SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES

1

November 2012Thessaloniki – Greece

Aegean and Black Sea Commercialand Cultural contacts in

Classical Period

OZGE SAYIS

Supervisor: Manolis Manoledakis

November 2012Thessaloniki – Greeovember 2012

Thessaloniki – Greece

November 2012Thessaloniki – Greece

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

2

© 13.11.12, Ozge Sayis, ID number

No part of this dissertation may be copied, reproduced or transmitted without prior permission of the author

ABSTRACT................................................ 7

CHAPTER

I. Introduction.................................. 8

Purpose of this Study............................................................................ 10

Significance of this Study..................................................................... 11

Approach ............................................................................................. 11

II. The Aegean Sea in the Classical Time............ 12

Classical World in Greece..................................................................... 12

Women in the Greek World.................................................................. 15

Religion.................................................................................................. 17

Gods and Heroes................................................................................... 18

3

III. Classical Age in Art........................ 24

Potteries..................................................................................................

Chian: Grand and Black Figure Style...................... 26

Red Figure Style............................ 27

................................................

Ionian

Cups.............................................................

..................................... 30

Clazmoneian Black Figure ................... 31

Northampton and Campana Groups............. 33

Caeretan Hydrias........................... 34

Vroulian..........................................

................................................................

35

4

Situlas............................................

.................................................................

35

Introduction to Trade

Amphoras.........................................................

.......... 36

Amphora...................................................

...................................................... 37

Fikellura

Amphora..........................................................

................................ 38

Chian and Clazmoneian

Amphoras.........................................................

....... 39

Lesbian

Amphoras.........................................................

................................. 40

IV. The City in the Greek World…………………………………………………......

Urban Development and the old cities of Greece.......................................... 425

Planing in the Classical Period....................................................................... 43

The ancient city and the Urban infrastructure................................................ 46

V. Civilization of The Black

Sea..............................................................

................ 48

The effects of Environment and Geography on the Black Sea Settlements.. 50

The Ancient Greek colonies on the Black Sea.................................................. 54

Greek Colonization on the Northern Black Sea…………………………....

Apollonia

Pontiki...........................................................

.................................. 55

Olbia

Pontiki...........................................................

........................................ 56

Greek Colonization on the Eastern Black Sea ( Colchis)............................... 57

6

Phasis............................................

.................................................................

59

Gyenos...........................................

.................................................................

. 61

Discorias . ..................................................

....................................................... 61

Pichvnari..........................................

.............................................................

63

Cities or Commercial Centers......................................................................... 65

Greek Colonization on the Southern Black Sea............................................... 69

Sinope............................................

.................................................................

. 70

Chalckedon........................................

.............................................................. 71

Comparision of Greek Colonies at Iberia and Black

Sea................................. 74

7

VI. Trade on the Black

Sea..............................................................

............................. 77

Grain

Trade...................................................................................................... 80

Metal Trade...................................................................................................... 85

Slave Trade....................................................................................................... 87

CONCLUSION..............................................

Conclusion……………………………………………………………….............. 90

List of

Figures..........................................................

...................................................... 93

8

List of

Maps.............................................................

.................................................... 125

BIBLIOGRAPHY.....................................................

...................................................

ABSTRACT

There had been a number of researches that investigated

archaeological in the Aegean. However, until recent years Black

Sea had not been studied in a way that Aegean region was studied.

This paper will give an idea about the contacts in Aegean Sea and

the Black Sea. It will inform the reader by explaining the

relationship among Aegean Sea and Black Sea contacts.

Specifically, this research aimed to identify the role of Greeks

and Black Sea people in the Aegean and Black Sea. Advantages and

disadvantages of both two regions were also identified. To gather

the needed data, dictionaries, articles and books were used. The

results showed that Greeks and Black Sea people were in close 9

contact in terms of trading and culture. The old belief was that

Greek colonization occurred due to lack of needs for Greeks in

Aegean. However most of the scholars agree that Greeks colonized

Black Sea due to political reasons and can be say that a bit for

showing their strength to others. Nonetheless, scholars also

agree that Greeks had not only influenced the Black Sea region

but Italy. They were highly close contacts with Etruscans who

were establishing the Ancient Italian civilization. Amphorae are

giving proof that trade relations go through Black Sea, Eastern

Greece, islands at Eastern Greece, Asia Minor, Italy and Egypt.

With no doubt, not only trade but also cultural relations were

developed among those regions. Apart from Etruscans, Egyptians

especially Phoenicians were influential on Greece. Moreover,

social life in Greece, particularly women life and religion had

been related to this thesis. Besides these subjects, Greek

colonization on the Black Sea area had been put and studied

detailed way. Items that point to discrimination should be taken

out.

10

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

The focus of my thesis is to examine Aegean and Black Sea both

sepereatly and comparatively. I would like to mention that while

I was writing my dissertation, I tried to use as many author

opinions as I have found out. I also want to say that in my

thesis, there is many secondary sources: which I got information

thorugh books and articles. Sometimes, I faced such big

controversiers however, I thought that it would be a good idea to

put many various ideas in order to look at subjects from

different perspectives. Though I tried to avoid my beliefs so

many times; sometimes I expressed my thoughts on paper. After

introduction part, the second chapter of thesis will be about the

Aegean Sea. I will talk about Agean Sea in terms of more likely

from Greek perspective. In this chapter, Agean Sea will be

examined from general information of Classical Greece to the some

particular subheadings.One of them is Women in Classical Period.

I will discuss women and men relations and I will also make some

comparisons with Spartan men and women. After this subtitle,I

will talk about Religion in the Aegean Sea. At this point, I have

some similarities between Greek contacts and their other cultural

contacts. I also made some highlights to the Black Sea religion11

in this subtitle. The third chapter will be discussing Classical

Age in Art.I will give a brief information about cultural

contacts for Greece. I have to say that; I gave quite detailed

information especially for potteries. The reason I did this is

beacause together with potteries it can be more easily understood

how Greeks did their colonizations and how intensive was the

influence of Greek colonization. When I say Agean Sea, not Greece

but Greeks should be studied. Bceause they were not only in

Greece mainland but also in East Greece which is islands and Asia

Minor. We will see that from that region, there is huge trade

action to both to the Greece and the Black Sea. Since my topic is

a comprhensive topic I was aware of to being careful about date (

my thesis title dates back to classical period) though I had to

talk about previous time era which is 6th century BC. I have to

say that it was quite useful for me since sometimes I had to

compare classical time with arcahic time so that I could

understand and conclude better results about my thesis. Plus,

comparing one to another do always help to better understand and

conclude the ideas. Therefore; I also talked about previous time

eras while studying on my thesis. Next chapter will be about

urban development and old Greek cities. The Fifth chapter is

directly studied about Greek colonies on the Black Sea. Execpt

Western part of the Black Sea, each part of the region analayzed

by studying many Greek polesis. Furthermore, not only Greek

12

cities on the Black Sea area; but also other Greek cities that

were dissapeared so quickly in the region was discussed with a

new subtitle that is explaning the environemt and the geographic

situation of Black Sea. Afterwards; the new chapter is going to

explain the differences and similarities between Black Sea

colonization of Greeks and Iberian peninsula which is also

colonized by Greeks. Last chapter will be trade chapter. I will

both question many interesting arguements which are still going

on and trying to give an answer.The main question will be to

search that why did Greeks come to the Black Sea? I will also

explaning Grain; metal and slave trade. On the other hand,

especially after this chapter it is going to give an answer that

did Greeks really come to Black Sea beacuse of lack of materials

or something else. I will finish my thesis with conclusion. I

would like to emphasize that my main goal neither to talk just

about society and economy of Aegean Sea nor Black Sea. In my

whole thesis, I would like to focus on cultural and commercial

relations among cultures with in many perspective and questions

as I can. However it can be said that; main questions are

considered about trade. As I said before, my main focus will be

on cultual and commercial relations between Agean and Black Sea.

The reason why I chose this subject is not just because I studied

the subject, beacuse I like to compare Aegean and the Black Sea

cultures from many aspects, such as economy and culture. So, in

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this paper this is my aim to show how did they were different

from each other but at the same time how did they were so related

to each other.It is going to be discuss through whole paper. One

of the question that I am going to deal is about the Agean and

Black Sea trade relation. The first one which is still continuing

to be discussed that why did Greeks come to the Black Sea? What

was the real reason? The second question is going to be related

as well.It will be; how close was the relationship between Greeks

and Black Sea? Though there are very different than each others

how did they keeping their relations? As I mentioned above, I

tried not to put so much my ideas on this paper, but here I

wanted to say that Tsetskhladze ideas were more concrete for me

on this trade subject.

My thesis will end with brief conclusion to collect

all of the main ideas from the each of the chapters and sections.

I would like to say also I have been tried to clear as much as I

can but because of some controversial arguements I might seem to

be confused but I just wanted to gather all of the diffrent ideas

and put infront of the reader so that they might have chance to

analyze better and also they might have better chance to clarify

own minds

.

Purpose of this Study14

In this study, the subjetcs of ancient Greek colonization in

mainland, East, West of the Greece and Black Sea area were

critically analyzed with a goal of examing the cultural and

economic relations. It might think as the mainland of Greece is

the center of the starting point of my thesis, east of the Greece

had taken almost all of the influence from the mainland both

culturally and economically. Plus, during the colonization time

of Greece to the Black Sea, mother city of the colonization was

not in mainland of Greece but in Miletus, Eastern Greece, Asia

Minor. So that it would be a mistake if we consider only mainland

Greece as a center especially for the trade. On the other hand,

Western Greece, where the Etruscans settled down had played a big

role in Greek world and vice versa; Greeks were one of their

close contacts thorughout the history. Agean and the Black Sea

are the major points that I would like to go thorugh the thesis.

One of the purpose of this study, is to look at Black Sea in a

very detailed way. The meaning of detailed way is including the

economy and culture in this region. At this point, I want to say

that I would do only Black Sea culture and economy instead of

mentioning a little Aegaean Sea however it would not be right.

Since it has been known that Black Sea has been greatly taking

part for Greek world it would be not right just to mention and

not giving details about Greeks who are colonizing the Black Sea

without knowing who they really are. The other question is why

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did Greeks choose Black Sea. My main focusing subject is this so

that I am going to discuss this with all perspective I have read

so far. To sum up; the purpose of this study is not only

analyzing each part of the Greek world but also to study how

close contacts were Black Sea and Agean Sea and in what sense.

Significance of this Study

Aegean and the Black Sea cultural and economical contacts is a

wide ranging subject. In this subject the main purpose is to

figure out the similarities and differences between Agean and the

Black Sea both in terms of customs, cults and economically.

Furthermore, not only similarities and differences but also to

ask how close was the relationship between Agean and Black Sea.

Approach

The approach that is used in this study was first to provide a

description of Aegean Sea contacts in terms of culturally and

economically. Greeks religion and social life in Greece were the

subtitle of the chapter of Classical Greece in Aegean Sea. Other

subtitles are about potteries and trade relations with Black Sea

which is the most important point to show their relation level.

On the other hand, The Greek colonization will be the one that is

going to be worked on the most detailed way for this thesis. 16

CHAPTER 2

AEGEAN SEA IN THE CLASSICAL TIME

CLASSICAL WORLD IN GREECE

Classic the word itself also is used in outside of the

archeology. The word itself comes from the Latin which is

17

Classicus. This period can be defined between early 5th to the

until late 3rd century BC. Ancinet Greek of art at classical

time, presents the perfection, balance and harmony in every

aspect of arts. The same for architecture and culture too. The

word Classic means to be the original one and then after itself

what comes are just fallowers, and to be an example of next.

Since today, there had been many studies about the Ancient

Greek civilization. It is established in the Aegean area and

with time, it reached its classical period. Ancient Greek

civilization had been richer than previous civilizations so

that it has been amazed throughout the world until today.

Geographically speaking, the area where Classical Greek

Civilization is settled has no any other advantages from other

huge civilizations. Mesopotamian civilization is located

between Euphrates and Tigris rivers, which mean they have more

fertile lands than Greeks has. While Greeks lands were lack of

fertility, they had land that has full of vinous. However, on

the other hand, Greece had had many islands on the Aegean Sea

so that they can sail easily. They had chance to become

advanced in sailing. Through this, they could have been reached

to Anatolia, Middle East, Egypt vs. Also they reached to the

west and center of the Mediterranean easily. By catching to be

successful at sea, Greeks were threatening the Black Sea and

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soon they will include Black Sea into their lands (Armstrong

1986, 140-3). Being successful in sailing gave them an

opportunity to extend their territories contentedly. It

effected trading in a positive way as well. Gaining successes

from sea reflected on Greek cities by bringing sociocultural

developments. On the other hand, rise of population could have

been decreased by seaway to move them to convenient cities.

(Burke 1992, 199-226)

The belief is that Classical World starts in the 8th

century BC. One of the 19th century famous writers, George Grote

said that before 8th century, it was just a past which was never

lived. The reason behind this is because there was only

mythical Greece which had been never reached by maps and never

been criticized by other scholars. In 1952 Micheal Ventris

emphasized that the only proof before the Classical time, was

Mycenaean language, Linear Table B. (13th -14th BC.) To think

that Mycenaean language was the beginning of the Greek

culture, than 8th century BC it is going to be the turning point

for the Greek world.

Generally Classical Period can be divided into three

different era and each era is going to represent different

centuries so that it can be understood how was the Greek

civilization had been progressed at 6th – 5th and the 4th

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centuries BC. Though, according to general belief, Classical

period starts with 500 BC. This paper will be generally

focusing on the classical era.

At first, today’s Western society roots consisted on

beliefs that have been formed by Greece. For instance,

sculptures from the classical time have the most perfect shaped

ones. Today at throughout the Europe there is the Classical type of

sculptures that idealized the ‘’perfection’’ both for woman and

men. In this paper, I wanted to examine only classical period

is because not only other scholars believe but I do also think

that Greek civilization has its flourished time in classical

time. In my thesis the first part will be about Aegean Sea.

Without Aegean Sea, Greeks in the Pontus area cannot be

analysed and studied properly.

But why did Greeks established a civilization in the

Aegean Sea? If such a question should be asked there have so

many reasons to be chosen Aegean Sea. Firstly, opposite to the

Black Sea, Aegean Sea is not acrimonious. Furthermore, not only

sea but Aegean or generally Mediterranean region has full of

valleys, mountains, deserts and plains. This region is exactly

suits for living and creates a possibility to have an unlimited

communication from the Black Sea to the Straits of Gibraltar.

Another advantage was islands at the Aegean Sea; in Aegean Sea

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sailors could sail safely. Also with sailing moving became

easily. If needed something which does not exist in the region

or due to its lack, it can be provided without any trouble. For

instance grain; is one of the most important nutrition’s and

because of the climate, Aegean’s travel to the Black Sea area

which has more rain. However Mediterranean Sea also was not

always the safe, especially between September and March it is

going under strong currents to the Mediterranean Sea. Not only

high waves but also very strong winds are so called Bora were

also surrounded to the Mediterranean. Therefore, almost half of

the year it was impossible to travel in this region. Thus,

Mediterranean defined their trading routes according to the

winds and currents. (Gallant 1991, 114-9)

Mediterranean Sea can be divided into three peninsula;

The Iberian, The Italian and the Greek. Greek peninsula has

reached into the Aegean to the islands. All of them are

enclosed with mountains. Speaking about Greece, one of the

largest fertile areas is Thessaly. It is for sure that

mountains are really impediments for travelling by sea, doing

agriculture and getting contact with others. (Freeman 2003 1-

19; Cooper 1977/8 162–75)

The general perception for Classical Greece is seem to

be very democratic although the reality is not like this. In

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Classical Greece, men were highly enough dominators. For instance

men had their common place for everyday life so called Symposium

( Fig.1). That place was only allowed to men and for girls called

Hetairai ( Fig.3). In Symposia, people were drinking, chatting and

making sex. In Athens, sex was unlimited for men.( Fig.2) There

were special girls, Hetairai, who were at the symposia; were

genereally dancing and making good times for men. With those

skills they were diffrent than any prosistuttes. A guy who can

attend the symposium also represents that he is the part of

aristocratic family. At symposium he could sit but not ‘’

reclining on a couch’’. Coming from aristocratic family did not

only measure with wheter he is attending a symposium or not. Old

men who were not married tended to have relations with young guys

which is called Pederastry.1 It also existed in among aristocratic

family members. Infact this was not hapening in a secret way yet

event can be seen even on many vase paintings. (Freeman 2003,

215- 236; Easterling and Muir 1985, 98-127; 223-6)

WOMEN IN THE GREEK WORLD

Women in classical period especially in Athens, were so

dependent on men. First of all, because they did not speak too

1 sexual relations between a man and a boy usually anal intercourse with theboy as a passive partner - http://www.seslisozluk.net/-

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much even they got together with other women, there was a lack

of source for them that what were Athenian women feelings.

Other than this, they were quite satisfied since they were

citizens or mothers of citizens to be. They were not against Hetairai

women, though they believed that Hetairi were an advantage for

them because whenever a men need to get satisfied he might have

had relation with one of those Hetairai 2. With no doubt,

Hetairai had to look beatiful and seductive. ( Fig.4-5-6)

However even though, a man had a son from Hetairai, it would not

be recognize as a citizen. Therefore; the women in the house

were ease with it. (Freeman 2003, 215-236)

The most important thing in Greek woman life, was to

get marry. Girls were allowed to marry right after their

puberties and generally they married with a men who was 10–15

years older than her. According to what Oswyn Murray said on

the translation of the book of Sophocles; A girl unlike a men

was almost entering in a hell when she got married. On the

other hand, men chose younger girls as much as they could.

There are some Medical theories that why did men choose much

younger ones. The reason , while men gets older his sperm

2 An hetaira, literally a 'companion' was a call-girl, who was paid to accompanymen to social gatherings like a symposium.  These women, who were usuallybetter educated than Athenian women, provided both social and sexualintercourse. http://www.seslisozluk.net/ (Erhat Azra, Mitoloji Sözlüğü,1978,Remzi Kitabevi, İstanbul)

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functions are much more stronger in order to make women a

pregnant and for the women case it is the vice versa; how much

she is younger, it is easier to become pregnant. What is more,

men chose younger girls since they could dominate and control

them easily.

In marriages, love did not play so crucial role.

Marriages generally existed around family circles that they

already known each other. Unlike love, Preservation property issue

was important. Generally, it would be only pass from male side,

however if a girl does not have any brother her properties from

her own family would be still useable for her. In another words

she would have still rights to on her family properties unless

she doesnt have any brother. Besides, if she was still married

without having children she would have rights on her family

properties. ( Freeman cited in Murray 1993)

Freeman ( 2003, pp.231) mentioned about his book that

in ancient Greece, marriage is considered a full of rituals. In

addition, until women gave birth to a son child, her prestige

at her new house was not so precious. Freeman ( 2003, pp.231)

had an quote from one of the Athenian suitor: When a child was

born, then I began to trust her and I put her in charge of all my things, believing that

the closest connections had been formed. If husband was not treating her

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right and there was a ongoing marriage without children, women

could have claimed to divorce.

In the event of typical Ancient classical Greek

houses, there were not many written documents. Only known that,

in North Greece houses were blocking the entreance to a road,

area or a building so that people can not enter. Plus outside

walls had windows which are small and not so many. For larger

houses, there would be courtyard before entering the house.

Here, women could act comfortably. She could do her own things

such as, sewing and hot days she could go to courtyard and

breathe fresh air. On the other hand, at larger houses families

had storage rooms in order to keep grains, wine and oils. The

sign of the richer houses were the mosaics on the gorund of the

public rooms. Other than that it was almost impossible to see

any fancy at the house. On account of showing how well off was

not desirable thus the only way to understand if a family was

wealthy or not with mosaics. (Nielsen 1996, 233-260)

Yet this paper mostly deals with classical period, there were

richer houses mostly starts with Hellenistic time.

At the outside of the house, there were many festivals

celebrated only by womens. Thesmophoria is the most popular one

(Bukert 1985, 242-246). Other festivals that are celebrated by

only women are dedicated with agriculture. In January the25

festival Haloa and in July Skira . According to these

festivals, women are symbolzing as they are guaranteers of

lands. (Easterling and Muir 1985, 98-127; 223-6)

If any comparison should be done between Athenian

women and Spartan women, Spartan men were more often going to

wars and trainings so that women could have more independent

lives than Athenian women. So far as Freeman mentioned in his

book that Aristotelus claimed two-fifths of the whole country

belonged to women. Unlike Aristotelus, the state did not agree

on men were always been more prestigous than women.

The aproximate death person age was quite old in

Ancient Greece. Childhood ilness, death in battle, shipwreck and disease were

the common causes for death. ( Freeman 2003, 215-236)

RELIGION

Ancient Greeks belived in polytheistic religion.According to

their belief system they believed not only gods but also

heroes and daimones. As mentioned above, each of god, hero or

daiomones had been divided into subgroups regarding to his

functions. ( Freeman 2003, 236-243; Burkert 1985, 216-218;

Zaidman and Pantel 1992,176; Parker 1986, 254- 274)

26

GODS and HEROES

With respect to Greek believes, gods were immortals though they

born in a specific day but they would never die. Other than

being immortal, Greeks have been thought that they were

blessed.So, according to Greeks, gods (Theoi) were both immortals

and blessed ones. It is typical that gods were used to fed from

amborsia-nectar-smoke.3 (Zaidman and Pantel 1992 177-186;

Easterling and Muir 1985,223-5)

Each of them had its name and speciality which is

diffrenet than other, yet they were systematicly connected to the divine

universe. Infact gods and goddeses had not only one name; they

3 "Ambrosia" means "immortality" and was the food of the gods on MountOlympus, In Greek mythology, this was a balsamic juice which served as the"food of the gods" and was said to preserve their immortality Mortals thatwere permitted to partake of ambrosia received additional beauty, strength,and swiftness (becoming in some measure akin to the gods) Ambrosia has beenaround a long time In the ancient days, the gods ate ambrosia because theythought it was a magical substance and kept them immortal Without it a godbecame weak A human who ate it became strong and immortal, a smoke that rosefrom the altars of men who offered sacrifices to them. -http://www.seslisozluk.net/ (Mansel Arif Müfid, 1971, Ege ve Yunan Tarihi,Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları, Ankara).

27

had diffrenet suffixes as well, which makes their function

diffrent than others. For instance; in Greek world Zeus is the

most known and has the highest presitigous god. He had also

many distinict suffixes such as; Zeus Hupatos ( Most High), Zeus

Soter (Savior and lord of the feasts), Zeus Poleius (Of the city),

Zeus Meliklihos (Gentle), Zeus Philios ( Friendly, loving), Zeus Ktesisos (

guardian of property) Zeus Herkeios ( protector of the conquests),

Zeus Kataibates ( the god who prevents lightning). Furthermore from

region to region the most important god, Zeus, could vary

together with its suffixes; however not only with suffixes, but

their festivals and sacrifizations were also diffrent than each

other. (Burkert 1985, 125-131)

In the Black Sea area where Greeks colonized and

established cities they brought their culture to those areas as

well. So that, in Black Sea it could be seen in many places

that some of those gods existed even in the same suffixes but

regarding their importance, it varied like their rituals and

festivals ocuured in Aegean. From the sources, it has been know

that Zeus is not the most important god in Aegean, but Anatolia

especially in Southern Black Sea.4 ( Sarpykin 2010,465-500)

Going back to Zeus, he was not just a main god but

also he was a protector of the royal family. There had been4 Apollon, had also many suffixes but most popular one is Apollon Delphinos alsoone of the most cruical god in Aegean and Greece.

28

many festivals in the name of Zeus both in Cappadocia and

Pontus. Moreover the styles of festivals are very similar to

each other. The sacrifices to Zeus were usually at the hilltops

or on the top of the mountains where sanctuaries were

constructed. He was also worshipped privately at small

household shrines. (Højte, 2009, p.249-276)

As mentioned before, Zeus has different functions and

names in terms of the places. But at this point I need to

clarify the differentiation about Zeus. He was worshipped in a

different names but most of the time worshipped for the similar

functions. Therefore it is very important to say that; there is

not only one Zeus. He can be worshipped in the same function

but in a different places. Zeus viewed as a protector of the

royal family. For instance in Çorum, Zeus worshipped as a god

of fertility. Another example from the Cappadocian Kingdom had

a festival in honor of Zeus and the same holiday had been

occurred in Sinope too. The sacrifices to Zeus which is done by

Anatolian Iranian, Greek populations and Romans were usually

took place at the hilltops or on the top of the mountains where

sanctuaries were constructed. ( Højte, 2009,p.249–276 ;

Sarpykin 2010,465-500)

He is as a defender of life in all aspects; he was

popular everywhere in South Pontus. In the Paphalogian coast,

29

Zeus Poarinos, a god of meadows and a patron of pastures had a

temple and a polis cult which attracted the citizens who formed

something similar to the Koinon around this deity. That was one

of the rare cults belonged to Hellenistic epoch (Sarpykin 2010,

465-500). It appeared in North Anatolia that Zeus Poarinos

became popular among land tillers and stock breeders and

attracted both Greeks and barbarians. Another local cult of

Zeus Sdaleities worshipped between Bartın and Amastria.

Sdaleities is related with; eitis, suffix was usually means

ethnic by origin so that it shows Zeus Sdaleities god could be

a local god, who patronized ethnic community or a small tribe.

Zeus Nicephorus appeared in the Roman times and spread to the

Northern Asia Minor; he was reincarnated the ancient cult of

Zeus Epikarpios who is a god of fertility, patron of peasants

and landowners and also of Zeus Poarnios, having retained in

the imperial times the original and long standing feature of

patronizing the revival of nature.

Greek cities on the South coast of Pontus had different

many cults mostly Hellenic and a lesser degree local. In terms

of lack of information at this region, there has some problems

in Anatolia about History and archeology. So that it does not

have many mentioning’s on the texts about this region. Most of

the sources that is founded mainly from coins, inscriptions,

terracottas, pieces of reliefs and sculpture from the Greek30

cities of the Southern Black Sea and inner regions of North and

East Anatolia. From the coins during the 3rd century BC, it

would be show that, Zeus became the official god for the

Southern Pontic area under the early Mithridates.

Between Aegean and Black Sea had always been in contact

due to the Greek colonizations. However other than

colonizations they were also in contact with each other in

terms of socially and economically. In the previous chapter,

while examining the trade relations between Aegean and Black

Sea, it was obvious that Aegean part especially East Aegean,

were in contact with Near East. It should be logical that if

there was any commercially relation, more or less there would

be also so called socially trade between each other. The other

intensive contact was Anatolia itself. Gods from Anatolia and

Near East were in touch too.

For instance, in the Southern Black Sea region where

the Zeus is the most efficient god, had some similarities from

Near East civilization that are Iranian gods such as Ahura-

Mazda and Mithras 5 (Fig.7-9) ( Højte, 2009,p.249–276). Though5 Mithras: Persian god of light,sun god and truth protector against evil;known as Mithraism, which spread through the Roman Empire in the first andsecond centuries AD, and was an important religion especially among Romansoldiers. Ahura Mazda: He is the opponent of Ahriman, the spirit of evil, bothbeing sprung from Eternity, or, according to another version, Ahriman beingthe offspring of a moment of doubt on the part of Ormazd. He represented as abearded man inclosed in a winged circle, a conception probably derived from

31

Zeus was not only identified by Iranian gods but also with

Anatolian ones. Both Anatolian and Iranian cults spread over

the territory where Hellenic cults had been dominant since the

Greek colonization. (Sarpykin 2010,490-491)

As mentioned before, various Zeus suffixes had been

existed but more than that suffixes functions and names are the

same even though they were in diffrent places. For instance;

Zeus Soter, was adopted from Sinope. It is worshipped by the

Greek population of Northern Anatolia since the early period.

Zeus Soter, apprehended as a protector and rescuer of

individual person a whole region and a city. Zeus, god of

recovery, renaissance, rescue, vegetation and crops, defender

and protector from evil, patron of fertility also should be

linked the cult of Zeus Bobeomenos which is known in the

agrarian territory of Amesaia. Zeus Bobeomenos was the god as

of patron of human life and recovery. Zeus Chaladzios, highest

deity-patron of the all being and vegetation, had been linked

with Aither and Aleksikakos which means in the Amaseian

epithets all of them belong to one and the same god Zeus, who

was taken up as the name of Epikarpios and Soter. On the other

hand, Zeus who was the most supremest gods among others creates

the Assyrian representations of Ashur.- http://www.seslisozluk.net/ (NewLarouse Encyclopedia of Mythology. 1989, Crescent Books)

32

a cult as a Zeus Stratios means, warrior, soldier, fighter, the

god of armies. (Sarpykin 2010,465-472)

Apart from the types of Zeus deities, there is an old

idea about Zeus Stratios was officially identified with Ahura-

Mazda, a protector god of ancient Iran. It might be also said

that Zeus Startios was influenced by Iranian cult of Ahura-

Mazda. However, Zeus Stratios was the official and royal god

who is a protector of Amesia and its rural territory during the

Hellenistic times. Zeus Stratios was also worshipped by local

Iranian and Anatolian population by the Greeks and later by the

Romans.

As I talked in previous section, while the main focus

on this paper is about classical time I wanted to mention also

some Hellenic gods and goddesses. Because I wanted to show that

not only in classcical time but also in Hellenistic time there

were some similarities can be seen between Ancient Greek

civilization and others such as Near East culture. For

instance; According to many arguments there are some

similarities between Ahura Mazda and Zeus. Such as from the

images and the function of these two gods, they were the most

supremest gods among their civilizations. Besides that the main

difference between Ahura Mazda and Zeus Stratios; in the

Persian Mazdaic cult, only the priests execute all the rituals

33

including setting of fire to the wood and keeping the fire. But

in the Zeus Startios in Pontus and in Amesia these actions were

fulfilled by king themselves while the priests were simply

their assistants. That’s why Ahura Mazda has indirect links

with Zeus Startios. Moreover; the Hellenic gods, identical to

the Iranian and Anatolian deities played a leading role in

relation with Pantheon and the Kingdom of Pontus. The gods of

the Greek Pantheon actually pushed the local deities out and

achieved the chief positions in cults and religion of the

kingdom. (Sarpykin 2010,490- 492)

The image of Zeus, has always a scpeter or

thunder bold on his hand and next to him there is an eagle that

symbolizes the power of the universe. Lastly, Zeus with his

perfectionist image has been always the first one among other

gods and goddesses in Ancient Greek world and Southern Black

Sea Region. While Zeus was the most popular one in the Southern

Black Sea region, in East Aegean part, particularly in Asia

Minor ( Didyma, Klaros) Apollo was the above the all of gods.

Furthermore, in Delphi, there is a specific temple for Apollo.

As a conclusion; Zeus is the most superficial

god among the others in Ancient Greek world. It is worshipped

not only in Greece but also in other places that is colonized

by Greeks. Black Sea region is one of the places that is

34

colonized by Greeks. Especially the south of Black Sea had been

significant for Zeus cults. Speaking in a religious context,

Zeus has many various types of function and names in Anatolia.

To talk about heroes in classical times, they

had to be taken an important place as gods. Peoples expectation

about heroes were similiar of gods because heroes were also

giving protection, they might have taken revenges and they had

abilities to cure ones. Moreover they had highly enough to

fullfill such a thick book with their stroies such as; Herakles,

Theseus, Kadmos, Jason and Perseus. ( Fig.10-13)

There are general images about description of

pantheon gods although in Pantheon god images having some local

imges. Zeus is always depicts with his thunderbolt, Posiedon

with his trident, thursos is always depicted together with

Dionysos, the god of lyre and bowl, Apollon with his lyres, his

sister Artemis, with her bows and arrows, fertility goddesses

Demeter with ear of wheat, the god of fire Hephaestus with his

axe and Athena, depicts by her shield. ( Fig.14-22) (Zaidman

and Pantel 1992, 218-224; Sarpykin 2010,465-500)

35

CHAPTER 2

THE CLASSICAL AGE IN ART

CLASSICAL WORLD IN GREECE

Art in Greece has been transformed, together with classical

era. For sculpture; before classical time, genereally were

called Kauros. (Fig.23) They were normal male sculptures that

were built on graves and were given as present to gods. Egypt,

one of the main cultural and commercial comtact with Greece,

had a huge impact on Greek art. Between Egyptian and Greek36

sculpture a person might not have been realized that which

sculpture was from Egypt or Greece. Starting with 6th century,

the forms of sculpture began to change into more ‘’natural’’

poses. After early 5th century BC. changings in sculpture were

clearly seen, yet it was almost like a reform. Transiton

period, often presented with a Critan Boy whose name is coming

from Critius. Sculptor Critius was well known in Athens during

the 490- 460 BC. Critan Boy was built on a marble in Acrpolis

of Athens. He was dedicated to a boy whose name was Callias, had

victory on foot race in Panathaneic Festival. ( Freeman 2003 243-247;

Hurwit 1985, 122-200)

With regard to Winckelmann (Freeman mentioned

in 2003), After Persian War, art in Greece became gigantic not

only in sculptures but also in whole art. Moreover, Critian Boy

represents self- confidence after the Persian War. As mentioned

above, not only in sculptures have gigantic and perfection

appearance but also temple of sculpture. Greeks started to build

pediments on temples during the 6th century BC for putting a

big sculpture on the middle of the pediment. (Example: Artemis

at Corcyra, 580 BC, a Gorgon’s head) (Fig.24)

In Classical time at Greece, art was based on

human and human behaviors. Because of this reason, there had

been changing views to the religion and God. Therefore, that,

37

those two terms (religion and art) had started to be understood

in a different level. In addition, rationalism and indivualism

became important. Greece classical time had been also an

inspiration to European artists. At this era, artists had tried

to show human body in a realistic way. Women figurines were

showed naked which had never seen previously at any other

period. Artists were always giving an impression that the

sculpture is almost alive from the face details to the costume

twists. The most famous sculptor for this period is Phidias. He

lived between 500-432 BC. He managed to make 12m long an

Olympia Zeus Sculpture, which is in among world 7 wonders (Fig.25).

One of the other works of him is an Athena Pantheons sculpture,

which is also about 11 m long. The originals have never founded

of these sculptures yet known by Roman copies. ( Freeman 2003,

243-247)

Altough east side is more mountainous area, all best Greek

harbours were located on the east side of the Greece. On the

other hand, Italy is saved from east by the Apennines.So that;

Greeks have been always founded better chance to have contact

interms of culturally and ecnomically with east side than west

coast. Many scholars, such as Walter Burkert ( Freeman mentioned

in 2003), used the terminology of Orientalasing period 6 ( 800- 6506 Orientalizing is a complex term that was coined in reference to the spreadof Near Eastern and Egyptian ideas, motifs, and other cultural elements toGreece and to the rest of the Mediterranean. So in that period, Greeks had

38

BC) for that time. The reason that is named by this, is beacuse

of the dense relationship between Greeks and eastern contacts.

The first time Orientalising Period was used in order to display

the Greek society by Oswyn Murray ( Freeman mentioned in 2003)

in 1980. So it can be said that being close relations with

eastern part of the Greece had been started since the

orientalising period. Since, one of the best closed relation

contacts with Greece is the East Aegean part, before going to

new chapter about Eastern Potteries, I wanted to indicate this

period in order to make better idea about the history of the

cultural relation between Eastern part of the Greece. Since,

one of the best closed relation contacts with Greece is the

East Aegean part.

POTTERIES

CHIAN: GRAND AND BLACK FIGURE STYLES

Until the second quarter of the 6th century BC there were

animal figures on potteries however together with Grand and

black figure styles it started to be seen human figures instead

of animals. Also the aim was putting more colours on potteries

been influenced hugely from Near East and Egypt. - http://www.seslisozluk.net/(Mansel Arif Müfid, 1971, Ege ve Yunan Tarihi, Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları,Ankara).

39

which is polychrome. The only shape was chalice ( Fig.26) Even

though sometimes confused with krater because of its big size

such as 30 m.( Fig.27-28-29) As far as the colours concerned,

men’s body generally coloured with light- medium brown while

womens body coloured with white. Grand tecnique was also

imitated from Thasos people. ( Cook and Dupont 1998, 71-74)

After the middle of the 6th century BC. Chian-

Grand style started to disseapper. Instead of Grand style, Black

figure technique began to appear. This group is including

mainly Kantharoi that has no slip. To sum up, it can be said

that Chian style has many types and it was considerably popular

during the middle of the 6th century BC. ( Cook and Dupont

1998, 71-74)

Another type of karter was existed around 570;

Laconian. ( Fig.30) Laconian is diffrent with its decoration,

fragments and shape. Laconian type was founded only in

Naucratis. However it is known that Aegean sea had contacts not

only with South, east and West but also with Black Sea in

North. Cook and Dupnot ( 1998, pp.73) mentioned that there is

also one piece founded in Berezan other than that there is no

any documents that Laconian cups were imported. Yet, according

to authors opinon, this one piece might be either imitation

from Laconian cups or even there is a little chance for it to

40

transport, they might have transported it. But the important

thing is, both cases are showing that they had contact with

Black Sea around 570 though imitation could be done by looking

at the original one.

THE RED FIGURE STYLE

The red figure style was apperead at 530BC it was a bit after than

black figure technique so that their first expereince was on

black figure. Red figure pottery was the most popular pottery

type in whole Greek world. The first attempt on red figure

technique could be analyzed as a transforning technique from

black technique to red technique. However after 10 years, the

red figure technique had fit and started to be seen diffreant than

black technique though many of the painters of red figure were

also working on black style. The prominent diffrence between

them is about human figures. Human figures were not only for a

decoration or some scene of actions anymore. They were drawn to be

major scene of potteries. So, starting from 8th century until

4th century BC, human figures on potteries were becoming common

in each century and starting in the 5th century BC, human

images were not complimental figures at all. According to the

classical style Greek beatuy, first 30 years of 5th century BC was the most

floursihed era for painted pottery. Together with many various tryings41

of new things on red figure technique, in 300 BC red figure

style came to an end in Athens which is also end for Classical

period. (Cook 1997, 155-158) ( Fig.31-33)

While Attic potteries was in popular, there were

hugely enough competitors and imitators of this type of

pottery. Right after the 500 BC, Clazomenia sacrophphas began to

be done with this technique as well. During the third quarter

of the 5th century BC, south Italian painters were educated by

Attic painters. Undoubtedly, the influence on especially in

South Italy was huge by Greeks. Not only south Italy but also

Etruscans were fallowed the Greeks to make red figure technique in a

more simplified way before than South Italy ( during the 5th

century BC). However Italian markets lost its interest and

competitors towards Attic red figure in later part of the 5th

century BC and both of them7 stopped this technique during the

early 3rd century BC. ( Cook 1997, 158-163; Robertson 1992,206-

208)

In this paper, the main focus is on classical

period, however while analyzing classical period it is also

important to start from a bit earlier in order to explain

things more clearly, and for audince it is also crucial that he

or she might be in lost while he was only reading the one

7 South Italians and Etruscans.42

specific period without knowing what is going in previous time.

So that, as classical period starts with end of 5th century

BC, the paper sometimes can go back to 6th century to give an

idea about the begining. Both the writer and the audience

should not be confused that classical period time era does not

start with 6th century BC although because it is a written

history, it is analyzed and given a specific periods and named

by scholars that but bearing mind that is no specific or exact

date for classical period.

During the classical Red Figure time ( 450-425

BC), Neck amphora so called Nolan was the most famous one.

( Fig.34) However in the way of usage of amphoras, Felike was

more common. Among types of kraters, bell- krater, calyx and coloumn

forms were ranked due to their favours.( Fig.35-37) On the

other hand, Satamnos and hydria were keeping their popularities

and the same time oiniochoi was becoming more popular ( Fig.38).

If talking about cups and lekoythias,( Fig.40) the stemmed cup is

still the most favourable one, after it, stemless cup and kotyle is coming About

lekoythoi, Squat lekoythoi ( Fig.41) and tall lekoyhthoi were pretty much in

favour. Louturophoi, generally used for in rituals or weddings,

were quite a lot in this period. ( Cook 1997, 171-173; Boardman

1989, 129-44)

43

When it comes to late classical period, Felike

started to increase in number and so in popularity. Stamnos

began to loose its favor so did Hydria. Oiniochoi which started to

become known in classical red figure time, now it is abundant.

The shape of oiniochoi is more round (Cook 1997,175-178; 213-

217). When it comes to the 4th century, attic technique was more

well analyzed and studied.

Dionysos and Aphrodite were the most favorite gods that

are depicted on the vase painters. Other immortals, can be

either god or hero were sitting down. For costumes; there is

some changings; for instance now costumes are more in a

orientalistic way. ( Fig. 36 and 42) In the middle of the 4th

century BC Amazons, Arimaspians and griffns were started to seen on

the paintings.

The commonest shape for 4th century BC is a Pelike.

The lekanis are generally dated from the first part of the 4th

century BC. Cups that were popular both in classical and late

classical red figure is not anymore seen after second half of

the 4th century BC. However Kotyle is still popular at this time

and the squat lekythos stopped to be seen after 350 BC. Red figure

technique ended without any specific reason in 300 BC. ( Cook

1997, 175-178; 129-144)

44

Generally speaking, pots were made for domestic

usage in Ancient Greek life although they were given to the

gods as present or founded in graves with burials. The main

reason for Greek potteries is not so much related with date or

settlement. As mentioned above, major usage reason for

potteries are drinking and toilet. In the Greek society, wine has

impressive effection. Those drinking cups were used for wine

drinking or water and Greeks generally were drinking wine and

water together. Thus; there were two types of cups which for

wine and water or for drinking them together there were mixed

bowls and jugs for poring and cups. (Cook 1997,209-212)

To talk about colonized places by Greeks such as

Histria and Olbia, in Histria pieceses that were founded either

a mixture of Fikellura amphoras from Miletus or other East Greek

region. However they are matching exactly pieceses from

Histria. The decoration is quite simple, only including floral

ornament which required no skill. Pieces that were founded at Olbia

had had almost same clay with Histria. The conclusion can be

said that yet Olbia is a bigger city than Histria, amphoras

might have been imported from Olbia to Histria. (Cook and

Dupont 1998,77-90)

45

IONIAN CUPS

Ionian cups have differs from type to type. The ones who most

close to the classical time been started to seen around the

last quarter of the 7th century BC. However Ionian cups became

popular in the early 6th century BC. One of the type is

popular which is heavier than others. Date time is almost same

with Ionian cup type B. However this type is the most exported

Ionian cups to the Black Sea but not West. The other type is

generally founded in Rhodes and outside of the Rhodes and South

Ionia, it is rare to see it. Apart all of these most of the

common one is probably the most useful cups among others. The

oldest those types of cups are dated back to the 600 BC but it

developed more likely second quarter and the middle of the 6th

century BC. In addition to this, the ones which look alike very

much the commonest cups are dated back to the end of the 7th

century BC until 5th century BC. The diffrenece between these

two cups are the length of foot. (Cook and Dupont 1998, 92-95)

Ioanian little master cups were quite spreading to diffrent

areas. In east, founded at Greek island Samos, in the south at

Naucratis, in the west at Etruria. Plus there are also some old

46

fragments from Eastern part of Greece; Miletus, Smyrna, Aegina

and from the mainland of Greece, Perachora. In the north;

Appolonia Pontica. Other than that, if has to be added on a

frgament lips, ivy and myrtle leaves Histria, Berezan and Tocra can be

added as well.

Ionian little master cups can be dated with their styles. So far

as East Greek Pottery referred, the earliest date around 560 BC and

they continued until 3rd quarter of 6th century BC. (Cook and

Dupont 1998, 92-95) ( Fig.43)

CLAZOMENIAN BLACK FIGURE

Main places of Clazomenian Black Figure amphoras are mainly from

Clazomenia and Smyrna. Second main place for this type of

amphoras is Naucratis. Other pieces from Clazomenian were

founded at Egypt, Lesbos and Berezan. Due to lack of

information about Clazomenian amphoras could only have been

dated also by their styles. More or less dates around 560–540,

middle of the 6th century.

47

One of the Clazomenian Black Figure amphoras are called

The Petrie group. They are dated 540–520 BC. They were not as fat

as Fikellura amphoriskos and the length of its type of amphoras

were approximatly 45 cm. They appereard at the same time with

Fikellura amphoras however they advanced in diffrently. The Petrie

group amphora decorations are more sober and the lip is

coloured with dark colours. On the each side the neck of

Amphora, there has only one figure. It is either sphinx, siren or

cock. Generally the neck colour is purple and the lips are dark,

white, purple and light purple. Petrie group amphoras mostly were founded

in Tell Defenneh and in Naucratis. Beside those places one

Petrie amphora is founded at Clazomenea and one in Smyrna.

Other amphora type is Urla. The common shape of these

amphoras and hydrias are almost 30 m long and they have curving

and angular shoulder.Urla type is not only for hydrias and amphoras

but also for krater, dinos and big lids. Their decoration is also

simple as Petrie group. For instance on hydria, neck is black, shoulder has a

row of sirens or less often cocks or even cranes or a myrtle branch on the belly.

Hydria’s belly has figures and below of the hydria the surface is black.

If has to be compared with amphoras, hydrias had painted less

carefully than amphoras. Urla amphoras had advanced on painting

mythological scenes than Petrie group. Such as; Odysseus threating

Circus. Urla amphoras discovered in Tell Defenneh, Naucratis,

Clazomenae and Smyrna. Thera and North of the Black Sea are48

other places which has founded Urla amphoras. It is dated the

years between 530–520 BC.

Knipovitch group is other amphora group that has ranged in

various places. Mostly it can be seen at Clazomenia, Rheneia,

couples from Samothrace, Naucratis and Cyrene and then two or

three Knipovitch amphoras from Smyrna and Tell Defenneh. On the

Black Sea region, contacts with Aegeans showed there has many

amphoras from Knipovitch group. With regard to Cook and Dupnot,

Knipovitch amphoras first made at Clazomenia and then extended

because of exporting.Those types of amphoras are generally

between 25–30 cm tall. The colors of neck and lip are the same,

black. Foot is also black until its edge.

Enmann Class of amphora is the modest amphora among others. It

has egg-shaped body and it is 30 cm high. Apart from egg shaped

body amphoras, there is one piece of amphora, hydria, oinochoe, askos, lid

and a flat stand. Decoration figures generally are, satyrs with

amphora or deer, comasts, man trading grapes, cloaked women with leaping hare

and coy siren, siren, sphinix, lion, panther, spotted deer, goat, cocks, octopus, winged

female and a Triton. They are more likely coming up in Ukraine from

one of Greek settlements in North Black Sea. Besides Black Sea,

Smyrna, Rhodes, Luxor and Cyrene and all the way of North Agean

Coast had met Enmann class. Although there were not so many

from Clazomenae, Larisa, Naucratis and Italy, those places also

49

had Enmann class. Generally pieces mostly dated to 530-520BC.

(Cook and Dupont 1998, 95-108)

For the Black figure style of Clazomenian sarcophagis, it

can be said that female figures always are black. Besides human

and superficial characters, they generally have placed on the

head and sometimes on the more upper part. Unlike other

potteries, Clazomenian sarcophagis have less images about

myths. Talking about details, women, younger figures and

warriors could have wings. Dogs and horses have usullay drawn

together, plus the ones who ride do not wear usual dresses.

On the other hand many of the Clazomenian sarcophagis

were founded the area of Clazomenia, Smyrna and Teos. Plus some

of them are from Mordoğan which is on the east of Mimas

peninsula. Other than this, 5 sarcophagis from Hopkinson

painter were discovered at Rhodes in Ialysus and Camirus. While

4 pieces are from Abdera, two pieces were excavated from

Ephesus, one is called Monastirika and the other is probably

local production. The rest of the pieces one is from, north of

the Agean Sea in Acanthus and the other is from Galepsos and

Sardis. In Sardis, sarcophagi is founded as the same style from

Ephesus. With regard to East Greek Pottery, (1998, pp.121-128) both

pieces from Sardis and Ephesus are considered as a Lydian

products. The end of the 5th century BC, pieces which are not

50

standard sarcophagis are founded from Lesbos island in

Methymna. Apart from these places, distant export was rare beacuse

each sarcophagi has almost 450 kg. (Cook 1981, 130-4)

NORTHAMPTON AND CAMPANA GROUPS

Northampton group type of amphoras formed in 4 shape. The first

one is, one piece amphora. It has very similarities on Attic with

decoration, paint, clay quality and shape. One piece amphora has

scene of Dionysos with satyrs, pygmies riding cranes and a

person who is looking at his horses while drinking from a bowl.

It has also some scenes from battles and sexual intercourse.

Not only these scenes are displayed on one piece amphora but

also, Hercules bravery. He is saving Io, Zeus fell in love

with her, from a monster with a hundred eyes ( Argus) and on

the opposite side of amphora, depiction of centaurs.

The amounts of Campana group is more; around 16. There

are dinois and hydrias in this group. Like Northampton has

resemblance with Attic, this type has similarities with

Clazomenian by its clay colour which is almost brown and its

appearance. Purple and white are usually used ones. Ribbon

Painter and the Painter of Louvre are most popular painters for

this group. Drawings on the dinoi are typically comasts or satyrs,

51

Hephaestus, battle scenes, centaurs, youths with sirens or man sized cocks, animals

and simple scales with white centres. Hydrias are 45 cm and they decorated

well. The Campana group such as Enmann group is typically East

Greek style of potteries. However drawings on one of the type

of Hydria, Villa Giulia, intriqate legs of the animals and the

head of Heracles looks like imitated from Etruscan but more likely

from Pontic.

As far as Cook and Dupont ( 1998, 108-111)

concerned, painters of Campana and Northampton had started

their work in or close to Clazomenae, Ionia but then they moved

to Etruria. Although no one is talking about importing those

amphoras to the Black Sea, there is one dinoi that has

depiction of archer that has Scythian dress and the style of

these archers are different than usual Greek style.

The dates of Northampton group is around 540 BC

however it would be better if it is dated to 530 BC said Cook

and Dupont. On the other hand Campana group is dated from 530

BC to the 520 BC. (Cook and Dupont 1998, 108-111)

CAERETAN HYDRIAS

Caeretan Hydrias are consisting of 40 cups. The plane has almost

orange colour and the clay is brownish. Purple, white and black52

are used equally. Diffrent than other Greek potteries, this

type of hydrias are taller; 40–45 cm long. In phsycially

speaking, Caeretan hydrias are not strong. The events that were

showed are also has some diffrences for instance not only

mythology is depicted on Caeretan hydrias but human life as well.

The Painters who made Caeretan style made it typically in

Eastern Greek style. Until now Etruria more specifically Caere

( Carveteri) is the only place where has been founded hydrias. If

has to be dated, Caeretan hydrias are existed around last 30

years of 6th century BC. Talking about Agean commercial and

cultural contacts, for this type of Hydria; it might not be said

something about Black Sea contacts. However Egypt and Eastern

Greek painters had in contact. Related to this, Eastern Greek

pottery had hugely effected from Persian conquest of the region

so that many of masters moved. (Cook and Dupont 1998, 111-114)

VROULIAN

This is a type of cups that were excavated from southern part

of Rhodes. The colour of clay is brown and the surface colour

is brownish and black. On the other hand, decoration colour is53

in most cases are purple. Vroulian cups looks like stylish, has

lip place and the length of foot is short. Some of the cups has

a handle place even though it seems not fashion.8

As mentioned in the begining of the title, Rhodes is

the main center of this type of cups. Next is Mersin, Tell

Sukas, Naucratis and Cyrene. Yet it is a small group type of

cup, it would not exist such a long time. For instance from

graves in Rhodes refers that date of cups should be from the

mid 6th century BC to the 3rd quarter. In Tell Defenneh, 2

numbers of situlas dated to 3rd quarter of the 6th century BC

and in Vrouila, findings strarted to be seen less when it was

already 600 BC. (Cook and Dupont 1998, 116-119)

SITULAS

The name of Situlas is coming from sizeable tubuluar jar.It has been

assumed that situlas were fairly good and generally used for the

kitchen. There are many types of situlas which has dated in a

diffrent time periods. As my paper concerns in classical time,

group C is more likely deals with 6th century Bc which means it

is the one that should be explained here.

8 A few amphoras included necked and one piece, stamnoi, bowls and hydrias aredecorated simplier way but still in the same style. Vroulian cups eitherbeatufied of the upper part or all surface. Generally decorazation is aboutlotus flowers, palmettes and buds. (Cook and Dupnot, 1998)

54

Among situlas groups, Group C has more than 30

examples than others. On these cups purple colour is very

typical. Shapes are diffrent according to their sizes. The ones

that are in better condition are slimmer ones. Their heights

are approxiemetly 40 cm tall which is lesser than Group B.

About style of jars, it can be said that it is typical East

Greek style. However the quality on depiction of the jars is

going from good to the bad . Thus, dates are bringing one

conclusion that, Group C situlas are from 530–500 BC. On the

other hand, if one has to look at the decorations on group C,

it has not used any advance techniques on those situlas that

refres to those period. Actually those time has no specific

features but the most important thing is it has already in

classical time so that in decoration it has to be more

advanced. One arguement is about where was the main workshop

for Situlas. Some of agreed on Rhodes and while the others

agreed on Tell Defenneh in Egypt. The reason why scholars think

about Egypt is because there are some Egyptian depictions on

situlas. However in accordance with East Greek Pottery ( 1998, pp.

116-118) Egyptian depicts do not give any proof that the

workshop of Situla was there. It could be painted not in Egypt

but might had Egyptian figures, plus the clay decomposition

show that the workshop was in Rhodes. With no doubt, it also

55

shows once again that one of the best cultural and economic

contacts had been with Egypt for Agean Sea.

INTRODUCTION TO TRADE AMPHORAS

According to the Greek painted pottery’ all of the Greek cities no

matter if it is in mainland in Greece or west or Anatolia, all

of them were using only the Greek potteries. Greek cities,

starting from 7th century BC to the 4th century BC, mostly

imported potteries instead of making it. However during the

classical time, imports and quality were getting declined,

especially from the later of 5th century BC.

East Greek transport amphoras, used for food stuffs

such as wine, olive oil and for pickled sea food, plus they

have been founded from the Archaic period onwards throughout

the Mediterenean countries and especially around the Black Sea.

The later area did infact provide the highest density of finds and the most complete

range of shapes which can probably be explained by its geograhical proximity, a high

denisty of settlements in close contact with their metropolis and a brisk, though

seemingly overestimated, trade with the natives. (Cook and Dupont 1998, 142-

146)

In the Black Sea region, most of the amphoras are Chiot products, next

leading ones are Lesbos and Claziomena series. There are also some56

Milesian and Samian series existed in the Black Sea but not too

many. Also in the same region, Ionian wines had not met any

difficulties yet generally Black Sea people preferred fat animal

oil rather than olive oil. It can be said that only Greek

natives who settled down to the Black Sea wanted to have oilve

oil. So far as contexts, most of the delieveries were coming

from the Ionian harbours. (Cook and Dupont 1998, 164-178;

Lawall 2005, 31-69.)

AMPHORAE

In the Greek form, the amphora is generally called amphoreus.

It is a tall pot that has two handles and the neck is narrower

than the body. They were used generally for oil and wine

transportation as containers in many numbers. There were three

types of amphoras; one of them is used for oil Panathenic

amphora ( Fig.44) and the other was used for wine which is

Outsize amphora. The third one is Louthrophos ( Fig.45).

Panathenic amphora was used at a public festivals and because it

was containing oil, it has narrower neck than other type of

amphora. On the other hand, Outsize amphora, was used at

funerals. Last type of amphora is Louthrophos it is a narrow

amphora which is used for the weddings. All types of amphora

57

heights varies from 30 cm to 45 cm. (Canovici 2005, 97-119;

Cook 1997, 209-213; Lawall 2005, 31-69)

Amphoras varies in not only with their usage

reasons but also for class of shapes. There were two types of

amphora; one piece and neck amphora.( Fig.34 and-46) As it can

be understand from names, one piece amphora is the one that

neck and body of the amphora is together, while neck amphora

meets with neck and body in an angle. (Cook 1997, 209-212 ;Vachtina

2005, 23-39)

FIKELLURA AMPHORAS

(Fig. 47) This type of amphora has similar with South Ionian Wild

Goat Style or Milesian Wild Goat Style in terms of clay, slip and paint.

However opposite to the Wild Goat Style, heads were not drawn

in outline as they drowe in Wild Goat Style. The typical shape

of the amphora is explained in the East Greek Potteries; wide pot with

flattesih shoulder and three reeded handles. Mostly their heights are 25–

35 cm or even bigger. The other type of the amphoras are called

Amphoriskos. At the begining amphoriskos were portly amphoras

but then they became scrawny (Cook 1997, 123-127)

58

Alternburg painter, leader of Fikellura style, had

made reforms. While he painted on animals, he used Black Figure

technique. Other reform was human figures. He did not replace

animal figures to human ones, what he was doing to add also

human figures to his paintings on Amphoriskos. Generally

speaking Fikellura painters used more human figures than animal

figures. The figures were mostly alive such as dancing figures.

Plus Fikellura painters painted mythological scenes on potteries.

Two headed monsters, lower parts of body is animal and upper

part is human- satyr, maenads, little creatures-pygmies,

cranes, Heracles and Busiris- He was so cruel so that Heracles

killed him and Potnia Theron- mistress of wild animals, she was

godess of the whole of wild nature: fish, birds, land-animals.

She was dedictaed Artemis, but seems to go back even to the

Paleolithic time. Outside of those creatures, there were

winged figures both female and male. On the other hand, he focused

on decoration on the belly and figures were replaced to the shoulder with a band or

bands of simple ornaments (Cook 1997, 123-127)

In the middle of the 6th century BC. the most

popular figure technique on potteries in the Greek world was

Attic Black Figure. Many Fikellura amphoras can be seen at Eastern

Greek mainland Miletus and Caria region in Milas, specifically

Damlıboğaz. Also in eastern islands; Samos and Rhodes. From the

excavation results it can be concluded that it was very popular59

at the south part of the eastern Greece unlike Northern part.

Cook and Dupnot mentioned that Fikellura amphoras were so few

especially Northern of Ephesus which is a rare case. Not only

Northern Aegean but also mainland of Greece and Sicily and

Italy had nothing with Fikellura amphoras. On the other hand,

Delos, Aegiana and Cyprus islands had Fikellura amphoras.

Naucratis, Tell Defenneh, and Cyrene are other places that

founded many of Fikellura amphoras. As I mentioned above, North

Aegean had almost nothing with this type of amphoras and while

for Propontis region, the existence of Fikellura amphoras not

clear but in Pontus, at Black Sea, has excavated abundant

Fikellura amphoras. Because of the attic competition distant exports had

decline. According to the Cook, the begining date of Fikellura

started with 560 and ends due to Persians desturction in

Miletus, 494. (Cook 1997, 123-127; Domzalski-Lund 2005, 161-

183; 183-195 )

CHIAN and CLAZOMENIAN AMPHORAS

This type of amphoras can be seen through the Western

Mediteranenan to the North of the Black Sea. (Fig.48) Chion

amphoras had been existed from the begining of the 7th centuıry

BC. Here I examine from the 6th century BC. So that the shape

of the amphora had been changed through the years and neck of60

amphora is getting thinner, both size of belly and foot are becoming

smaller, as total height is increasing like 70 cm. During the end of third

quarter of the 6th century BC, amphoras neck, size of the belly

and shape are getting bigger. Chion amphoras mostly seen in

Cyprus, Egypt, Sicily, Thera and Xanthos.

Another type of amphora that is mostly seen in Black

Sea region and dated back to the end of the 6th century BC. is

so called Swallon- necked. They are also seen in Palestine region,

Cyprus, Egypt and in mainland Greece; Athens. (Cook and Dupont

1998, 146-156)

The homeplace of Clazomenian amphoras are in

Clazomenia. However amphorette which is very much look like to

Clazomenian amphoras are made in Olbia. As its shape and

decoration, it looks North Black Figure style or Clazomenian

amphoras. (Cook and Dupont 1998,151-156) ( Fig.49)

LESBIAN AMPHORAS

It has been used as a containers which has grey clays. The

characteristic of Lesbian amphoras began with the belief that

Lesbos island was the only place to had grey potteries since

Bronze Age. Plus, Lesbos island did not produce only grey

potteries but also red potteries. Besides these, Aeolis was at61

the same situation with Lesbos island. The discussions for

determining the main place for lesbian amphoras are still not

be concluded. However either it is in Lesbos or mainland in

Greece (Aeolis) the exportation of those container amphoras

throughout Mediterenan and the Black Sea had two reasons; wine

and olive oil which Lesbos island certainly had both of it.

(Clinkenbeard 1982, 248-267)

Those amphoras has been founded in Olbia-Berezan,

Bulgaria, Gurna and Camarina 9. Examples from; Histria and

Athenian Kermaikos and the date is bewteen 520–490 BC. Another

type has thinner shape again with its neck and the foot of the

amphoras were narower.It is dated to 480–460 BC, discovered in

Athenian Keramikos and Black Sea.

Zeest’s high swollen necked amphora from second quarter of the

5th century BC. However in the Black Sea area, it had started

to used around 480–470 BC. Although the main workshop does not

known exactly but assumptions indicates that it is around the

Northern Agean area. (Cook and Dupont 1998, 178-182)

The last type, displays Milesian type of neck had

been made of a necesessity. Similar to ones function that

9 Third quarter of 6th century BC

62

existed at Samos island, generally in Caria region and

especially in Miletus, aim was to put an olive oil.

The begining of the 5th century BC, many pieces

were founded at Black Sea, Campania; Fratte, Tell El-Herr

(Sinai), Miletus and Didyma. Height of those amphoras are

almost 70 cm and the bellies are becoming under the 40 cm. Plus

from the begining of the 5th century BC to the mid the handles

get longer and broader (Cook and Dupont 1998, 170-178)

Samian and Protothasian types are two similar amphoras from

the North Agean. Comparing two amphoras, Protothasian ones are

not as big as Samian amphoras. Protothasian amphoras have slimmer

neck and handles have not such distance as in Samian ones.

(Grace. V, 1971)Protothasian amphoras have seen more in Black Sea

from the last quarter of the sixth century BC. (Cook and Dupont

1998, 178-186)

63

CHAPTER 4

THE CITY IN THE GREEK WORLD

URBAN DEVELOPMENT AND THE OLD CITIES OF GREECE

Until the Classical time period, city developments were not

really built. However from the begining of the classical time,

huge changings had started on urbanization. First thing that

appeared was an acropolis which protects city and then became a

center of cult. The second one is agora it is the most crucial

place for people since they come together, have commercial

activities and discuss issues. Before classical time city was

just known politically and religously and it was not well known

socially. In another words the city was not occured as center64

for residence place, though it had not seen as a residential

area in Classical time. Other than those, all of the public

buildings were placed on here which they were very few before

Classical Time. Next important development in classical time

was routes. Together with classical time, trading was

increasing with commercial and cultural contacts so that new

routes at least more developed routes were needed. In addition

to this, colonization has a big effect on this period

therefore, they have to be advanced on routes while one city

had taken. Yet it does not mean that in classical time cities

in Greece had tottally built, it was just a begining to

establish a real Greek city. Thus; many developments were still

taking place in architecturally and still there were so many free

empty spaces. As a result, can be said that it was just a little

co-ordinated cities that were establishing on during the begining

of the classical age.

Near East is known that one of the best

cultural and commercial contacts especially with Greece and

Greeks. So that, in terms of urbanisim or more likely urbaning

city state derived from Egypt to Greece; especially Greeks had

been impressed by Near East after its dark ages. As far as

Owens refers, the influences were direct and obvious. Near East

civilization did not only affect to urbanism but also impressed

on Greeks about technological improvements, writing and65

architecture, mathematics and astronomy. Among from the Near

East civilizations, known that Greeks and Egypts were in

contact in terms of socially and economically. The relation

between them was mutual. It has also known that Egyptians were

highly advanced on mathematics and astronomy. Greeks are

influenced not only from Egyptians but also especially

Phonecians were the most influencing ones on Greeks. For

instance in writing, Phonecians are the ones who has

impressions on Greek alphabet. Furthermore, in Greece

monumental stone architecture was accepted which went through to

them by Egyptians. (Owens 1992, 11-30)

When Greeks started to colonize other places,

they not only reached to the Meditereanean but Black Sea as

well. From the 8th century onwards many Greek settlements has

excavated in Black Sea and still been on process. In the

begining Greeks had various difficulties while building new

Greek cities. For instance, Greeks required lands to make

houses and cultivation. Furthermore, Greeks brought their

culture together with themselves so that also needed a place

for putting their deities.

On the other hand, can not be assumed that each

of the Greek city on Meditereanan and Black sea had been well

planned. (Owens 1992,11-30)

66

PLANNING IN THE CLASSICAL PERIOD

In the classical period there is only one planning is so called

Hippodamos; that is the urban plan which existed from classical

period and came through until today. Besides this, it is the

first inscribed town planings in the antiquity.

The most common urban structure form during the

classical period was surrounded territories and having an urban

center. Although in the classical time, the main relations were

occured between the major polis 10; it should not be forgotten

that polis could have seen in Central-Southern Greece, Agean

islands, Asia Minor region where has been colonized by Greeks.

Other regions in Greek peninsula had not city-state structure

especially in todays Balkans were almost unurbanized.

Sometime later, due to the Persian desturction

on cities, they had to rebuilt cities or restored them again.10 In ancient Greece, an independent city and its surrounding region under aunified government. A polis might originate from the natural divisions ofmountains and sea and from local tribal and cult divisions. Usually the townwas walled and contained a citadel on raised ground (acropolis) and amarketplace (agora). Government was centred in the town; usually there was anassembly of citizens, a council, and magistrates. Ideally, all citizensparticipated in the government and in the cults, as well as in defense andeconomy. Women, minors, metics, and slaves were not citizens.-http://www.seslisozluk.net/ (Mansel Arif Müfid, 1971, Ege ve Yunan Tarihi,Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları, Ankara).

67

However rebuilding a city or restoration was not always the

case. For instance in Athens, after the invasion and

destruction of Persia, the city could not be rebuilt so easily

because of ongoing Persian danger, so that it had rebuilt

without any plan.

Starting with Classical time, the

architectural changing has in harbours, commercial districts,

public areas, residential zones endured until Roman times. In

addition to this, building improvements were also symbolzing

that how developed the city was. If we look at Miletos, which

is one of the biggest colonized Greek cities in Asia Minor, the

old city (before Ionian invasion) and the new city were almost

intertwined each other and the city was easily widened. In

Miletos, all of administrial and political and religous

buildings built between the 5th- 1st century BC. Two markets,

parliement building; Delphinion; a temple dedicated to Apollon

Delphinios, a gymansium, and another agora was added

afterwards. Besides these during the same period; an Athena

Temple, stadium, baths and a theater reconsturcted. ( Fig.54)

(Boyd and Jameson 1978, 327–342)

Another city is dealing with a really urban

planing is Rhodes. The city was loved from the ancient times.

According to Strabo’s explanation about Rhodes; it has comfort

68

with routes and harbours. In Hippodmous plan, whose name was

given to plan was a town planner of 5th century BC, made plans

that fits in Rhodes, Pireus and Thoruoi, all of the public

buildings were can be distuingished and perfectly built and can

be integrated with the street system.

Economical, religous and social changings were

opening new doors to the new town planners in Classical time

and for onwards. Establishing new towns were the results for

colonization of new cities, military domination, showing others

that a polis has economically well off. Speaking about

colonization, it was still continuing in the west and in the

north region.

With Alexander the Great, classical period was

coming to an end. With no doubt he had taken roots about city

planing from the classical period. Yet as mentioned above,

there would be always opened doors for the new town planners

such as Alexander the Great. Thus; he was searching changings in

order to advance on architecture in Greek world. During the

Alexander the Great conquests, especially commercial buildings

began to improve on cities; it shows that economic

opportunities had risen. Like Hippodomus, Deinocrates was also a

town planner and he inspired the Alexander the Great so that,

Alexander the Great by himself had a sucess together with

69

Deinocrates. He was more than militarist; a founder of many

cities. One of the best example of his towns is Alexandria in

Egypt. After the foundation of this city, classical urban planing

should have an end. While Alexander the Great conqured the Near

East, he also changed urban plans in that region, so that;

Near East had been influenced in city planing during the time

of Alexander the Great. (Owens 1992, 51-74; Boyd and Jameson

1978, 327–342)

To sum up; during the 5th and 4th centuries

BC, urban plan and number of cities emereged with classical

planning. In the begining of the classical period, while town

planing was only built sepicific regions, it started to expand

early and middle of the 4th century BC. Furthermore, town

planing had not had particular type. It was changing according

to the citys geographical, social, military and economical

situation. The diffrence between Miletos and Alexandria are one

of the examples that the city plans were changed because of

reasons that mentioned above. For sure, it should not be igonre

that both of them were different from each other beacuse they

had different citys planners and of course, they had different

perspectives. Not only those two town planners knew but also

others were aware of social problems about extending the city

life. Nevertheless politicans were also quite conscious of the

situation that city should not only consists of many buildings.70

According to people who were living in the citys, they had to

be ensure from comfort. In addition to this, city had to be

improved in order to have better seen. With no doubt, all of

these were about politics and polticicans so that whoever had

better fulfill to the city needs, people would vote and trust

them easily.

THE ANCIENT CITY AND THE URBAN INFRASTRUCTURE

As mentioned before, Urban planing does not only include street

plans such; it should be grid or not. It has much more meaning

than this. The real town planing has deals with the comforts of

people who live in that city, also with urban planing; city

should provide to easeiness to their citizens and of course

buildings should be settled in the best conveninet place in the

city. Related with this, Greeks were good at urban planing

interms of looking at these conditions. They had given many

comforts to their citizens.

When talking about ancient city functions, with

the classical era, city was started to had equal meaning with

community and this community represented himself with various

activities and buildings under the name of public. The most

important area was the agora. In classical times, agora had the

71

same meaning of todays meeting points or main squares. It was

an open area and located on exactly the center of the city. For

Greeks agora means not only where the community get together

and discuss ideas, it also meant that agora was the linking

point to reach each route. The architecture of an agora did not

build very fast, and generally it was built piece by piece. In

Greek world, Gymanisum was also having a significant role. In

gymanisum, people were relaxing and having social relations.

Besides these, other public buildings such as; administrative

buildings, stoas, temples, altars, statutes were surrounded on

agora while the city was flourishing and the buildings were

built seperate than each other. Temples in classical Greece

had three differnt types; Doric, Ionic and Cornithian.

Greek city planing had formed that houses had

rectangular shapes and they had two paralel rows so that each

house could get through to the street directly. Olynthos,

Naxos, Himera, Abdera, Paestum and Akragas the examples of

typical greek city planing forms. Another thing is water; it

was such a crucial element for living so generally speaking,

settlements were established either close to the sea or any

springs, wells or rivers. So it can be said that, water had

played an important part while the settlement decisions are

made. Water was not all the time used because of needs, it was

also showing the glory of the city. For instance in Classical72

Athens water together with planting trees was considered as a civic

improvements by Athenian politicians. (Owens 1992, 149-164;

Boyd and Jameson 1978, 327–342)

CHAPTER 5

CIVILIZATION OF THE BLACK SEA

73

Mediterenan and Black Sea can never be apart from each other.

Especially talking about the Greeks on the Black Sea can not

partly seperated from the Aegean. Black Sea took this name

from the Greeks at ancient times. Euxenios Pontus which means,

unhostile sea. The reason behind this word can be analyzed in

two reasons. One is, beacuse of the sea itself, is very

unpredicatable for Greeks. Unless there is nothing dangerous in

weather, suddenly weather can be change and with strong North

winds it can carry everything to one to another place. What is

worse than this, ships can easily lost from their ways. It is

known that Greeks love to create myths so they also cretaed a

myth about Black Sea which is very important for themselves.

That mtyh is Argonatus11. The other reason to be named as Black

Sea is because of natives at the region. Regarding Greeks,

people who lived in Black Sea were so much vulgar in another

words they were barbarians. When Greeks first time visit to

11 A Greek mythology about Black Sea; including a group of strong, brave menwho sailed with Jason in the ship Argo to find the Golden Fleece. In Greeklegend, a band of 50 heroes who went with Jason in the ship Argo to retrievethe Golden Fleece from the grove of Ares at Colchis. They had many adventuresbefore arriving at Colchis, from which they were eventually forced to flee,pursued by Medea's father, Aeë tes. The Argo eventually returned to Jason'shome kingdom (Iolcus) and was placed in a grove sacred to Poseidon; Jason diedwhen its prow toppled as he was resting in its shadow.http://www.seslisozluk.net/ Erhat Azra, Mitoloji Sözlüğü,1978, Remzi Kitabevi,İstanbul

74

Pontus region in 8th century BC, it is very proabably that they

were not welcomed. Although they called Black Sea natives as a

barbarians, Greeks did not give up and even in the same century

they started to had had contacts with them thus they became one

of the most important contacts for Black Sea.

On the other hand for Greeks, Mediterenean Sea

was not having such kind of troubles that Black Sea had. As a

result of this, they were thinking that Mediternenan sea and

contacts could be more perminant. Greeks started to settle down

in Egypt around 7th century BC. According to the Heredotus, the

relationship between man and gods were taken from Egyptians and

fit into Greek world. Aristotelus was also talking about

Egyptians, that they were the ones who cretaed writing and

mathemecian. Another historian, Heredotus, focused on

diffrences on Greeks and Egyptians in society manner. (Freeman

2003, 94-121)

With regard to Heredotus’s ( Freeman mentioned

in 2003) book of History; The Egyptians social manners are

tottally discrete from usual. For instance; women can join

markets and right to work in trading but men was staying at

home and do what generally women do in the house; weaving.

Speaking about children; sons do not need to take care their

families unlike girls. Religiously speaking, priests in Egypt

75

had been always shaved in contratst to this, outside of Egypt,

all of the priests should not be shaved. While doing

calculation or writing something, unlike Greeks they were going

from right to left.

Not only Egyptians but, Persians also founded

themselves while they were in touch with Greeks. Perians and

Greeks had in contact both in culturally and commercially as

well. Like Persians, in the North of the Black Sea, Scythians

were another contacts of Greeks. To sum up; Greeks had

economical and cultural contatcs not only in Mediterenan but

also in whole Black Sea.

After the first journeies of Greeks to the

Black Sea in the 8th century BC, the sea which seemed to

beyond the civilization was becoming civilized by Greeks around 5th

century BC. During 5th century BC, Greeks established cities

that were fairly enough to be well off. Related to that, trade

also been started with native Black Sea people and Greek world.

( Freeman 2003, 110-121)

Milesians were shaped to the history and

archeolohgy by establishing their colonies in various places.

Some of the popular ones are; Olbia, Berezan and Istros.

Besides, created one of the most commercial connections in the

ancient world.76

According to the Eusabian during 8th century

BC, Milesians colonial interests indicates different

attentions. Milesians first colonial cities were Berezan,

Olbia and Istros which were located on the fertile shores and

plain lands, Milesians also chose lands that can be easily grow

and easily pass into agricultural lands. Plus these, cities

that were founded by Milesians was having an acess to the any

kind of water 12 ; they wanted to be connected by water in order

to having trade relations with inner lands. In the 4th century

BC, colonies began to increased and grown and in the same

period, trade reached its highest point around the Black Sea.

Up to now, has been analyzed that the

economically significance of the Milesian colonies throughout

the Black Sea region. What Milesians brought to the region had

been still important from the archaic period to the late Roman

times. Yet, the patterns of the colonies of them and the

structure that were established by them brought economically

huge effects to the region.

THE EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENT AND GEOGRAPHY ON BLACK SEA SETTLEMENTS

12 But in this case it was a river.77

It is clear that Greek colonists’s primary preferring was to

settle down close to any of the water, sea, river or even lake.

For the Black Sea region, they preffered to establish cities to

the sea shores or mouths of the rivers. Furthermore, they were

looking for a place has a good harbour and also can be safe for

them from any possible enemies. It does not mean that Greeks

could have only be seen in the sea shores of the Black Sea,

have been seen them inner land of the Black Sea as well. But if

it is about being settled down, Greeks were established cities

on the sea shores more. Polis in the Black Sea, were so much

different than in Aegean and in Magna Grecia at each different

period; Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic. For instance,

generally speaking one of the main difference was the farness

of polis from each other. Regarding to Hojte, it also does not

mean that poleis in the Black Sea was larger than in any other

region. Although Greeks could not been able to colonize the

whole area of the Black Sea coast, just a very little part

could have been discovered. Speaking about inner land of the

Black Sea geographically, and about the locals who lived inner

parts, there is not so many sources for it. So that the best

thing can be say it has lack of having resources. As already

mentioned above, the reason for why some of the Black Sea parts

could not have been inhabited and why there is just a little

part of the Black Sea is discovered is because of the

78

remoteness. To give an example; From Byzantium to the Phasis

could have been travelled in a week. ( Hojte 2008, 149-162)

However interestingly enough, one of the first

Greek settlements in Black Sea were at Berezan and Taganrog

which were not that close to the entrance of the Black Sea. In

this paper, previously it also had been discussed that Greeks

did not enter the Black Sea in a direct way. They went through

the Propontis. From the archeological datas it has been known

that they also settled down in Propontis and by the time Greeks

were in powerful situation at the here. It means that from now

on they could move on to the north. As a matter of fact that

Greek potteries were founded from the steppe regions such as

Nemirov and Bel’sk which proofs that Greeks moved to the very

Northern. Though before the 7th century it has very rare to

find any Greek potteries in the region. In contrast, the Greek

colonization in Meditereanan has 13 grown fastly than Greek

colonization in Black Sea. To give an example; in the begining

of the 6th century BC there were only 6 or 7 Greek

settlements existed in the Black Sea region. (Hojte 2008, 149-

162)

On the other hand, I believe to look at the

definition of settlement and the poleis sometimes might be

13 Sicily and South Italy.79

very seperate from each others. Settlement with itself can not

be mean as a poleis since polis means politically independent

and also included settlement within itself.

Taganrog founded by Milesians as an emproion, 17

around 630 BC but could not be able to survive for long period;

existed until the beginning of the 5th century BC. The reason

why it did not survive such a long time is still unknown.

However, as Hojte assumes that the city was probably

established as a trading center and after sometime the

importance of the city was decreased and by the time it

disappeared. On the other hand another reason might from the

other colonies that had their pressure on the city was

intensive so, it did not take it anymore and fell down. It was

the also the case for Picvnari and Apsaros. (Hojte, 2008, 149-

162)

When Greeks started to colonize the Black Sea,

first they had to found out which route should they fallow and

they decided to go through from Propontida14 .Before going to

the Black Sea, in the archaic period, Pario, the southern shore

of Propontida and across to the Ellispontos from east, was

founded by Militos, Erythres and Paros colonists. Not just

Pario was founded, Miletos colonists set up another community

14 Today s Marmara Sea.80

group in the Kyzikos, more eastern side from Pario and more

south side from Pario; Abidos. Besides Miletus colonists, the

people from Phokea also established group in Lampsakos and

people from the city of Megara discovered Chalkidon and

Astakos.Those two cities were in the Asian side of Propontida

and in the northern shore of Propontida, they founded

Silymbria. After seventeen years later, Herodotus would be

saying that Greeks established a city exactly the opposite to

the Chalkidona, called Byzantium that would huge benefits by

its geographical situation. (The Ancient Greek Cities in Black

Sea Region 2010-2012, 1-10)

There are three different colonization periods on

the Black Sea. The first one is starts with the second half of

the 7th century BC. In that time, there were small numbers of

colonies began to appear in the region (Mostly in Northern west

and Southern seashores of the Black Sea). Second period of the

colonization is during the first half of the 6th century BC. In

this period, there were many cities founded by Miletus

colonists, as well as Mytilini colonists.

Third period of colonization period is between

560-530 BC. Pontus region was continuing to extend. Looking

into the classical period, the third period of the colonization

era can be included into classical period. But if has to talk

81

about classical period, there were not so many colonies

founded. So as, cities that had already founded were rising

already as an important centers of the area During the 5th

century BC, Iraklia people set up cities, one in in Northern

coast of modern Romania; Kallati and end of the 5th century at

the Peninsula Tavriki in Krimaia. For the classical period,

Heredotus talked about residents in Megara that were situated

in the coastline of Thrace and founded the city of Mesimvria in

493 BC. (The Ancient Greek Cities in Black Sea Region 2010-

2012, 1-10)

In the previous chapters, reasons of colonization

had discussed though not deeply. Here; it will be analyzed more

deeply. The basic reasons why did Greeks wanted to colonize

Black Sea is of course not just including the sources for

living and trading. Apart from those reasons, they did not

only seek metals and woods from the Black Sea as well as they

did not seek only new placements because of increasing

population so called stenochoria . At the same time, there are

also some political reasons to answer the question that why did

Greeks wanted to colonize Black Sea.

Greek colonies, generally was ground on fishing,

agriculture, small industries and trade. Imports were usually simple

needs for the communities and they were importing their needs

82

from other local communities. To give an example of trading, it

comprised metals, domestic animals, leathers and slaves. On the

other hand, goods from Attika were so much popular in Pontus

region. Products like small statutes that were made of clay,

oil lamps, wearing weights, house objects and amphorae together

with handicraft products began to produce locally in the middle of

the 6th century BC. Ovens which were made of ceramics were

appeared in various places from the 6th century to the 2nd

century BC; Istria, Nymfeo, Pantikapaio, Fanagoria, Gorgippia,

Sinopi, and the Peninsula Tavriki. In Pantikapeo, Nympheo,

Fanagoria and in Berezan metalwork had been existed. Moreover,

after the 4th century BC, goldsmithery can be seen due to demand

of jewels, utensils and weapons that is made of precious metals from people.

(The Ancient Greek Cities in Black Sea Region 2010-2012, 1-10)

THE ANCIENT GREEK COLONIES IN BLACK SEA REGION

8th century BC is the period when Black Sea was started to be

colonized and it continued through the early Classical Period

(late 5th century).Most of the colonized cities on Black Sea such

as; Sinope, Amisus, Istria and Olbia were linked to the Miletus

in Asia Minor. Greek colonies economy was based on fishing,

agriculture, and usage of timber and minerals that were believed

to have fairly enough in the Pontus region. Greeks on Black Sea83

advanced on economically so that they established such centers

called commercial centers and usually they were having very good

relations with people who live in those Black Sea cities.

During the 5th century BC beginning of the

Classical Period, relations between Greeks and native inhabitants

changed because of mostly political reasons. Under the control by

Persians, there has been many local kingdoms settled in Thrace,

Scythia, Kolchida and Paflagonia. In the 5th century B.C., by

Greek towns in the peninsula of Kerch and Taman, the Bosporus

Kingdom was set up to come across with Skythes. On the other

hand, in the Black Sea’s Thrace shore which they had Greek towns,

will not have their freedom anymore due to Kingdom of Odysseus is

united the region. Looking to the 4th century BC, it was the most

flourished time era in cities and kingdoms since in this period

Greek element can be seen very much in the whole Pontus. About

religion, it is undoubtedly that Greeks brought their traditions,

beliefs, customs wherever they go. Since they have intensive

influence on colonies, like other Greeks do, Apollo temple (the

oracle of Apollo) in Didyma, located in Asia Minor- close to the

Miletus, colonies were coming to here to worship Apollo. This

information makes one thing clear that Apollo was the governor

god of Pontus. Nevertheless, comparing Apollo Leader with

Demetra, she was worshipped in more extended area in the Greek

communities; Apollo Leader was worshiped at Phasis in Kolchida. 84

Previously mentioned in the paper, Black Sea was

known by Greeks for the first time during the 8th century BC.

Thus; Greeks colonization on Black Sea does not mean that Greeks

discovered Black Sea in the second half of the 7th century. Based

on some archeological data s from Georgia and Pontus region,

Greeks first journey to the Black Sea was in the 8th century BC.

Therefore; it is very possible to say that Greek colonization

started in the second half of the 7th century BC which is at the

same time, great colonial wave of the Greeks in the archaic

period. The fallowing areas are in South Italy, Sicily, and

Western Mediterranean, Adriatic and north coastline of Aegean

Sea. The idea of colonizing the Black Sea region is mainly from

people in Miletus. According to the Strabon, geographer,

historian and philosopher lived in Roman times, pointed out that

Miletus was so popular through its many colonies in the Black Sea

and Propontida. Not only Black Sea and Propontida region, also

Megara, Teos and some other towns participated in the colonization of the area. The

biggest colonizing period of Pontus began in 6th century BC to

the end of the archaic period. In the West, Athens was the only

major city for the west coast of the Black Sea.

GREEK COLONIZATION ON THE WESTERN BLACK SEA

APOLLONIA PONTIKI

85

Today’s Sozopol was called Apollonia Pontiki in the ancient times. It

is still a small city. In the ancient times, the city was

important due to it is colonized city by Greeks. The city is

right now located on 30km south of Burgas in Bulgaria. It is the

oldest city in the Bulgarian Black Sea Coast. The city founders

and who gave a name to a city were Milesians. The city name was

given behalf of Anaximander around 611-547 BC. Milesians

discovered the city of Apollonia during the beginning of the 6th

century BC. There also many ‘’ dwellings, ceramic pottery, stone

and wooden tools’’ were founded around the ancient harbor and

from the underwater excavations which are dated back to the

Bronze Age.

Since the 1st century BC, Apollonia was

efficient in shipping. Like in many Greek colonized cities, what

generally Greeks did that made cities commercial center. Apollo’s

situation was the same; it was the great commercial and shipping

center. Apollonia Pontica had very good political and commercial

relations with major cities of Greece Miletus, Athens, Corinth,

Heraclea Pontica and islands Rhodes, Chios, Lesbos and so on.

Because, city was so active in terms of commercially especially

with trade center, its symbol was an anchor. Soon, Apollonia

Pontika will also be the center of culture and the name will be

changing into Apollonia Magna. (Nedev 2003, 95-120)

86

GREEK COLONIZATION ON THE WESTERN BLACK SEA

THE OLBIA PONTIKI

Another very important commercial and cultural center is from a

more Northern west side of the Black Sea is Olbia. The city

started to be called as Olbia Pontiki by Vorysthenis. It was an

ancient Greek colony that is located on the northwest coast of

the Black Sea. Olbia was the one of the colonies of Miletus that

is established approximately around 7th century BC. The city was

a colony of Miletus, built during the second Greek colonization

probably in the 7th century B.C. One of the stories about the

foundation of the city is from Eusebius, who settled there. To be

given information by him says that Caesarea 10, seems originally settled in

the island opposite to the present Berezan, but gradually passed towards the estuary of

the Bug, the founding Olbia. From the 6th century BC, city had become to

stable so that trade relations with neighbors were increased. As

it was almost same in whole Black Sea, Olbia’s main deity was

Apollo. There was a temple, which was devoted for Apollo

Delphinium. During visiting of Herodotus in the 5th century BC,

he described the city coins that dolphins bounced on the water.

However later on, this image had changed with an arrow images on

coins. In 331 BC, Olbia Pontica was conquered by Alexander the

Great Zopyriona and after wards the city began to decline

( Kryzhytskky, Krapivina, Lejpunkskaja, Nazarov, 389- 563)

87

GREEK COLONIZATION ON THE EASTERN BLACK SEA (COLCHIS)

Gocha R. Tsetskhladze (1992, 223–258) who has discussed the

colonization’s on the east part of the Black Sea (11 map) She

mentioned in her article the possibility of two opposite

situations had been emerged on the Greek colonizations of east of

the Black Sea (Colchis). The first perspective is that there is

not so much vary when compared to the North Black Sea Greek

colonization’s since Greeks had same reasons while colonizing

the East and North Black Sea which they had lack of land for

doing agriculture. The Greek cities were settled in Phasis

(Poti), Dioscuria (Sukhumi) and Gyenos (Ochamchire). Furthermore,

they were self-governing units and the way they usually lived was

the same with other Greek cities.

Yet, the second perspective about Eastern Black

Sea colonization and Northern Black Sea colonization has

difference on the basis. Before the Greeks were on the East Black

Sea, coastlines were the most uninhabited areas. The reason

behind this was, at that time Scythian s had the control over

that region and they did not interest on the shores. Undoubtedly,

with Greeks this was changed. In the early centuries of the first

millennium the society of Colchis had attained a high level of

development, stemming in the main from the rapid progress

achieved in metallurgy and metalworking. Absolutely opposite to

88

the first perspective, Greek colonies in Colchis, had neither own

economies nor any agricultural territories so that were very

dependent. The economy in Greek cities at the Eastern Black Sea

was grounded on trade with Greece. Their dependency has never

changed and they did never have any political power. They were

always existed as small settlements near local urban centers, or even mere

quarters within the local towns. (Tsetskhladze 1992, 223–258)

However this argument still continued. As

Tsetskhladze (1992, 223-258) discussed, it should need other

perspectives on this issue. On the other hand, why the argument

is still continued without any different perspective is because

written sources are not good enough, they are either not

completed and organized or having contrasts within themselves. It

is known that there are very significant Greek polies in Colchics

such as Phasis and Dioscuria. They should be excavated more and

probably should take everyone to further and more precise

knowledge. Other than written sources, epigraphic sources are not

so many as archeological materials because of the limited area in

the region so that they cannot give any adequate conclusions

about sites in Eastern Black Sea.

If has to need to be compared, Bosphoran

Kingdom on the Northern Black Sea has been examining and stuying

more detailed way. For instance; Greek cities at Bosphoran

89

Kingdom had more sources than in Colchis Region Greek

settlements. Scholars who stuided or know Colhics, is undoubtedly

because of the lack of evidences and not preserved of many

evidences are less numbers than studied Bosphoran Kingdom

scholars. Bosphoran Kingdom had managed to survive being a

Poleis for many centuries, As mentioned already, in Colchis

region, one of the most important Greek city Phasis had been

devastated. (Tsetskhladze 1992, 223–258)

However, in Classical Greek world, mythology and

mystery played a big role. That is why, Colchis meant more than

Bosphoran Kingdom. From the Greeks perspective, Bosphoran Kingdom

was just typical, ordinary and similar for Greeks unlike Colchis

area. When looking at the Bosphoran and Colchis cultures, in

somehow they were common for the Greek cities and at the same

time varied from each other. Starting from similarities; both of

them were colonized by Greek colonization although the diffrence

is about grade of the colonization. In Colchis, there were only

countable number of cities that had been established by Greek

colonists; Phasis, Gyenos and Dioscuria but in Bosphoran Kingdom

the number of Greek cities around 38. Another diffrences between

them was the land size of colonies. In Bosphoran Kingdom it was

growing permanently but not in Colchis. The last variety between

them was about the types of centers. In Colchis, there was one

90

type of center founded. In Bosphoran they had many types of

Greek centers.

Until now, the issues more or less were about

colonization process. Now economically speaking, Bosphoran

Kingdom had based on diverse basis. So far as classical

writer’s trade, agriculture and industry were their major economic

fields. In comparison to Colchis, Greek polies had only one

economy base that is trade. It is the only mentioning economic

activity with inner regions. All of these comparisons and

contrasts bring one conclusion that in Colchis, Greek cities

had very short life than Bosporan Kingdom settlements. Also

discussed before, the cities progress in Colchis region had

been cut. On the other hand in Bosporus Kingdom it did not have

any breaks, it continued. (Tsetskhladze 1992, 223–258)

PHASIS

Referring to the written sources, led by Phemistagoras of Miletus,

Milesians found the the city of Phasis in the middle of the 6th

century BC. The name of Phasis which is not Greek name, is

coming from a mountain where meets with the River Rioni.

Though, neither the mountain nor the river name is Phasis.

Theocritus, poet, was speaking about how this name come to the

91

city.From his sources; Mnaseas pointed out that Colchians derive

their name from Colch, son of Phasis. As a result, it might be a deity

in the pantheon; that is not suprising since many of the

colonies of Greeks were using the same tradition; Pantikapaion,

Tiritaka, Tiramba and so on. (Tsetskhladze 1992, 223–258)

On the other hand, according to the Aristotle’s,

the city did not find by Milesians.He described, Phasis was

originally inhabited by Heniochoi, a cannibal tribe which skinned its victims and later

by the Milesians. They were so hospitable that they would reequip shipwreck victimes

and the latter would, in their turn, give the Milesians three mnai and then sail away.

Because of the same reasons, (lack of evidences) there is no

any detailed information about the political life in Phasis.

Therefore, there is also nothing about Milesians that occupied

the city. Again, Phasis and other Colchis cities should be

excavated in a more detailed way.

As in other cities and regions in Black Sea, Apollo

was the popular god in Phasis. There was a temple behalf of

Apollo. Not in Phasis but in the Northern Caucasus, there is a

silver cup with an inscription that has written in Greek. It

has founded dated back to the late fifth or the beginning of

the 4th century BC. This silver cup was probably a scarification

to Apollo and the ornaments of the cup, has a snake in coil was

92

connected to the cult of himself in Phasis. ( Lordkipanidze

2003, 1297-1331)

During the fourth or even in 5th century BC, other

Greek gods had started to be respected in other regions. To

give an example: Athena, Ares and Hecate in Asia. In addition,

Hectate was also seen in Eastern Pontus, he was the patrons of

‘’nature and queen of animals. The cult of him had existed on

the written sources and had many similarities with Kybele from

Asia Minor who is goddesses of fertility. Arrian wrote, on

entering Phasis there is a statue to the goddess of Phasis. To judge by its outward

appearance, this goddess is, most likely Rhea... Zosimius calls her Artemis of

Phasis and says that a table in the name of this goddess has

been built in Phasis. (Tsetskhladze 1992, 223–258)

Settlements had been existed in classical time. From

the 6th and 5th century BC Colchian settlements were established

on the lower side of the Rioni River. Apart from Phasis,

Simagre was another settlement from the late 6th century and to

the early 5th century BC. The importance of this settlement was,

houses were had been made of wood. The evidence from Colchian

potteries showed that there were Ionian centers in the region.

Although there is nothing about Milesian occupation

in the Colchis, coins from the 6th century BC shows Miletus’s

symbol which Phasis also had the same one; A lion with turned head and93

open jaws. Thus, according to the some beliefs; it proves that

Milesians founded the city and the Phasis was a polis.

(Tsetskhladze 1992, 223–258)

GYENOS

Gyenos is another important city for the Colchic area. So far

as excavations, the ancient city was established on the

coastline around the beginning of the 6th century BC.

In the lowest ground of the settlement numerously

striped Ionian potteries had been founded. Besides this, there had

been founded many lamps and sieves from clay. These evidences

highly enough to say that the ancient city of Gyenos was

founded by Greeks, specifically by Ionians. On the other hand,

during the same time there was a population separating from the

Greek colonists who are native ones, were very active in the

city life. This indicates that natives and Greek colonists

lived together so that mixed marriages would have appeared.

94

Culturally speaking, traditions of the natives highly affected

on the whole population of the city. Design and ornaments of

potteries demonstrates that are not standard imported clay that

Greeks had used to use. The city’s economy was based on craft

production, agriculture, animal husbandry, hunting, and fishing.

The city which had flourished in the 4th century BC,

like other finals of Colchis cities, Gyenos had ended very

suddenly. It, survived until the end of 2nd century BC and

reborned between the 4th and 5th centuries AD. (Tsetskhladze

1992, 223–258)

DIOSCURIAS

Arrian, Roman historian was the only one who wrote that

Milesians discovered Dioscurias. The date of city foundation was

around the middle of the 6th century BC. It is located todays the

city of Sukhumi. Since the city was close to the sea, right now

most of the remaining s from 6th and 5th centuries is under the

water. So that, Greek potteries which are dated back to the 6th,

5th century BC and onwards especially about amphorae pieces from

Chios are remained in a few number.

Greek colonists who came to Dioscurias, undoubtedly

also brought their tradition, beliefs and cults to here. In

Miletus the cult of the Dioscurias had been extremely popular, and this cult had in

95

fact become widespread in many Greek cities in the Black Sea region (Sinope, Amis,

Istria, Olbia, etc.) founded by Miletus or that were associated with it. The city

itself, Dioscuria, it was the same situation. They were

respecting a lot to the deities and eponymous.

In the Greek mythology, Dioscurias had played a role in

the famous myth, Argonauts. The city was the governor for

equestrians, travelers and seafarers. Dioscurias was referred also the

patron of the Miletus since began to establish a new city which

is called Dioscuria on behalf of Milesians. It is possible that a

temple to the Dioscuria was built in the city. Besides this,

local production of gold signet ring had been founded a city close

to the Sukuhumi and on that ring there was a representation of

an Ionian temple complete with pillars.( Gabelia 2003, 1215-1267)

In the city, the deity Demeter was a significant

figure. From the 4th – 3rd century BC, She was depicted on

terracotta while sitting on a throne this was a local and one

production from the Colchis archeology. During 1953, a marble

grave stele was founded in the close sea shore of Sukuhumi. The

pieces of this stele was discovered under the 7 meters from the

coastline. It is representing three figures that one of them is

a death women is sitting on a throne and next to her, there is

a naked boy leaning up against her knees and in the background, there

is a young girl statute whose costume was Athenian peplos. Her

96

peplos did not have sleeves and with her left hand she was holding a casket.

This indicates an image from a death person who embowered by

her relatives ( those two children). Boy and girl on this

depiction, were drwan as they were particpating her funeral and

they were carrying special funerary gift. The date of stele is from

430- 420 BC.

The biggest question was about the origin of the place

that stele was made. For sure, this stele has absoultely

includes some Attic impressions however also some connections

with Ionain sculpture. All of these brought one certain

conclusion that this piece is a Greek origin and brought from

Greece to built on a Greek grave.

Today’s Sukhumi and close area of it had been detailly

studied. During the 6th and 5th century BC, local population

was taken to the Greek polis so that numbers of settlements were

around 10 while during the 4th and 3rd centuries the local

people settlements became almost double. Dioscurias was one of

the most active commercial center during the Hellenistic world

as well. (Gabelia 2003, 1215-1267)

One of the important city on the eastern shore of the

Black Sea. which is close 10 km from Dioscuria and 1 km from

the sea shore is a city called Eshera. It developed during the

6th century to the 1st century BC. 97

Eshera was devolping since the middle of the 6th

century BC. Potteries were founded in black figure Attic skyphoi,

Rhodos-Ionian style and also local handmade style of potteries. The

residents had the Greek alphabet so that most of the time

people were drawing Greek letters on their local potteries.

City became rising in the 5th and the early of the 4th century

BC. During this period, Attic and Corinthian type of helmets

were founded. These helmets either as a whole or as a piece had

existed among the common findings in the area of Dioscuria.

Helmets were reffered to Greek soldiers who are strong armed

soldiers. They were protecting the Greek settlements and cities

from the local people who generally were pirates at Heniochoi, the Zygoi and the

Achaioi. What Strabo said they were also trying to survive their

lives in a very crude way. (Tsetskhladze 1992, 223–258)

PICHVNARI

This site needs a specific care because there have been founded

many burials. Though it is known that, as a whole Colchis is an

extremely difficult region to excavate at settlements and

cities, Pichvnari is located on 10 km of North of the Kobuleti

town which is a marsh area so that the excavations for this

site was twice difficult.

98

This large settlement had been formed both economically

and culturally in 6th century BC. From the excavations ( 6th to

2nd century BC) indicates the importance of the settlement.

Findings were generally about the productions of pottery and

iron-working. They did not only produce potteries for themselves,

they were imported potteries to other close neihgbor areas. 30

hectars were left from the site. If dividing into periods on

the settlement, from 6th century BC to 3rd century BC could

have various findings; speaking about commercially, ordinarily

and religously local Colchian potteries, pithoi, jugs with

hollow handles, drinking cups, bowls had seen in many number.

Greek colonists were established this settlement around the

middle of the 6th century BC, however studying this site is

based on just for burial grounds.

From the period of 5th and 4th centuries BC, excavations

showed that Greek necropolis 15 was appeared. On the other

hand, Colchian burial ground from the 5th century BC and

burials of local people who were Hellenised their buried date

was from the end of the 4th until the 3rd centuries ВС. With no

exception, all of the deaths were orienting to the east while

they were buried. During the 5th century BC, at Greek

necropolis, all of deaths were buried except three of them.

Those three had been cremated into the special vessels together

with ashes. (Boardman and Kurtz 1971,51)99

At the funeral fests dated back to the last third of the

5th century BC, many pieces from Ionian and Attic potteries

were found. There are also various findings found from the

burial graves. Bronze mirrors, black-glaze vessels such as kylikes, skyohoi,

drinking bowls for drinking wine, and the findings of salt-cellars, lekythoi, strigils

represent that Pichvnari was hosting the sporting games. Other than that,

elegant gold jewelleries like; ear-rings, necklaces, buttons were

often found. Gold and silver rings, bracelets, beads, gold and silver cups were

always compared with gold signet rings. Amphoraes from Chios

and Thassos were quite common in the region and founded some

burials as a whole amphoreas.

This settlement has been having not only contacts from

Greece but also from Anatolia- Asia Minor and Northern Black

Sea. According to the evidences, some gold coins dating to the

5th century BC were found from Cyzicus, Pantakapaion and from

Nymphaion. Talking about 4th century BC, each death person had

had his or her own wooden coffins plus for their funeral

feast they had an empty space above them. As said before, death

bodies were oriented to the east side. In comparison to the

5th century BC burial findings in 4th century BC was not

having as much as 5th century BC. Burials from the 4th century

BC, had found black- glaze amphoraes, net-patterned Attic

lekythoi and small amphoriskoi. Not only these but also kylikes,

skyphoi, salt-cellars could be seen and from Heraklia there was100

amphoreas, fish-plates, cups, beads, iron bracelets and signet-rings were

founded. (Tsetskhladze 1992, 223–258)

CITIES OR COMMERCIAL CENTERS

All of the evidences signfied that Greeks who founded cities,

established each of the cities and settled down in Colchis

dates back to the middle of the 6th century BC, was Ionain

Greeks. As it is known that Argonatus was a Greek mythology

that has links directly on Eastern Black Sea region. Thus;

Ionian colonists probably had the idea from this myth about the

Colchis region. Although it is a mythology, it is showing that

Colchic region was a limited area; their residencies in Colchis

more or likely reminds them their Argonatus myth which is a land

of legend for them. Plus, since it is a myth, it has a lot of

meanings for Greeks so in somehow they wanted to fallow their

myths during in their Colchis occupation and that is why Greeks

are not putting themselves into the history of Colchis. In

reality, the region did not take their attention so much, the

important thing was they had a Argonatus myth, which deals

directly with Eastern Black Sea, makes them exicted about

Colchis.

101

The diffrences between Greek poleis in Colchis region and

in any other Greek polies was becoming obvious due to the

climate and environmental conditions. From the begining, Greeks

had not come this region specfically because of the cliamte

conditons. However situation brought them into not focusing on

their poleis structure, but more economical; such as trade with

native people in Colchis.

The importance of the weather and environamental

circumstances were also written by Greek authors. For instance,

during his journey to the Colchis in the 5th century BC,

Pseudo-Hippocrates wrote:... this land (Colchis) is swampy, hot, damp and

wooded. During any season of the year there is a great deal of heavy rain. People

spend their whole life in the swamps and their wooden or reed huts are built on the

water... They drink warm water that is warm, stagnant, made rank by the heat of the

sun and replenished by the rains... The thick mist that rises from the waters envelops

the whole land . Strabo is an another Greek author writing about

the Colchis climate, referring to what he is saying, in the

mouth of the River Phasis was sandy, low and swampy.

What Greek authors mention about environment and climate

were also approved by the studies of Palaeography and

archeology. In the last part of the 4th century BC, the base of

the ground increased so that population had to started to live

in a wooden-framed houses. During the middle of the 3rd

102

century BC, New Black Sea Transgression apperaed which means, the

rising of ocean level around 1,5 – 2 meters. Because of this,

Eastern Black Sea settlements from the Early Bronze Age was

destroyed and coastal terrace shape formed throughout the

Black Sea. All of these caused to built pile dwellings houses

after the second half of the 3rd century BC. However even this

type of houses did not survive for a long time, at the end of

the 3rd BC people had to abondened to their houses and had to

seek another places to settle down. Transgression did not stop

only with one, it continued after classical time as well.

(Tsetskhladze 1992, 223–258)

What has been discussed so far does not about

just for Colchis but for whole Black Sea. Before Classical

time, Eastern Greece was very effective in terms of production

and trading centers. Starting from the last quarter of the 6th

century ВС. Attic importation began to seen in the Eastern

coast of Black Sea. Fallowing two centuries which dates to the

classical time, Attic importations were major imports in the

East Black Sea. Not only Attic but also amphoraes that were

doing intermeditae trade in Athens, Chios, Thasos, Mende,

Lesbos and so on. On the other hand East Black Sea region, did

not have only relations with East part of the Greece during the

5th century BC to the 1st century BC also had contacts with

Bosporus, Chersonesus and Olbia in Northern Black Sea region. 103

From Colchis, timber was using in the Northern shore of

the Black Sea for ship building and also for “ pitch, hemp,

honey, wine, linen textiles together with gold and iron. It is

known that slaves were another important exporting area for the

Greeks. So, the other exports were slaves that had been

exported by Greeks to the East part of the Black Sea. However

the number is not clear. While East Black Sea is importing

timber and so on, this region was taking ‘’ fine pottery,

jewellery, wine, olive oil, particulary were taking salt from

Olbia, Chersonesus, and wheat from the Bosporus.But still, question

should be asked and answered that how crucial was the trade

between East Black Sea and the Greek world. (Tsetskhladze 1992,

223–258)

The purpose for the importings was usually asked for

silver and bronze vessels, at ceremonies for the higher

societies in the region, luxury wines and other findings which

could not be found in the archeological record. The important

thing is that almost all of the importings such as coins from

the Northern coast of the Black Sea and East coast of the Black

Sea, is existed at the Greek necropolis at Pichvnari. In this

case, it has to be disscussed about two seperate structure of

trade relation. One of them is trade relation between the metropoleis and

colonies and the second one is between local population in Colchis and its colonies in

the east part of the Black Sea. (Tsetskhladze 1992, 223-258)104

Infact, it signfies that the trade had not had

crcuial role. But the general perception was trade usually had

between Greeks and upper class of Colhics. However it is not so

true; because whenever high society in Colchis were effected by

Greeks, standard people in the region were also adopted to

Greek culture. At the same time, economy was getting influenced

by Greek colonists and new regulations were made and applied to

the Colchis.

The conclusion could be drwan that Greek settlements

were adavnced as trading centers because of the circumstances.

Moreover, those settlements in the East Black Sea were

economically playing the most significant and prominent

stattions for the Mediterenan cities. The Greek settlements in

the Colchis were independent from the Kingdom of Colchis. To

sum up until now, the strcuture of Greek colonies, are

independent administratviely and more likely were known as

trading centers.

Another conclusion can be drawn; From the begining

of the Greek colonists in the region at 6th century BC, unlike

Scythians who settled down north-western and north-eastern

coast on the Black Sea, native people in Colchis region were

taken by Greek colonists and adapted to live their lives

economically, socially and politically reagrding to Greek. As

105

mentioned above, it seems like it was not that difficult for

the native people at Colchis to adapt the culture that were

brought by colonists so that it also does not mean any

importance that they had different political structure in the

Colchian Kingdom. Yet, it does not mean also that Colchis

people did not have anything before Greeks arrived the region.

Opposite to this, from the archeological evidences it is clear

that they had already advanced economic and social structure.

This also shows the structure of relation between Colchis and

Black Sea in terms of trade relation and the structure of the

colonization. Greeks could not be able to establish their own

classical type of poleis to the Colchis because of two reason.

Firstly, Greeks did not internalized local people in Colchis.

Secondly, due to the fact that the weather and environemnet

conditions were not similar in Greece or in any other Greek

colonists in Southern part, did not have the chance to estabish

their own classical type of poleisis into this region.

After all these, the question should be asked in the

Colchis region those cities were real poleis or they were just

trading centers ? Greek colonists began to colonize the Colchis

in the middle of the 6th century BC. The way the colonization

by Greeks were not containing any unusual patterns. Right after

their comings to the Eastern Black Sea, first they established

Greek poleis, Phasis, Dioscuria and Gyenos. Before they came106

to the Colchis, Greeks had only know about this region because

of their myths and the area for them was unknown. Therefore one

of the reason for them to come Colchis was discover the region

that their myth has existed. Although Greeks did not have any

idea about cities in Colchis, it would not be the same as they

had in any other regions since environment, weather and

population circumstances. So that in another words, greek

cities in Colchis made a progress in an diffrent way. Actually,

it is not right to say that each part of the Black Sea region

was in the same situtaion. For instance Bosphoran Kingdom was

more likely to have classical type of poleis structure.

Talking about economically, especially at trade craft

prodcution was the major point for these cities in the Colchis.

Yet, in mainland Greece, Colchis region had not played an

important role. Once again, the major point was Greeks for

Colchis was because of their famous myth which is Golden Fleece

and Medea. (Tsetskhladze 1992, 223-258)

Finally, there were many ideas about the region, local and

Greeks on the Black Sea. Related with that, how and why did

they come also how was the strcuture of the poleis in the

Colchis region and what were the diffrences that make them

seperate than other colonized polies by Greeks. Together with

all of these discussions, from the author of this article

explains that there is a huge debate still going on about107

Greeks in Eastern Black Sea. The one reason that why there are

still in huge contradicts is because of the lack of primary

sources for that area. Author indicates that all of the sources

are secondary which means not written from the first hand. So

that, the Greek colonization on the region have still keeping

many questions itself and waiting to be analyzed and studied

more carefully.

SOUTHERN BLACK SEA REGION

The Pontic sea shore was not look like the other coast of the

Anatolia. From 5000 years ago, Todays southern Black Sea region

was more likely to be the part of the Black Sea coasts rather

than Anatolia. In Sinope, which has important role not only in

Southern Black Sea area but generally from the early bronze age

to the end of Hellenistic period. Many findings were found from

the Northern and western part of the Black Sea. So that, it

indicates that Sinope was a great commercial and cultural

center for the Black Sea. Generally the idea about the

relationship between Southern Black Sea region and Anatolia was

well known in terms of economical, social in the Hellenistic

time and afterwards. However before Hellenistic time, the

relationship with most part of the Anatolia had also been

existed.( Map.1) (Donan 2008, 47-58; Manoledakis 2010, 563-574)108

SINOPE

Although there is a lack of archeological evidences dates to

that period, the foundation of the city was known by Milesians

during the 8th century BC. However the question, was there had

been already a Milesian colonies before the 8th century BC. Yet

there is an also argument about the real foundation of the

city. Some scholars believe that before coming of Milesians,

Kimmerians had already been there and they were the ones who

founded the city of Sinope. But Hojte avaoided to give any date

or discuss about the existence of the Kimmerians and believes

that a city can be found two times as the case of Sinope.

Furthermore he pointed out that Greek colonists ( Milesians)

did not discover the Sinope promontory in other words Milesians

did not find an empty land ( terra nullius) and established the

city of Sinope. Undoubdetly there were people before Milesians,

they came here and archeological evidences show that they lived

in the coastal zone as well; at Sinop Kale, Gerze, Akliman and

those people who came before Mileasians had contacts from other

regions. In conclusion, it can be said that there were two

seperate foundation dates for the city of Sinope in the 7th

century BC. (Donan 2008, 47–58; Manoledakis 2010, 566-574)

The city of Sinope, is located in the Northern part of

Anatolia and Southern part of the whole Black Sea area. The

109

place is located between two coastal valleys; Inceburun and

Boztepe . These two valleys had crucial point at Sinope for

local fishing and transporting local products to the primary port of Sinope

during distrubition overseas. Sinope was also connecting the Boztepe

from north to the south by its geographic situation. The major

port was in the southern part of Sinope but sometimes because

of the winds direction, Northern port was becoming the main

port. The importance of the Sinope port was situated directly

to the Crimean Peninsula which makes it very charming and it is

the northernmost point in Anatolia. On the other hand, west

Sinope was popular with shipbuilding timber and east Sinope was a

rare example for producing olive.

The history of the Sinope for Greeks began in the 7th

century BC during Greek colonization which existed by

Milesians. So, after the city’s foundation, referring to

Xenephons writings, the city was hosted many colonies

especially for the economic reasons. Thus; these colonies aims

were to be connected to the main city in terms of politically

and economically. At the same time, from the evidences, those

colonies were getting so close contacts with Greeks in the

inner part of the Sinope that were becoming to be seen in the

4th century BC. (Donan 2008, 47–58; Manoledakis 2010, 566-574)

110

CHALCHKEDON

Chalckedon was one of the interesting cities that Greek

colonists found out. It was founded 17 years before than

Byzantion, located exactly the opposite side of the Chalckedon.

Geographically speaking, Chalckedon is located on the Asian part

of the Bosphrous ( Sea of Marmara) while Byzantion is on the

Eurpean part of the Bosphorus. In modern times, both Chalckedon

and Byzantion are in the Istanbul though Byzantion is known as

the oldest Istanbul. Going back to the foundations and colonies

of those two cities, Thracians were at the Byzantion and they

refused Greeks to enter Byzantion. Another Interesting thing,

problem was solved by building a bridge from Asian part to the

Euroepan part so that Greeks could enter the Byzantion and

establish colonies there and nowadays Istanbul is also

connected with Asian part to the Europe part with 2 different

bridges. This city, would always be desire for not only

Thracians but also by other colonies. Moreover, always come

across with colonies that would like to settled down. (Donan

2008, pp. 47–58)

While talking about Greeks on the Black Sea coasts’ it would

be better to talk about also the percepion of Greeks to the

natives in this region. According to Greeks, native people in

the Black Sea were not civilized.In another words they were

111

barbarous people. Although Greeks had relations with native

people in the region, it does not show that they got along all

the time. There is so much information about Greek- Barbarian

relations one of them is building fortification walls. It can

be perceived that fortification walls directly relates with

the enemies. However the reason to build fortification walls

might have means other than having or threated by the enemies.

In the Northern Black Sea region, there was not finding

any fortification wall in the 7th until the begining and the

middle of the 6th century BC. When it is coming to the end of

the 6th century BC, in Porthmion, from the excavation analyses,

it shows that there were destruction levels means there was something

happened at the end of the 6th century BC. (Højte 2008, 149-

162)

If should be pointed out once again that why did Greeks

come to the Black Sea, according to many scholars, they come to

get metals from southern eastern part, to get grain from

northern, to get slaves from both northern and eastern part of

the Black Sea, and to get timber from the southern region of

Black Sea. Another idea for Greeks that why did they come to

Black Sea was not about their willingness but they needed to

have extended land. Other idea is about more political that is

disccused in this paper as well that they needed some political

112

refugees. Together with all of these, assumption can be done

that Greeks were effective colonists and they could have

decided where to settle or not. So that, at those places where

they did not create any poleis should not because they were not

allowed but there were not anything that can meet their needs.

On the other hand, if Greeks were not active very much than the

question should be asked in a way that why did locals led them

to settle at other places? What was their benefit from Greeks?

Or Were Greeks so blind not to calculate their exchanings of

wine to some beads or grains? (Silver 1995, 46-69)

It might be a quiet unusual thinking way but it seems that

the way Hojte approcahes the question and the issue right. From

the outside it seems that Greek colonits and Greeks were the

only ones who benefited from their incoming sources. However

local ones were also profited from the Greek colonists incomes.

For instance, native elits had also the chance to show social

and economical status by importing items from Greeks. Lastly,

the author concluded that there can not be one way of benefit.

(Højte 2008,149- 162)

Regarding Platon’s words by the time Greek cities were incereasing

numberly but some places were not be inhabited, the living situtation for

Greeks more extended and according to Platon Greeks were living

also in inner lands. At this point, according to authors

113

belief, Platon is probably talking about the 5th century and

anfterwards. The places that Greek settlements never existed is

mostly located on southern and western Crimea, Caucasus coast

which is from Pityous to Torikos, Thracian Bosphorus and Eastern

Dnieper. The question should be asked why these places did not

inhabited? It might have two answers. The first one is Greeks

did not want to establish cities here and the second one is

local people who lived those areas did not led Greeks to settle

down at those places. The first answer can not be just beacuse

Greeks did not want to settle down so they did not establish

cities. The reason behind their unwillingness is because of the

quality of the lands. As it is known that Greeks were not only

sailors but they were also doing agriculture. So, in those

lands, assuming that lands are not well enough to make any

agriculture. Generally, in those lands according to Hojter,

Greeks did not allowed to do agriculture and sometimes they

were worked as pirates. At this point another question can be

asked, if there is no one beside locals at those areas than why

did natives need piracy ? The only logical answer can be

because of practical issues, since it was very common to make a

practice in the name of piracy. Ovid mentioned that pirates

were going through the east of the Black Sea to the west. Like

mentioned above, Southwestern Crimea was another place that

Greeks could not be able to establish their cities. There were

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Taurians and they did not give a chance to Greeks to settle

down. In Tauric Chersonesus, it was the most safest harbour in

the Black Sea. At this area, the existing tribe was Taurians

and from the archeological evidences indicates that Greek

potteries were only apperead in the 5th century BC and

aftterwards. It is also true that Greeks only had been existed

here with a very powerful and strong army from Heraklian

colonies at the end of the 5th century BC. (Højte, 2008 149-

162)

COMPARISON OF GREEK COLONIES AT IBERIA AND BLACK SEA

In comparision the west and east Greek myths, it can be said that

East myth, Arganoutus, is a unique myth that can not be founded

anywhere else in the West. According to the legend, Arganoutus

had been chance to pass on Strait of Gibraltar. The one of the

most popular ancient historain Strabo talked about Arganotus myth

as well. Regarding his writings, Heracles was with Arganonatus

during the journey to find a Golden Fleece.

Interestingly enough that even there is many distance

between the Black Sea and Southeastern coast of Spain

( Iberians) regarding to some sources, Iberians might have

known the Golden Fleet myth since it is shown in Santa Pola in

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one of the Attic glass from the 4th century BC. Or another

explanation for this glass that they might had used this glass

without knowing anything about the myth. (Faudot; Fraysse; Geny

(eds.), Martinez 2002, 15-21)

This part is analyzing the diffrences and the

similarities between Greek colonization in the Black Sea region

as well as in the west region, most likely at Greek Iberia. It

sounds a bit unusual when it is heard Greek Iberia though it is not

a very old thesis. It is quite new and many of the scholar were

agreed on that the name of Iberia got name from Greeks. Even

though the thesis is not that old, also many of the ancient

historians and geoghraphers were mentioned Iberian peninsula such as;

Herodotus, Polybius and finally Strabo. What they are saying is

that the name of the Iber has no connection with the Iber river

so that the common idea was Greeks knew this land before.

Greek colonists went to the Black Sea in order to

fulfill their needs. The Greeks colonized the Iberia in the same

reasons. According to the author, the foundation of Sinope dates

back to the 632 – 631 which has almost the same date of Colaios’s

arriving to the Tartessos. Furthermore Herodotus, added that

Colaios is the first Greek person who went to Tartessos and came

back with full of metals.

116

Greek influence in Iberia can also be seen with art and

sculptures. Starting from the 6th century BC until the

Carthaginians arrivals, the whole Southeast of Spain had been

manipulated in terms of art and sculpture by Greeks. The

different effect between Black Sea and Iberian coast is that,

so far it could not founded in the same type of sculpture that

Iberia has been effected. To give an example to Iberia

sculpture that has been greatly influenced by Greek sculpture

is The Elche's Lady which is dated back to the 4th century BC. This

sculpture has some similarities with Hera of Selinus or another one

founded in Syracuse and right now it is in the Vatican Museum.

(Faudot; Fraysse; Geny (eds.), Martinez 2002, 15-21)

In the area of Albacete, the sanctuary of the Cerro de los

Santos from the 4th century BC stone was used during the votive

offerings. At these offerings, the main displaying was men and

women and most of them had offering glasses for liquids. In the Black

Sea region there is nothing can be find like votive offerings.

Besides Black Sea, nothing about votive offerings in the

Iberian sanctuaries of Sierra Morena had been founded. At the

Northeastern part of the Iberian Peninsula, the small votive

offerings which were made of not stone but bronze and similar

to offerings in Cerro de Los Santos, the depictions were men;

women or warriors could be seen.

117

Differences with Black Sea and Iberia are seen also in

other types of Iberian sanctuaries the ones at El Cigarralejo (Murcia)

and Pinos Puente’s with votive offerings of horses, in the Black Sea region

there is no any such kind of offering images. However, in

Murcia specifically at Jumilla, funeral monument founded from

the 4th century BC. It is demonstrating a farewell image. The

detail of the image was a woman who is sitting and waving to

his son. It is for sure that image contains Attic impressions

from the attic gravestone dated back to the 5th century BC. It

has some similarities with a gravestone; it is founded in

Southern Russia. (Faudot; Fraysse; Geny (eds.), Martinez 2002,

15-21)

Talking about potteries, in the 5th century BC, Attic

pottery was not seen often in the Iberia peninsula. However

with 4th century BC it changed; when the time of Attic pottery

workshops exported to the both South of Russia and South of Iberia.

Nevertheless, during the 4th century BC when Attic potteries

started to be seen often, the broughters was not Greeks but

Carthagianinas. The Attic pottery workshops also exports the

same type of pieces to the Southern Russia as well as Castulo

and Huelva but not with a good quality. Comparing with coins, the

oldest coins was used in Emporion between the years of 460 –

300 BC since before they were using potteries instead of money.

118

These years almost matches with Phasian’s silver coins in the

Colchis area.

As discussed in the begining of this chapter that both

Black Sea and Iberia peninsula has some similarities as well as

diffrences. Actually, the more similarities between these two

areas the more interesting but on the one hand it does not mean

that they were in a direct relation. Economically speaking,

Black Sea and West had some similarities in salting industry so

that they were selling their salts to the Greek world. Wide

areas of the Black Sea and to the West. They have in common

that the salting industry was very important and exported

products to the Greek world. (Faudot; Fraysse; Geny (eds.),

Martinez 2002, 15-21)

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CHAPTER 6

TRADE ON THE BLACK SEA

The roots of the Agean civilization relied on 1200 BC. Culturally

speaking, between 3000-1000BC.it reached the most prosperities.

It starts to be felt approximetly in 6th century BC and continued

on the 5th century BC was the classical period for Greece.

During the classical time, Greece had used money more than

previous times. Thus; they had improved their skills in banking,

trading and industry and mining. Also together with classical

era, many devlopments materialized. In the political scene, it

can be seen that execpt slaves, citizens were allowed to

particpate permanantly to the administration. (Millett 1991, 68-

76)

Changes started to be felt approximately in 6th century

BC and continued on the 5th century BC was the classical period120

for Greece. After the Persian wars, it had proven that Greeks

were really good not only at army but sailing. Greeks farmed

their lands at twice in a year. One is from Septmeber to

November, the time of olives and grapes were collected. The other

one is from May to June for harvesting. Moreover, animal

husbandary played significant role in Greek economy as well.

Sheep and goats could be pastored on higher ground or along the

borders of the city state. They were also used in rituals such as

sacrfizitaion. These animals were the most productive among other

animals in terms needs of protein. Not only protein needs but

also for clothing, sheeps and goats were the most convenient

animals. Considering this, there were many settlement that their

economy based on especially sheeps and goats which means;

clothing, leather goods and cheese. (Cartledge 1998, 120-135)

Other than agriculture and animal husbandary, another very

important economy for Greece was mining. For example; Iron ore

existed in Greece. It can be melted and shaped into tools and

weapons. During the 6th century BC, trading of slaves, grains,

livestock, timber almost could not seen. However commerce was

mostly focused on small scale free enterprise which means a person

should have managed to cover his own expenses during voyages.

Commercial contacts with Greeks existed in the North; Black

Sea, in the South, Egypt and in the West; with Italy. (Cohen

1992, 66-80)121

After the Classical period, with Alexander the Great,

Ancient Greek civilization had extended from Anatolia through

Iran, Mesopotamia and Egypt. Together with this, due to extension

of new establishing empire; Roman, the places which were before

under the influence of Greek culture; now started to meet with a

new face. Thus, it brought out a new combination with Greeks and

Roman civilization. However, Ancient Greek civilization is always

making feel special and different than Roman culture. (Polanyi

Arensberg and Pearson 1957, 200-212)

Trade in the Black Sea area during the classical time

will give more concrete and better ideas. Up to now, it has been

known that the Black Sea’s economy was based on the trade

relation with Greeks. It has been written and studied for a long

time. The way of explanation of trading relation between Black

Sea and Greek was not that difficult to explain; regarding all of

the sources, Greeks came to the Black Sea region in order to

fulfill their needs such as food and natural resources. Finally,

they took grains, metals and slaves from the Black Sea. One of

the scholars; J.Fine, (Tsetskhladze mentioned in 2005) talked

about the trade relation between Greeks and Black Sea almost in

the same way:

Greek colonization of the Black Sea was of great importance for subsequent Greek

history. A huge area, rich in metals, timber, grain, fish and many other products, was

122

thus opened to a Greek world, whose resources in raw materials and food products

were inadequate for the constantly growing population. The necessity to pay for those

imports stimulated the activity of Greek craftsmen—especially the potters and metal-

workers. (Fine 1983, 81)

However as it has been analyzed before, as Tsetskhladze

(2005, 51-73;1995, 70-83) mentioned one paragraph above; did not

satisfied with those answers. Tsetskhladze in one of his articles

already studied the trade relation between Greeks and Black Sea.

However for him, trade should not be considered as a primary

reason for the colonization of Greeks in Black Sea. Greeks,

particularly, Ionians colonized and settled down in the Black Sea

at first time during the archaic period. In fact, Ionians

colonized the region because of many reasons. It was assumed for

a long time by many scholars that Black Sea was colonized by

Ionians because of metals and grains that are found in the whole

Black Sea. Yet, this was not so realistic; some studies shows

that South, East and Northern part of the Black Sea was not that

much having richness in terms of metals and grains so that The

Black Sea region should be investigated more deeply (2005, 51-

73;1995,70-83). Besides, according to the Sceglov, (Tsetskhladze

mentioned in 2005) getting grain from the Northern area of the

Black Sea as fundamental source is quite wrong assumption yet

during 7th and 6th centuries neither archeological nor

palaeobotanical studies demonstrate that there is no evidence for123

the grain from the Scythians. Another common assumption was due

to the increasing population and lack of lands Greeks wanted to

take different lands. Moreover, they have been always settled

down close to the water, The Black Sea should have been complete

their needs about water. However, this was another common mistake

said Tsetskhladze and for him, Greeks did not colonize the Black

Sea because of water. What he is saying that the reason of Greek

colonization was not about agrarian, economical or lack of the

needs because of the high population. Other than those

assumptions, all of the mother cities had their own reason to

send their colonies to the other places so, first the mother

city of the colonies should be analyzed that why did they push to

send colonies into the Black Sea. At this point, it can be said

that in the Asia Minor during the 8th century BC, colonies that

were sent to the other regions was somehow a motivation. The

consequence of the hostile policy towards Miletus and other Ionian cities of Lydia (and,

in the middle of the sixth century, the Persians) was a reduction of their chorai, and a

grim political struggle within Miletus itself. So, that one of the best thing

in these situations was to move to other lands. Until that time,

any other colonies or groups had not colonized Black Sea yet

Miletus was aware of this and their main reason was not trade but

simply continuing their lives. (Tsetskhladze 1994, 123–6; Reed

2007, 65-74).

124

Tsetskhladze is analyzing the trade situation with

Strabo’s words, according to Strabo Greeks had been always good

relations with local ones. Furthermore Tsetskhladze continued

with Strabo’s word that from the early stages of the colonization of the

Pontus, land for settlements and agriculture was given by local tribal chiefs to the

Greeks either by special agreement or for the tribute…which is a moderate one

(Tsetskhladze 2005, 51-73)

THE GRAIN TRADE

Unlike Archaic period, in the Classical time trading products

were obvious enough too identified? Therefore, it can be said

that grain was the most important trade between Greeks and Black

Sea. Furthermore, together with Classical period, Athens appeared

on trading in the Black Sea area.

The Athenian grain trade was a huge debate among

scholars. From the Athenians and modern scholar’s perspective,

the Black Sea region was the major center for grains. Although

the scholars were different, they were generally gathering

information about this issue from the same sources that were

dating back to 50 or even more than 50 years ago. The debate is

generally about the size of the Athenian population and how much

grain was depleted. (Isager and Hansen 1975, 23–6; Reed 2007, 16-

19)

125

The first Athenian settlement established in the Black Sea

area during the second quarter of the 5th century BC. Though the

earliest Attic Black figure is founded from the 600- 550 BC,

Athenians reached to the Propontis politically. The findings from

the Athenians are discovered in Berezan, Histria and Apollonia.

The major findings from Athenians are founded mostly at Sigeion

and in Thracian Chersoneses settlements. During the time of

Persian and Ionian conflicts and after wards controls of the

Persians to the Ionians, Ionian economical and colonial actions

decreased so that Athens turned his face to the Black Sea.

Parallel to the Athenian empire’s rising, the numbers of Attic

potteries increases as well. These Attic potteries could have

been almost all colonized part of the Black Sea region but mostly

in the Bosporus area, Olbia and Apollonia Pontica. (Brashinskii

1963, 11–55)

Like mentioned previously, grain was not the source from

the Northern part of the Black Sea (Scythian s). As author

mentioned, grain was coming from the Black Sea from the chorai of the

Greek colonies. Nevertheless, if Greece were importing grains from

the Black Sea, probably it would be no earlier than the second

half of the 6th century BC. However, this date matches with the

archaic period; there are no any evidences from that period about

grain findings.

126

For Herodotus, the imported grain from the Black Sea was

not sure enough and he gave information for grain trading. During

494- 493 BC commercial ships had been sailing on the Black Sea.

Actually, Athens could have satisfied from needs of grain at the

Sicily and Egypt, but after the middle of the 5th century BC

Athenians interest turned into the Black Sea lands. On the other

hand, Sinope and and Megarian Heraclea Pontica were the major

possible enemies for Athens. At the same time, Pontus was not

having calm situation and Thracian’s and Scythian s were trying

to keep their stress on Greek poleisis. (Isager and Hansen 1975,

23–6 ;)

Going back to the question of Athens and Black Sea

relations in terms of grain trade; even in the 5th century BC,

there is no precise source has been founded that Athens and Black

Sea had made grain trade. In addition; Herodotus said about

commercial ships that were sailing out on the Black Sea but he

never mentioned that were going to the Athens. To sum up; all of

these discussions were just on the ground that has no strong

background. So, this conclusion can be assumed until the 4th

century BC. Because in the 4th century BC, evidences for grain

trade began to appeared and had become direct relations between

Athens and Bosporus Kingdom in the time of Leucon I (389/88–

349/48 BC) in the Black Sea. During Leucon’s time, Athens and

Bosphorus had in close relations; Athens had had numbers of127

economic concessions in the grain trade by Bosporus. Tsetskhladze

took Strabo’s word about the privilege of grain trade with

Bosporus Kingdom; Leucon…once sent from Theodosia to Athens two million, one

hundred thousand medimnoi [of grain]. Another scholar; Demosthenes,

wrote that Leucon sent to Athens 400,000 medimnoi of wheat annually, but in the

year of the great famine15, he sent not only enough for Athens but a surplus which the

Athenians sold at a profit of fifteen talents In another words, Demosthenes is

opposite to Leptines assumption that Athenians were paying

tariffs which equals to 13,000 medimnoi of grain. They were just

paying the port fees to the Bosporus Kingdom. (Brashinskii 1963,

118–33)

According to the above sources which mentions grain

exportation from the Bosporus Kingdom to the Athens was huge.

Here, the question might be what was the main supplement for Athenians to

balance this trade? To talk about trade, coins should be considered as

a first image however in the whole Black Sea area, coins from

Athens had founded but not so many and for coins from Black Sea

area had not been founded in Attica at all. Although the first

image should be coins for the trade, it might have some other

trade relation options that might Athenians had. According to

the Mildenberg’s view, Athenians were in contact with Cyzicenes

19 as an international economy level for their payments to the

Black Sea. (Tsetskhladze 2005, 57)

15 c. 360 BC.128

Another view from Isager and Hansen, Athens were doing their grain

trading in the Black Sea by exchanging not with silver coins but with manufactured

goods. (Isager and Hansen 1975, 51–2) They were also saying

that all trade on the Black Sea must…have been carried out with the Cyzicene stater

as current tender (Isager and Hansen 1975, 165). Besides these,

Cyzicene had been a crucial role of making local coins in the

Pontic region. Archeological evidences for Cyzicene are

indicating that there is no any evidence from Cyzicinan at the

Chersoneses. However, in Olbia and Northwestern Pontus region

evidences were found. (Tsetskhladze 2005, 57)

Referring to Mildenberg, there is some personal coins were

discovered at the Olbia and the northwestern Black Sea area

(Mildenberg 1993/4, 2).Tsetskhladze (2005, 57) pointed out one of

the law regulations for the Olbia. According to it, was

mentioning the exchange rate between the Cyzicene and local coins from the

first period of the 4th century BC. Among these regions, despite

the fact that Athens and Bosporus Kingdom had close grain trade

relation, in the Bosporus Kingdom area, coins from Cyzicene were

not founded in numerously. (Tsetskhladze 2005, 58; Boardman 1999,

238-255)

In the grain trade relation, some of the scholar’s idea is

about Athenians exchanged existed by exported pottery (Tsetskhladze

mentioned in 2005, Shelov- Kovedyaev 1985, 141). However, it does

129

not make so much sense since grain cannot be measured so that it

is not be sure of which sense this exchanging can be existed.

Author believes that it would be better to look at the numbers of

the potteries in the major cities at western and northern Black

Sea. In fact, there will be not any precise numbers for potteries

that are founded in these regions, but just to have an idea about

the potteries in these areas. At these areas, approximately 180

examples from Attic black figured amphoras and 300 from red

figure pottery had been discovered. In the Apollonia Pontica

region, specifically in the necropolis area, there are 850

fragments from Attic potteries and from 868 graves that are at

outside, were Attic potteries founded from the middle of the 5th

to the beginning of the 3rd century BC (Tsetskhladze 2005, 58;

Garnsey 1985, 201-210; Garnsey and Whittaker eds 1983, page

number 103-35). For sure that, these numbers of potteries and

amphora’s cannot be generalize for whole region in Black Sea.

Another place is Histria, including the Hellenistic time, 1700

amphora stamps had been excavated. At this point author

highlighted three sites that she should be studied on

(Tsetskhladze 2005 58; Starr 1977, 42-50)

The first one is; Elizavetovskoe settlement, located on

the Don Delta, was the first highlighted sites since it was the

major commercial settlement from the 5th century to the first

half of the 3rd century BC. Brashinskii was giving numbers of130

amphora’s; 145 amphorae that are painted and black-glazed

potteries, 107 examples are from stamped amphorae pieces from the

settlement had been founded. (Tsetskhladze 2005, 58)

The second settlement is Pichvnari. It can be called as

a Greek burial ground. The importance of this settlement is that

considered also as an Athenian settlement according to its size, it

has importance as well; this settlement is almost the quarter of

the Colchis region. During the classical time, 73 fragments of

Attic painted pottery had been excavated and apart from those,

three fragments were found in the Colchian burial ground. 90

percantage of those potteries were the mass products and among

those of 80 percent are dated to the last quarter of the 5th

century until the middle of the 4th century BC. Thus; it can be

said that these lekythoi had no either good quality or high artistic

value. (Tsetskhladze 2005, 59)

The third settlement is Vani; the place is a settlement

for the local Colchian elites. In this settlement, together with

Hellenistic type, 100 amphorae have been founded and from the 6th

century to the 4th century BC, 82 painted and black-glazed potteries have

been excavated. Thrace is another region that had contacts both

from the Aegean and from the Black Sea area. However it should be

known that Thracian aristocracy was interested on metal vases in131

pottery. That is why in Thracian tumulus Attic clay vases has

very few in numbers. In the region of eastern Thrace, Tundza and

Marica valleys in the standard quality of small vases for

offerings were founded dated to the 4th century BC. The

exceptional place was Duvanlii, here in the burials of that place

had been discovered many painted vases from the late back

figured, middle of the 5th century BC though Thracians still

preferred mostly metals. For instance in the 5th century BC they

were still interest on silver tableware. The Thracian share of imported Attic

pottery was—outside the chorai of Greek colonies—modest (Lund 2007, 183-195;

Garnsey Hopkins and Whittaker 1983, 54-90).

Another reason for not existing grain in Colchis is

because of the environment. According to Tsetskhladze, the

environment at the seashore was marshy and rifest. This caused

and gave a result that Greeks were importing grain and salt from

the Northern Black Sea (Tsetskhladze 1990, 94–5). The same

problem was existed in Histria too. Due to the unpleasant

environment for grain, Greeks imported grain at this region

(Tsetskhladze mentioned Alexandrescu in 2005) Athenian vases were

mostly founded in the Black Sea was coming from the Black Sea

Greek poleisis and settlements. Moreover, as mentioned above, if

the argument was true that those Athenian potteries were

exchanged with grain (like a payment); grain was generally in

chores at the Greek settlement. In the native settlements,132

Athenian vases were not very much. This brings another conclusion

that trade in the Black Sea – especially in Colchis area- was not

having balance trading; Greeks were the dominating in trade and

native people were just having a few attendance to the trade.

D.Braund mentioned from the Greek perspective that trade was

existed only among of the Greek population in the Black Sea

(Tsetskhladze 1995, 168). Braund also wrote assumption of Dio

Chrysostom. Regarding Chrysanthemum’s assumption, Scythian s had

not known anything about trade and they did not have any desire

for trading. In order to trade at Olbia, Scythian s wanted help

from Greeks. In other words Scythian s needed the Greek presence.

Greeks, who were doing trade in Olbia, were look like barbarians

because of the attitudes they had. They were not respectable and

they were trading in not proper way. So that, Braund identifies

these Greeks more or less as a Barbarian indeed those Greeks

might have some close blood relations - such as kinship - with

Barbarians (Tsetskhladze 2005, 60-62). In my idea, those

Barbarian might be Scythian since for Greeks Scythian s were

identified as Barbarian throughout the history. However, no

matter how barbarian they are, Greeks and Scythian s had in close

contact in many aspects such as art. ( Reden 1995, 110-222)

Surely, there was not any exportation in the classical

time from Athens to the Black Sea. So the question is how was the

payment process for Athenians? Another idea was, sources from133

Athens might have been increased the amount of grain that Athens

got. With respect to Garnsey, he mentioned what Demosthenes had

written for the Pontic grain trade, according to Garnsey;

Demosthenes had deliberately underestimated the volume of non-Pontic imports. One

commentator wrote…that Demosthenes “was a politician and so was probably not

speaking the truth. Another thing was Demosthenes was taking douceur

from the Bosporus Kingdom in order to enhance the imported grain

from the Bosporus Kingdom. However it should always be beared in

mind that from the 5th century BC, Athenians were always seen

themselves as the center of the world. Therefore; speaking about

numbers; Athenian sources might be not trustworthy so much.

(Tsetskhladze 2005, 63)

THE METAL TRADE

From the beginning of the paper it has been discussing the

assumption of Greeks needs metals – mainly raw metals so they

settled down to the Black Sea area However, is it true or not?

Until now at this paper, together with all of the various

resources and authors gave a conclusion in somehow it is true but

deep inside it is not the real case. Yet, this question is one of

the major questions of the thesis; it will be continuing to

search the answer. M.Y.Treister tried to find out the answer of

the same question. Why Ionains, who did colonized Black Sea,134

needed to get metals from the Black Sea? In this book, Treisters

studies about this issue in the area of Pontus and Asia Minor has

discussed as well. (Tsetskhladze 2005, 63-67)

For instance; dating back to the 6th century BC, Greece

had enough iron to export it to the other areas such as Black Sea

so that, it seems like there is no need to import such metals

like iron from other regions especially at Colchis and Southern

Black Sea.

While iron case is like that, gold has almost similar

results. Thasos and Lydia was one of the major sources for gold.

According to Herodotus, especially Sardis area was the source for

not only gold but also other worthy metals. In addition, Ephesus

was located very close to the Mount Tmolus where the place is

full of gold deposit. Heraclitus was speaking about Ionians that

Ionians already knew the process of gold in a detailed way. The

first workshop that has been founded so far in Sardis area is

dated to the 620- 550 BC. Again, to speak about raw metals in the

Black sea area, gold also cannot be found in the Northern part of

the Black Sea. Moreover, all of the gold production was from importing raw

metals. The only question can be ask where do they come from,

where were the origins of gold importing? Better to bear in mind

that, not only Northern part of the Black Sea but also western

135

part had no gold sources in the region. Like, Northern Black Sea;

were also imported metals. (Tsetskhladze 2005, 63-67)

During the classical time, trade and local production in

Greek poleisis in the Black Sea was based on new local kingdoms.

Among those new kingdoms, one of the famous and at the same time

barbarian kingdom was Scythian s. Scythian s were located on the

two areas. One is on the Crimean peninsula which is close to the

future Bosporus Kingdom. The second one is close to Olbia

(Tsetskhladze 2005, 62-65). At that time in the eastern Black Sea, the

Colchian kingdom was created (Tsetskhladze 2005, 62-65).While in the west,

the Thracian kingdom under the Odrysian dynasty came into being (Tsetskhladze

2005, 62-65) If we have to look at those regions tumulus, local

elites were having highly enough amounts of metal items such as;

metal vessels, mirrors, jewelery. It seems like they were brought

from Greece however most of them were produced in the Black Sea

at Greek settlements.

It is well known that the Greeks used to establish

workshops to produce metal objects and jewelery for the local

nobility, adapting their products to local taste. To proof this,

archeological sources indicates that in the major Greek cities in

Northern Black Sea, there had been advanced metal production that

is done by locals. However again, the origin of the raw material

is not clear. According to one idea, the payment between Athens

136

and Black Sea was based on exporting of raw materials, which is

the opposite from the regular belief that Greeks went to the

Black Sea in order to fulfill their raw material needs. However,

if this idea has accepted, would change all of the ideas about

colonization and trade. (Tsetskhladze 2005, 65)

Other topic is about the arts in the Northern Black Sea.

Scythians were so popular with their metal animal figured objects

that were made by Greeks in the Greeks cities of the Northern

Black Sea and in the Bosporus Kingdom. However, those metal

animal items were from Scythians- characteristic of the Scythian

art was animal figures- they were highly similar to the Greek

features (Boardman 1994, 256-264). The question should ask that

why there are such similarities between Greek and Scythian art.

The answer is because either Greeks were forced to make these

items for Scythian elites or because of the trade reason between

Greeks and Scythians.

In Colchis area, during the classical time, coins were

found in the Black Sea but nothing about objects that were

reflecting items from houses of the local elites and the Greek

workshops that were making metal objects for them (Dundua 1987,

9–32).According to the author of the book, the relationship

between Greeks in the Black Sea and the local elites in the Black

Sea was not based on the trade but based on gift-giving.

137

THE SLAVE TRADE

For Greeks one of the main trade types with Black Sea was slave

Trade. From the Greek perspective, Black Sea was the biggest area

for slaves. Strabo and Polybius talked about slavery in Black Sea

as well. Nevertheless, what written sources are saying that the

only place dealt with slavery in the Black Sea was the Tanais

though that was not founded anything before the Hellenistic

period.

Keeping Slaveries is especially common in Northern Greece,

Thrace. Later on inlands of Asia Minor was becoming popular for

slavery production. Sooner, it is going to be understandable that

30 percent of the Greece population would keeping slaves and it

will be quite common for Greeks to keep people as in this

position. (Reed 2007, 20-25)

Being a slave means that a person he or she had to go

thorugh in many experiences. First of all, in order to be a slave

either he /she had to erased his own native traditions or his /

her family had not been together anymore. Inside of houses there

were some rules in order to protect slave. While he/she was

entering the house for the first time, house members would always

have been welcoming him/her with ceremony. It was representing a

new begining of the life thus, slave was changed his/her own name

also. Even all of these ceremonies and nice welcomings seemed to138

pleasent, Aristophanes come up with the idea that wildness was

common towards slaves. (Tsetskhladze 2005, 66)

Most of the slaves had been working in the houses as a

domestic servant. Other than being a servant, they had been working

in the fields, workshops or in mines, which is the worst among all of working areas.

Prostituting was also very common for slave population. Even the

philosopher Aristotle’s agreed on society levels and wrote about

slavery in his Politics. According to him, there should be society

levels such as patrons and slaves. Both of them should stay on

their levels since their natures. While one borne with fulls of

power the other one should display his / her power to the people

with his own body abilities, because those people are outsiders.

The Black Sea was an area of piracy (Tsetskhladze 2005, 66). Many local

tribes lived from robbery at sea and kidnap for ransom. Crete and Cilicia were

the major areas for piracy ( Braund and Tsetskhladze 1989, 51-9.).

If has to be looked more detailed way to the written sources for

piracy in the Black Sea, what Helen Parkin said in her book that

until the 5th century BC there is no any proof about slaves in

the Black Sea area. Furthermore, she is adding from the article

of Tsetskhladze that even though if some Pontic Greek slaves

managed to come to Greece, still there is no any source for that.

What is exciting about slaves in the Pontus region, particularly

from Colchis region, is that they were all females in the

139

Hellenistic time. Besides, they were free sometime later ( Braund

and Tsetskhladze 1989, 51-9.). According to the sources that have

been studied so far it brings conclusion that Black Sea was not a

major source of slaves for the Greek world.

The major focus for this chapter was about trade relations

between Black Sea and Greeks. In order to understand their mutual

trade relation, there had to be asked not only one question but

as many as it can be. To collect many various ideas should not be

confused ones but should be read and determine the logics behind

suggestions. Therefore; together with all of the resources that

has been examined it should be rethink and it would be make clear

to minds about trades in the classical time.

140

CONCLUSION

This study is mainly focused on mutual relationship between

Aegean and Black Sea region. The subject is tried to be

critically evaluated in terms of many questions. The research

also aimed to identify the other economic and social relations

between Aegean and Black Sea. Primary resources were used in the

study. For the primary data, I chose books, articles and

dictionary.

Based from the results of the subject, each chapter with

its subtopics played an important role for my thesis. At the end

of my writing, I can say that Black Sea had comprehensively take

part in the Greek world. Actually, not only Black Sea but also

Aegean was in contact with Western part as well. On the other

hand, Aegean had a contact which is very close to them

geographically and always the closest contact for other side of

the Aegean; Asia Minor. In addition, on my thesis it was good to

work on not only Black Sea contacts; though the main part was

141

about them and Greeks. I had many advantages to have many social

and economic contacts. Regarding to this, I tried to compare all

of them in my mind and at the same time, I distinguished each of

them in terms of their features such as (location and the level

of their relations with each other). On the one hand, I also

created some good questions in order to study on them in a better

way. All of my questions brought their result, even there are

still many arguments about what I have questioned.

One of my question was why did Greeks want to come to the

Black Sea. Despite various ideas about this issue, scholars who

studied this subject had good basic knowledge. Moreover, what I

understood from sources are might be contains misinterpretation.

Since, it is very hard to say things especially from very old

periods until today that they certainly actualized because of an

author is well presenting what he or she works on. I always

believe that to study about humanities needs double study because

you might have no one-absolute result. That is why I tried to

make many critics as much as I can. Furthermore, to get a clearer

understanding I also mentioned especially the close centuries to

a classic period.

In general, my personal questions might not give full-

proof to my thesis. As said before, since it is social studies so

it is so possible not to have only one result, or it can be say

142

that due to scholar’s ideas and beliefs what they are writing can

be differ also. In my conclusion, all of my chapters have their

own importance and relations with the title of my thesis. I did

not only take the positive part of this field of studies but also

mentioned how difficult to study particularly in the Black Sea

area due to the environment. In the beginning of my thesis, I

mentioned what was the real definition of classic means. I think it

would be a very good start to thesis so that the importance of

the period and the reason why I choose this period is more easily

understandable. From the second chapter, it was very essential to

indicate how different the life styles of women and men were.

Generally speaking, it is known that men and women were equally

living especially in Athens, Greece in the classical time period.

In reality, it was quite logical since together with classical

time, democracy and all of the rights were starting to be

established. However, it was only for men, but interestingly

enough, women had rights on house properties more than men had.

Indeed, the comparison between Spartan and Athenian women, were

exciting for me. The subtitle of religion, I made comparisons

between Black Sea and Aegean’s. It turned out that while Zeus is

the most important god in the Southern Black Sea Region, Apollo

Delphinios is the most crucial god both in Northern Black Sea and

the Aegean. The reason behind this that Greeks, particularly

Milesians were the ones who colonized the Black Sea area so that

143

their most important god had been also played the most

significant factor at that Black Sea Region. Once again, general

belief about gods that most important god for Greek is Zeus was

wrong. To talk about art and sculpture in the classical period,

with no doubt has the same meaning with perfectionism.

I have to say that, all of my questions are about the

relationship between Black Sea and Greeks on economical level, to

be more specific, about trade. Therefore, I tried to give

detailed information about potteries. Here, sometimes I went back

to the 6th century, which is right before the classical era;

though general belief that classical period starts with the last

quarter of the 6th century BC. It was important for me to talk

about potteries because there are huge amount of potteries, which

demonstrates either the trade relation or some cultural relation

between Black Sea and Aegean’s.

To move to the North, Ionians started to colonize the Black Sea

region in the 8th century BC. Together with colonization, debates

are rising. One of the debates was the foundation of Sinope. One

of the debate sides is supporting that; Sinope was founded before

Milesians, by Kimmerians. However other argument was also

supporting this but saying that a city can be founded as a double

time. For me, it was very fascinating to come up with this idea.

Another author who argued that Sinope was founded by Milesians

144

was not like Milesians came to the empty or inhabited city. Plus

she gave names of places where people lived before Milesians came

to the city. The other question was not only from me but also

from author that, cities that are at the Eastern Black Sea Region

were really cities or they were just commercial centers. The

answer for that is still containing some doubts but it indicates

that they were established as cities intensively active for Greek

economy.

I did not only include potteries for studying on trade

relations. I worked on trade relations in order to give an answer

for the reason that Greeks moved to the Black Sea. Another

general belief was saying that, they moved to the Black Sea since

they had lack of raw materials and grain. However it came up that

the main reason was not economic; it was political. Therefore; I

also worked on the slave, metal and grain trades. Each of them

could not have been so much effect that Greek might have moved to

the Black Sea in order to fulfill their needs. Especially for

metal trades; Greeks in the Eastern side of their region

(Ephesus) had the most fertile lands to take golden and of course

they knew already to melt and to give a shape to golden in the

6th century BC. For the grain trade; it was exited but the

question was how did the exchange process occur? According to

sources, grain are exchanging with wines, but it grain cannot be

measured so the process is still debating on. However the most145

logical answer is with coins. Lastly, The Black Sea and the

Aegean’s were in contact both indirectly and directly and to

learn this process from a closer perspective was very exciting

for me.

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Symposium

146

Figure 1: Symposium

Figure 2: Hetaerai

147

Figure 3: Hetaera

148

Figure 4: Hetaerai in the Symposium

149

Figure 6: Apollo

Figure 7: Ahura Mazda150

Figure 8: Mithras

151

Figure 9: Mithras

152

Figure 10: Thesus

Figure 11: Heracles

153

Figure 12: Heracles

154

Figure 13: Heracles

155

Figure 14: Dionysus

156

Figure 15: Zeus

157

Figure 15 : Hephaestus

Figure 16: Artemis-Ephesus Museum

158

Figure 17: Artemis

Figure 18: Athena159

Figure 20: Demeter

Figure 21: Apollo

160

Figure 22: Poseidon

Figure 23: Kauros

161

Figure 24: Artemis at Corcyra, 580 BC, a Gorgon’s head

Figure 25: Olympia Zeus Sculpture

162

Figure 26: Chalice

Figure 27: Chalice

163

Figure 28: Chalice

Figure 29: Chalice

164

Figure 30: Laconian

Figure 31: Red Figure Style- Classical Period

165

Figure 32: Red Figure Style- Classical Period

166

Figure 33: Red Figure Style- Classical Period

167

Figure 34: One piece amphora- Nolan- Classical Period

168

Figure 35: Bell krater- Classical Period

169

Figure 36: Calyx krater- Classical Period

170

Figure 37: Coloumn Krater- Classical Period

Figure 38 Stamnos- Classical Period

171

Figure 39 Hydria- Classical Period

172

Figure 40: Lekoythias- Freud Museum London- Classical Period

173

Figure 41: Squat lekythos- Classical Period

Figure 42: Aphrodite painting on vase

174

Figure 43 Ionian Little Master Cup- Classical Period

Figure 44: Pantheic Amphora- Classical Period

175

Figure 45 Louthroporos- Classical Period

176

Figure 46: Neck Amphora

Figure 47: Fikellura Amphora

177

Figure 48: Chian Amphora’s

178

Figure 49: Clazomenian Amphora

LIST OF MAPS

179

Table 1

180

Table 2

Table 3

181

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