Research Paper

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the Post Graduate Diploma in

Development Studies

GSC 529

of the

UNIVERSITY OF GUYANA

Turkeyen Campus

Graduate School of Social Sciences

Topic: A case study on gender inequality in the agricultural sector

of the Mahaicony Village, Guyana, and its impact on the economic development the area

Date: May 23, 2011

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CONTENT

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

1.0 The Problem (Context)

1.1 Statement of the Problem

1.2 The Purpose of the Study

1.3 Significance of the Study

1.4 Operational Definition of Terms

1.5 Limitations of the Study

1.6 Assumptions of the Study

1.7 Research Questions(Relevant questions being addressed in the Study)

Chapter 2

2.0 REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

Chapter 3

3.1 The subjects

3.2 Instruments for collecting data

3.3 The Procedure

3.4 Design

3.5 Variables

3.7 Data Analyzed

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REFERENCES

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Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

3.0 The Problem:

3.1 Statement of the Problem:

Traditionally, agriculture has been one of the key economic activities in Guyana, accounting for 32 percent of GDP, 30 percent of employment and 40 percent of export earnings. Sugar and Rice account for 74 percent of agriculture’s GDP as well as 65 percent of total agricultural exports, including shrimp and timber. However, for many years, agriculture has been a male dominated activity. Although unacknowledged and understated women have also contributed significantly to agricultural activities in rural Guyana. This research is intended to investigate whether there is gender inequality in the agriculture sector of Mahaicony, a village in the Mahaica-Berbice Region of Guyana.

The Economic Activities of the Mahaicony village comprises fishing, farming and hunting and are still the most popular way of life for the residents. The area produces over 15,000 metric tons of paddy each year. The women in this rural community still face the challenge of making decisions regarding, financial, health and agricultural issues. Preliminary investigations tend to suggest that mostly men make these decisions and the local community is patriarchal in its outlook. Additionally, children often assist with farm labour, their welfare is often in jeopardy and women are faced with economic burden of caring for them, particularly when the men leave the village in

search of employment.

3. 2 The Purpose of the Study: The study is designed to investigate whether there is gender inequality in the access to land, finances, training and the availability of extension services, in the agriculture sector of the Mahaicony village.

3.3 Significance of the Study:

There is a growing body of research conducted by feminist scholars and organizations such as the World Bank (WB), the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO),the United Nations(UN) into

how gender inequality is affecting the crucial role women play the agriculture sectors of the economies of the world. However, there is no known research (that the researcher is aware of) that has been conducted in Guyana, on gender inequality in the agriculture sector of Guyana. It is hoped

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that this study will begin to answer some of the questions that social researchers have on gender inequality in the agriculture sector in Guyana and its impact on rural development. In addition, results from this study

could be useful for policymakers, community leaders, and donor agencies as they work to construct programs and policies for the agricultural sector, women, and rural development.

3.4 Operational Definition of Terms:

Gender inequality -

Gender mainstreaming -

Rural Development -

Community Development -

3.5 Limitations of the Study: This study will be focused on a phenomenon that is a very extensive and major one, i.e. gender inequality in the agriculture. In this study, this extensive and complex phenomenon will been studied from a narrow empirical perspective. The selection of the single case study design has many limitations as far as the generalization of the results of the study is concerned. The chosen case study of the Mahaicony village also can be seen to include certain limitations in the sense that the village is only one of many agricultural communities in Guyana. Additionally, length of this study will be a limitation, as it will be conducted within a four-month period. The cost of undertaking the research will be a limitation since the researcher alone will fund the cost of research.

3.6 Assumptions of the Study

i. This study is based on the assumption that the information given by male and female farmers is accurate.

ii. The problem of gender inequality does exist in the Mahaicony village.

iii. Gender inequality is reflected in resource allocation in the agriculture.

iv.

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The underlying assumption of this study is that gender is a major contributor to the none-accessible to land, finances, training and the availability of agriculture extension services to the women of Mahaicony. Further, it assumed that this might have evolved out of a tradition of being a patriarchal community. This situation many in turn have had a negative effect on the economic development of the village.

3.7 Research Questions

1. Do both males and females have equal access to finance, land and agriculture extension services?

2. Are females treated differently than males when accessing finance, land and agriculture extension services?

Are policy-makers and community leaders aware that there is a problem?

What measures have been put in place to minimize gender inequality in the community?

How has gender inequality affected the agriculture development of the area?

How have the women in the community dealt with gender inequality in general?

Chapter 2

4 REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

A literature review was conducted to support the exploration of the exemplary practice defined in

this research study.

Chapter 3

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Methodology

3.1 The Population:

The population will consist of male and female farmers of Mahaicony village.

3.2 The Sample

The sample will consist of seventy-five (75) male and female farmers and who will be randomly selected.

3.3 Random Sampling

A random sample of the farmers will allow each farmer in the population to have the same probability of being selected as part of the sample as any other farmer in the Mahaicony village. In order to the execute the random selection each of the estimated 200 farmers will be indentified and numbers ranging from 1 to 300 will be affixed to their names. A lottery will be held and each number from 1-300 will be placed on slips of paper in a box, and the seventy-five numbers will be drawn randomly.

The characteristics of each farmer will be defined in terms of gender, age, education, size of the farm, number of years farming, access to finance, land rights and others as defined in the questionnaire, Appendix 1

3.2 Instruments for collecting data:

A combination of research instruments including questionnaires, and document studies will be employed to undertake the study. The questionnaire was developed specifically for the propose of the study. It was designed gather information on variables such as gender, age, income size of farm, access to financial and other resources.

3.3 The Procedure:

Questionnaires will be administered by the researcher to each of the farmers of the

sample in the Mahaicony village. The respondents will be given the questionnaires

and asked to completely them within one week of receiving them. These will be

uplifted by the researcher.

The method of response will be to tick-off the relevant answers to the questions on the questionnaire. The instrument will not be piloted.

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3.4 Design

The research design will be descriptive using a case study of the farmers in the

Mahaicony village: This approach will consist of purely describing the state of things

as they are and employing the survey as part of information gathering mechanism.

3.5 Variables

Some of the variables that will be used in the study are of a categorical nature including:

i) Gender

ii) Income

iii) Age

iv) Size of Farm

3.6 Coding and Scoring of Data

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Introduction

Women in Agriculture in Guyana

Background and Statement of the problem

Traditionally, agriculture has been one of the key economic activities in Guyana, accounting for 32

percent of GDP, 30 percent of employment and 40 percent of export earnings. Sugar and Rice account

for 74 percent of agriculture’s GDP as well as 65 percent of total agricultural exports, including shrimp

and timber. However, for many years, agriculture policy has been a male dominated activity. In spite

of this, agricultural activities have continued to be a way of life for most women living in rural Guyana.

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It is therefore alarming that more has not been done to empower Guyanese women, through capacity

building, in order for them to contribute in a more structured way to the agricultural sector.

The women of Guyana, for many years have been involved in agricultural activities ranging from

planting to harvesting, on sugar estates, and in rice fields, in kitchen gardens and in the rearing of

livestock and poultry. However, research has shown that over the past four decades there has been

very little formal planning for the inclusion of women in the agriculture sector and in the economic

development programmes of policymakers. The lack of concern for gender equality in the planning

process as it relates to agricultural activities in evident in the economic, social and institutional policies

that have emerged.

On the other hand, internationally, there has been growing concerns about gender equality and its role

in agricultural development. The Human Development report of 2005 stated, “Gender inequality is

one of the most powerful brakes on human development.” It undermines the effectiveness of

development and impedes economic growth. Gender equality has been seen as a fundamental human

right, and it is a necessary condition to reduce poverty, improve living standards and improve

economic growth and development especially in developing countries.

Therefore, this paper attempts to investigate first, the obstacles affecting gender inequality in the

agricultural sector of Guyana and second, the consequences of gender inequality on agricultural

development in Guyana. Finally, the paper will examine any policies that are currently addressing this

issue and to make recommendations in view of such findings.

Objectives

The objectives of this paper are as follows:

a. To examine issues associated with gender inequality in the agriculture sector and their

relationship to development in Guyana.

b. To examine measures being taken to address these issues at the national level and in

rural communities.

c. To analyze how effective these measures have been to date.

d. To make any necessary recommendations to correct these problems.

e. To contribute to the general body of knowledge on the topic.

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Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to investigate gender inequality in the agricultural sector and its impact

on economic development in Guyana.

Significance of the Study

Results from this study could be useful for policymakers, at the national and regional levels of

government, as they work to construct programs and policies for economic development and growth.

Additionally, it is hoped that this study will begin to answer some of the questions that feminist

researchers have in relationship to………………………. The issue of gender equality can be seen a

fundamental human right, and it is a necessary condition to reduce poverty, improve living standards

and improve economic growth and development especially in developing countries.

Research Questions:

1. What are the obstacles to gender equality in the agriculture sector in Guyana?

2. What is the impact of inequality in the agricultural sector on development in Guyana?

3. What has been done to mitigate the negative consequences of gender inequality in the

agricultural sector?

Methodology

Measurements of Gender Inequality

The measurement of gender inequality by simple composite indices is usually based on readily available

data. For this purpose, two composite measures will be used to capture gender disparities and their

adverse effects on the agriculture sector, since to capture such a complex actuality in a single, index

may prove to be problematic.

The United Nations Human Development Report will be the main source of a comparative measure

of Gender Inequality in this research. The human development index (HDI), will be used as well as

the Gender-related Development Index (GDI). The GDI concentrated on the same variables as the

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HDI but focused on inequality between women and men as well as on the average achievement of all

people taken together.

In addition, the gender empowerment measure (GEM), will be used as a measurement. It is an index

that focuses on three variables that reflect women's participation in political decision-making, their

access to professional opportunities and their earning power. Women often are excluded from such

participation and are effectively disenfranchised was also used. The GEM gave some indication of

how much women are empowered in these spheres in Guyana.

This research will look at the composite measures-for Guyana and for other countries to draw

conclusions about critical policy shortfalls in gender equality and about areas of priorities that ought

to be considered in government plans of action.

Data Collection

This research is a document study on gender inequality as it relates to agriculture and development in

Guyana. In order to examine both quantitative and qualitative data, the researcher used as sources:

Documents - Published and unpublished documents, books, electronic journals,

articles, media reports, online reports from the World Bank and the

United Nations Development Programme. The Global Gender Gap Report,

The Human Development Report and Guyana National Development

Strategy document.

A descriptive approach was used in the presentation of findings. This approach helped the researcher

to gauge the progress made in the gender equity issues.

Data Presentation

The presentation of data take the format of first presenting the most important findings then the

presentation of the least important findings. Tables and Charts are used to present some of the

findings.

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Data Analysis

Data analysis utilized simple statistical methods such as averages and percentages to explain the data.

While a descriptive approach in the analysis of qualitative data was used to evaluate the correlation

between definable variables, found in the collected data, as well as to draw conclusions.

Temporal Dimension of the research

The temporal dimension of the research would be the period 1985 to 2005.

Limitations

The limitation of the study is due to the paucity and unreliability of statistical data on gender issues in

Guyana. Another limitation of the study was access to and availability of critical documents and

current data. Therefore, this study is limited to the period 1985 -2005.

Review of Literature

Danish economist, Ester Boserup, in her 1970 work “Woman’s Role in Economic Development”

asserted that most development projects in the third world undermined women’s economic

opportunity and autonomy. She noted that training in new technologies was usually offered to men,

which meant that most a “modern” projects improved male opportunities and technological

knowledge., but reduced women’s access to both technology and employment. Her study challenged

the notion that benefits from development projects automatically “trickle down” to women and other

disadvantaged groups in the Third World. It has been postulated by Stella Odie-Ali, that a review of

literature that development plans and programmes in the Third Word reveal a general lack of

integration of women’s programmes into the general planning process. She pointed out that it was in

this regard the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB), in reviewing the progress of women in

Latin America noted that

“Women are still considered as beneficiaries in many development plans, not agents of development.

This misperception leads to the designing of macro-economic strategies that do not incorporate women’s

roles as such into the planning process, whether at the at the macro-level of society or in sectorial and

institutional planning.”

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Odie-Ali, further surmised, that there is an obvious lack of statistical data on women’s economic

activities in the Caribbean as a whole. She noted that in Guyana, the undervaluing of women’s

economic activities was reflected in the 1980 census, where as she pointed out that only 55 percent of

the adult population was is classified as economically active, while women are classified as composing

24 percent of the labor force. Of this data, she makes severally insightfully observations including that

fact that the data is suggesting that almost half of the adult population in Guyana is idle and

economically non-productive and that 75 percent of the adult women idle and economically non-

productive. This is a clear indication the gender bias in data gathering in which women’s economic

activities are undervalued and undercounted.

Louries Arizpe, contributed to the discourse by noting that

“among the ills of underdevelopment and dependency, it is usually women who inhabit the bottom

rungs of misery and poverty” they are the lowest paid agricultural workers, they are banned from

owning and controlling land through customary or legal codes, and they have they high rural

outmigration rates in all ages in Latin America, and after age forty-five, in all Third World regions.”

She pointed out that it was the peasant women who worked much longer hours that men and more

liable to increase their time and load of work to offset pauperization.

Professor Ken Danns in his discourse on women in the informal economy in Guyana noted, that both

men and women of the poor of the Third World, are systemically excluded from the benefits of the

development process, and that development plans tend to benefit men more than women. He further,

contents that structural barriers in Guyana limit the participation of women in the formal economy.

1.PERSPECTIVES ON GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT IN GUYANA

1.1.1 An international perspective on gender development in Guyana

HDI, GDI, GEM, GII Indicators - The Human Development Report 2010 (HDR), made a significant

contribution to the analysis of the situation of women in Guyana with its Gender-Related

Development Index (GDI). The GDI is a composite index of the same variables covered by the

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HDR's Human Development Index (HDI): longevity, knowledge and access to the basic resources

people need to develop their capabilities. However, the GDI takes into account the inequality between

women and men; the greater the inequality, the lower the GDI.

The maximum achievement is 1.0 (a maximum achievement in basic capabilities with perfect gender

equality); the highest country achieves 0.92 (Sweden), only 32 countries (out of 130) have a GDI above

0.8, and the lowest country achieves only 0.169 (Afghanistan). It was found that for all countries, the

GDI is lower than the HDI, reflecting the fact that gender inequality exists in all societies.

Guyana was ranked 70, with a 1992 GDI of 0.584. This represents a significant improvement since

1970 when Guyana's GDI was 0.490 (an increase of 19%). However, the 1992 value showed that there

was still substantial scope for improvement, and relative to other countries Guyana's record between

1970 and 1992 is less impressive; it felled 20 ranks (HDR, 1995). Guyana's HDI is 0.622, where again

1.0 represents the maximum achievement.

According the Human Development Report 2010, in 2008, Guyana was ranked 92 in the Gender

Inequality index, with a GDI of 0.667. This represents a further improvement since 1992, but there

remains room for improvement. The Gender Measurement

1.1.2 A national perspective on gender development in Guyana

For the purpose of this research only a limited number of areas in the Guyana National Development

Strategy were taken into consideration, as they related to women and agriculture in development,

namely Equal Rights, Poverty, Land Tenure, Unwaged Work and Employment.

In 1996, the then Minister in the Ministry of Labour, Human Services and Social Security noted in

the introduction to Guyana's submission for the UN's 4th World Conference on Women held in 1995

in Beijing, "When a gender-specific data base is lacking, it becomes problematic to make any

meaningful assessment that would serve as a guide for the future" [in Shiw Parsad, 1994(b) (NDS

1996).

As in most developing countries, the women in Guyana women are basically, engaged in three roles:

reproductive, productive and community. Observations have shown that while women are primarily

engaged in the care of family dependents, household and home based work, part-time jobs, self

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employment and working in micro-enterprises, some of these activities are for the most part not

reflected in Guyana’s economic activity.

The areas highlighted below are some of the factors that relate to equality and development in Guyana.

The Equal Rights Act 1990 - The Equal Rights Act of 1990, was amended to make provision for

men and women to be paid equally not only for the same work, but also for work of equal value. This

is because the work may be different in nature but may be weighted equally in terms of value for

money. This amendment would brought Guyana in line with the terms of the Convention on the

Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women, on this issue. It was also been suggested

that the definition of discrimination be amended to include indirect discrimination and the word

"gender" should be substituted for the word "sex." Also, there should be a provision for discriminatory

dismissal from employment (NDS 1996).

Poverty - Research has shown that socially, poor women are ostracized in a system where much value is placed

on material wealth and appearances. In fact, in some cases, the poor would strive to be more endowed materially

at the expense of the health and nutritional needs of members of the household. Further, it has been noted that

much poverty will remain unperceived given the fact that the poorest members of society are also often the

most isolated. Women (particularly Amerindian women), given their relative physical and social isolation, are

likely to face far higher levels of poverty than the statistics show. (NDS 1996).

Land Tenure - There is no clearly defined policy in Guyana as it relates to women and the Tenure

Law. There is a growing need for this to be addressed given its extremely discriminatory nature,

especially it relates Amerindian women and equality of property rights.

Unwaged Work - The law does not ascribe equal importance to women's waged and unwaged work.

This is seen clearly in the Married Persons Property (Amendment) Act, which (after a union has lasted

five years) entitles a women who worked outside the home to one-half of the property, but a women

who did not, to only one-third. Though these amounts can vary, it is a clear example of the preference

given to waged work. Once time use studies are completed, and economic values imputed for unwaged

work, the case for greater equality in this law will be strengthened. Ideally, each family member should

be entitled to a share of household income proportional to her or his (waged or unwaged) contribution

(NDS 1996).

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Employment - The National Development Strategy 1996 recommended a number of reforms as they

relate to relating to the rights of workers with family responsibilities; and an extension of legal

protection to domestic workers and other workers not presently covered by such legislation. To date

none of those recommendations has been made into law in Guyana.

2. WOMEN’S PARTICIPATION IN AGRICULTURE IN GUYANA

Traditionally and culturally, women in Guyana are perceived as homemakers. Hence their contribution

to agriculture has been more often than not been ignored, understated and undervalued. However, a

little over one-half of the working-age population (56 percent) participates in the labor force. This

2002 labor force participation rate has been constant as it compares with participation rates of 61

percent found by the 1992 HIES

and 57 percent by the 1980 census Table 1.

Table 1. Labour Force Participation Rates – Guyana, 1980 -2002

Source: Bureau of Statistics

2.1.1 Rural Women and Agriculture (The Informal Sector)

The contribution of women, especially in rural communities, who are involved in small-scale

agriculture have often been completely overlooked and the only their roles reproductive roles are given

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recognition. Yet it is often-times these rural women who are among the main contributors to the food

production and food processing. For example, it is the rural women who supply fresh vegetables and

fruits to the local markets or who sell at their gate heads on a daily or weekly basis, thereby contributing

to the economic development of the nation.

Women, especially on the Eastern corridor of Guyana, are the main suppliers of fresh vegetables and

fruits to the Municipal Markets in Georgetown and the roadside markets along both Western and

Eastern corridors of the Country. For many of them there is the daily, tasks of caring for their families,

working in the kitchen gardens or on the small to medium size famers with their husbands.

Other women pay to have their fruits harvested and then sell their produce in the villages or markets.

A significant part of these incomes are reinvested “turnover” in the purchase of seed and pesticides

for the kitchen-gardens and small-farms.

It was observed that women of Indian and African descent are primarily involved in kitchen garden

and small-farms in Guyana. However, informal conversations with these women revealed that most

of the lands on which they farm are either ancestral family lands of which the male family members

are the inheritors, or the lands belong to their spouses. Further, the men are often employed on sugar

estates and it is women who do most of the caring for the farms with the help of their children.

In the Amerindian communities, it is the women, who are tasked with the responsibility for food

production and preparation, while the men hunt and fish. The production of cassava bread and farine.

Coupled with their productive responsibilities, they also have their reproductive roles as well their

communal roles to perform. The latter two are often taken for granted, and for this reason not

economically valued. Yet without the fulfillment of those two roles, the community would disintegrate.

2.1.2 Women on the Sugar Estates (Formal Sector)

Historically, women have been working on the sugar estates in Guyana, either as slaves or as

indentured servants. The Venn Commission in 1948, noted 28 percent of the sugar workers in Guyana

were women, and spoke of the strenuous labour they had to perform in weeding, moulding cane and

jumping over canals. The report asserted that the women were forced into this situation to supplement

the poor wages earned by their husbands. Many of them, the report stated, had to be up by 3.00 a.m.

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in order to prepare meals and to leave for work, and they would not return home until the evening.

As a result, their children's care was neglected since there was no parent at home to care for them.

The Commission was concerned, too, that female workers were supervised by male drivers

(Guyana.org).

To date, there is been very little change in this pattern. However, though since reliable statistical data

is limited informal conversations with sugar workers have revealed that the percentage of female

workers to males on sugar estates have declined significantly. This can be attributed to the fact that

more females are better educated and are seeking less arduous work, with more leisure time and higher

incomes. The decline of the prominence of the sugar industry, poor remuneration and the closure of

several sugar estates could also be contributory factors, but there is no available data to support these

assumptions.

Generally, the agricultural sector, comprising commercial and subsistence agriculture workers,

provided 22 percent (50,911) of the employment in 2002, a decline of 6 percentage points of the

existing level in 1991, which engaged 61,845 or approximately 28 percent of the total employment

(Table 2). The percentage of females working in the agriculture, hunting and forestry sector in the

2002 census was only 6.9 percent or 4,739 females when compared to 25 percent or 40,639 males.

Further, the number of females in fishing and fish farms was a mere 0.4 percent or 260 females in

comparison to 3.2 percent or 5,273 males. Table 2.

Table 2. Distribution of Employed Labour Force 15 Years and Over by Major Industrial Groups Where They Work One Week Preceding the Census by Sex, Guyana: 2002

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Source: Bureau of Statistics

3. THE OBSTACLES TO GENDER EQUALITY IN THE AGRICULTURE

SECTOR

3.1.1 Access to credit

Research has shown that in Guyana, 90% of the women heads of households who farm have no title

to their lands, and therefore their ability to access credit from lending institutions are nonexistent.

Therefore, this impedes their opportunity for farm improvement, and the consequence is that their

farms remain at low productivity levels. Another outcome is that in relation to agricultural extension

services it is unavailable to such women. (Odie-Ali)

Legally women are neither denied access to loans, mortgages and credit nor required to have consent

from their husbands or male partners to obtain credit. However, the demand for high levels of

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collateral, as well as the high interest rates, puts formal credit beyond the reach of many women. The

result is that women often have to turn to moneylenders and pay extremely high rates interest.

Three important credit schemes which aim to provide women with access to credit are those

run by the following entities

Bank of Nova Scotia - This credit scheme was geared towards lending on a microenterprise scale.

No collateral is needed, and loans are given out to groups of five or six members, who are responsible

for guaranteeing each other's loans. A minimum of G$15,000 is lent to each member, and repayments

must be made monthly. Once loans are repaid by all members, they are entitled to borrow a greater

amount (at an increase of five or ten thousand dollars, to a maximum of G$500,000). Savings are

encouraged among members so that they may eventually qualify for individual loans. There are about

two hundred groups presently, with approximately 80 percent of the participants being women. The

repayment rate is approximately 95 percent.

Institute of Private Enterprise Development (IPED) - The micro lending credit schemes require

no collateral and target agricultural and industrial projects (any project with a value added component).

Loans are given out to groups of five (all members of which must belong to a non-governmental

organisation) up to a maximum of G$30,000 per member. After repayment of the first loan, the

amount may be increased by 50 percent to a maximum of G$100,000. At the end of 1995, there were

2,080 members, about 75-80 percent of whom were women. The total disbursement at the end of

1995 was G$74.4 million, and the repayment rate is approximately 95 percent, except in circumstances

such as crop failure and other situations beyond the creditor's or borrower's control.

Cooperation for Development International (CDI) - This facility, which requires no collateral,

targets persons with business experience (usually at least one year, though this is flexible). Apart from

not financing start-up loans, CDI does not finance operations in trading, mining, and some areas of

the service sector. Loans are granted to individuals, rather than groups, and to date there have been

more than 170 members, of which less than 40 percent are women. CDI is engaged in an ongoing

study of needs and is currently reviewing its lending policies, with the intention of increasing the

participation of women. For example, it is looking at the trading sector, in which a large number of

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its female applicants operate. The total disbursement to date is G$21 million, with an estimated 80

percent repayment ratio.

Given the difficulty in obtaining formal credit, informal credit channels are particularly important.

Two such channels are:

The Box Hand - This is a traditional method of saving in Guyana, and variants exist in numerous

other Caribbean countries. A contributor can draw a large sum of money from the Box, while

contributing a specific small sum on a weekly or monthly basis. This money is used for purposes such

as investing in a plot of land, acquiring an animal, preparing for a wedding or some other useful

purpose (Odie-Ali and Patterson 1988). Market vendors and traders also use the Box Hand as a means

of building up funds for purchasing goods for sale. This indigenous, popular form of credit is a crucial

resource for women (Odie-Ali 1996).

Mothers Development Window (MDW) - This is an organization established in 1991 to provide

credit to its members, many of whom are traders and market vendors. The MDW has mobilized

G$175,000 from savings and donations and has made 175 loans, mainly for petty trading and food

vending (Odie-Ali 1996).

3.1.2 Access to land

According to the Deeds Registry records, men account for the majority of titles to property in Guyana (71.6

percent in 1993) [Parsad, 1994 (b)]. The imbalance is particularly acute in rural areas, where males accounted

for 76.3 percent of property ownership as opposed to 63.3 percent in urban areas in 1993.(NDS 1996).

In the specific case of land, there are no legal provisions preventing land ownership by any citizen

(Agrodev, 1995). However, there is no clear land policy and, in practice, men account for the majority

of land titles. One reason is that the criteria used for the allocation of land by the Land Selection

Committees discriminate against women. Also, in practice women often apply for land titles in their

husband's name, which, among other things, removes their rights to the land in situations of

inheritance. The situation is particularly acute for Amerindians; Amerindians do not possess

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inalienable rights to the land which they occupy and some communities do not possess land titles of

any kind (NDS 1996).

3.1.3 Lack of Projects for women

Beverley Rutherford, in an a project undertaken by Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on

Agriculture (IICA) entitled “Women Food Producers in Guyana, declared that most of the training

for rural women was not centered on agricultural development, instead women received training in

traditional skills such as craft production, sewing etc. She also stated that Guyana lacks programmes

that address credit and distribution of land to women, or which would increase the demand for

women’s paid labour.

3.1.4 Losses incurred by women farmers

Research has shown that women farmers in Guyana suffer losses that are unrecoverable due to factors

that are at times beyond their control. Rutherford(1996), noted that unstable market conditions

contribute to a relatively high degree of losses by women farmers. She pointed out that those losses

can be attributed to factors such as post harvest problems such poor transportation facilities,

inadequate markets, and spoilage of produce at the market site and the low prices offered by buyers

for their wholesale produce.

3.1.5 Education

The Guyana School of Agriculture and the University of Guyana, all offer agriculture programme that

do not restrict the enrollment of women. However, while women enrollment in these institutions has

been increased over the years, overall, agriculture is a predominantly male area of study see Tables 1

and 2. However, as Odie-Ali (1996) noted, “When the traditional family is faced with the choice of

expending hard earned dollars on either the bright son or the bright daughter, the choice is invariably

in favour of the son, especially with respect to an agricultural career.

4. The strategies used to combat gender inequality in agriculture in Guyana

4.1.1 Strategies employed in a Cooperative- Socialist Economy

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Under the cooperative socialist economic agenda of the 1970s and 1980s, the government pursued

national self-sufficiency policy. The national slogan read “Feed, clothe and house yourselves”. Such a

programme entailed a massive national agricultural drive, which witnessed every available piece of land

being cultivated and a substantial increase in kitchen gardens. The Ministry of Agriculture pursued

several programmes including the free distribution of seeds and suckers, and the sale of plant

equipment, fertilizers and pesticides were heavily state subsidized.

During this period, even urban women started their own kitchen gardens, and the rural women

encouraged by the distribution of free seeds and subsided farming equipment and other agriculture

materials were spurred on, in their agriculture undertakings. Several farming community groups were

formed during this period, many of these being organized by women. The Women’s Revolutionary

Socialist Movement (WRSM), the women’s section of the party then government spear-headed this

drive. The chairman for the WRSM, and wife of the then President was in her own right a vegetable

and cattle farmer.

Access to Credit - The vision of the government was to create an institution that would serves as

the credit-agency for farmers. This led to the formation of the Guyana Agricultural Development

Bank (GAIBANK), which apart from lending loans, also provided an extension service to farmers.

However, because many women were not titled-owners of lands, mostly males were the recipients of

funds released by the Bank. However, institutional gender bias was evident as was reflected in an

analysis of GAIBANK’s data, showed that in a sample of 430 borrowers only 13 (3%) were women,

with loans accounting for only 0.5% of the disbursement volume between 1987-1991 (Odie-Ali

1996). This led to many women seeking other sources of income. The 1980 census has shown that

women are more involved in community services (20%), commerce (12%), and government

services(18.2%), as against 11.8% engaged in agriculture.

Access to Land - Using a sample of women farmers from the Black Bush Polder farming community,

Odie-Ali (1996), noted that by 1995 in Black Bush polder only 154 women had legal leasing rights

among the 1500 parcels of land leased in that region. In her analysis of a sample of those women

farmers in the BlackBush Polder and Parika/Salem area, she deducted that by using an approximation

of 10% of all women farmers having legal titles to their land, then it meant that in rural Guyana some

6,300 women (90%) have no legal right to their land.

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As was early noted in this research in the specific case of land, there are no legal provisions preventing

land ownership by any citizen (Agrodev, 1995). However, there is no clear land policy and, in practice,

men account for the majority of land titles (NDS 1996).

Education - During this period, the ministry of education played a leading role in place on the school

curriculum agriculture as one of the subjects. Student from across the country, both males and females

at the primary and secondary levels were required to take agriculture classes, with emphasis being place

on the actual planting of crops or rearing of poultry.

The Ministry of Agriculture extension service proved to be must helpful under the agriculture drive.

Farmers benefited immensely from programmes established by the ministry. Women benefited from

these programmes through the work of the WRSM in collaboration with the Ministry of Agricuture.

4.1.2 Strategies in an Open Market Economy

The Guyana National Development Strategy 2001-2010, has not included in its policy proposals any

recommendation for gender equality in the Agriculture Sector, and in the previous Strategy Report

1996 there was also no inclusion for women programmes in the agriculture sector.

Access to Credit - From 1992, following a change of Government as well as a move towards a market

oriented economic system, women’s access to credit did not improved. Institute of Private Enterprise

Development (IPED) continues to be only source of micro lending credit schemes which require no collateral

and target agricultural and industrial projects (any project with a value added component). The box hand is still

used as a source of credit for female farmers in rural areas.

However, at the time of writing this paper, the Guyana of Government had put in place a credit

facility opened to female-headed households in Guyana, to access credit to the value of $250,000, to

start their own businesses. There is no data available yet to indicate how many rural women involved

in agriculture has access these loans for the improvement or expansion of their farms.

Access to Land - The situation as regard access to women’s access to land has not change under the

open market economic system. The laws as was early noted in this research in the specific case of land,

remain the same with there being are no legal provisions preventing land ownership by any citizen.

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However, there is still no clear land policy and, in practice, men still account for the majority of land

titles.

Education - The teaching of agriculture in primary schools was catered for by the fifth component

of the SSEE syllabus but this was discontinued in the early 1980s, due to financial and staffing

constraints. At the secondary school level Agricultural Science is offered at CXC. The number of

students taking this subject is extremely low, and the proportion of passes derisory.

Pre- and post-service training in agriculture is provided by the Faculties of Agriculture and Education

of the University of Guyana, the Guyana School of Agriculture (GSA), the Regional Educational

Programme for Animal Health Assistants (REPAHA), the Agricultural In-service Training

Communication Center (AITCC), the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA), the Ministry of Fisheries, Crops

and Livestock (MOFC&L), and the National Agricultural Research and Development Institute

(NARI). Most of these institutions lack adequate teaching instruments, do not offer programmes that

are relevant to the country's developmental needs, are strapped for funds, and do not have the required

numbers of skilled teachers.

The end result is under-qualified and poorly trained graduates, unable to function in the farming

communities to which they are later exposed. In relation to continuous farmer training Apart from

the Dairy Training Centre at the St. Stanislaus College farm, there is no teaching institute established

specifically for training farmers. In addition none of these institutions incorporate gender planning

and issues in their curriculum. (NDS 2001-2010).

Conclusion

The National Development strategies of 1996 and 2001-2011, clearly recognized and acknowledged

that the centrality of women to national development is not recognized, while simultaneously

acknowledging that the cost of programmes designed as a result of gender mainstreaming is often a

reason why such programmes should be afforded low priority. This can only seen as a lack of political

will towards moving the process of gender quality forward. Hence, there have not been any policies

that would have significant impact on the gender equality issue, in relationship to agriculture placed

on the policy agenda or have been implemented.

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The outcome is such a lack of political has resulted in moving the gender equality process forward, is

reduction in total output by the agriculture sector and consequently a shortfall in the country’s GDP.

At a time when the price and preferential treatment of the country’s primary exports are on the decline,

it is radically important for the Ministry of Agriculture to diversify into other crops. This change can

utilize the skills and labour of women farmers, especially if lands a made available for the planting of

crops that have an export, income generating capacity.

If however, any progress toward making gender equality a priority in the agriculture sector is a dismal

prospect. It will therefore require greater advocacy on the part of organizations such as Non

Government Organizations (NGOs) which have as a part of their programmes gender equality, to

move the process forward. It is with this in view that several recommendations have been made.

Recommendations

1. Gender Awareness Programmes

Women contribution to agriculture and economic development have never been truly acknowledged

in Guyana. It is recommended that since an acknowledgement be made at every level of society, with

Government taking the initiative.

It is recommended that at both the national and sub national levels of society that gender issues be

placed on agendas and discussed in relation to any programme of activities. In relation to agriculture

that the Ministry of Agriculture makes a determined effort to include, gender issues as a part of its

total agriculture programme.

2. Access to land

It is recommended that both at the national and regional levels, greater attention be given to the distribution of land not only for housing purposes but also for farming by women and minority groups.

3. Access to Credit

It is recommended that government make it compulsory for financial institutions to set aside a part of their lending portfolio for loans to women farmers. Additional, the government should reconstitute a lending institute like the defunct Agriculture Development Bank to assist small-scale farmers.

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Appendices

Appendix 1: Definition of Key Terms

Development - The process of improving the quality of life of all human lives.

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Three equally important aspects of development are (1) raising

people’s levels of living; (2) creating conditions conducive to the

growth of people’s self-esteem and (3) increasing people’s

freedom by enlarging the range of their choices.

Gender - Refers to the socially constructed roles, behaviours, activities, and

attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and

women.

Gender gap - Any statistical gap between the measured characteristics of men

and women in areas such as educational attainment, wage rates, or

labor force participation.

Gender Mainstreaming - Gender mainstreaming is the strategy adopted by UNDP to

strengthen its impact on the situation of women and on gender

equality.

HDI - The human development index (HDI) is a composite indicator. It

covers three dimensions of human welfare: income, education and

health. Its purpose is not to give a complete picture of human

development but to provide a measure that goes beyond income.

GEM - The gender empowerment measure (GEM) examines whether women

and men are able to actively participate in economic and political life

and take part in decision-making.

GDI - The gender-related development index (GDI) measures achievement

in the same basic capabilities as the HDI does, but takes note of inequality

in achievement between women and men.

GII - The Gender Inequality Index is a new measure of inequalities

between men and women built on the same framework as the HDI

to better expose differences in the distribution of achievements

between women and men. GII has three dimensions: labour

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markets, empowerment and reproductive health.

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Bibliography

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