeholders.
➢ The Sub-Mission on Fodder and Feed Development:
▪ It will address the problems of scarcity of animal feed resources, in order to give a push to the livestock
sector making it a competitive enterprise for India, and also to harness its export potential.
➢ Sub-Mission on Livestock Development:
▪ Under the sub-mission, there are provisions for productivity enhancement,
entrepreneurshipdevelopment and employment generation, strengthening of infrastructure of state
farms with respect to modernization, automation and biosecurity, conservation of threatened breeds,
minor livestock development, rural slaughter houses, fallen animals and livestock insurance.
➢ Sub-Mission on Pig Development in North-Eastern Region:
▪ There has been persistent demand from the North Eastern States seeking support for all round
development of piggery in the region. For the first time, under NLM a Sub-Mission on Pig Development
in North-Eastern Region is provided wherein Government of India would support the State Piggery
Farms, and importation of germplasm.
➢ Sub-Mission on Skill Development, Technology Transfer and Extension:
▪ The emergence of new technologies and practices require linkages between stakeholders and this sub-
mission will enable a wider outreach to the farmers. All the States, including NER States may avail the
benefits of the multiple components and the flexibility of choosing them under NLM for a sustainable
livestock development.
National Artificial Insemination Programme ➢ To suggest novel methods of bringing about impregnation in female breeds.
➢ To prevent the spread of certain diseases which are genital in nature, thereby enhancing the efficiency of
the breed.
➢ It is a campaign mode genetic up-gradation program covering all breeds of bovines to enhance milk
production using low-cost breeding technology for improving the genetic merit of milch animals with high-
quality seed.
➢ Here, every cow and buffalo under AI will be tagged and can be tracked through the Information Network
on Animal Productivity and Health (INAPH) Database.
National Cattle and Buffalo Breeding Project ➢ To genetically upgrade important indigenous breeds on priority basis with a focus on development and
conservation.
Animal Husbandry Startup Grand Challenge ➢ To appreciate innovations coming from the villages to expand the dairy sector in India.
National Animal Disease Control Programme (NADCP) ➢ to control and eradicate the Foot & Mouth Disease (FMD) and Brucellosis amongst the livestock in the
country
➢ To vaccinate over 600 million cattle; To aim at vaccinating 36 million female bovine calves annually; To
control the livestock diseases by 2025, and eradicate by 2030.
➢ This programme combined with providing unique PashuAadhar to 535 million animals (Cattle, buffalo,
sheep, goat, and pig).
National Mission on Bovine Productivity ➢ It is implemented as a part of Rashtriya Gokul Mission under umbrella scheme White Revolution-
Rashtriya Pashudhan Vikas Yojna.
➢ Objective:to enhance milk production and productivity of bovine population, increase trade of livestock
and its products, e-market for bovine germplasm and to double farmers’ income by 2022.
➢ Components:
▪ Pashu Sanjivni: an animal wellness program with provision of Nakul Swasthya Patra (animal health card)
along with unique ID to animals and uploading data on National Data Depository.
▪ Advanced breeding technology: IVF/MOET (In-Vitro fertilization/Multiple-ovulation embryo transplant)
and sex sorted semen technique to improve availability of disease free high genetic merit female
bovines.
▪ e-Pashuhaat: a website portal launched on birthday of V. Kurien on 26 Nov 2016 to connect the
breeders and farmers for sale and purchase of germplasm.
▪ National Bovine Genomic Centre for indigenous breeds (NBGC-IB).
20th Livestock Census report ➢ Recently, 20th Livestock Census report was released by Department of Animal Husbandry & Dairying,
Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying.
➢ The Census is being conducted every 5 years.
➢ Features:
▪ This census is a unique attempt as for the first time a major initiative has been take to household level
datathrough online transmission from the field.
▪ National Informatics Centre (NIC) has developed a mobile Application software and was used for data
collection as well as online transmission of data from the field to the NIC server.
▪ Census has been designed to capture Breed-wise number of animals and poultry birds.
➢ Report Highlights:
▪ State-wise Uttar Pradesh (UP) has recorded highest livestock population in 2019 followed by Rajasthan,
MP, West Bengal, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Telangana, Karnataka and Gujarat.
▪ In terms of cattle population, West Bengal figured at the top followed by UP, MP, Bihar and Maharashtra.
▪ The total Livestock population is 535.78 million in the country showing an increase of 4.6% over Previous
Census.
▪ Total Bovine population (Cattle, Buffalo, Mithun and Yak) is 302.79 million in 2019 which shows an
increase of 1.0% over the previous census.
▪ The total number of cattle in the country is 192.49 million in 2019 showing an increase of 0.8 % over
previous Census.
Fisheries
Introduction
➢ A fishery is the enterprise of raising or harvesting fish and other aquatic
life. Commercial fisheries include wild fisheries and fish farms, both in fresh
water (about 10% of all catch) and the oceans (about 90%).
Facts ➢ Fisheries and aquaculture provide 4.3 billion people with over 15% of their
annual animal protein consumption and are a vital source of
micronutrients and essential lipids;
➢ Fish and seafood are one of the most traded food commodities. Over 53% of the trade originates in
developing countries;
➢ The top ten species of fish caught with aquaculture include carbs and other oysters, salmons, trouts, shrimps
and prawns among others;
➢ More than 25% of world dietary protein is provided by the fish.
Importance of Fisheries for India ➢ India is the second major producer of fish through aquaculture in the world;
➢ India is the 4th largest exporter of fish in the world as it contributes 7.7% to the global fish production;
➢ Fish constituted about 10% of total exports from India and almost 20% of agriculture exports in 2017-18;
➢ The fisheries and aquaculture production contribute around 1% to India’s GDP and over 5% to the agricultural
GDP;
➢ Around 28 million people are employed in the fisheries sector in India;
➢ The sector has immense potential to more than double the fishers and fish farmers’ incomes, as envisioned
by the government.
Challenges ➢ Lack of Infrastructure- Usage of Old wood boats, Low quality Trawlers and Fishing nets;
➢ Potential of Deep-Sea fishing is yet to be realized;
➢ Poor quality of Fish Feeds;
➢ Security of Fishermen especially along the maritime boundaries;
➢ Structural issues with National Fisheries Development Board (NFDB);
➢ Over exploitation;
➢ Discharge of harmful substances into water bodies;
➢ Climate Change
Government Schemes
Blue Revolution aka Neel Kranti Mission
➢ Vision: “Creating an enabling environment for integrated development of the full potential of fisheries of
the country, along with substantially improvement in the income status of fishers and fish farmers keeping
in view the sustainability, bio-security and environmental concerns.”
➢ Mission: Formulation of a Neel Kranti Mission Plan (Blue Revolution Mission Plan) for tapping the full
potential of the inland and marine culture fisheries of the country by developing it as a professional
modern world class industry.
➢ Objectives:
▪ To fully tap the total fish potential of the country both in the inland and the marine sector and triple
the production by 2020;
▪ To transform the fisheries sector as a modern industry with special focus on new technologies and
processes;
▪ To double the income of the fishers and fish farmers with special focus on increasing productivity and
better marketing postharvest infrastructure including e-commerce and other technologies and global
best innovations;
▪ To ensure inclusive participation of the fishers and fish farmers in the income enhancement;
▪ To triple the export earnings by 2020 with focus on benefits flow to the fishers and fish farmers
including through institutional mechanisms in the cooperative, producer companies and other
structures;
▪ To enhance food and nutritional security of the country.
Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana
➢ To enhance fish production to 220 lakh metric tons by 2024-25 from 137.58 lakh metric tons in 2018-19 at
an average annual growth rate of about 9%.
➢ To increase fisheries export earnings to Rs.1,00,000 crore;
➢ Doubling farmers income;
➢ Reducing post-harvest losses;
➢ To generate 55 lakhs direct and indirect gainful employment opportunities in the fisheries sector and
allied activities farmers.
National Fisheries Action Plan-2020
➢ To develop an ecologically healthy, economically viable and socially inclusive fisheries sector that
contributes towards economic prosperity and well-being of fishers and fish farmers, and provides food and
nutritional security to the country in a sustainable and responsible manner
Dairy Sector
Introduction ➢ A dairy is a business enterprise established for the harvesting or processing
(or both) of animal milk-mostly from cows or buffaloes, but also from
goats, sheep, horses, or camels- for human consumption.
➢ A dairy is typically located on a dedicated dairy farm or in a section of a
multi-purpose farm (mixed farm) that is concerned with the harvesting of
milk.
➢ As an attributive, the word dairy refers to milk-based products, derivatives
and processes, and the animals and workers involved in their
production.Ex: dairy cattle, dairy goat. A dairy farm produces milk and a dairy factory processes it into a
variety of dairy products. These establishments constitute the global dairy industry, a component of the food
industry.
Facts ➢ India is the largest milk producer in the world.
➢ It is expected to grow at a compounded 15% annually till 2020.
Importance ➢ It has to do with the socio-cultural affinity towards cows and dairy products in large parts of the country.
➢ As an industry, it employs more than 70 million farmers.
Challenges ➢ Continues to be a subsistence activity;
➢ Only 20% of the milk produce is channelled for Organised marketing;
➢ Quality and Standards Issue;
➢ Shortage of feed/fodder; Lack of value addition and marketing facilities;
➢ Lack of Veterinary Services;
➢ Slowdown in Dairy Sector;
➢ Lack of Budgetary Allocation;
➢ Informal Dairy Economy;
➢ Poor Breeding Infrastructure and Genetics;
➢ Lack of Cold Chain Infrastructure.
Government Schemes
National Dairy Plan ➢ Department of Animal Husbandry and Dairying is implementing World Bank assisted National Dairy Plan-
I in 18 States to support milk cooperatives and milk producer companies along with breeding
improvement initiative; Central Sector Scheme;
➢ To help increase productivity of milch animals and thereby increase milk production to meet the rapidly
growing demand for milk.
➢ To help provide rural milk producers with greater access to the organised milk-processing sector.
Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme ➢ It was started in December 2004 with an outlay of Rs. 25 Crore. It was modified from 01.09.2010
➢ Objective
▪ Generate self-employment and provide infrastructure for dairy sector;
▪ Setting up modern dairy farms for production of clean milk;
▪ Encourage heifer calf rearing for conservation and development of good breeding stock;
▪ Bring structural changes in unorganized sector so that initial processing of milk can be taken up at
village level;
▪ Upgradation of traditional technology to handle milk on commercial scale;
▪ Provide value addition to milk through processing and production of milk products.
Operation Flood
Horticulture
Introduction
➢ Horticulture is the science, art, and practice of cultivating plants, flowers,
fruits, vegetables, spices, and medicinal and aromatic crops with the
purpose of decoration, beauty, ornament, and fancy.
➢ Horticulture involves plant propagation and cultivation to improve plant
growth, yields, quality, nutritional value, and resistance to insects,
diseases, and environmental stresses. It also includes plant conservation,
landscape restoration, soil management, landscape and garden design,
construction and maintenance, and arboriculture.
➢ In contrast to agriculture, horticulture does not include large-scale crop
production or animal husbandry. Additionally, horticulture focuses on the use of small plots with a wide
variety of mixed crops while agriculture focuses on one large primary crop at a time.
➢ L.H. Bailey is considered the Father of American Horticulture and M.H. Marigowda is considered the Father
of Indian Horticulture.
Facts ➢ The production of fruits and vegetables has overcome the production of food grains in the country.
➢ India is the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables in the world with first rank in the production of
Banana, Mango, Lime & Lemon, Papaya and Okra.
➢ The total horticulture production has increased from 211.2 million tonnes in 2007-08 to 313 million tonne in
2019-20
Branches ➢ Arboriculture involves the study, selection, plant, care, and removal of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and
other perennial woody plants.
➢ Turf management focuses on the production and maintenance of turf grass for sports, leisure use, and
amenity use.
➢ Floriculture consists of the study, production, and marketing of floral crops.
➢ Landscape horticulture involves the production, marketing, and maintenance of landscape plants.
➢ Olericulture focuses on the production and marketing of vegetables.
➢ Pomology includes the production, processing, cultivation, and marketing of fruits.
➢ Viticulture includes the production and marketing on grapes.
➢ Oenology focuses on the aspects of wine and winemaking.
➢ Postharvest physiology consists of maintaining the quality of plants and preventing their spoilage.
Features of Horticulture in India ➢ Horticulture sector has become one of the major drivers of growth as it is more remunerative than the
agricultural sector (food grains mainly).
➢ This sector provides employment possibilities across primary, secondary and tertiary sectors.
➢ Horticulture crops, fruits are more resilient to change in weather conditions and the vegetables augment the
income of small and marginal farmers.
➢ Water utilisation is very low, minimising the risk of crop failure and it can be done on smaller farms.
➢ Multiple crops are planted simultaneously to get more yield and to use the maximum of the fertilisers.
➢ This sector enables the population to eat a diverse and balanced diet for a healthy lifestyle.
➢ It became a key driver for economic development in many of the states in the country where Division of
Horticulture of Indian Council of Agricultural Research is playing a pivotal role.
Benefits ➢ Access to irrigation: Around 70% of area under horticulture has access to irrigation.
➢ Rising incomes, urbanization: Better incomes, urbanization and higher consumption of fruits and vegetable ->
Driving demand for protein rich diets.
➢ Infrastructure: Infrastructure facility like Cold Storage; Transportation etc. have helped in marketing of
produce.
➢ Forward Linkages: Forward linkages such as contract farming (where allowed) have helped reduce wastage,
increase yield and ensure greater income realization for farmers.
➢ Government Support: National Horticulture Mission launched in 2005 focused on nutritional security and
increasing farm income in horticulture
Challenges ➢ High Post-Harvest Losses;
➢ Low Productivity;
➢ Inadequate Finance;
➢ Marketing Challenges;
➢ Lack of Cold Storage;
➢ Low Value addition;
➢ No safety net like Minimum Support Price (MSP);
➢ Lack of mechanization;
➢ Lack of government support for small farmers;
➢ High price fluctuations.
Suggestion ➢ Achieve technology led development in Horticulture;
➢ Post-harvest&value addition in horticulture crops;
➢ Modified atmosphere packaging for long storability & transportation of fruits & vegetables;
➢ Insect pollinators for improving productivity and quality of the crops;
➢ Development of varieties for cultivation in non-traditional areas;
➢ Nutrient dynamics and interaction;
➢ Bioenergy and solid waste utilisation to make horticulture more efficient and eco-friendlier;
➢ Plan, coordinate and monitor R&D programmes at national level as well as to serve as knowledge repository
in Horticulture sector.
Government Schemes
Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH) ➢ Centrally Sponsored Scheme for the holistic growth of the horticulture sector covering fruits, vegetables
and other areas.
➢ Under MIDH, Government of India contributes 60% of the total outlay for developmental programmes in
all the states (except North Eastern and Himalayan states where GOI contributes 90%) & 40% is
contributed by State governments.
➢ Objectives:
▪ Promote holistic growth of horticulture sector, including bamboo and coconut through area based
regionally differentiated strategies, which includes research, technology promotion, extension, post-
harvest management, processing and marketing, in consonance with comparative advantage of each
State/region and its diverse agro-climatic features;
▪ Encourage aggregation of farmers into farmer groups like FIGs/FPOs and FPCs to bring economy of
scale and scope.
▪ Enhance horticulture production, augment farmers, income and strengthen nutritional security;
▪ Improve productivity by way of quality germplasm, planting material and water use efficiency through
Micro Irrigation;
▪ Support skill development and create employment generation opportunities for rural youth in
horticulture and post-harvest management, especially in the cold chain sector.
➢ It has five major schemes on horticulture:
▪ National Horticulture Mission (NHM);
▪ Horticulture Mission for North East and Himalayan States (HMNEH);
▪ National Horticulture Board (NHB);
▪ Coconut Development Board (CDB);&
▪ Central Institute of Horticulture (CIH), Nagaland
National Horticulture Mission (NHM) ➢ launched in 2005-06 as Centrally sponsored scheme; later, subsumed as a part of Mission for Integration
Development of Horticulture (MIDH) during 2014-15.
➢ to enhance horticulture production and improve nutritional security and income support to farm
households and others through area-based regionally differentiated strategies.
Operation Green ➢ to ensure farmers are given the right price for their produce. ➢ to promote Farmer Producers Organizations (FPO), Agri-logistics, processing facilities and professional
management of agri-produce. ➢ focuses on organized marketing of Tomatoes, Onions and Potatoes (TOP vegetables) by connecting
farmers with consumers. ➢ State Agriculture and other Marketing Federations, Farmer Producer Organizations (FPO), cooperatives,
companies, Self-help groups, food processors etc. can avail the financial assistance under it. ➢ Objectives:Price stabilisation for producers and consumers; Reduction in post-harvest losses; Increase in
food processing capacities and value addition in TOP value chain; Setting up of a market
intelligencenetwork
Revolutions ➢ Green Revolution→ Food grain Production
➢ Golden Revolution→ Fruit Production
➢ Grey Revolution→ Fertilizer Production
➢ Blue Revolution→ Fish Production
➢ Black Revolution→ Petroleum Production
➢ Pink Revolution→ Prawn Production
➢ Round Revolution→ Potato Production
➢ Red Revolution→ Meat/Tomato Production
➢ Silver Revolution→ Egg/Poultry Production
➢ White Revolution→ Milk Production
➢ Yellow Revolution→ Oil seeds Production
Sustainable Agricultural Practices
Mulching
Introduction ➢ Mulch is simply a protective layer of a material that is spread on top of the
soil. Mulches can either be organicor inorganic. Both organic and inorganic
mulches have numerous benefits. Mulching enriches and protects soil,
helping provide a better growing environment.
Types ➢ Organic mulches
▪ Such as grass clippings, straw, bark chips, and similar materials;
▪ How?As these mulches slowly decompose, they provide organic matter
which helps keep the soil loose;
▪ Benefits?This improves root growth, increases the infiltration of water,
and also improves the water-holding capacity of the soil;
▪ Organic matter is a source of plant nutrients and provides an ideal environment for earthworms and
other beneficial soil organisms.
➢ Inorganic mulches:
▪ Such as stones, brick chips, and plastic;
▪ Issue? they lack the soil improving properties of organic mulches; because of their permanence, may be
difficult to remove if you decide to change your garden plans at a later date.
Mulching Materials ➢ Factor influencing:consideration availability, cost, appearance, impact, chemical properties, etc
➢ Organic residues:grass clippings, leaves, hay, straw, kitchen scraps comfrey, shredded bark, whole bark
nuggets, sawdust, shells, woodchips, shredded newspaper, cardboard, wool, animal manure, etc
➢ Compost: fully composted materials are used to avoid possible phytotoxicity problems
➢ Old carpet (synthetic or natural):free, readily available mulch
➢ Rubber mulch; Plastic mulch; Others like: Rock and gravel
Importance ➢ Protects the soil from erosion;
➢ Reduces compaction from the impact of heavy rains;
➢ Conserves moisture, reducing the need for frequent watering;
➢ Maintains a more even soil temperature;
➢ Prevents weed growth.
Zero Tillage
Introduction ➢ Zero Tillage is a farming system that promotes maintenance of a permanent
soil cover, minimum soil disturbance (i.e. no tillage), and diversification of
plant species. It enhances biodiversity and natural biological processes
above and below the ground surface, which contributes to increased water
and nutrient use efficiency and to improved and sustained crop production.
➢ Tillage:
▪ Tillage is an agriculture land preparation through mechanical agitation
which includes digging, stirring and overturning.
➢ No Tilling:
▪ Zero tillage is the process where the crop seed will be sown through drillers without prior land
preparation and disturbing the soil where previous crop stubbles are present.
▪ Zero tillage not only reduce the cost of cultivation.It also reduces the soil erosion, crop duration and
irrigation requirement and weed effect which is better than tillage. Zero Tillage (ZT) also called No Tillage
or Nil Tillage.
▪ Typically, no-tillage systems require the use of very large amounts of herbicides to control weeds.
Merits ➢ Zero tilled soils are homogenous in structure with more number of earthworms;
➢ Organic matter content increases due to less mineralization;
➢ Surface runoff is reduced due to presence of mulch;
➢ Reduction in the crop duration and thereby early cropping can be obtained to get higher yields;
➢ Reduction in the cost of inputs for land preparation and therefore a saving of around 80%;
➢ Residual moisture can be effectively utilized and number of irrigations can be reduced;
➢ Dry matter and organic matter get added to the soil;
➢ Environmentally safe- Greenhouse effect will get reduced due to carbon sequestration;
➢ No tillage- reduces the compaction of the soil and reduces the water loss by runoff and prevent soil erosion;
➢ As the soil is intact and no disturbance is done. No Till lands have more useful flora and fauna.
Demerits ➢ Higher amount of nitrogen has to be applied for mineralization of organic matter in zero tillage;
➢ Perennial weeds may be a problem;
➢ Need of High number of volunteer plants and buildup of pests.
Importance ➢ Facilitates good agronomy, such as timely operations, and improves overall land husbandry for rainfed and
irrigated production.
➢ Complemented by other known good practices, including the use of quality seeds, and integrated pest,
nutrient, weed and water management, etc.
➢ It opens increased options for integration of production sectors, such as crop-livestock integration and the
integration of trees and pastures into agricultural landscapes.
Facts ➢ No Till approach started from 1960s by farmers in India.
➢ The zero-tillage system is being followed in the Indo-Gangetic plains where rice-wheat cropping is present.
➢ Wheat will be planted after rice harvest without any operation.
➢ Hundreds of farmers are following the same system and getting more yields and profits by reducing the cost of
cultivation.
➢ In South, the districts like Guntur and some parts of West Godavari of Andhra Pradesh state follow the ZT
system in rice-maize cropping system.
➢ The green revolution paved the way for the rice-wheat production system in the north-western parts of India.
But in due course of time, the yields of rice and wheat become stagnant due to inappropriate soil and water
management system and late planting of wheat, as in the hot season rice is being grown and in the winter
wheat follows the rice.
➢ In 1990's the zero tillage came to mitigate the problem, by planting the wheat by drilling without any land
preparation and tillage.
➢ The success of zero tillage depends on the machinery to drill seed in the uncultivated land. In late 1980's,
CIMMYT introduced a prototype for drilling the seed. In India, the first localized seed drill was manufactured
by GB Pant University with a motor to reduce the cost and make it available and affordable. The drills are
tractor drawn and used in rice-wheat cropping system.
➢ Zero tillage proves better for direct-seeded rice, maize, soybean, cotton, pigeon-pea, mung-bean, cluster-
bean, pearl-millet during kharif season and wheat, barley, chickpea, mustard and lentil during rabi season.
➢ Wheat sowing after rice can be advanced by 10-12 days by adopting this technique compared to
conventionally tilled wheat, and wheat yield reduction caused by late sowing can be avoided. ZT provides
opportunity to escape wheat crop from terminal heat stress.
Agro Economics
Introduction ➢ Agricultural economics is an applied field of economics concerned with the
application of economic theory in optimizing the production and
distribution of food and fiber.
➢ It began as a branch of economics that specifically dealt with land usage, it
focused on maximizing the crop yield while maintaining a good soil ecosystem. Throughout the 20th century
the discipline expanded and the current scope of the discipline is much broader.
➢ Today,it includes a variety of applied areas, having considerable overlap with conventional
economics.Agricultural economists have made substantial contributions to research in economics,
econometrics, development economics, and environmental economics.
➢ Itinfluences food policy, agricultural policy, and environmental policy.
Principles ➢ Recycling: Use of local renewable resources and other cyclable nutrients and biomass.
➢ Input reduction: Reduce or eliminate dependency on purchased inputs.
➢ Soil heath: Secure and enhance soil health and functioning for improved plant growth, particularly by
managing organic matter and by enhancing soil biological activity.
➢ Animal health: Ensure animal health and welfare.
➢ Biodiversity: Maintain and enhance diversity of species, functional diversity and genetic resources and
maintain biodiversity in the agroecosystem over time and space at field, farm and landscape scales.
➢ Synergy: Enhance positive ecological interaction, integration, and complementarity amongst the elements of
agroecosystems (plants, animals, trees, soil, water).
➢ Economic diversification: Diversify on-farm incomes by ensuring small-scale farmers have greater financial
independence and value addition opportunities while enabling them to respond to demand from consumers.
➢ Co-creation of knowledge: Enhance co-creation and horizontal sharing of knowledge including local and
scientific innovation, especially through farmer-to-farmer exchange.
➢ Social values and diets: Build food systems based on the culture, identity, tradition, social and gender equity
of local communities that provide healthy, diversified, seasonally and culturally appropriate diets.
➢ Fairness: Support dignified and robust livelihoods for all actors engaged in food systems, especially small-scale
food producers, based on fair trade, fair employment and fair treatment of intellectual property rights.
➢ Connectivity: Ensure proximity and confidence between producers and consumers through promotion of fair
and short distribution networks and by re-embedding food systems into local economies.
➢ Land and natural resource governance: Recognize and support the needs and interests of family farmers,
smallholders and peasant food producers as sustainable managers and guardians of natural and genetic
resources.
➢ Participation: Encourage social organization and greater participation in decision- making by food producers
and consumers to support decentralized governance and local adaptive management of agricultural and food
systems.
Interlinked Elements ➢ Diversity; synergies; efficiency; resilience; recycling; co-creation and sharing of knowledge (describing
common characteristics of agroecological systems, foundational practices and innovation approaches)
➢ Human and social values; culture and food traditions (context features)
➢ Responsible governance; circular and solidarity economy (enabling environment)
Organic Farming
Introduction ➢ Organic Agriculture: A system of farm design and management to create an
eco-system of agriculture production without the use of synthetic external
inputs such as chemicals, fertilisers, pesticides and synthetic hormones or
genetically modified organisms.
➢ Organic Farm Produce: the produce obtained from organic agriculture.
➢ Organic Food Means: Food products that have been produced in
accordance with specified standards for organic production.
Concept ➢ Building up of biological soil fertility;
➢ Control of pests, diseases and weeds through development of an ecological balance within the system and by
use of bioagents and various cultural techniques.
➢ It recycles all wastes and manure within the farm.
Principles ➢ Mixed farming
➢ Crop rotation
➢ Organic cycle optimization
Components ➢ It largely relies upon crop rotations, crop residues, animal manure, legumes, green manure, on/off farm
organic wastes, mechanical cultivation, mineral bearing rocks and aspects of biological control of pests and
diseases to maintain soil productivity and tilth to supply plant nutrients.
➢ Other are:Organic manures; Non- chemical weed control; andBiological pest and disease management.
Facts ➢ India ranks first in number of organic farmers and ninth in terms of area under organic farming.
➢ Sikkim became the first State in the world to become fully organic and other States including Tripura and
Uttarakhand have set similar targets.
➢ North East India has traditionally been organic and the consumption of chemicals is far less than rest of the
country.
➢ Similarly, the tribal and island territories are being nurtured to continue their organic story.
➢ The major organic exports from India have been flax seeds, sesame, soybean, tea, medicinal plants, rice and
pulses.
Scope ➢ A sustainable agricultural system which maintains and improves soil fertility so as to guarantee for adequate
food security in the future.
➢ It relies upon resources from its own area which is not depended much on imported resources.
➢ It helps in maintaining the stability of natural ecosystem.
Eco-Farming ➢ It is the farming mutually reinforcing ecological approaches to food production. It aims at the maintenance
of soil chemically, biologically and physically the way nature would do if left alone. Soil would then take
proper care of plants growing on it. Feed the soil, not the plant is the watchword and slogan of ecological
farming.
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Zero Budget Natural Farming
Introduction ➢ Zero budget natural farming is a method of chemical-free agriculture drawing from traditional Indian
practices.
➢ It was originally promoted by agriculturist Subhash Palekar, who developed it in the mid-1990s as an
alternative to the Green Revolution’s methods that are driven by chemical fertilizers and pesticides and
intensive irrigation. It is a unique model that relies on Agro-ecology.
➢ It aims to bring down the cost of production to nearly zero and return to a pre-green revolution style of
farming.
➢ It claims that there is no need for expensive inputs such as fertilisers, pesticides and intensive irrigation.
➢ Farmers useearthworms, cow dung, urine, plants, human excreta and such biological fertilizers for crop
protection. It reduces farmers’ investment. It also protects the soil from degradation.
Benefits ➢ Aims to ensure that farming- particularly smallholder farming- is
economically viable by enhancing farm biodiversity and ecosystem services.
➢ It reduces farmers’ costs through eliminating external inputs and using in-
situ resources to rejuvenate soils, whilst simultaneously increasing incomes,
and restoring ecosystem health through diverse, multi-layered cropping systems.
➢ Zero budget natural farming requires only 10% water and 10% electricity than what is required under
chemical and organic farming. ZBNF may improve the potential of crops to adapt to and be produced for
evolving climatic conditions.
Wheels of ZBNF ➢ Jiwamrita is a fermented mixture of cow dung and urine (of desi breeds), jaggery, pulses flour, water and
soil from the farm bund. This isn’t a fertiliser, but just a source of some 500 crore micro-organisms that can
convert all the necessary “non-available” nutrients into “available” form.
➢ Bijamrita is a mix of desi cow dung and urine, water, bund soil and lime that is used as a seed treatment
solution prior to sowing.
➢ Mulching, or covering the plants with a layer of dried straw or fallen leaves, is meant to conserve soil
moisture and keep the temperature around the roots at 25-32 degrees Celsius, which allows the
microorganisms to do their job.
➢ Waaphasa, or providing water to maintain the required moisture-air balance, also achieves the same
objective.
Issues ➢ Sikkim (India's first organic state), has seen some decline in yields following conversion to organic farming.
➢ Many farmers have reverted to conventional farming after seeing their ZBNF returns drop after a few years.
➢ While ZBNF has definitely helped preserve soil fertility, its role in boosting productivity and farmers’ income
isn’t conclusive yet.
➢ ZBNF advocates the need of an Indian breed cow, whose numbers are declining at a fast pace.
➢ Low expenditure by the government: Last year, the government launched Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana, a
flagship Green Revolution scheme with an allocation of Rs 3,745 crore for the financial year 2019-20.
Permaculture
Introduction ➢ Permaculture is an approach to land management and philosophy that
adopts arrangements observed in flourishing natural ecosystems.
➢ It includes a set of design principleslike regenerative agriculture, rewilding,
and community resilience- derived using whole systems thinking.
➢ The term was coined by Bill Mollison and David Holmgren in 1978, who
formulated the concept in opposition to Western industrialized methods
and in congruence with Indigenous or traditional knowledge.
➢ Permaculture has many branches including ecological design, ecological
engineering, regenerative design, environmental design, and construction.
It also includes integrated water resources management that develops sustainable architecture, and
regenerative and self-maintained habitat and agricultural systems modelled from natural ecosystems
➢ A central theme in Permaculture is the design of eco- logical landscapes that produce food. Emphasis is
placed on multi-use plants, cultural practices such as sheet mulching and trellising, and the integration of
animals to recycle nutrients and graze weeds.
Characteristics ➢ Most holistic, integrated systems analysis and design methodologies found in the world.
➢ It can be applied to create productive ecosystems from the human- use standpoint or to help degraded
ecosystems recover health and wildness
➢ It can be applied in any ecosystem, no matter how degraded.
➢ It values and validates traditional knowledge and experience.
➢ Incorporates sustainable agriculture practices and land management techniques and strategies from around
the world
➢ It is a bridge between traditional cultures and emergent earth-toned cultures.
➢ It promotes organic agriculture, which does not use pesticides.
➢ It aims to maximize symbiotic and synergistic relation- ships between site components.
➢ Its design is site specific, client specific, and culture specific.
Significance ➢ Environment friendly: It discourages uses of chemical and pesticide and promotes the uses of eco-friendly
means to maintain soil health and increase productivity.
➢ Decrease Global warming: Increasing area under permaculture from current 108 million acres to 1 billion
acres by 2050 could result in a total reduction of 23.2 gigatons of CO2, from both sequestration and reduced
emissions. o Promotion of Traditional practice: It incorporates traditional farming practices with modern
technological and scientific knowledge to create efficient systems. It can also reduce the dependency of
farmers on multi-national companies for genetically modified seeds.
➢ Improve income: Instead of monoculture, permaculture uses polyculture where a diverse range of vegetation
and animals are utilised to support each other to create a self-sustaining system.
Intensive Agricultural Practices
Introduction ➢ Intensive agriculture, also known as intensive farming (as opposed to extensive farming), is a type of
agriculture, both of crop plants and of animals, with higher levels of input and output per unit of agricultural
land area. It is characterized by a low fallow ratio, higher use of inputs such as capital and labour, and higher
crop yields per unit land area.
Practices ➢ Pasture cropping:
▪ It involves planting grain crops directly into grassland without first applying herbicides.
▪ The perennial grasses form a living mulch understory to the grain crop, eliminating the need to
plant cover crops after harvest.
➢ Biointensive agriculture:
▪ It focuses on maximizing efficiency such as per unit area, energy input and water input.
➢ Agroforestry
▪ It combines agriculture and orchard/forestry technologies to create more integrated,
diverse, productive, profitable, healthy and sustainable land-use systems.
➢ Intercropping
▪ It can increase yields or reduce inputs and thus represents (potentially sustainable) agricultural
intensification.
▪ However, while total yield per acre is often increased, yields of any single crop often diminish.
➢ Vertical farming
▪ It is intensive crop production on a large scale in urban centres, in multi-story, artificially-lit structures, for
the production of low-calorie foods like herbs, microgreens, and lettuce.
➢ An integrated farming system
▪ It is a progressive, sustainable agriculture system such as zero waste agriculture or integrated multi-
trophic aquaculture, which involves the interactions of multiple species.
▪ Elements of this integration can include:
✓ Intentionally introducing flowering plants into agricultural ecosystems to increase pollen- and nectar-
resources required by natural enemies of insect pests.
✓ Using crop rotation and cover crops to suppress nematodes in potatoes.
✓ Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture
▪ is a practice in which the by-products (wastes) from one species are recycled to become inputs
(fertilizers, food) for another.
Merits ➢ High crop yield; more variety of food can be produced; more efficient; Affordable food prices; ensures
regulated farming; Sustainable supply of food
Demerits ➢ Poor living conditions and hygiene for livestock; Excessive use of agro-chemicals; Deforestation and
alteration of the natural environment; Risks on human health; Higher risks of cancer and birth defects; The
use of chemical hormones in food; Possibility of poor-quality food products; Traditional farmers are unable to
gain enough profits and less job creation opportunities
Vertical Farming Systems
Introduction ➢ Vertical farming is the practice of growing crops in vertically stacked layers.
➢ It often incorporates controlled-environment agriculture, which aims to
optimize plant growth, and soilless farming techniques such as
hydroponics, aquaponics, and aeroponics.
➢ In 1915, Gilbert Ellis Bailey coined the term “vertical farming” and wrote a
book titled “Vertical Farming”. In the early 1930s, William Frederick Gerick
pioneered hydroponics at the University of California at Berkley.
➢ The modern concept of vertical farming was proposed in 1999 by Dickson
Despommier, professor of Public and Environmental Health at Columbia
University
➢ Current applications of vertical farming coupled with other state-of-the-art
technologies, such as specialized LED lights, have resulted in over 10 times
the crop yield than would receive through traditional farming methods
Merits ➢ Production of extremely high yields per available land or area;
➢ Producing the food throughout the year without the risk of vagaries of nature of nature like floods, heavy
rains, uneven rains, hail and snowfall, drought, dry spells, extreme high temperatures, cold waves, epidemics
of pest and diseases, etc;
➢ It reduces the cost over transporting loads of food grains from rural area to urban areas and reduce the
spoilage occurring therein;
➢ Vertical farming uses 70 to 95 % less water compared to traditional farming;
➢ 90% less or no soil is needed in vertical farming and thereby no pest and disease infestations;
➢ Pesticide free or organic food is produced as there is no use of pesticides;
➢ Due to reduced food supply chain, consumers get the fresh produce with all its original nutrient qualities;
➢ High productivity per unit area i.e. almost 80% more harvest per unit of area in vertical farming;
➢ It will lead to greening of the urban areas and help to reduce the rising temperatures and mainly the air
pollution in cities.
De-Merits ➢ High capital investment: includesinfrastructure along with its automation like Computerized and monitoring
systems, remote control systems and software's, automated racking and stacking systems, programmable LED
lighting systems, climate control system, etc.
➢ Energy intensive; contamination of urban water system; heating & Cooling issues; Waste Management;
Requirement of skilled workforce;
➢ Acceptance of unconventional methods by general public.
Systems ➢ Hydroponics: It is a method of growing food in water using mineral nutrient solutions without soil. The basic
advantages of this method are that it reduces soil-related cultivation problems like soil borne insects, pest and
diseases.
➢ Aeroponics: In aeroponics, there is no growing medium and hence, no containers for growing crops. In
aeroponics, mist or nutrient solutions are used instead of water. As the plants are tied to a support and roots
are sprayed with nutrient solution, it requires very less space, very less water and no soil.
➢ Aquaponics: It is a bio-system that integrates recirculated aquaculture (fish farming) with hydroponic
vegetable, flower, and herb production to create symbiotic relationships between the plants and the fish.
Hydroponics
Introduction ➢ Hydroponics is the cultivation of plants without using soil.
➢ Hydroponic flowers, herbs, and vegetables are planted in inert growing
media and supplied with nutrient-rich solutions, oxygen, and water.
➢ This system fosters rapid growth, stronger yields, and superior quality. When
a plant is grown in soil, its roots are perpetually searching for the necessary
nutrition to support the plant. If a plant’s root system is exposed directly to
water and nutrition, the plant does not have to exert any energy in
sustaining itself.
➢ The energy the roots would have expended acquiring food and water can be redirected into the plant’s
maturation. As a result, leaf growth flourishes as does the blooming of fruits and flowers.
Functions ➢ Hydroponic systems work by allowing minute control over environmental conditions like temperature and
pH balance and maximized exposure to nutrients and water.
➢ Hydroponics operates under a very simple principle: provide plants exactly what they need when they need
it.
➢ Hydroponics administer nutrient solutions tailored to the needs of the particular plant being grown.
➢ Highly controlled environment includes high risk factors.
Aquaponics
Introduction ➢ Aquaponics refers to a food production system that couples aquaculture
(raising aquatic animals such as fish, crayfish, snails or prawns in tanks) with
hydroponics (cultivating plants in water) whereby the nutrient rich
aquaculture water is fed to hydroponic grown plant, involving nitrifying
bacteria for converting ammonia into nitrates.
Benefits ➢ Aquaponics relies on the recycling of nutrient-rich water continuously.
➢ There is no toxic run-off; It uses 1/10th of the water of soil-based gardening
and even less water than hydroponics or recirculating aquaculture
➢ No harmful petrochemicals, pesticides or herbicides can be used.
➢ Aquaponic systems can be put anywhere as it just needs grow-lighting, and space.
➢ It uses highly nutritious fish effluent that contains all the required nutrients for optimum plant growth.
➢ Instead of discharging water, aquaponics uses the plants, naturally occurring bacteria, and the media in which
they grow in to clean and purify the water, after which it is returned to the fish tank. This water can be reused
indefinitely and will only need to be topped-off when it is lost through transpiration from the plants and
evaporation.
Integrated Pest Management
Introduction ➢ IPM is an ecosystem-based strategy that focuses on long-term prevention of
pests or their damage through a combination of techniques such as
biological control, habitat manipulation, modification of cultural practices,
and use of resistant varieties.
➢ Pesticides are used only after monitoring indicates they are needed
according to established guidelines, and treatments are made with the goal
of removing only the target organism.
➢ Pest control materials are selected and applied in a manner that minimizes risks to human health, beneficial
and non-target organisms, and the environment.
Approaches ➢ Biological control:The use of natural enemiespredators, parasites, pathogens, and competitors- to control
pests and their damage. Invertebrates, plant pathogens, nematodes, weeds, and vertebrates have many
natural enemies.
➢ Cultural controls:That reduces pest establishment, reproduction, dispersal, and survival. For example,
changing irrigation practices can reduce pest problems, since too much water can increase root disease and
weeds
➢ Mechanical and physical controls: kill a pest directly, block pests out, or make the environment unsuitable for
it. Traps for rodents are examples of mechanical control. Physical controls include mulches for weed
management, steam sterilization of the soil for disease management, or barriers such as screens to keep birds
or insects out.
➢ Chemical control:The use of pesticides. In IPM, pesticides are used only when needed and in combination with
other approaches for more effective, long- term control. Pesticides are selected and applied in a way that
minimizes their possible harm to people, non-target organisms, and the environment.
Components ➢ Pest identification;
➢ Monitoring and assessing pest numbers and damage;
➢ Preventing pest problems;
➢ Using a combination of biological, cultural, physical/mechanical and chemical management tools;
➢ After action is taken, assessing the effect of pest management.
Integrated Nutrient Managements ➢ Judicious combination of organic, inorganic and biofertilizers which replenishes the soil nutrients which are
removed by the crops is referred as Integrated Nutrient Management system.
Integrated Farming Systems
Introduction ➢ Integration of farm enterprises such as cropping systems, animal husbandry, fisheries, forestry etc. for optimal
utilisation of resources bringing prosperity to the farmer.
➢ According to the availability of land, type of land, water, capital, resources, technical skill of the farmer,
market facilities etc. and the components of farming system are to be chosen and adopted for better results.
Benefits ➢ Steady income other than income from regular cropping;
➢ Risk coverage due to subsidiary allocation in the event of unexpected crop
failures;
➢ Employment opportunity;
➢ Higher productivity;
➢ Augmented returns and recycling of organics;
➢ Easily adopted by marginal and sub marginal farmers;
➢ General uplift of farm activities;
➢ Better utilisation of land, labour, time and available manures in the farm.
National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture
Introduction ➢ National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) has been formulated for enhancing agricultural
productivity especially in rainfed areas focusing on integrated farming, water use efficiency, soil health
management and synergizing resource conservation.
Objectives ➢ To make agriculture more productive, sustainable, remunerative and climate resilient by promoting location
specific Integrated/Composite Farming Systems;
➢ To conserve natural resources through appropriate soil and moisture conservation measures;
➢ To adopt comprehensive soil health management practices based on soil fertility maps, soil test-based
application of macro & micro nutrients, judicious use of fertilizers etc.;
➢ To optimize utilization of water resources through efficient water management to expand coverage for
achieving ‘more crop per drop’;
➢ To develop capacity of farmers & stakeholders, in conjunction with other on-going Missions e.g. National
Mission on Agriculture Extension & Technology, National Food Security Mission, National Initiative for Climate
Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) etc., in the domain of climate change adaptation and mitigation measures;
➢ To pilot models in select blocks for improving productivity of rainfed farming by mainstreaming rainfed
technologies refined through NICRA and by leveraging resources from other schemes/Missions like Mahatma
Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS), Integrated Watershed Management
Programme (IWMP), RKVY etc.; and
➢ To establish an effective inter and intra Departmental/Ministerial coordination for accomplishing key
deliverables of National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture under the aegis of National Action Plan on Climate
Change (NAPCC).
Other Such Practices
Sustainable Sugarcane Initiative
Introduction ➢ It is an innovative set of agronomic practices that involves using less seeds,
raising seeds in a nursery, and following new planting methods, with wider
seed spacing, and better water and nutrient management to increase the
cane yields significantly.
➢ SSI methods can increase sugarcane yields by at least 20% with 30% less
water and a 25% reduction in chemical inputs.
➢ The SSI method of sugarcane cultivation was evolved from the principles of ‘More with Less’ followed in SRI
(System of Rice Intensification) and introduced in India by the WWF-ICRISAT collaborative project in 2009.
Benefits ➢ Benefits of SSI to farmers
▪ Less seed: Saving in seed material
▪ Healthy seedling of 25-35 days old from nursery
▪ Wide spacing: Go for inter cropping
▪ Water saving: Easy for drip, low cost
▪ Less cost for transplantation
▪ Adapting to new varieties
▪ Intercrop provides an additional income
➢ Benefits of SSI to millers
▪ Increase recovery
▪ Improves the raw material supply
▪ Improves the profitability
▪ Increases the efficiency of mills- more systematic supply during the season.
System of Rice Intensification (SRI)
Introduction ➢ It emerged in the 1980’s as a synthesis of locally advantageous rice
production practices encountered in Madagascar by Fr Henri de Laulanie.
➢ SRI is a combination of several practices those include changes in nursery
management, time of transplanting, water and weed management.
➢ It emphasizes altering of certain agronomic practices of the conventional
way of rice cultivation. All these new practices are together known as System
of Rice Intensification (SRI).
➢ Principle - ‘More with Less’
➢ SRI is not a fixed package of technical specifications, but a system of production with four main components,
viz., soil fertility management, planting method, weed control and water (irrigation) management. Rice yield
increased with less water and with reduction in chemical inputs.
Principles ➢ Rice field soils should be kept moist rather than continuously saturated, minimizing anaerobic conditions, as
this improves root growth and supports the growth and diversity of aerobic soil organisms.
➢ Rice plants should be planted singly and widely spaced to permit root and canopy growth to keep all leaves
photosynthetically active.
➢ Rice seedlings should be transplanted when young, less than 15 days old with just two leaves, quickly,
shallowly, and carefully, to avoid trauma to roots and minimize transplant shock.
Merits ➢ High yield;
Demerits ➢ labour requirement; young seedlings will be desiccated by the intense sun and continuous wind
Saguna Rice Technique (SRT)
Introduction ➢ SRT is cultivation of rice on permanent raised beds without ploughing,
puddling & transplanting.
➢ This is a zero tillage Agriculture.
➢ It is a conservation agriculture (CA) type of cultivation method evolved in
Raigad, Maharashtra.
➢ The permanent raised beds facilitate oxygen supply to root zone while maintaining optimum moisture.
➢ The SRT facilitates planting in predetermined distances enabling precise plant population per unit area.
➢ Absence of puddling & transplanting makes rice crop “less vulnerable to erratic behaviour of rain.”
➢ Similarly, if rain vanishes for few days it does not lead to cracking of land or ‘crop kill’ immediately.
Important Principles: ➢ SRT insists that all roots & small portion of stem should be left in the beds for slow rotting.
➢ Weeds are to be controlled with weedicides & manual labour.
➢ No ploughing, puddling & hoeing is to be done to control weeds.
➢ This system will get the crop ready for harvesting 8 to 10 days earlier.
Conservation Agriculture ➢ Conservation agriculture (CA) can be defined by a statement given by the Food
and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations as "A farming system that
promotes minimum soil disturbance (i.e. No-till farming), maintenance of a
permanent soil cover, and diversification of plant species. It enhances
Biodiversity and natural biological processes above and below the ground
surface, which contribute to increased water and nutrient use efficiency and
to improved and sustained crop production.”
Climate Smart Agriculture
Introduction ➢ Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), defines CSA
as “agriculture that sustainably increases productivity, enhances resilience
(adaptation), reduces/removes GHGs (mitigation) where possible, and
enhances achievement of national food security and development goals”.
Pillars ➢ Productivity:CSA aims to increase agricultural productivity and incomes
from crops, livestock and fish, food and nutritionalsecurity through
sustainable intensification.
➢ Adaptation:CSA aims to reduce the exposure of farmers to short-term risks and strengthening their resilience
by buildingtheir capacity to adapt and prosper in the face of shocks andlonger-term stresses.
➢ Mitigation:CSA helps to reduce and/or remove greenhouse gas(GHG) emissions by avoiding deforestation
from agriculture managing soils and trees in ways that maximizes their potentialto acts as carbon sinks and
absorb CO2 from the atmosphere.
Features ➢ CSA maintains ecosystems services: Ecosystems provide farmers with essential services, including clean air,
water, food and materials. It adopts a landscape approach that builds upon the principles of sustainable
agriculture but goes beyond the narrow sectoral approaches that result in uncoordinated and competing land
uses, to integrated planning and management
➢ CSA has multiple entry points at different levels: it goes beyond single technologies at the farm level and
includes the integration of multiple interventions at the food system, landscape, value chain or policy level.
➢ CSA is context specific: It consider how different elements interact at the landscape level, within or among
ecosystems and as a part of different institutional arrangements and political realities.
➢ CSA engages women and marginalised groups: It involve all local, regional and national stakeholders in
decision-making to identify the most appropriate interventions and form the partnerships and alliances
needed to enable sustainable development.
Natural Vegetation of India
Introduction ➢ Vegetation is an assemblage of plant species and the ground cover they provide.
➢ The vegetation type is defined by characteristic dominant species, or a common aspect of the assemblage, such
as an elevation range or environmental commonality.
➢ Major Factors that influence natural vegetation- Climate (rainfall and temperature), soil and topography.
Moist Tropical Forests
Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests or Rain Forests ➢ Climatic Conditions
▪ Annual rainfall > 250 cm; Annual temperature = 25-27 °C; The dry season is distinctly short.
➢ Characteristics
▪ Evergreen: Due to high heat and high humidity, the trees of these forests do not shed their leaves together.
▪ Vegetation: ✓ Mesophytic plants: adapted to neither too dry nor too wet type
climate or soil. ✓ Hydrophytic plants: like water lily or pond- weed that grow in saturated soil. ✓ Xerophytic plants: like cactus that grow in extremely dry soil. ✓ Mesophytic plants: ordinary plants that exist between the two extremes.
▪ Lofty: The trees often reach 45-60 metres in height; ▪ Thick Canopy: From the air, the tropical rain forest appears like a thick canopy of foliage. ▪ All plants struggle upwards for sunlight resulting in a peculiar layer arrangement. ▪ Less undergrowth: The sunlight cannot reach the ground due to thick canopy. The under- growth is formed
mainly of bamboos, ferns, climbers, orchids, etc. ➢ Distribution
▪ The western side of the Western Ghats (500 to 1370 metres above sea level). ▪ Some regions in the Purvanchal hills; The Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
➢ Timber
▪ Hardwood: The timber of these forests is fine- grained, hard and durable but is hard to exploit. ▪ The important species of these forests are mahogany, mesua, white cedar, jamun, canes, bamboo etc.
Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests ➢ Transitional forests between tropical wet evergreen forests and tropical
deciduous forests, that are comparatively drier.
➢ Climatic Conditions
▪ Annual rainfall= 200-250 cm; Annual temperature= 24 to 27 °C; ▪ The dry season is not short like in tropical evergreen forests.
➢ Distribution
▪ Western coast, Assam, Lower slopes of the Eastern Himalayas, Odisha and Andamans.
➢ Characteristics
▪ Less dense; More gregarious; High biodiversity species; Trees with buttressed trunks. ▪ The important species are laurel, rosewood, mesua, thorny bamboo- Western Ghats; white cedar, Indian
chestnut, champa, mango, etc. Himalayan region. ➢ Timber
▪ Hardwood: Similar to that in tropical evergreen forests except that these forests are less dense with more pure stands (timber industry here is better than in evergreen forests).
Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests ➢ Climatic Conditions
▪ Annual rainfall= 100 to 200 cm; Mean annual temperature of about 27 °C. ▪ Spring (between winter and summer) and summer are dry.
➢ Characteristics
▪ The trees drop their leaves during the spring and early summer when sufficient moisture is not available.
▪ Bare experience in extreme summers (April-May); have irregular top storey (25 to 60 m).
▪ Heavily buttressed trees and fairly complete undergrowth; cleared for cultivation. ➢ Distribution
▪ The belt running along the Western Ghats surrounding the belt of evergreen forests. ▪ A strip along the Shiwalik range including terai and bhabar from 77° E to 88° E.
✓ Manipur and Mizoram; Hills of eastern Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh; Chota Nagpur Plateau; Most of Odisha; Parts of West Bengal and Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
➢ Timber
▪ Valuable timber aka Teak; comparatively easy to exploit. ▪ The main species found in these forests are teak, sal, laurel, rosewood, amla, jamun, bamboo, etc.
Littoral and Swamp Forests ➢ About
▪ They can survive and grow both in fresh as well as brackish water (when salinity ranges from 0.5 to 35 ppt).
▪ Occur in and around the deltas, estuaries and creeks prone to tidal influences (delta or tidal forests).
▪ Littoral (relating to or on the shore of the sea or a lake) forests occur at several places along the coast
▪ Swamp forests are confined to the deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Godavari (Coringa Wildlife Sanctuary), the Krishna and the Cauvery.
▪ Dense mangroves occur all along the coastline in sheltered estuaries, tidal creeks, backwaters, salt marshes and mudflats. It provides useful fuelwood.
▪ The most pronounced and the densest is the Sundarbans in the Ganga delta where the predominant species is Sundri (Heriteera).
➢ Timber
▪ Provides hard and durable timber which is used for construction, building purposes and making boats. ▪ The important species found in these forests are sundri, agar, rhizophora, etc.
Dry Tropical Forests
Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests ➢ Distribution: Along the coasts of Tamil Nadu.
➢ Climatic Conditions
▪ The annual rainfall of 100 cm (mostly from the north-east monsoons); Annual temperature= 28 °C.
▪ The growth of evergreen forests in areas of such low rainfall is a bit strange.
➢ Characteristics
▪ Short-statured trees, up to 12 m high, with complete canopy. ▪ Bamboos and grasses not conspicuous. ▪ The important species are jamun, tamarind, neem, etc. ▪ Most of the land under these forests have been cleared for agriculture or casuarina plantations.
Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests ➢ Climatic Conditions
▪ Annual rainfall is 100-150 cm. ➢ Distribution
▪ They occur in an irregular wide strip running from the foot of the Himalayas to Kanyakumari except in Rajasthan, Western Ghats and West Bengal;
▪ The important species are teak, axlewood, rosewood, common bamboo, red sanders, laurel, etc.
▪ Large tracts of this forest have been cleared for agricultural purposes.
Tropical Thorn Forests ➢ Climatic Conditions
▪ Annual rainfall less than 75 cm; Humidity is less than 50%; The mean temperature is 25-30 °C.
➢ Characteristics
▪ The trees are low and widely scattered;Acacias and Euphorbias are very prominent.
▪ The Indian wild date is common; Some grasses also grow in the rainy season.
➢ Distribution
▪ Rajasthan, south-western Punjab, western Haryana, Kutch and neighbouring parts of Saurashtra. ▪ Here they degenerate into desert type in the Thar desert. ▪ Such forests also grow on the leeside of the Western Ghats covering large areas of Maharashtra
(Vidarbha), Karnataka (Hyderabad- Karnataka), Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. ▪ The important species are neem, babul, cacti, etc.
Montane Sub-Tropical Forests
Sub-tropical Broad-leaved Hill Forests ➢ Climatic conditions
▪ Mean annual rainfall= 75 cm to 125 cm; Average annual temperature is 18-21 °C.
➢ Distribution
▪ Eastern Himalayas to the east of 88°E longitude at altitudes varying from 1000 to 2000 m.
➢ Characteristics
▪ Forests of evergreen species; Climbers and epiphytesare common. ▪ Commonly found species are evergreen oaks, chestnuts, ash, beech, sals and pines. ▪ They occur only in the Nilgiri and Palni hills at 1070-1525 metres above sea level. ▪ It is a "stunted rain-forest" and is not so luxuriant as the true tropical evergreen. ▪ The higher parts of the Western Ghats such as Mahabaleshwar, the summits of the Satpura and the
Maikal Range, highlands of Bastar and Mt. Abu in the Aravalli Range carry sub-types of these forests.
Sub-tropical Moist Pine Forests ➢ Distribution
▪ Western Himalayas between 73°E and 88°E longitudes at elevations between 1000 to 2000 metres above sea level.
▪ Some hilly regions of Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Naga Hills and Khasi Hills.
➢ Timber
▪ Chir or Chil is the most dominant tree which forms pure stands. ▪ It provides valuable timber for furniture, boxes and buildings. ▪ It is also used for producing resin and turpentine.
Sub-tropical Dry Evergreen Forests ➢ Distribution
▪ Found in the Bhabar, the Shiwaliks and the western Himalayas up to about 1000 metres above sea level.
➢ Climatic Conditions
▪ Annual rainfall is 50-100 cm (15 to 25 cm in December-March). ▪ The summers are sufficiently hot, and winters are very cold.
➢ Characteristics
▪ Low scrub forest with small evergreen stunted trees and shrubs. ▪ Olive, acacia modesta and pistacia are the most predominant species.
Montane Temperate Forests
Montane Wet Temperate Forests ➢ Climatic Conditions
▪ Grows at a height of 1800 to 3000 m above sea level. ▪ Mean annual rainfall= 150 cm to 300 cm; Mean annual temperature=11
to 14 °C. ➢ Distribution
▪ Higher hills of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, in the Eastern Himalayan region. ➢ Characteristics
▪ These are closed evergreen forests. Trunks have a large girth ▪ Branches are clothed with mosses, ferns and other epiphytes. ▪ The trees rarely achieve a height of more than 6 metres. ▪ Deodar, Chilauni, Indian chestnut, birch, blue pine, oak, hemlock, etc. are important species.
Himalayan Moist Temperate Forests ➢ Climatic Conditions
▪ Annual rainfall: 150 cm to 250 cm ➢ Distribution
▪ Occurs in the temperate zone of the Himalayas between 1500 and 3300 metres. ▪ Cover the entire length of this mountain range in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Darjeeling
and Sikkim. ➢ Characteristics
▪ Mainly composed of coniferous species; Species occur in mostly pure strands; Trees are 30 to 50 m high. ▪ Pines, cedars, silver firs, spruce, etc. are most important trees. ▪ They are fairly open forests with shrubby undergrowth including oaks, rhododendrons and some bamboos.
➢ Timber
▪ It provides fine wood which is of much use for construction, timber and railway sleepers.
Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests ➢ Climatic Conditions
▪ Rainfall is below 100 cm and is mostly in the form of snow. ➢ Characteristics
▪ Coniferous forests with xerophytic shrubs in which deodar, oak, ash, olive, etc are the main trees.
➢ Distribution
▪ Such forests are found in the inner dry ranges of the Himalayas where south-west monsoon is very feeble like Ladakh, Lahul, Chamba, Kinnaur, Garhwal and Sikkim.
Alpine Forests ➢ Altitudes ranging from 2,900 to 3,500.
➢ These forests can be divided into (1) sub-alpine; (2) moist alpine scrub and (3) dry alpine scrub.
➢ The sub-alpine forests occur as lower alpine scrub and grasslands.
➢ It is a mixture of coniferous and broad-leaved trees in which the coniferous
trees attain a height of about 30 m while the broad-leaved trees reach only 10
m.
➢ Species: Fir, spruce, rhododendron, etc.
➢ The moist alpine scrub is a low evergreen dense growth of rhododendron,
birch etc. which occurs from 3,000 metres and extends up to snowline.
➢ The dry alpine scrub is the uppermost limit of scrub xerophytic, dwarf shrubs,
over 3,500 metres above sea level and found in the dry zone. Juniper,
honeysuckle, artemesia etc. are important species.
Miscellaneous
Terms ➢ Silviculture is the art of cultivating forest trees.
➢ Sericulture is the rearing of silkworms for the production of raw silk.
➢ Apiculture is the maintenance of honey bee colonies, commonly in hives, by humans
➢ Olericulture is the science of vegetable growing, dealing with the culture of non-woody (herbaceous) plants for
food.
➢ Viticulture is the science, production and study of grapes
➢ Floriculture is a discipline of horticulture concerned with the cultivation of flowering and ornamental plants for
gardens
➢ Arboriculture is the cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial
woody plants
➢ Pomology is a branch of horticulture which focuses on the cultivation, production, harvest, and storage of fruit,
etc.
➢ Aeroponics is the process of growing plants in an air or mist environment without the use of soil or an aggregate
medium.
➢ Hydroponics is a method of growing plants using min- eral nutrient solutions, in water, without soil.
➢ Terrestrial plants may also be grown with their roots in the mineral nutrient solution only or in an inert medium,
such as perlite, gravel, mineral wool, expanded clay or coconut husk.
➢ Geoponic in farming practice, refers to growing plants in normal soil.
➢ Ammonification: Production of ammonia as a result of the biological decomposition of organic nitrogen
compounds.
➢ Border cropping: is growing of crops on the border areas of the plot or field, Ex; Safflower as border crop in
potato
➢ Border strip irrigation: It is an efficient method of irrigation close growing crops. In this method the field is
divided by low flat levels into series of strips, each of which is flooded separately.
➢ Allelopathy: is defined as direct or indirect harmful effect of one plant over the other crop species through the
exudation of toxic substances from the roots or the decomposition of crop residues
➢ C:N ratio: The ratio of the weight of organic C to the weight of total N in the soil.
➢ Check basin: It is a method of irrigation with beds and channel for retaining water to form a pond
➢ Heaving: Injury to plants caused by lifting upward of the plant along with soil from it’s normal position in
temperate regions where snowfall is common
➢ Contour farming: is the farming practice of ploughing across a slope following its elevation contour lines.
➢ Cover crops: crops which are grown to cover the soil in order to reduce the loss of the moisture from the soil due
to leaching and erosion.
➢ Critical stage of irrigation: the period or the stage of development of lifecycle of the crop when it is most
sensitive to moisture stress, results in yield loss
➢ Hard pan: It is a hard and impermeable layer formed in the soil profile by accumulation of materials such as salts,
clay etc which impedes drainage
➢ Growth regulators: Organic substances which in minute amount may participate in the control of growth
processes Ex: Auxins, Cytokinins
➢ Heliophytes: Plants of sun loving species, require in- tense light for normal development Ex: Rice, Wheat, Cotton,
Sugarcane
➢ Sciophytes: Plants which are shade loving and require less light intensity
➢ Heliotropism: It is the movement of the plant parts towardsthe sun Ex: Sunflower • Geotropism: A growth
movement in response to gravity. Eg Groundnut peg penetration into the soil
➢ Herbicide: A chemical used for killing or inhibiting the growth of unwanted plants Ex: Atrazine
➢ Insecticide: It is the chemical used for killing the insects: Endosulfan
➢ Hidden hunger: Is the condition where plants do not exhibit visual symptoms of deficiency for the short sup- ply
of particular nutrients but will result in yield losses
➢ Humus: A brown or black organic substance consisting of partially or wholly decayed vegetable or animal matter
that provides nutrients for plants and increases the ability of soil to retain water
➢ Mulching: Practice of covering the soil surface with materials like plant residues, straw, leaves or plastic film to
reduce evaporation, restrict weed growth and maintain the soil temperature
➢ Puddling: It is the ploughing operation carried out in stagnated water conditions to create an impervious layer
below the plough pan
➢ Shifting cultivation: It is the old practice of cutting and clearing of forest for cultivating crops for a certain period
of time as long as the soils having fertility
➢ Subsidiary farming: Settled Farming in river banks and streams in addition to gathering & hunting
➢ Subsistence farming: Raising the crops only for family needs and not for commercial: “Grow it and eat it”
