Acorns and Bitter Roots: Starch Grain Research in the Eastern ...

Acorns and Bitter Roots: Starch Grain Research in the Eastern

Woodlands

Supplemental Material

Timothy C. Messner

Contents

Introduction

Taxonomic Keys

Plant Taxonomy

Acoraceae

Alismataceae

Apocynaceae

Araceae

Araliaceae

Aristolochiaceae

Asclepiadaceae

Berberidaceae

Brassicaceae

Caprifoliaceae

Chenopodiaceae

Cyperaceae

Dioscoreaceae

Fabaceae

Fagaceae

Liliaceae

Nelumbonaceae

Nymphaeaceae

Papaveraceae

Poaceae

Polygonaceae

Smilacaceae

Typhaceae

Appendix 1

Appendix 2

Introduction

The following starch grain comparative collection comprises 25 families, 63 genera, and over 100 different species of angiosperms (see tables below). The majority of the plants are featured in Chapter 2. When available, conspecific or congeneric taxa were also included in order to assess the range of variability present in starch grain morphology between closely related taxa. Some of the species presented in Chapter 2 are not included in this discussion. Their absence is due to either their lack of starch (such as oily seeds and nuts) or the author’s inability to obtain samples for this research. This collection is ongoing and will remain a work in progress for some time.

Taxa in the Starch Grain Comparative Collection Family Genus Common Name

Acoraceae Acorus sweetflag Alismataceae Sagittaria arrowhead Annonaceae Asimina pawpaw Apiaceae Heracleum cowparsnip Apocynaceae Apocynum dogbane Araceae Peltandra arrow arum

Arisaema jack-in-the-pulpit

Araliaceae Aralia spikenard Panax ginseng Aristolochiaceae Asarum wildginger Asclepiadaceae Asclepia milkweed Berberidaceae Podophyllum mayapple Brassicaceae Cardamine (Dentaria) toothwort Caprifoliaceae Lonicera honeysuckle Chenopodiaceae Chenopodium goosefoot Cyperaceae Cyperus flatsedge

Schoenoplectus (Scirpus) bulrush

Dioscoreaceae Dioscorea yam Fabaceae Amphicarpaea hogpeanut Apios groundnut Astragalus milkvetch Phaseolus bean Pediomelum (Psoralea) breadroot Strophostyles fuzzybean Fagaceae Castanea chestnut Quercus oak Liliaceae Erythronium fawnlily Lilium lily Trillium trillium Nelumbonaceae Nelumbo lotus Nymphaeaceae Nuphar pond-lily Nymphaea waterlily Papaveraceae Sanguinaria bloodroot Polygonaceae Polygonum knotweed Smilacaceae Smilax greenbrier Typhaceae Typha cattail

Members of Poaceae Represented in the Comparative Collection

Subfamily Tribe Genus Common Name Arundinoideae Centotheceae Chasmanthium woodoats Chloridoideae Cynodonteae Bouteloua grama Eragrostideae Calamovilfa sandreed Tridens tridens Bambusoideae Oryzeae Zizania wild rice Panicoideae Andropogoneae Andropogon bluestem

Schizachyrium little bluestem

Sorghastrum Indiangrass Zea maize Paniceae Digitaria crabgrass

Echinochloa cockspur grass

Paspalum crowngrass Setaria bristlegrass Panicum panicgrass

Dichanthelium rosette grass

Pooideae Avenae Agrostis bentgrass Koeleria junegrass Phalaris canarygrass Bromeae Bromus brome Meliceae Melica melicgrass Poeae Poa bluegrass Stipeae Piptatherum ricegrass Piptochaetium speargrass Triticeae Elymus wildrye Hordeum barley Leymus wildrye Triticum wheat

Starch Grain Taxonomic Keys Introduction Chapter 2 presents a brief review of the range of possible plants utilized by Native peoples of the Middle Atlantic region. The remainder of this supplementary material describes the starch grain assemblages from many of these taxa. Presented here are several keys intended to guide the reader, through a series of decisions, to a proper identification of an unknown starch grain/assemblage. To use these keys, begin by carefully reading each step and then examining the characteristic/characteristics of your specimen. Decide which statement best represents the grain in question. The name and family of the taxon will then lead to further descriptions of the entire starch grain assemblage. Be sure to evaluate more than one example/grain exhibiting the characteristic in question. Once a tentative identification has been made, check each description for all species listed within that genus.

In no way does the following attempt to detail all the identifiable taxa covered in the supplemental material; rather, the goal is to present some of the more obvious attributes useful for distinguishing between major economic taxa.

Master Keys

The following aims to establish a starch grain classification using a hierarchy of discrete categories based on diagnostic characteristics present within a group and rare in its nearest neighbors (Renvoize and Clayton 1992). Within the taxa studied for this project, six main categories were assigned based on a three-dimensional representation of the overall shape of the diagnostic starch grain. Attributes or characteristics included within these keys were selected based on their diagnostic value (see Henry and Piperno 2008; Holst et al. 2007; Pearsall et al. 2004; Perry 2001, 2002, 2004; Piperno et al. 2000; Piperno et al. 2004; Piperno and Holst 1998, 2004; Torrence et al. 2004; Torrence and Barton 2006; Zarrillo and Kooyman 2006). Not all grains exhibit diagnostic characteristics needed for identification purposes, some will exhibit morphologies widely represented across unrelated taxa, and still others may in fact possess characteristics of unrecognized taxonomic value and only through further comparative work will

these traits be understood. For these reasons, many starch residues may tentatively be unidentifiable or identifiable only at low taxonomic levels.

I. Oval to Elongate Oval/Elliptical or Ovate Forms >15 µm

with Eccentric Hila

A. concentric lamellae not evident

a. forms elongated, often twice as long as they are

wide, often with parallel sides, a crescent- shaped

feature capping the hilum (sometime tapering

distally)…………………………Amphicarpaea (subterranean seed)

b. ovate to irregular cone shape, longitudinal fissure

common, hilum at thick

end……………………………………………………………………Apios americana

(tuber)

c. ellipsoidal forms with conspicuous longitudinal

fissure and only slightly eccentric hilum (semi-

eccentric)……………………………………… Quercus (white oak group)

B. concentric lamellae present

AA. evidence of birefringence in light field

a. well-pronounced evidence of extinction cross

without polarized light

1. robust, often asymmetrical or with subangular

distal surfaces, compressed in

profile………………………………Nymphaea (rhizome)

b. traces of extinction cross without polarized light

1. tends to be elliptical and globose in

3D……………………………Nelumbo lutea (tuber)

c. slight trace of extinction cross without polarized

light

1. elliptical, often tapering proximally and/or

distally, grains often three times as long as

they are wide………………Peltandra virginica (rhizome)

II. Elongate/Cuneate Sometimes Bent Forms <17 µm

A. hilum positioned centrically

a. no lamellae witnessed

1. often longitudinal fissures

i. oval to biconic………………… Quercus (nut)

2. rarely longitudinal fissures; when present,

extinction cross appears

wavy………………………………………………………Castanea dentata (nut)

b. concentric lamellae present

1. grains tend to be more oval or wedge shaped than

elongate, sometimes with initial longitudinal

fissure………………………………………………………Nelumbo lutea (seed)

B. hilum positioned eccentrically

a. often bent or wavy

1. lacking fissures or only slightly pronounced

(initial)…………………………………Polygonum amphibium (root)

2. cuneate to elongate often becoming extremely

tapered distally, birefringence

wavy……………………………………Dentaria laciniata (rhizome)

3. often with longitudinal fissure, hilum at thick

end asymmetrical………………………Apios americana (tuber)

b. symmetrical, sometimes bent

1. lacking fissures, sometimes

compound………………………………………Laportea canadensis

(rhizome)

2. oval to elongate/cuneate, slight longitudinal

fissure or depression

common…………………………………………………………Apocynum cannabinum

(rhizome)

C. hilum positioned semi-eccentrically

a. longitudinal fissure

1. can be >17 µm, lacking lamellae………………………………Apios

americana (tuber)

b. generally lacking fissures

1. often asymmetrical and subangular with semi-

eccentric hila offset

medially……………………………………………………Dioscorea villosa

(rhizome)

2. rarely longitudinal

fissures……………………………………………………………Castanea dentata

(nut)

D. compound grain, elongate forms

a. composed of two parts (granules)

1. extinction cross wavy and often distorted

medially

i. blocky or subangular and

irregular………………Acorus calamus (rhizome)

2. extinction cross straight

i. rounded and symmetrical

……………………………………………Laportea canadensis

(rhizome)

III. Oval to Elongate, Sometimes Kidney Shaped with

Longitudinal Fissure, >17 µm, Centric Hilum

A. concentric lamellae

a. lamellae fine and tightly spaced

1. concentrated toward the outer margin (generally

~5.5 lamellae visible)…Phaseolus polystachios

(bean)

2. distributed from outer margin to longitudinal

fissure (generally ~9.5 lamella visible)

……………………………………………………………Phaseolus vulgaris (bean)

b. lamellae thick and widely spaced

1. ………………………………………………………Strophostyles helvola (bean)

B. no visible lamellae

a. often appearing oval and with semi-eccentric to

eccentric hilum…………………………………Apios americana (tuber)

IV. Globose or Spherical, Centric to Semi-eccentric Hilum >10

µm

A. fissures common

a. transverse, Y-shaped fissure

1. also stellate fissures, one to three sharp

angular surfaces resulting from packing, often

lamellae………………………………………………Nuphar lutea (rhizome)

2. grain globose, occasional mildly flattened

surface……………………………………………………………Sagittaria (tuber)

B. no fissures witnessed

a. centric hilum

1. dimpling present……………………Andropogoneae (caryopsis)

b. semi-eccentric hilum

1. globose, rough surface texture, sometimes <10

µm………Amphicarpaea (aerial seed)

V. Large Bells and Domes/Hemispherical (>10 µm)

These forms are present in many assemblages but generally

occur in the minority. The following key is useful only

for those grains that exhibit taxonomically identifiable

characteristics.

A. two to three main pressure facets

a. concentric lamellae present

1. usually of equal length and width, centric open

hilum, two small bilateral facets often

visible…………………………………………………………………Smilax (rhizome)

b. concentric lamellae not visible

1. globose, perfect sphere in plan, occasionally

distal end “capped” in

profile……………………………………………………Sanguinaria

canadensis (rhizome)

B. one to two pressure facets

a. V-shaped fissures present

1. sometimes transverse

i. either symmetrical or slightly wider

than long, flattened distal

surface………………Nelumbo lutea (tuber)

b. no V-shaped fissures

1. often slightly stellate

i. often 1.25–1.5 times longer than wide

……………………………Nymphaea odorata (rhizome)

VI. Small Bells and Domes/Hemispherical (<10 µm)

Bells and domes of this size are widely occurring in many

taxa and most lack diagnostic characteristics.

A. fissures uncommon

a. tapering distally

1. symmetrical, often 1.2 times longer than wide,

truncated elliptical form……………………Panax (rhizome)

2. symmetrical, hilum tends to be centric, truncated

ovate forms……………………………………………………… Typha (rhizome)

B. fissures common

a. expanding distally

1. tapering proximally, distal segment with

asymmetrical flare, stellate fissure common,

hilum semi-eccentric, raphides

present………………………………Arisaema triphyllum (corm)

VII. Granules <4 µm or Compound Grains

A. well-defined birefringence

a. spherical forms

1. slightly irregular spheres >3

µm…………………………………………………Nuphar lutea (seeds)

2. subrounded to rounded <3

µm……………………………………………………………Agrostis hyemalis (seed)

b. angular/subangular

1. consistently ~3 µm in size with polygonal

forms……………………………………………………Zizania aquatica (seed)

2. sharp edges dominate assemblage………Phalaris (seed)

3. subangular to subrounded ~4 µm………Koeleria (seed)

B. birefringence obscured

a. spherical

1. consistently <2 µm in size……Chenopodium (seed)

2. ~3 µm in size………………………………………… Bouteloua (seed)

Plant Taxonomy

Family: Acoraceae Genus: Acorus Species: A. calamus L. (calamus)

Rhoads and Block (2000) describe this species as growing to ~6 feet, with long lanceolate leaves ¾-inch wide with pronounced midrib, aromatic, with stout rhizomes. Spadix also stout to about 4 inches long. Usage: Numerous ethnobotanical documents describe the use of A. calamus within Native economies (Black 1980; Johnston 1987; Rousseau 1947; Tantaquidgeon 1972). People throughout North America used the rhizome for a wide range of medicinal purposes including stomachaches, colds, heart disease, headaches, sore chest, and cramps. Popular ways of preparing these medicines involved mashing the rhizome into a poultice or chewing the raw root. Description of Starch: Assemblage (rhizome) primarily comprised single to compound grains, with clusters also present in high frequencies. Grains tend to be quite small, 6 × 4.5 µm, and highly variable in morphology (ranging from irregular subrounded to subangular domes, ovals, kidneys, and elongates). Small clusters comprising two granules can be recognized when viewed under cross-polarized light. Forty percent of the assemblage exhibited extinction cross distortion either distally or medially. This characteristic obscures portions of the grain, resulting in weak birefringence. (See Reichert 1913:235 for more details.)

Figure: Acorus calamus.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=ACCA4.

Summary: Acorus calamus Starch is produced in moderate levels within the rhizomes of this taxon. This assemblage consists of forms of taxonomic value. These are generally compound grains comprising two to four granules and exhibiting an elongated bent form that appears subangular and often blocky with rounded corners (Reichert 1913:235). The extinction cross appears wavy (actually composed of multiple crosses). Works Cited: Black, M. J. 1980 Algonquin Ethnobotany: An Interpretation of Aboriginal

Adaptation in South Western Quebec. National Museums of Canada, Ottawa.

Johnston, A. 1987 Plants and the Blackfoot. Lethbridge Historical

Society, Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada. Reichert, E. T.

1913 The Differentiation and Specificity of Starches in Relation to Genera, Species, etc. Carnegie Institute, Washington, D.C.

Rousseau, J. 1947 Ethnobotanique Abenakie. Archives de Folklore 11:145–

182. Rhoads, A. F., and T. Block

2000 The Plants of Pennsylvania. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia.

Tantaquidgeon, G. 1972 Folk Medicine of the Delaware and Related Algonkian

Indians. Anthropological Series 3. Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, Harrisburg.

Family: Alismataceae Genus: Sagittaria Species: S. latifolia (duck potato)

Crow and Hellquist (2000) describe this species as a perennial or annual herb, submersed or emerged, propagated by rhizomes and/or edible tubers. Leaves are extremely variable, ranging from sagittate to lanceolate, ribbonlike to subulate, and fruit achenes in globuse clusters. Usage: Throughout North America researchers note the use of S. latifolia tubers by historic American Indian people for dietary and medicinal purposes (Barrett 1952; Castetter and Bell 1951; Densmore 1974; Gilmore 1919; Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975; Rogers 1980; Smith 1928). Preparations of these tubers include boiling, roasting, peeling, slicing, and pounding. Some also mention the tubers were eaten raw. Their taste and appearance are compared to potatoes (see Barrett 1952; Densmore 1974). Description of Starch: Assemblage (tuber) primarily comprised single (simple) irregular rounded to subrounded globular, oval-shaped grains. These range in size from 7–27.5 µm, with an average size of 16.54 × 14 µm. Fissures are common and usually occur as longitudinal or tripartite Y shapes. Hila are situated in a semi-eccentric position. Discontinuous lamellae are evident in a small percentage of the assemblage. Also noted are radial marks extending out from the hilum. Birefringence tends to appear both curved and straight; arms tend to expand at the margins.

Figure: Sagittaria latifolia.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=SALA2.

Summary: Sagittaria latifolia Starch is widely produced within tubers of this species on a seasonal basis. The globose, irregular spheres with faint traces of concentric lamellae and fissuring in a tripartite Y pattern are of taxonomic value. Works Cited: Barrett, S. A. 1952 Material Aspects of Pomo Culture. Bulletin of the

Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee 20(1-2). Castetter, E. F., and W. H. Bell 1951 Yuman Indian Agriculture. University of New Mexico

Press, Albuquerque. Crow, G., and C. B. Hellquist 2000 Aquatic and Wetland Plants of Northeastern North

America. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison. Densmore, F. 1974 How Indians Use Wild Plants for Food, Medicine and

Crafts. Dover Publications, New York. Gilmore, M. R. 1919 Uses of Plants by the Indians of the Missouri River

Region. Annual Report 33, Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

Hamel, P. B., and M. U. Chiltoskey 1975 Cherokee Plants and Their Uses—A 400 Year History.

Herald Publishing, Sylva, North Carolina. Rogers, D. J. 1980 Lakota Names and Traditional Uses of Native Plants by

Sicangu (Brule) People in the Rosebud Area, South Dakota. Rosebud Educational Society, St. Francis, South Dakota.

Smith, H. H. 1928 Ethnobotany of the Meskwaki Indians. Bulletin of the

Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee 4:175–326.

Family: Apocynaceae Genus: Apocynum Species: A. cannabinum L. (Indianhemp)

This species grows to approximately 4 feet in height. Leaves are opposite, ovate to lanceolate in shape, and up to 6 inches in length, mostly petioled; corolla pink. Usage: Although widely known for its high-quality fiber, the rhizomes of Indianhemp also often appear in ethnobotanical studies of North American Native peoples. Many accounts describe people using the rhizomes for medicinal purposes. The Iroquois used it as a blood purifier and to clear yellow eyes (Herrick 1977). Other groups used it to treat pox or dropsy or as a laxative, and some even describe it as a universal remedy (Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975; Smith 1928). Description of Starch: Assemblage (rhizome) primarily comprised single (simple) elongate, cuneate to oval forms. These grains tend to be irregular. Hilum position varies from semi-eccentric to eccentric, the former occurring with the greatest frequency. A linear depressed medial area is often witnessed. This feature appears similar to a medial valley. Birefringence is well defined. Birefrigent arms tend to bend and be overall rather wavy.

Figure: Apocynum cannabinum.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=APCA. Summary: Apocynum cannabinum Starch is produced in moderate quantities within the rhizomes of this taxon at least on a seasonal basis. This assemblage consists of forms of taxonomic value; particularly

those elongated bent forms, <17 µm in size with eccentric hila and a slight longitudinal fissure/depression. Works Cited: Hamel, P. B., and M. U. Chiltoskey 1975 Cherokee Plants and Their Uses—A 400 Year History.

Herald Publishing, Sylva, North Carolina. Herrick, J. W. 1977 Iroquois Medical Botany. Unpublished Ph.D.

dissertation, Department of Anthropology, State University of New York, Albany.



Family: Araceae Genus: Peltandra Species: P. virginica (L.) Schott (arrow arum, tuckahoe)

Emersed perennials, with thick fibrous or subtuberous roots, leaves basal with long petiole, sagittate to hastate shaped, fruit amber or green berry (Crow and Hellquist 2000). Usage: As Chapters 2 and 4 describe in greater detail, ethnohistoric accounts documented Native peoples of the Middle Atlantic region utilizing the robust vertical rhizomes of this species for dietary purposes (Kalm 1937; Smith 1986 [1608]). Description of Starch: In the assemblage (rhizome), single (simple), regular, rounded, elongated oval, and oval forms occur with the greatest frequency. Elongated forms tend to taper distally, often exhibiting a flattened distal surface. Domes/hemispherical grains are also present in the assemblage. Grains range in size from 7.5–40 µm and have an average size of 21 × 14.4 µm. Hila mainly occur in the eccentric position, which is generally open. Initial transverse to slightly curved transverse fissures witnessed. Concentric lamellae are common although not visible in the entire assemblage. Cracking, which appears as two ragged lines beginning at the hilum and expanding distally, is noted. Individual double-pointed calcium oxalate crystals (raphides) and bundles present.

Figure: Peltandra virginica.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=PEVI.

Summary: Peltandra virginica Large quantities of starch are present in the subterranean storage organs of P. virginica. The elongated forms (two to three times longer than wide) with visible concentric lamellae have only been noticed in this species, thus making this morphology taxonomically valuable.

Genus: Arisaema

Species: A. triphyllum L. Schott (jack-in-the-pulpit) Plant extends from a starch-rich corm. Leaves situated at the end of two long petioles. Leaves are sessile to elliptic in shape. Peduncle is shorter than petiole and the spathe is 4–7 inches long and often green to purple on outside. Blade bent forward, spadix nearly cyclindric, and the berries are red (Hortorium 1976). Usage: Early Europeans noted that Native peoples produced a poultice or a decoction from the corm. This preparation was used for treating boils or washing sore eyes (Densmore 1974; Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975). Description of Starch: Assemblage (corm) primarily comprised single bell- and dome-shaped grains. Grains range in size from 5–22 µm, with an average grain size of 13.4 × 12.4 µm. Stellate fissures are common. Hila in an eccentric to semi-eccentric position. One to two indented facets common on dorsal side. Hila are generally open. Lamellae are seldom witnessed. Birefringence well defined. Arms tend to curve or flare out distally following the shape of the grain.

Figure: Arisaema triphyllum.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=ARTR. Summary: Arisaema triphyllum Starch is abundant in corms. The flared bell forms with stellate fissures and semi-eccentric hila are of taxonomic value. Starch from A. triphyllum berries awaits analysis. Works Cited: Crow, G., and C. B. Hellquist 2000 Aquatic and Wetland Plants of Northeastern North

America. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison. Densmore, F. 1974 How Indians Use Wild Plants for Food, Medicine and

Crafts. Dover Publications, New York. Hamel, P. B., and M. U. Chiltoskey 1975 Cherokee Plants and Their Uses—A 400 Year History.

Herald Publishing, Sylva, North Carolina. Hortorium, B.

1976 Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. Wiley, Hoboken, New Jersey.

Kalm, P. 1937 Peter Kalm's Travels in North America. Wilson-

Erickson, New York. Smith, J. 1986 [1608] A True Relation. The Complete Works of

Captain John Smith (1580–1631). University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill.

Family: Araliaceae Genus: Aralia Species: A. nudicaulis L. (wild sarsaparilla) Perennial that grows approximately 1 foot in height extending from a rhizome. Leaves are two to three pinnate, with two to three leaflets on each pinna that appear elliptic to lanceolate and are up to 6 inches in length, finely serrate with umbels up to 7 inches (Hortorium 1976). Usage: The root of this species is widely represented within the literature on historic Native plant use. In all instances, people processed the roots for medicinal purposes. Historic Algonquians used an infusion of the root to treat kidney disorders (Black 1980). Other people throughout the Eastern Woodlands prepared poultices and decoctions of mashed root for stomach pain, sores, nosebleeds, and sore eyes (Densmore 1974; Herrick 1977; Leighton 1985; Tantaquidgeon 1972). Description of Starch: Assemblage (roots) primarily comprised single to compound polygonal grains and granules. Granules generally range in size from 2–6.25 µm and have an average size of 5.8 × 4.64 µm. Edges tend to be angular. Hila are positioned centrically (an uncommon trait within starch derived from subterranean storage organs). Hila also tend to be open. Fissures uncommon, as are lamellae.

Figure: Aralia nudicaulis. Scale bar equals 10 µm.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=ARNU2.

Species: A. racemosa (American spikenard) Flowers in June–July. Herbaceous perennial that often reaches 2 m in height. Leaves are large and twice compound. Leaflets are ovate in shape and serrated. Inflorescence is large terminal panicles, fruit purple. Prefer rich woods (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: Historic Native groups of the Eastern Woodlands used the root of A. racemosa for a variety of medicinal purposes. The majority of the accounts describe the preparation of poultices, decoctions, and infusions of mashed roots. The ointment was then applied externally to treat boils, strained muscles, and fractured bones (Densmore 1974; Gilmore 1933; Herrick 1977). Some peoples used infusions for severe ailments such as tuberculosis and kidney problems (Mechling 1959; Speck 1917). Description of Starch: Assemblage (rhizome) primarily comprised single and compound grains consisting of few granules. Forms tend to be polygonal to subangular in shape. These grains range in size from 2–10 µm, with an average size of 7 × 6.5 µm. Surfaces can be occasionally wavy. Hila tend to be centric, an uncommon trait for starch derived from subterranean storage organs. Birefringence well pronounced. Arms tend to be straight and cross through the centric hilum, which is generally open.

Figure: Aralia racemosa.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=ARRA.

Genus: Panax Species: P. quinquefolius (American ginseng) Flowers in May; fruit in September–October. Herbaceous plant of approximately 60 cm in size. Leaves composed of five oblong to ovate leaflets, with long petiole; flowers greenish, fruit red, approximately 1 cm in size. Prefers mesic wooded environments; formerly frequent but declining due to collecting (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: Historic Eastern Woodlands Native peoples widely incorporated the roots of P. quinquefolius into their pharmacology. People prepared compounds and infusions with the root for treating vomiting, tapeworms, and tuberculosis (Herrick 1977; Speck 1941). Tantaquidgeon (1972) notes that ginseng root was used when all other remedies had failed. Description of Starch: Assemblage (rhizome) primarily comprised single spheres and domes. Compound grains consist of approximately three bell- to dome-shaped granules. Forms tend to be subrounded and slightly irregular. Grains range in size from 3–12.5 µm, with an average size of 8.26 × 8.01 µm. Darkened surface features can be witnessed on many. Hila are semi-eccentric to centric. Birefringence well defined and the arms of the cross bend slightly.

Figure: Panax quinquefolius.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=PAQU.

Species: P. trifolius (dwarf ginseng) Flowers in later April–early May. Herbaceous plant growing to approximately 20 cm in height. Leaf composed of three lanceolate to elliptic leaflets, each approximately 4–8 cm long; flowers white and fruit yellow. Plant prefers moist woods (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: Many historic Native groups reportedly used the roots of P. trifolius to treat ailments of the chest (Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975; Herrick 1977; Taylor 1940). Known preparations of this root are sparse. Roots were generally chewed or taken as an infusion. Description of Starch: Assemblage (rhizome) primarily comprised single (simple) domes and bells. Grains range in size from 3–10 µm, with an average size of 9.3 × 8.99 µm. Hila are positioned eccentrically and initial to transverse fissures are common. No lamellae were witnessed. Birefringence well defined and arms cross through the eccentric hila that generally tend to be open.

Figure: Panax trifolius.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=PATR2.

Summary: Araliaceae Starch production in this family varies among taxa. A.

nudicaulis starch, for instance, occurs infrequently within the rhizomes and the starch witnessed is of poor taxonomic value. Starch is abundant in the genus Panax. Many of the forms present in these taxa are of limited taxonomic value. P. trifolius, however, does produce morphotypes indicative of this taxon.

These tend to be the truncated elliptical bell forms with V-shaped fissures. Works Cited: Black, M. J. 1980 Algonquin Ethnobotany: An Interpretation of Aboriginal


Densmore, F. 1974 How Indians Use Wild Plants for Food, Medicine and

Crafts. Dover Publications, New York. Gilmore, M. R. 1933 Some Chippewa Uses of Plants. University of Michigan

Press, Ann Arbor. Hamel, P. B., and M. U. Chiltoskey 1975 Cherokee Plants and Their Uses—A 400 Year History.



Hortorium, B. 1976 Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants

Cultivated in the United States and Canada. Wiley, Hoboken, New Jersey.

Leighton, A. L. 1985 Wild Plant Use by the Woods Cree (Nihithawak) of East-

Central Saskatchewan. National Museums of Canada, Ottawa. Mechling, W. H. 1959 The Malecite Indians with Notes on the Micmacs.

Anthropologica 8:239–263. Rhoads, A. F., and T. Block 2000 The Plants of Pennsylvania. University of Pennsylvania

Press, Philadelphia.

Speck, F. G. 1917 Medicine Practices of the Northeastern Algonquians. In

Proceedings of the 19th International Congress of Americanists, pp. 303–321. Washington, D.C.

1941 List of Plant Curatives Obtained from the Houma Indians of Louisiana. Primitive Man 14:49–75.



Taylor, L. A. 1940 Plants Used as Curatives by Certain Southeastern

Tribes. Botanical Museum of Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Family: Aristolochiaceae Genus: Asarum Species: A. canadense L. (wild ginger) Flowers in late April and May. Herbaceous perennial that tends to form low-growing colonies. Leaves hairy and extend from a rhizome; flower also extends via a petiole from rhizome. Plant prefers rich woods and wooded floodplains (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: Rhizome used for a variety of medicinal purposes. Some historic Native groups prepared an infusion or decoction for treating colds, fevers, worms, flux, and tuberculosis (Black 1980; Densmore 1974; Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975; Herrick 1977). Densmore (1974) also mentions that the rhizome was cooked with food to aid in digestion. Description of Starch: Assemblage (rhizome) primarily comprised single (simple) dome-shaped grains and compound grains composed of granules exhibiting three to four facets on the distal surfaces. Grains range in size from 2–13 µm, with an average size of 8.7 ´ 8.5 µm. Hila are usually open and tend to be semi-eccentric. Initial fissures were witnessed, although lamellae were not.

Figure: Asarum canadense.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=ASCA. Summary: Asarum canadense Only one taxon from this family was included within this study. This taxon produces large quantities of starch within its rhizomes. These grains tend to be of limited taxonomic value;

however, the large globose dome forms may prove useful as diagnostic characteristics. Works Cited: Black, M. J. 1980 Algonquin Ethnobotany: An Interpretation of Aboriginal


Densmore, F. 1974 How Indians Use Wild Plants for Food, Medicine and

Crafts. Dover Publications, New York. Hamel, P. B., and M. U. Chiltoskey 1975 Cherokee Plants and Their Uses—A 400 Year History.



Rhoads, A. F., and T. Block 2000 The Plants of Pennsylvania. University of Pennsylvania


Family: Asclepiadaceae Genus: Asclepia (milkweed) Flowers in the months of June–July. Perennial herbs, usually growing to an approximate height of 75 cm. Leaves are whorled and the corolla is deeply divided. These plants also tend to have five horns within, or extending from, the hoods (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: The many species of milkweed served just as many purposes within historic Native economies throughout North America. Ethnobotanical studies note the usefulness of the inner bark for making cordage (Merriam 1966; Powers 1874). Researchers also note the use of pounded roots for treating ailments such as epileptic fits (Tantaquidgeon 1972) and kidney problems (Swanton 1928; Taylor 1940). Description of Starch: Assemblage (root) primarily comprised single (simple) and small compound grains. Compound grains composed of four to seven polygonal granules. Single grains range in size from 2–9 µm, with an average size of 7 × 5.6 µm. These appear as bell- and dome-shaped forms, although ovate and oblong morphologies also occur in smaller frequencies. These forms also tend to have two visible concentric lamellae. Hila tend to be slightly semi-eccentric. Birefringence well pronounced and the arms tend to curve centrally in many forms.

Figure: Asclepia sp.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=ASCLE.

Summary: Asclepiadaceae Starch is produced in large quantities within the rhizome of this taxon. The morphology of this starch is of poor taxonomic value.

Works Cited: Merriam, C. H. 1966 Ethnographic Notes on California Indian Tribes.

University of California Archaeological Research Facility, Berkeley.

Powers, S. 1874 Aboriginal Botany. Proceedings of the California

Academy of Science 5:373–379. Rhoads, A. F., and T. Block 2000 The Plants of Pennsylvania. University of Pennsylvania

Press, Philadelphia. Swanton, J. R. 1928 Religious Beliefs and Medical Practices of the Creek

Indians. Smithsonian Institution Bureau of American Ethnology Annual Report 42:473–672.



Taylor, L. A. 1940 Plants Used as Curatives by Certain Southeastern

Tribes. Botanical Museum of Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachuetts.

Family: Berberidaceae Genus: Podophyllum Species: P. peltatum (mayapple) Flowers in May. These herbaceous perennials spread/ascend from rhizomes and usually occur in patches, especially in mesic wooded areas. The serrated leaves tend to be alternate and simple with deep lobes. A single white flower forms beneath the leaves on a petiole from which a 4–5 cm ovoid yellow berry later extends (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: Historic Native peoples reportedly utilized both the berry and the root of this plant. The Iroquois are said to have eaten the mature fruit raw. These accounts also describe the Iroquois preparing a cake of the mashed berries. The cakes were dried and stored for future use (Waugh 1916). Historic Native peoples ground or powdered the root for use against ulcers and sores or for constipation (as a purgative/laxative) (Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975; Herrick 1977; Tantaquidgeon 1972). Herrick (1977) also notes that the plant can be toxic. Description of Starch: Assemblage (rhizome) comprised single (simple and cluster) spheres and oval-shaped forms. Subangular polygons also present. Grains range in size from 3–9 µm, with an average size of 7.35 × 6.8 µm. Birefringence is well defined. Slightly curved arms cross through the hilum, which is generally closed.

Figure: Podophyllum peltatum.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=POPE.

Summary: Podophyllum peltatum Starch is produced in low quantities within this taxon and the forms are of no taxonomic value. Works Cited: Hamel, P. B., and M. U. Chiltoskey 1975 Cherokee Plants and Their Uses—A 400 Year History.




Press, Philadelphia. Tantaquidgeon, G. 1972 Folk Medicine of the Delaware and Related Algonkian

Indians. Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, Harrisburg.

Waugh, F. W. 1916 Iroquois Foods and Food Preparation. Anthropological

Series 12. Canada Department of Mines, Geological Survey, Ottawa.

Family: Brassicaceae Genus: Cardamine (formerly Dentaria) Species: C. concatenata Michx. (formerly laciniata) (cutleaf toothwort) Flowers in May. Perennial plants rising from rhizomes. Leaves are whorled and tend to be deeply palmately three-lobed. Inflorescences have three white or purple flowers and fruit measuring 1–2 cm. Prefers deciduous woods, where it is common (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: Most references for this plant pertain to the Iroquois. They reportedly prepared a poultice of mashed rhizomes that was used for treating headaches (Herrick 1977). Rhizomes were also used to treat heart palpitations or heart disease. Herrick further describes how the Iroquois men would carry segments of rhizome around to attract women. Waugh (1916) also notes that it was eaten with no preparation. Description of Starch: Assemblage (rhizome) primarily comprised single (simple) oval to elliptic/cuneate and often “tailed”/acuminate forms. These grains range in size from 4–15 µm, with an average size of 11.5 × 8 µm. Hila are positioned eccentrically and generally appear open. Fissuring is uncommon, but initial fissures are present. Lamellae not witnessed. Birefringence well defined and arms tend to be distorted or “wrinkled.”

Figure: Cardamine concatenata.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=CACO26.

Summary: Cardamine concatenata Starch is abundant within this taxon. The elongated forms that taper distally to a point are of taxonomic value. Attention should also be given to the distortion present in the extinction cross. Works Cited: Herrick, J. W. 1977 Iroquois Medical Botany. Unpublished Ph.D.



Press, Philadelphia. Waugh, F. W. 1916 Iroquois Foods and Food Preparation. Anthropological


Family: Caprifoliaceae Genus: Lonicera Species: L. canadensis Bartr. (American fly honeysuckle) Flowers in May and fruits in June–July. Perennial shrub growing to approximately 2 m in height. Leaves are triangular—ovate to oblong and slightly glabrous—corolla yellow and spurred at base. Fruit is red. Plant prefers cool moist woods (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: The root of this species does not appear in ethnobotanical literature. Historic Native peoples did use other tissue for medicinal purposes. The bark and shoots are each noted as being used for urinary disease, syphilis, and gonorrhea (Smith 1923, 1933; Speck 1917). Description of Starch: Assemblage (root) primarily comprised single bells, domes, and irregular forms. Grains range in size from 3–10 µm, with a mean size of 7 × 6.3 µm. Hila positioned eccentrically to semi-eccentrically. Birefringence is well defined and the arms of the cross vary from highly irregular and curved to straight. Surface texture appears smooth, although occasional projections are present. No fissures or lamellae noted.

Figure: Lonicera canadensis.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=LOCA7.

Summary: Lonicera canadensis Starch is produced in limited quantities within this taxon. The overall morphology present in this assemblage is of poor taxonomic value, although when viewed in cross-polarized light

the shape and arrangement of the extinction cross is specific to this taxon. Works Cited: Rhoads, A. F., and T. Block 2000 The Plants of Pennsylvania. University of Pennsylvania

Press, Philadelphia. Smith, H. H. 1923 Ethnobotany of the Menomini Indians. Bulletin of the

Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee 4:1–174. 1933 Ethnobotany of the Forest Potawatomi Indians. Bulletin

of the Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee 7:1–230. Speck, F. G. 1917 Medicine Practices of the Northeastern Algonquians.


Family: Chenopodiaceae Genus: Chenopodium Species: C. berlandieri Moq. (goosefoot) Branched, erect annual that grows to 1 m in height. Leaves toothed, whitish, and lanceolate to ovate in shape. Dense clusters of flowers that form spikes grouped in terminal panicles. Sepals winged, fruit wall reticulate (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: C. berlandieri has a long history of interaction with Native peoples in the Eastern Woodlands. Early evidence of domesticated C. berlandieri has been documented at the Cloudsplitter site in Kentucky and the Riverton site in Illinois from ~3800 B.P. (Smith and Cowan 1987; Smith and Yarnell 2009). The cultivation of this starchy grain fell from popularity sometime prior to European colonization. Description of Starch: Assemblage (seed) comprised spherical to oval-shaped compound grains composed of numerous rhomboid-shaped granules. Granules tend to be consistently <2 µm in size. Hilum appears to be centric. Chenopodium spp. starch can be recognized by its consistent size and shape combined with a lack of visible extinction cross in compound grains.

Figure: Chenopodium berlandieri.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=CHBE4. Summary: Chenopodium Chenopodium produces large quantities of starch within its seeds. These can be difficult to distinguish from other compound grains. Consistency in granule size and shape aids in taxonomic determinations.

Works Cited: Rhoads, A. F., and T. Block 2000 The Plants of Pennsylvania. University of Pennsylvania

Press, Philadelphia. Smith, B. D., and C. W. Cowan 1987 Domesticated Chenopodium in Prehistoric Eastern North

America: New Accelerator Dates from Eastern Kentucky. American Antiquity 52:355–357.

Smith, B. D., and R. A. Yarnell 2009 Initial Formation of an Indigenous Crop Complex in

Eastern North America at 3800 B.P. PNAS 106(16):6561–6566.

Family: Caprifoliaceae Genus: Lonicera Species: L. canadensis Bartr. (American fly honeysuckle) Flowers in May and fruits in June–July. Perennial shrub growing to approximately 2 m in height. Leaves are triangular—ovate to oblong and slightly glabrous—corolla yellow and spurred at base. Fruit is red. Plant prefers cool moist woods (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: The root of this species does not appear in ethnobotanical literature. Historic Native peoples did use other tissue for medicinal purposes. The bark and shoots are each noted as being used for urinary disease, syphilis, and gonorrhea (Smith 1923, 1933; Speck 1917). Description of Starch: Assemblage (root) primarily comprised single bells, domes, and irregular forms. Grains range in size from 3–10 µm, with a mean size of 7 × 6.3 µm. Hila positioned eccentrically to semi-eccentrically. Birefringence is well defined and the arms of the cross vary from highly irregular and curved to straight. Surface texture appears smooth, although occasional projections are present. No fissures or lamellae noted.

Figure: Lonicera canadensis.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=LOCA7.

Summary: Lonicera canadensis Starch is produced in limited quantities within this taxon. The overall morphology present in this assemblage is of poor

taxonomic value, although when viewed in cross-polarized light the shape and arrangement of the extinction cross is specific to this taxon. Works Cited: Rhoads, A. F., and T. Block 2000 The Plants of Pennsylvania. University of Pennsylvania

Press, Philadelphia. Smith, H. H. 1923 Ethnobotany of the Menomini Indians. Bulletin of the


of the Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee 7:1–230. Speck, F. G. 1917 Medicine Practices of the Northeastern Algonquians.


Family: Chenopodiaceae Genus: Chenopodium Species: C. berlandieri Moq. (goosefoot) Branched, erect annual that grows to 1 m in height. Leaves toothed, whitish, and lanceolate to ovate in shape. Dense clusters of flowers that form spikes grouped in terminal panicles. Sepals winged, fruit wall reticulate (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: C. berlandieri has a long history of interaction with Native peoples in the Eastern Woodlands. Early evidence of domesticated C. berlandieri has been documented at the Cloudsplitter site in Kentucky and the Riverton site in Illinois from ~3800 B.P. (Smith and Cowan 1987; Smith and Yarnell 2009). The cultivation of this starchy grain fell from popularity sometime prior to European colonization. Description of Starch: Assemblage (seed) comprised spherical to oval-shaped compound grains composed of numerous rhomboid-shaped granules. Granules tend to be consistently <2 µm in size. Hilum appears to be centric. Chenopodium spp. starch can be recognized by its consistent size and shape combined with a lack of visible extinction cross in compound grains.

Figure: Chenopodium berlandieri.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=CHBE4. Summary: Chenopodium Chenopodium produces large quantities of starch within its seeds. These can be difficult to distinguish from other compound grains. Consistency in granule size and shape aids in taxonomic determinations.


Press, Philadelphia. Smith, B. D., and C. W. Cowan 1987 Domesticated Chenopodium in Prehistoric Eastern North

America: New Accelerator Dates from Eastern Kentucky. American Antiquity 52:355–357.

Smith, B. D., and R. A. Yarnell 2009 Initial Formation of an Indigenous Crop Complex in

Eastern North America at 3800 B.P. PNAS 106(16):6561–6566.

Family: Cyperaceae Genus: Cyperus Species: C. esculentus L. (yellow nutsedge) Rhoads and Block (2000) describe this plant as a perennial extending from slender rhizomes that end in small tubers; plant can grow upward to approximately 70 cm in height. Leaves extend from the base of the plant. Inflorescence consists of several rays, often branched at the top. Usage: Bocek (1984) notes that historic Native peoples of California ate the tubers, while Fowler (1990) describes a preparation among the Northern Paiute of western Nevada involving drying, grinding, and mixing with other foods. Description of Starch: Assemblage (tuber) comprised single and compound grains. Single grains tend to be spherical. Compound grains range from ovals and spheres to amorphous shapes. These grains range in size from 7—25 µm, with an average size of 17 × 13 µm. Concentric lamellae are visible but faint. Darkened central areas are common, probably due to depressions. Birefringence is usually obscured through this area. Hila are position centrically. No fissures present.

Figure: Cyperus esculentus.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=CYES.

Genus: Schoenoplectus (formerly Scirpus) Species: S. tabernaemontani (C.C. Gmel.) Palla (formerly S. validus) (softstem bulrush)

Wetland herb growing from rhizome. Stems round, leaves are narrow, flowers in spikelets in a compound terminal inflorescence (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: No known usage. Description of Starch: Assemblage (rhizome) comprised single and compound grains. The former consist of polygonal granules that resemble starch derived from several members of Poaceae. Hila are centric and closed. Granules range in size from 2–8 µm, with an average size of 5.6 × 5 µm. No fissures or lamellae were witnessed. Birefringence well defined and arms cross straight through the centric hilum. Surfaces appear smooth.

Figure: Schoenoplectus tabernaemontani.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=SCTA2. Summary: Cyperaceae Schoenoplectus produces moderate amounts of taxonomically poor starch. Cyperus esculentas maintains high levels of starch within its small tubers. These taxonomically valuable, irregular globuse grains exhibit a unique distorted birefringence. Works Cited: Bocek, B. R. 1984 Ethnobotany of Costanoan Indians, California, Based on

Collections by John P. Harrington. Economic Botany 38(2):240-255.

Fowler, C. S. 1990 Tule Technology: Northern Pauite Uses of Marsh

Resources in Western Nevada. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.



Family: Dioscoreaceae Genus: Dioscorea Species: D. villosa L. (wild yam) Flowers in late June to early July and fruits between August and September. Rhoads and Block (2000) describe this plant as a climbing herbaceous vine, up to 5 m in height, growing from a stout rhizome. Leaves alternate, cordate-ovate with 7–11 veins. Usage: Smith (1928) notes that the root of this plant was given to women to alleviate pain during childbirth. Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single elongate to triangle forms and elongate oval grains ranging in size from 10–25 µm, with an average size of 15.2 × 10.6 µm. Hila semi-eccentric to slightly semi-eccentric and closed. No fissures or lamellae witnessed. Some borders appear irregular. Birefringence well defined and the arms are wavy, indicating undulating surface topography.

Figure: Dioscorea villosa.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=DIVI4. Summary: D. villosa This member of Dioscorea produces moderate amounts of starch within its rhizomes. The elongated subangular forms with semi-eccentric hila are taxonomically valuable.


Press, Philadelphia. Smith, H. H. 1928 Ethnobotany of the Meskwaki Indians. Bulletin of the


Family: Fabaceae Genus: Amphicarpaea Species: A. bracteata L. (hogpeanut) Flowers in late May to early September. Slender annual vine growing to approximately 1.5 m, flowers forming along a raceme, calx slightly irregular, fruit flat with three seeds. A petal-less flower develops a subterranean one-seeded fruit at the end of a slender peduncle in the lower portion of the stem (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: Gilmore (1919) notes that Native peoples in the Missouri River region used the beans as a food resource. The subterranean fruit occurs more frequently in the literature. Field mice are said to gather and store these fruits. Native peoples raided mouse caches, thus procuring large numbers in a relatively short time (Fletcher and La Flesche 1911; Smith 1928). Fruits were often stored for winter use, which involved first peeling and then boiling them (Densmore 1974; Fletcher and La Flesche 1911). Description of Starch (two assemblages): Assemblage (seed) primarily comprised single (simple) oval to spherical forms ranging in size from 5–13 µm, with an average size of 8.95 × 7.55 µm. Hila are semi-eccentric to eccentric. Surfaces slightly undulating, fissures uncommon, although initial fissuring is present. Birefringence well defined and the arms tend to appear wavy due to surface texture.

Figure: Amphicarpaea bracteata (seed).

Assemblage from the subterranean seed primarily comprised single (simple) elongated ovals, elliptical to conic and ovoid forms.

Some exhibit flattened distal margins or attachment scars. Grains range in size from 7–39 µm, with an average size of 22 × 14 µm. Grains are usually half as wide as long. Forms thicken toward the eccentric hilum and taper distally. Dome-shaped forms also present. The majority of the grains exhibit a crescent-shaped feature above, or in replace of, the hilum. Concentric lamellae are slightly visible in a small percentage of the assemblage. Birefringence well defined (Reichert 1913:221).

Figure: Amphicarpaea bracteata (subterranean seed).

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=AMBR2.

Genus: Apios

Species: A. americana Medik. (groundnut) Flowers in late June to early September. Rhizomatous perennial vine, tuber producing, has three to seven leaflets and flowers in axillary racemes. The corolla tends to be purplish brown. The fruit, a linear bean, contains several seeds. After dehiscence, the valves coil (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: Historic Native peoples throughout much of the Eastern Woodlands reportedly used tubers of this plant for dietary purposes. Tubers were sometimes eaten raw, boiled, or roasted (Gilmore 1919). Tantaquidgeon (1972) describes these tubers as being dried, peeled, and ground into flour for making bread or to thicken soups. Smith (1923) notes that the tubers were peeled, parboiled, sliced, and dried for winter use. The Cherokee also used the beans for food (Hamel and Chiltoskey

1975). No medicinal references for A. americana were encountered. See Chapter 2 for more details. Description of Starch (two assemblages): Assemblage (seed) primarily comprised spherical, poorly fused compound grains consisting of many spherical to slightly polygonal granules and oval to ovate single grains. Granules measure approximately 2–3 µm in size. Hila tend to be centric. Birefringence well defined and arms are straight.

Figure: Apios americana (seed).

Assemblage from the tuber primarily comprised single oval, elliptical, and ovate to cone-shaped forms (although Reichert 1913:219 also describes compound forms composed of two to four parts). Grains range in size from 6–30 µm, with an average size of 15 × 9 µm and a mean size of 12 µm. Hila are open and tend to be eccentric to semi-eccentric or, as Reichert (1913:219) notes, “one third to one seventh eccentric.” Longitudinal fissures are common—lamellae are not. Grains appear rounded and generally asymmetrical without depressions, except where fissuring has resulted in a severe depressed canyonlike surface. Grains are slightly compressed in profile. Birefringence well defined and arms are generally wavy and can be distorted.

Figure: Apios americana (tuber).

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=APAM.

Genus: Astragalus

Species: A. canadensis L. (Canadian milkvetch) Flowers in late June to early August. Rhizomatous perennial herb with erect stems growing to 1.5 m. Fruits nearly rounded and divided longitudinally, creating two locules (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: Several researchers note the use of A. canadensis roots for the treatment of ailments (Gilmore 1913; Rogers 1980). Hellson (1974) even describes the roots as a staple of the Blackfoot people. Only one reference mentions the use of seeds and in this instance they were used as food for horses (Rogers 1980). Description of Starch: Assemblage (seed) primarily comprised single (often clusters) oval to ovate forms. These grains range in size from 2–6 µm. Birefringence is weak; often an extinction cross cannot be distinguished, rather a darkened spot forms in the center of the grain. Hilum is positioned centrically. Fissures and lamellae not witnessed.

Figure: Astragalus canadensis (seed).

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=ASCA11.

Genus: Phaseolus Species: P. polystachios L. B.S.P. (thicket or wild bean)

Flowers in July to September. Rhoads and Block (2000) describe this plant as a perennial herbaceous vine growing to 4 m in length. Plant has three leaves arranged pinnately, each ovate in shape and broad. Purple flowers arranged on a raceme, fruit flat, 3–6 cm, and coiling after dehiscence. Usage: No known ethnobotanical information. Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single (simple) grains. Grain shape ranges from oval to irregular oval to kidney. Grains range in size from 11–40 µm, with an average size of 16.57 × 23.35 µm. Several bold concentric lamellae are present and most become pronounced toward the outer margin. A single, often ragged, longitudinal fissure is present. Birefringence bold yet generally distorted medially.

Figure: Phaseolus polystachios.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=PHPO2. Species: P. vulgaris L. (common bean) Usage: As noted in Chapter 2, beans appear within the archaeological record of the Middle Atlantic and Northeast regions after approximately A.D. 1300 (Hart et al. 2002). This tropical domesticate is widely cited within ethnohistoric accounts of the Middle Atlantic region (Aller 1954; Hariot 2007 [1590]). Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single (simple) oval/irregular oval and kidney-shaped grains. Grains range in size from 11–38 µm and average 15.6 × 22.3 µm. A longitudinal and often ragged cleft fissure, a characteristic of this genus, is present within 80–90 percent of the population. Bold concentric lamellae highly visible and extend from the margin almost to the hilum (which is centric yet obscured due to fissuring). Birefringence is well pronounced though it is often distorted in the central area of the kidney-shaped grains.

Figure: Phaseolus vulgaris.

Distribution: Cultivated.

Genus: Pediomelum (formerly Psoralea) Species: P. esculentum (formerly esculenta) (Pursh) Rydb.

(Indian breadroot)

Usage: The starch-rich taproot of this plant occurs within many ethnobotanical studies pertaining to Native subsistence and pharmacopoeia (Hart 1981; Hellson 1974). While this plant's main range of distribution is confined to the central portion of North America, Harris (1891) reports its presence in New York State. The USDA Plants Database also includes New York in the distribution of the species (see below). Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single and compound grains and granules. Polygonal forms occur with the greatest frequency, followed by bells (2–3 facets) and domes (1–2 facets). Lamellae not noticed. Fissures visible; these tend to be “initial” to transverse in shape. Hila are semi-eccentric within the bells and domes, while within polygonal forms the hilum is centric. Birefringence is well defined and arms tend to be straight, giving the appearance of a perfect X shape.

Figure: Psoralea esculenta (root).

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=PEES.

Genus: Strophostyles Species: S. helvola L. (amberique-bean) Flowers in July to September. Annual. Rhoads and Block (2000:419) describe this plant as a trailing vine growing to approximately 1 m in length, with trifoliate leaves, commonly with one to two lateral lobes, several flowers on long peduncles, pink to purple flower with 4– to 9-cm fruit. Usage: Ethnobotanical studies conducted in Louisiana describe the bean of this species as being used for medicinal purposes among the Houma Indians (Speck 1941). Other groups in Louisiana also mashed the root for dietary purposes (Bushnell 1909). Description of Starch: Assemblage (bean) primarily comprised single (simple) oval to kidney-shaped grains. These range in size from 15–35 µm, with an average size of 18 × 20 µm. Thick concentric lamellae are common, as is a longitudinal cleft fissure often appearing ragged. Birefringence well defined except in overlapping fissures, where it often appears distorted.

Figure: Strophostyles helvola.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=STHE9.

Summary: Fabaceae This family consists of many important economic taxa. All of the species studied with the exception of Astragalus sp. produce large quantities of starch within the seeds and, in several instances, the subterranean storage organs. Many of these taxa also produce starch types of taxonomic value. In Phaseolus, the oval to kidney-shaped grains with bold concentric lamellae and a longitudinal cleft fissure are diagnostic. A similar form is present in Strophostyles, only the lamellae are approximately two times wider and are spaced farther apart than in Phaseolus. The tubers and subterranean fruit of Apios and Amphicarpaea both produce readily identifiable morphotypes in their subterranean organs. Starch derived from Apios fruit is of poor taxonomic value. The surface texture present on the globose Amphicarpaea fruit starch is indicative of this taxon. Further attention to the taxonomic value of Psoralea starch is needed.

Fabaceae Bean Starch As noted above, several taxa produce taxonomically valuable

bean starch. Domesticated beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), for instance, exhibit a distinctive morphology useful for differentiating it from closely related taxa. These single oval to kidney-shaped grains range in size from 14–45 µm and appear laminated with well-pronounced concentric lamellae and a large ragged longitudinal/mesial cleft fissure often extending the length of the grain (Perry 2001:135; Piperno and Holst 1998:775; Reichert 1913). Phaseolus lamellae tend to be fine and tightly spaced. The lamellae are taxonomically valuable for

distinguishing P. vulgaris from P. polystachios (wild bean). Within P. vulgaris, visible lamellae generally extend from the outer margin inward to the centric hilum, while P. polystachios has visible lamallae at the outer margin; they rarely extend beyond the longitudinal fissure. This arrangement often results in fewer lamella on average in P. polystachios in comparison to P. vulgaris.

Strophostyles helvola (amberique-bean) starch also exhibits oval to kidney-shaped laminated forms with longitudinal cleft fissures and grains overlapping in size with Phaseolus spp. Starch produced by this leguminous plant differs from those studied in Phaseolus spp. based upon the size and arrangement of its concentric lamellae. Where the concentric lamellae of Phaseolus tend to be fine and tightly spaced, those of Strophostyles helvola tend to be thicker (1.5–2 times thicker) and spaced farther apart (2×) than those witnessed in Phaseolus spp. Works Cited: Aller, W. F.

1954 Aboriginal Food Utilization of Vegetation by the Indians of the Great Lake Region as Recorded in the Jesuit Relations. Wisconsin Archaeologist 35:59-73.

Bushnell, D. I. J.

1909 The Choctaw of Bayou Lacomb, St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana. Bulletin 48, Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution. Washington, D.C.

Densmore, F.

1974 How Indians Use Wild Plants for Food, Medicine and Crafts. Dover Publications, New York.

Fletcher, A. C., and F. La Flesche

1911 The Omaha Tribe. Annual Report 27, Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

Gilmore, M. R.

1913 Some Native Nebraska Plants with Their Uses by the Dakota. Collections of the Nebraska State Historical Society 17:358-370.

1919 Uses of Plants by the Indians of the Missouri River Region. Annual Report 33, Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

Hamel, P. B., and M. U. Chiltoskey

1975 Cherokee Plants and Their Uses—A 400 Year History. Herald Publishing, Sylva, North Carolina.

Hariot, T.

2007 [1590] A briefe and true report of the new found land of Virginia. Theodor de Bry, Frankfort, Germany. 2007 facsimile ed. of Theodor de Bry's Latin edition. University of Virginia Press, Charlottesville.

Hart, J. A.

1981 The Ethnobotany of the Northern Cheyenne Indians of Montana. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 4:1-55.

Hart, J. P., D. L. Asch, C. M. Scarry, and G. W. Crawford

2002 The Age of the Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) in the Northern Eastern Woodlands of North America. Antiquity 76:377-385.

Hellson, J. C.

1974 Ethnobotany of the Blackfoot Indians. National Museums of Canada, Ottawa.

Perry, L.

2001 Prehispanic Subsistence in the Middle Orinoco Basin: Starch Analysis Yield New Evidence. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.

Piperno, D. R., and I. Holst

1998 The Presence of Starch Grains on Prehistoric Stone Tools from the Humid Neotropics: Indications of Early Tuber Use and Agriculture in Panama. Journal of Archaeological Science 25(8):765-776.

Reichert, E. T.

1913 The Differentiation and Specificity of Starches in Relation to Genera, Species, etc. Carnegie Institute, Washington, D.C.

Rhoads, A. F., and T. Block


Rogers, D. J.

1980 Lakota Names and Traditional Uses of Native Plants by Sicangu (Brule) People in the Rosebud Area, South Dakota. Rosebud Educational Society, St. Francis, South Dakota.

Smith, H. H.

1923 Ethnobotany of the Menomini Indians. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee 4:1-174.

1928 Ethnobotany of the Meskwaki Indians. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee 4:175-326.

Speck, F. G.

1941 List of Plant Curatives Obtained from the Houma Indians of Louisiana. Primitive Man 14:49-75.

Tantaquidgeon, G.

1972 Folk Medicine of the Delaware and Related Algonkian Indians. Anthropological Series No. 3. Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, Harrisburg.

Family: Fagaceae Genus: Castanea Species: C. dentata (formerly americana) (American chestnut)

Rhoads and Block (2000:424) describe this tree as formerly much taller than the height reached today (~5 m). Leaves toothed and lanceolate in shape with an acuminate distal end. Nuts usually two to four per bur. Prefers dry woods. Usage: Historic Native peoples throughout the Eastern Woodlands reportedly targeted the nuts for subsistence purposes (Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975; Parker 1910; Perry 1975; Waugh 1916). Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single (simple) elliptical, oval, to ovoid grains. Compound grains (2–3 granules) also present in smaller frequencies. Grains range in size from 3–20 µm, with an average size of 12 × 8 µm. A single, straight longitudinal fissure is occasionally present. The hilum is centric to semi-eccentric and closed. Reichert (1913:430) notes the presence of “well marked facets.” Birefringence well defined; however, in some grains the arms become wavy across the central portion. No lamellae witnessed.

Figure: Castanea dentata.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=CADE12.

Genus: Quercus Species: Q. alba (white oak)

Rhoads and Block (2000:427) describe this tree as reaching ~30 m in height. Leaves have 5–11 rounded lobes. Acorns are ~1.5–3 cm in length and 1/4 to 1/3 is covered by a warty, bowl-shaped cup. Prefers dry to moist woods. Hybridizes with Q. bicolor, Q. macrocarpa, and Q. montana. Usage: Native peoples throughout much of the temperate world exploited acorns for subsistence purposes (Mason 1992). As Chapter 2 describes in greater detail, acorns of the red oak group contain high concentrations of tannic acid in comparison to the white oak group. Chapter 4 describes processing procedures utilized by Native peoples in California to eliminate the tannic content in acorns. Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single (simple) well-rounded ovoid, ellipsoidal, to elongated wedgelike forms. Also present are smaller spherical grains. Assemblage ranges in size from 5–20 µm, with an average grain size of 14 × 10 µm. Longitudinal fissure present. Birefringence well defined; arms curve inward and meet at the centric to semi-eccentric hilum unless a deeply incised fissure is present. No lamellae witnessed. Reichert (1913:421) describes the presence of “wart-like” projections at one or more points.

Figure: Quercus alba.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=QUAL.

Species: Q. coccinea Münchh. (scarlet oak) Rhoads and Block (2000:428) describe this tree as averaging ~30 m in height with grey, ridged bark. Leaves have seven to nine lobes with deep sinuses. Acorns range in size from 1.5–2 cm

in length, with 1/2 covered by a scaly bowl-shaped cup. Prefers dry woods. Hybridizes with Q. ilicifolia and Q. ruba. Usage: See Chapter 2 for description of use among North American Native peoples. Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single (simple and clusters) oval to elliptical grains. Grains range in size from 5–13 µm and average 10.4 × 7 µm. Hila are semi-eccentric. Often a shallow longitudinal or V-shaped fissure emanates from the hilum. Birefringence well defined and curved inward toward the center, where the two arms meet. No lamellae witnessed.

Figure: Quercus coccinea.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=QUCO2.

Species: Q. bicolor Willd. (swamp white oak) Rhoads and Block (2000:427–428) describe this tree as

reaching approximately 30 m in height and having grey, ridged bark. Leaves tend to have four to eight “shallow lobes on each margin.” The acorns are 2–3 cm long and 1/2 to 1/3 is covered by a bowl-shaped cup. Common in swamps and low woods. Hybridizes with Q. montana. Usage: See Chapter 2 for description of acorn use among North American Native peoples. Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised wedge/elongated wedge and elliptical single grains (simple and cluster). Spheres and ovals are also common within the

assemblage. Grains range in size from 5–28 µm, with an average size of 16 × 9 µm. A single bent longitudinal fissure present in most forms. Hilum is in a semi-eccentric position. Birefringence is wavy in the most distal portion of the grain. Often arms curve inward toward the hilum.

Figure: Quercus bicolor.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=QUBI.

Species: Q. falcata Michx. (southern red oak)

Rhoads and Block (2000) describe Q. falcata as reaching upwards to 25 m in height. Leaves have three to seven narrow lobes and a broadly rounded base. Acorns average between 1 and 1.5 cm in length and are 1/3 covered by a scaly saucer-shaped cup. Usage: See Chapter 2 for description of use among North American Native peoples. Description of Starch: Starch assemblage primarily consists of oval to elliptical single grains (simple and clusters). Grains range in size from 5–23 µm, with an average size of 12 × 8 µm. A bent longitudinal fissure is often visible. Birefringence well pronounced; arms tend to curve inward toward hilum. Whether the arms connect at the hilum seems dependent upon the depth of the fissure. No lamellae witnessed.

Figure: Quercus falcate. Scale bar equals 10 µm.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=QUFA.

Species: Q. montana syn. prinus (chestnut oak) Rhoads and Block (2000:430) describe this species as

reaching ~25 m in height and having deeply furrowed bark. Leaves have 8–16 rounded “teeth” on each leaf margin. Acorns average between 2 and 3 cm in length, 1/2 covered by a “warty,” funnel-shaped cup. Prefers dry woods and rocky slopes. Hybridizes with Q. bicolor. Usage: See Chapter 2 for description of acorn use among North American Native peoples. Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single (simple and clusters) oval, elliptical and wedge-shaped grains. These range in size from 7–25 µm, with an average size of 16 × 10 µm. A single longitudinal fissure is present in most forms. Hila are semi-eccentric. Birefringence well defined. Arms tend to curve inward toward the hilum. No lamellae witnessed.

Figure: Quercus montana.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=QUPR2.

Species: Q. muhlenbergii (chinkapin oak) Rhoads and Block (2000:430) describe this tree as reaching

~20 m in height. Leaves exhibit 8–16 “pointed and often incurved teeth on each margin.” Acorns range from 1–2 cm in length. A scaly bowl-shaped cup covers 1/3 to 1/2. Usage: See Chapter 2 for description of use among North American Native peoples. Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single (simple and clusters) oval, elliptical, wedge-shaped, and spherical grains. Grains range in size from 5–23 µm, with an average size of 14 × 10 µm. Reichert (1913:423) describes the hilum as a lenticular to rounded cavity. A longitudinal fissure is common in most. Birefringence well defined and arms tend to curve toward and connect at the hilum, except where the fissure is too deep. Lamellae not witnessed.

Figure: Q. muhlenbergii. Scale bar equals 10 µm.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=QUMU.

Species: Q. palustris Münchh (pin oak) Rhoads and Block (2000:431) describe this tree as reaching

~20 m in height. Leaves consist of five to seven tapering lobes. Several teeth are present on each and deep sinuses separate lobes. Acorns are ~1 cm in length and are 1/4 covered by a “scaly saucer shaped cup.” Prefers swamps and low woods. Usage: See Chapter 2 for description of use among North American Native peoples. Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single (simple and clusters) ovoid to elliptical grains. These range in size from 3–15 µm, with an average grain size of 12 × 7 µm. Longitudinal fissures are common. V-shaped fissures also occur, but less frequently. Hilum semi-eccentric. Birefringence is well defined and arms curve inward toward hilum. No lamellae witnessed.

Figure: Quercus palustris.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=QUPA2.

Species: Q. shumardii Buckely (Shumard’s oak) Rhoads and Block (2000:432) describe this tree as growing to ~30 m in height. Leaves have seven to nine lobes widening toward the tip, teethed, and with deep sinuses present. Acorns are 1.5–2.5 cm in length and 1/4 to 1/3 covered by a scaly saucer-shaped cup. Prefers moist to wet woods. Usage: See Chapter 2 for description of use among North American Native peoples. Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single (simple and clusters) elliptical to ovoid grains. Small spheres also present in the minority. Grains range in size from 2–13 µm, with an average size of 1.5 × 6 µm. Initial longitudinal fissure present. Birefringence well defined and arms curve toward the centric to semi-eccentric hilum. No lamellae witnessed.

Figure: Quercus shumardii.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=QUSH.

Species: Q. virginiana (Virginia live oak) This tree grows to ~8 m in height. Leaves ovate, rounded, and smooth. Acorns are ~2 cm in length and capped by a ~2 cm saucer-shaped cup. Prefers sandy soils and can tolerate high salinity levels (Nesom 2003). Usage: See Chapter 2 for description of use among North American Native peoples. Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised simple globular, ovoid, to elongate forms. Grains range in size from 5–23 µm, with an average size of 18 × 10 µm. Many grains appear well rounded and regular. A longitudinal fissure is common. Birefringence well defined and arms curve inward toward the semi-eccentric to centric hilum. Arms do not connect in instances where the fissure cuts too deep. No lamellae witnessed.

Figure: Quercus virginiana.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=QUVI.

Summary: Fagaceae Propagules of Fagaceae produce large amounts of starch. Since hybridization is known to occur within Quercus, starch grains may serve little utility in differentiating between species of this genus. There is, however, a correlation between grain size and group division (white vs. red) in Quercus, with species of white oak producing significantly larger grains than those of the red oak group (see below for further details). Castanea dentata’s oval to ovoid, subrounded grains lacking longitudinal fissures are also of taxonomic value.

Fagaceae—The Beech Family/Oak Acorns (Quercus spp.) The genus Quercus is divided into three groups: red oak

(section Lobatae), white oak (section Quercus), and an intermediate group (section Protobalanus). These classifications are primarily arranged based upon phenotypic similarities between species (Rhoads and Block 2000). For instance, Johnson (2002:10) describes how the interior of the red oak acorn shells are hairy (tomentose), while those of the white oaks lack hair (or are glabrous). The intermediate category exhibits variability between species and therefore this characteristic is unreliable for differentiation. Oak leaves can also be used to classify species according to group. Those of the red oaks tend to have toothed lobes, while white oak lobes lack teeth. Level of tannic acid also differs between groups, with white oaks producing little to no tannins while the red oaks maintain high concentrations (Mason 1992; Scarry 2003). In spite of extensive

phenotypic variability, members of Quercus have very little genetic diversity (Johnson et al. 2002). As a result, gene flow often occurs within sympatric stands, causing hybridization (Howard et al. 1997). Whittemore and Schaal (1991) explain that many of these crosses result in infertile offspring, though the potential for backcrossing remains incompletely understood. In spite of this, researchers put forth that naturally occurring hybrids are rare and when present usually only consist of scattered F1 individuals (Whittemore and Schaal 1991:2540).

The aforementioned group divisions are a widely accepted form of taxonomic classification (Johnson et al. 2002). Starch grain morphology can also be useful for establishing group-level taxonomic identifications. The following reports on the analysis of 13 different species of Quercus native to eastern North America and highlights the morphological distinctions between the red and white oak groups.

The overall size of Quercus starch varies depending upon group division. Figure 1 demonstrates that grains from the white oak group tend to be significantly larger than those of the red oak group, with only species of the white oak group having grains >17 µm in length. Small grains are equally represented in most populations. Red oaks, however, tend to consistently produce smaller grains than the white oak group. As Figure 1 also illustrates, grains ranging from 12.5–15 µm in size could potentially derive from either group (although the white oak group generally contains the greatest number of taxa falling in the 15-µm range). In this instance, additional morphological characteristics are needed for distinguishing between taxa. Two species from within the red oak group, Q. coccinea (scarlet oak) and Q. palustris (pin oak), produce starch grains with a distinctive V-shaped fissure emanating from the hilum. Morphological attributes, such as fissure type, in conjunction with size offer the ability to refine and secure group level identifications.

Castanea dentata (American chestnut) also belongs to the Beech family. Their similar starch grain assemblages suggest the evolutionary relationship between Castanea and Quercus. The same basic irregular elliptical/oval to wedge-shaped grains dominate both assemblages. C. dentata also overlaps with Quercus in size. Distinctions do occur between these two genera. The longitudinal fissure, which tends to be conspicuous in many Quercus taxa, is only occasionally present in C. dentata.

Figure 1: The correlation between size (length in microns) of Quercus starch in relation to taxonomy. Taxa included in lower dashed oval belong to the red oak group, while those included in the upper oval belong to the white oak group.

Additionally, C. dentata occasionally produces compound grains (Reichert 1913:43). These consist of two to three granules and take on a form consistent with that of other single grain types in the assemblage. In cross-polarized light, each individual granule becomes visible, sometimes producing multiple extinction crosses or, if obscured, wavy irregular extinction crosses. This trait was not noticed in any of the Quercus species studied as part of this research and is useful for distinguishing between these two genera.

Works Cited: Hamel, P. B., and M. U. Chiltoskey 1975 Cherokee Plants and Their Uses—A 400 Year History.

Herald Publishing, Sylva, North Carolina. Howard, D. J., R. W. Prezler, J. Williams, S. Fenchel, and W. J. Boecklen 1997 How Discrete Are Oak Species? Insights from a Hybrid

Zone between Quercus grisea and Quercus gambelii. Evolution 51(3):747–755.

Johnson, P. S., S. R. Shifley, and R. Rogers 2002 The Ecology and Silviculture of Oaks. CBI, New York. Mason, S. L. R. 1992 Acorns in Human Subsistence. Unpublished Ph.D.

dissertation, Institute of Archaeology, University College, London.

Nesom, G. 2003 Live Oak Quercus virginiana. USDA Natural Resources

Conservation Service, Plant Guide, Washington, D.C. Parker, A. C. 1910 Iroquois Uses of Maize and Other Food Plants. New York

State Museum Bulletin 144. University of the State of New York, Albany.

Perry, M. J. 1975 Food Use of "Wild" Plants by Cherokee Indians.

University of Tennessee, Knoxville.

Reichert, E. T. 1913 The Differentiation and Specificity of Starches in

Relation to Genera, Species, etc. Carnegie Institute, Washington, D.C.


Press, Philadelphia. Scarry, C. M. 2003 Patterns of Wild Plant Utilization in the Prehistoric

Eastern Woodlands. In People and Plants in Ancient Eastern North America, edited by P. Minnis, pp. 50–104. Smithsonian Books, Washington, D.C.

Waugh, F. W. 1916 Iroquois Foods and Food Preparation. Anthropological


Whittemore, A. T., and B. A. Schaal 1991 Interspecific Gene Flow in Sympatric Oaks. PNAS

88:2540–2544.

Family: Liliaceae Genus: Erythronium Species: E. albidum Nutt. (white trout-lily)

Flowers in April to May. Rhoads and Block (2000:861) describe this herb as reaching 20 cm in height. This plant has two spotted leaves. The flower is white, often with a bluish tint. Usage: No known ethnobotanical accounts describing usage. Description of Starch: Assemblage (bulb) primarily comprised single (simple) pyriform (pear shaped) grains. These range in size from 10–40 µm, with an average size of 26 × 20 µm and a mean of 23 µm. In profile, grains tend to be rounded with straight sides. In plan, the distal end tends to flare, making this end larger than the proximal region. Occasional irregular lobes or projections are present on the side of the grain. The hilum is eccentric. Fissures are rare (when present, they appear as a V originating at the hilum). Faint concentric lamellae tend to be visible. In smaller grains, occasional flattening of distal surface can be present.

Figure: Erythronium albidum.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=ERAL9. Species: E. americanum Ker. Gawl (yellow trout-lily) Flowers in April to May. Rhoads and Block (2000:861) describe this herb as reaching 20 cm in height. Plant has two spotted leaves, flower (perianth) yellow, prefers moist woods.

Usage: Ethnobotanical studies note the use of E. americanum bulbs in various medicinal preparations (Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975; Herrick 1977). Description of Starch: Assemblage (bulbs) primarily comprised single (simple) pyriform (pear shaped), flabellate (fan shaped), and rounded forms. These grains range in size from 10–40 µm and have an average size of 30.6 × 24 µm. The hilum is eccentric, often with a crescent-shaped crack positioned above. Bold concentric lamellae are visible. Occasionally a V-shaped to transverse fissure is noted. Slight birefringence present even when viewed without polarized light. Highly irregular forms present, often with angular flattening on the distal surface. Hila tend to be open.

Figure: Erythronium americanum.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=ERAM5. Genus: Lilium Species: L. canadense L. (Canada lily) Rhoads and Block (2000:864) describe this herb as reaching ~2 m in height, lanceolate leaves whorled, flowers nodding and ranging in color from yellow to orange to red, all spotted; prefers moist woods and clearings. Usage: No known ethnobotanical accounts describing its usage. Description of Starch: Assemblage comprised single (simple) pyriform, conic, and flabellate grains, some appearing more ovoid. Grains range in size from 10–50 µm, with an average size

of 35 × 26 µm. Severe fissuring is present in the population examined. Fissures are deep, and long V shapes emanate from the hilum. Feathered cracking is also common, as are deep transverse fissures. Evidence of birefringence present without polarized light and is well defined in cross-polarized light. Concentric lamellae witnessed.

Figure: Lilium canadense.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=LICA3.

Species: L. philadelphicum L. (wood lily) Flowers in late July to early August. Rhoads and Block (2000:864) describe this plant as reaching ~1 m in height, whorled lanceolate leaves, erect flowers, orange or red to yellow and all spotted; prefers open woods and borders. Usage: Ethnobotanical studies describe Native peoples using the bulbs of L. philadelphicum for a range of medicinal purposes (Black 1980; Densmore 1974; Gilmore 1933; Herrick 1977). Several accounts also describe Native people using the bulbs as a foodstuff (Hellson 1974; Leighton 1985; Smith 1928). Description of Starch: Assemblage (bulb) primarily comprised single (simple) pyriform to conic forms. Grains range in size from 10–45 µm, with an average size of 31 × 24 µm. Vague concentric lamellae present. Severe V-shaped fissures also noted in combination with a transverse fissure crossing the eccentric hilum. All grains rounded. Feather cracking and evidence of birefringence are present even when viewed without polarized light. Birefringence well defined with polarized light.

Figure: Lilium philadelphicum.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=LIPH.

Species: L. superbum L. (turk’s-cap lily) Flowers in late July to early August. Rhoads and Block

(2000:865) describe this plant as reaching 2.5 m in height. Whorled lanceolate leaves, flowers orange to orange-red (all spotted), segments strongly recurved. Plant prefers moist clearings and bottomlands. Usage: No known ethnobotanical accounts describing its usage. Description of Starch: Assemblage (bulb) primarily comprised single (simple) pyriform grains. Grains range in size from 10–60 µm, with an average grain size of 37 × 26 µm. Severe V-shaped fissures common. Transverse fissures also present. Bold concentric lamellae noted. Hila are eccentric and open. Evidence of birefringence present without polarized light. With polarized light, extinction cross is well defined. Irregular forms present in assemblage.

Figure: Lilium superbum.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=LISU. Genus: Trillium Species: T. erectum L. (purple trillium, wakerobin) Flowers in April to early May. Rhoads and Block (2000:871) describe this plant as reaching ~40 cm in height, three ovate to rhombic leaves, 4- to 6-cm-long peduncle supporting flower above leaves, red to maroon with offensive odor; prefers moist woods. Usage: Ethnobotanical sources describe the bulbs of T. erectum as ground and used for medicinal purposes (Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975; Rousseau 1947). Description of Starch: Assemblage (bulb) primarily comprised single (simple) spheres. These range in size from 2–10 µm, with an average size of 6.5 × 6 µm. The majority of grains are well rounded, with occasional flattened surfaces present due to packing. The hilum is semi-eccentric and open. No fissures or lamellae witnessed. Birefringence well pronounced and arms tend to curve inward, touching at the centric hilum.

Figure: Trillium erectum.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=TRER3.

Summary: Liliaceae Many taxa within this family produce high levels of starch within their subterranean storage organs. There are also a significant number of species within this family that produce other forms of carbohydrate energy reserves instead of starch, e.g., inulin (Wandsnider 1997). The starch assemblages from the taxa studied here are of taxonomic value. Lilium can be distinguished from Erythronium based upon the length of the distal portion in pyriform-shaped grains. Those of Lilium tend to be of greater length than those of Erythronium. Starch forms witnessed in Trillium erectum tend to occur in many unrelated species and are therefore of low taxonomic value.

Liliaceae—Lilium vs. Erythronium Pyriform grains are a common form present within many species composing both Erythronium and Lilium. The pyriform description denotes a single grain that has a thicker and often rounded distal end that tapers proximally. Although both Erythronium and Lilium share this same basic trait (possibly demonstrating their shared evolutionary history), distinctions are present that can be used to establish a higher taxonomic resolution.

Figure 2: Measurement used to differentiate between Lilium sp. and Erythronium sp. pyriform shape/conic forms. (A) Variation in pyriforms present in Lilium sp.; (B) three different pyrifrom/conic forms present in Erythronium sp. Dotted lines indicate location of shoulders.

As Figure 2 demonstrates, Lilium sp. and Erythronium sp. produce pyriform-shaped forms that vary in morphology in specific ways. To distinguish them, imagine a line connecting the two widest points of the grain, here referred to as the shoulders, and note the distance between this line and the distal end. This distance tends to be qualitatively greater in taxa belonging to Lilium as compared to Erythronium. Pyriform-shape grains from six species (three from each genus) exhibit characteristics consistent with this configuration. It should be stressed that this is not a universal attribute present throughout the entire assemblage. For instance, this trait does not apply to flabellate-shaped and spherical grains that are also present within these assemblages. Works Cited: Black, M. J.

1980 Algonquin Ethnobotany: An Interpretation of Aboriginal Adaptation in South Western Quebec. National Museums of Canada, Ottawa.

Densmore, F. 1974 How Indians Use Wild Plants for Food, Medicine and Crafts. Dover Publications, New York.

Gilmore, M. R.

1933 Some Chippewa Uses of Plants. University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor.

Hamel, P. B., and M. U. Chiltoskey

1975 Cherokee Plants and Their Uses—A 400 Year History. Herald Publishing, Sylva, North Carolina.

Hellson, J. C.

1974 Ethnobotany of the Blackfoot Indians. National Museums of Canada, Ottawa.

Herrick, J. W.

1977 Iroquois Medical Botany. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, State University of New York, Albany.

Leighton, A. L.

1985 Wild Plant Use by the Woods Cree (Nihithawak) of East-Central Saskatchewan. National Museums of Canada, Ottawa.

Rhoads, A. F., and T. Block


Rousseau, J.

1947 Ethnobotanique Abenakie. Archives de Folklore 11:145–182.

Smith, H. H.

1928 Ethnobotany of the Meskwaki Indians. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee 4:175–326.

Wandsnider, L.

1997 The Roasted and the Boiled: Food Composition and Heat Treatment with Special Emphasis on Pit-Hearth Cooking. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 16:1–48.

Family: Nelumbonaceae Genus: Nelumbo Species: N. lutea (American lotus) Rhoads and Block (2000:10) describe the leaves of this aquatic plant as ranging in size from 30–70 cm. Leaves extend above the water on long petioles. Long peduncles also rise above the water surface where a pale yellow flower emerges (15–25 cm). A mature woody receptacle (10 cm across) holds individually stored fruits (1 cm in size). Usage: N. lutea tubers were reportedly peeled or boiled as part of their culinary preparation (Gilmore 1919; Smith 1933). Other accounts describe the seeds as being used for dietary purposes (Gilmore 1919; Smith 1928, 1932). See Chapter 2 for further discussion. Description of Starch: Assemblage (tuber) primarily comprised single (simple) well-rounded oval to slightly ovate forms and well-rounded spheres. Dome-shaped granules also present but in the minority. Grains range in size from 7–28 µm, with an average size of 21 × 17 µm. Grains appear uniform in three dimensions. Offset, simple (initial) fissures originating at the hilum commonly occurring. Flattening is present on the distal surface due to packing. Concentric lamellae are common (concentrated in distal region of grain), as are vague traces of birefringence even when viewed without polarized light. Converging lines common in dome forms.

Figure: Nelumbo lutea (tuber).

Assemblage (seed) composed of single (simple) ovoid to irregular oval-shaped grains. These grains range in size from 7–16 µm and have an average size of 13.35 × 12 µm. Hila centric and often closed. Concentric lamellae present and often appear raised. Longitudinal fissures present. Birefringence well defined and occasionally arms take on a dumbbell-like appearance.

Figure: Nelumbo lutea (seed).

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=NELU.

Summary: Nelumbo lutea Starch is widely occurring within both the tubers and seeds of this species, at least on a seasonal basis. Nelumbo lutea tuber starch is taxonomically valuable, specifically, the rounded elliptical forms with slight concentric lamellae visible in the most distal segment of the grain. Starch produced within the seeds is also taxonomically valuable. The basic form, oval to irregular oval, is common in many unrelated taxa; however, the presence of lamellae is only noted in N. lutea seeds. Works Cited: Gilmore, M. R. 1919 Uses of Plants by the Indians of the Missouri River

Region. Annual Report 33, Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.




Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee 4:175–326. 1932 Ethnobotany of the Ojibwe Indians. Bulletin of the


of the Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee 7:1–230.

Family: Nymphaeaceae Genus: Nuphar Species: N. lutea L. (yellow pond-lily) Rhoads and Block (2000:511–512) describe this aquatic plant as having large ovate leaves (5–40 cm), yellow flowers, and ovoid fruits. Plant prefers lake margins, ponds, slow-moving streams, swamps, and tidal marshes. Usage: Ethnobotanical studies discuss the use of N. lutea rhizomes for treating a wide range of ailments (Herrick 1977; Smith 1923, 1932; Speck 1917). People also reportedly used these rhizomes for dietary purposes (Rogers 1980). See Chapters 2 and 4 for further discussion. Description of Starch: Assemblage (rhizome) comprised single spherical grains with two to three flat surfaces on the distal margin. Compound grains also present within the assemblage. Grains range in size from 7–22 µm, with an average grain size of 14 × 14 µm. Fissures present, and these tend to be transverse, Y-shaped, or stellate types. Concentric lamellae present; often a single bold lamella encircles the fissure. Birefringence is well pronounced and arms cross straight through the centric to semi-eccentric hilum.

Figure: Nuphar lutea (rhizome).

Description of Starch: Assemblage (seeds) comprised compound oval to spherical grains often consisting of hundreds of small (2–2.5 µm) oval to spherical granules. Hilum is centric and appears as a dark central spot.

Figure: Nuphar lutea (seed).

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=NULU. Genus: Nymphaea Species: N. odorata (American white waterlily) Rhoads and Block (2000) describe the leaves of this aquatic plant as rounded to elliptical with a narrow sinus at the base. Flowers are white to pink (rare), fragrant; fruit depressed and globose, maturing underwater; grows in lakes and ponds. Usage: The rhizomes of this plant appear widely within the ethnobotanical literature. Several researchers note the use of this taxon for medicinal purposes (Densmore 1974; Smith 1932; Speck 1917; Turner et al. 1980). Others describe Native people using the rhizomes for dietary purposes (Rogers 1980; Vestal and Schultes 1939). Description of Starch: Assemblage (rhizome) comprised single (simple) oval to ovate slightly expanding (conic) forms. Domes/hemispherical forms with one facet and often a V-shaped fissure are also present in the assemblage. Grains range in size from 10–45 µm, with an average size of 29 × 22 µm and a mean size of 25 µm. Grains tend to be rounded to subrounded and regular, although flattening along segments of the distal end caused by packing witnessed. In profile, grains tend to be narrow and slightly tapered. Hila are eccentric and largely open. The greatest degree of fissuring within the assemblage consists of initial followed by transverse types, although most fail to exhibit any evidence of fissuring. When viewed without cross-polarized light, evidence of an extinction cross remains present in a large portion of the assemblage. Birefringence usually

consists of straight arms intersecting at the hilum. Concentric lamellae witnessed throughout assemblage.

Figure: Nymphaea odorata.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=NYOD. Summary: Nymphaeaceae Starch is produced in large quantities, at least seasonally, within these taxa. The conic forms produced within the rhizomes of N. odorata that expand distally and exhibit traces of birefringence even when viewed without polarized light are taxonomically valuable. In Nuphar lutea rhizomes, the spherical grains with one to two facets, stellate fissures, and often lamellae are also taxonomically valuable. Starch produced by the seeds of N. lutea is also significant. These consist of compound grains composed of spherical granules that measure consistently 2 µm in size with well-defined birefringence. Works Cited: Densmore, F. 1974 How Indians Use Wild Plants for Food, Medicine and

Crafts. Dover Publications, New York. Herrick, J. W. 1977 Iroquois Medical Botany. Unpublished Ph.D.




Rogers, D. J. 1980 Lakota Names and Traditional Uses of Native Plants by

Sicangu (Brule) People in the Rosebud Area, South Dakota. Rosebud Educational Society, St. Francis, South Dakota.

Smith, H. H. 1923 Ethnobotany of the Menomini Indians. Bulletin of the

Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee 4:1–174. 1932 Ethnobotany of the Ojibwe Indians. Bulletin of the

Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee 4:327–525. Speck, F. G. 1917 Medicine Practices of the Northeastern Algonquians.

Proceedings of the Nineteenth International Congress of Americanists, pp. 303–321.

Turner, N. J., R. Bouchard, and D. I. D. Kennedy 1980 Ethnobotany of the Okanagan-Colville Indians of

British Columbia and Washington. British Columbia Provinical Museum, Victoria, Canada.

Vestal, P. A., and R. E. Schultes 1939 The Economic Botany of the Kiowa Indians. Botanical

Museum of Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachuetts.

Family: Papaveraceae Genus: Sanguinaria Species: S. canadensis L. (bloodroot) Rhoads and Block (2000:532) describe this plant as reaching between 5 and 15 cm in height. Plant has one solitary leaf, often with three lobes. Stem and flower (white) arise from a rhizome that contains orange-colored juice. Prefers rich woods and roadsides. Usage: Rhizomes of S. canadensis frequently occur within ethnobotanical studies. Many authors report the use of these roots for medicinal purposes (Densmore 1974; Herrick 1977; Smith 1928; Tantaquidgeon 1972). One study also discusses its use for consumption purposes (Mechling 1959). Description of Starch: Assemblage (rhizome) comprised single (simple) grains and clusters of globose, bell, and dome shapes. The most common forms have two to three facets. These grains have a semi-eccentric hilum, often with one lamella positioned just inside the margin. A “cap” is present on the distal surface. Fissures rare but when present appear as the initial transverse type (Reichert 1913:239).

Figure: Sanguinaria canadensis (rhizome).

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=SACA13.

Summary: Sanguinaria canadensis Starch is widely produced within the rhizomes of this taxon, at least on a seasonal basis. Starch studied in this

taxon is also of taxonomic value, particularly the symmetrical globose shapes and bells with one to two facets on the distal surface that also exhibit a “capped” feature. Works Cited: Densmore, F. 1974 How Indians Use Wild Plants for Food, Medicine and

Crafts. Dover Publications, New York. Herrick, J. W. 1977 Iroquois Medical Botany. Unpublished Ph.D.


Mechling, W. H. 1959 The Malecite Indians with Notes on the Micmacs.

Anthropologica 8:239–263. Reichert, E. T. 1913 The Differentiation and Specificity of Starches in

Relation to Genera, Species, etc. Carnegie Institute, Washington, D.C.


Press, Philadelphia. Smith, H. H. 1928 Ethnobotany of the Meskwaki Indians. Bulletin of the

Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee 4:175–326. Tantaquidgeon, G. 1972 Folk Medicine of the Delaware and Related Algonkian


Family: Poaceae

Introduction

This section details starch grain morphology as it relates to taxonomy within the grass family (Poaceae). A generalized description of each taxon is provided (data used for this segment of the supplementary materials are taken from the source referenced after each description). This is followed by a brief discussion of each specimen’s economic utility as portrayed in either the ethnobotanical or the archaeological record. Next, the starch assemblage for the specific organ in question is provided, in addition to a link to the USDA Plants Database, which provides images of the plant as well as its current distribution (U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service [USDA NRCS] 2008).

The following section includes 5 subfamilies and 10 tribes. These taxa are: from Arundinoideae, Centotheceae; from Bambusoideae, Oryzeae; from Chloridoideae, Cynodonteae and Eragrostideae; from Panicoideae, Andropogoneae and Paniceae; and from Pooideae, the tribes Aveneae, Bromeae, Meliceae, Poeae, Stipeae, and Triticeae. Forty-six different taxa were analyzed from within these tribes. Species included in this study were chosen based on their representation in the ethnographic literature or among macrobotanical remains recovered from archaeological contexts. Noneconomic taxa composing the “natural” vegetation were also included. In addition, several Old World domesticates are present for comparative purposes.

Subfamily: Arundinoideae Tribe: Centotheceae Genus: Chasmanthium Five spp. of perennial grasses in east and southeast United States. Stems tend to be simple or branched, occurring in clusters rising from rhizomes. Leaf: blades flat, serrate; inflorescences paniculate, two spikelets, sometimes with many flowers. Laterally compressed, rachillas disarticulating above the glumes and between the florets (Hortorium 1976).

Species: C. latifolium (Michx.) H.O.Yates (sea-oats) [syn: Uniola latifolia Michx.]

Flowers from July to September. Occurring along stream banks and alluvial woods (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: The Yuman people of the southwest United States used the seeds of C. latifolium in gruel, or they were stored for later use (Castetter et al. 1951). Description of Starch: Assemblage comprised simple grains (single and clusters) exhibiting angular to subangular forms resulting from packing. Spherical, simple grains also occur in smaller frequencies. Fissuring is uncommon, but those present are only slightly pronounced. Grains are approximately 13 × 11.35 µm in size. Edges or margins of grains often appear slightly ragged. Hila are arranged centrically. Starch appears to be easily damaged by processing, often resulting in the distortion to elimination of birefringent properties.

Figure 1: Chasmanthium latifolium.

Distribution:http://plants.usda.gov/java/nameSearch?keywordquery=Chasmanthium+latifolium&mode=sciname&submit.x=13&submit.y=13.

Subfamily: Chloridoideae Tribe: Cyndonteae Genus: Bouteloua About 50 spp. of perennial or annual grasses from central United States to Argentina; spikes two to several; raceme on a common axis or sometimes solitary; spikelets few to many, rarely solitary; one flower, with rudiments of one or more florets above, sessile, in two rows along one side of the rachis, which is often naked at the tip (Hortorium 1976). Species: B. curtipendula (Michx.) Torr. (side-oats grama)

Flowers in August and September. Tends to prefer dry calcareous clearings and rocky and sandy sites, endangered in Pennsylvania (Rhoads and Block 2000). Described as a major warm-season species, grows in association with bluestems and is less drought resistant than blue grama (Alderson and Sharp 1995). Usage: Crawford and Smith (2003) describe the recovery of B. curtipendula from archaeological contexts in the Northeast. Ethnobotanical documents depict its usage as fodder among the Kiowa people (Vestal and Schultes 1939:14). Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised small <5 µm single (simple and cluster) subrounded polygonal forms; spheres also occur in high frequencies. Hila arranged centrically. Fissures are uncommon.

Figure 2: Bouteloua curtipendula.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=BOCU.

Tribe: Eragrostideae Genus: Calamovilfa Approximately five spp. of perennial rhizomatous grasses. Culms 50–250 cm. Inflorescences composed of simple panicles that range in size from 8–80 cm. Spikelet has one floret, laterally compressed and unawned, disarticulating above the glume; achenes disperse with lemma and paleas. Glumes are subequal to equal. Fruit is an achene with pericarp free from seed (Thieret 2007).

Species: C. longifolia (Hook.) Scibn. (sandreed)

Native to the midwestern and western United States, warm-season, rhizomatous, perennial grass found on sandy soils, on prairies, and in open woods (Alderson and Sharp 1995). Described as planted and naturalized along beaches in Erie County, Pennsylvania (Rhoads and Block 2000:914). Usage: Rogers (1980) explains how the Sicangu people of South Dakota used the grass for utilitarian purposes such as pipe cleaners and charms. Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised compound oval to spherical grains consisting of angular, often polygonal, granules. Angularity results from faceting. Individual granules average approximately 5.6 µm in size. Hila oriented centrically. Fissuring not noted. Surface appears smooth and generally featureless.

Figure 3: Calamovilfa longifolia.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=CALO.

Genus: Tridens Described as having culms that reach 10–15 dm in height, solitary or forming small tufts; blades range in size from 3–8 mm, panicles spreading or drooping and purplish in color, spikelets 5–10 mm long, disarticulating above the glumes and between the lemmas (Rhoads and Block 2000:983)

Species: T. flavus (L.) A. Hitchc. (purpletop) [syn: Triodia flava (L.) Smyth]

Flowers between July and September. Found in meadows, in old fields, and along roads (Rhoads and Block 2000:983). Usage: No known usage. Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised polygonal to subangular irregular forms. Single and compound grains as well as clusters present. Starch from this assemblage has an average size of approximately 12.69 µm. Fissures are uncommon but when present appear only as shallow initial types. Grains appear angular and often exhibit sharp edges produced by well-defined facets. Surfaces often appear smooth, though ragged or wavy grains do occur with some frequency. No lamellae noted. Hila are arranged centrically and often are open. Birefringence well defined. Starch appears to be easily damaged by processing, often resulting in the distortion to elimination of birefringent properties.

Figure 4: Tridens flavus.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=TRFL2.

Subfamily: Bambusoideae Tribe: Oryzeae Genus: Zizania Two or three spp. of tall, aquatic, annual or perennial grasses. Leaf blades flat, panicles large, terminal spikelets unisexual, one flower. Described as nearly cylindrical and disarticulating from the pedicel. The glumes tend to be obsolete and the female spikelet angled at maturity (Hortorium 1976).

Species: Z. aquatica L. (wild rice)

Flowers in late May to early September. Found in poorly drained/wetland environments, categorized as an obligate wetland species (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: Macrobotanical remains of Z. aquatica were isolated from sites in the Northeast and Middle Atlantic region (Crawford and Smith 2003; Hart and Asch Sidell 1996). Hart et al. (2003) also report the isolation of wild rice phytoliths from carbonized residues adhering to ceramic sherds in the Northeast. Many ethnobotanical accounts in the Midwest describe wild rice as a prized food source (Gilmore 1913, 1919; Reagan 1928; Smith 1923, 1928). Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised compound grains consisting of hundreds to thousands of components. Individual granules <5 µm in size. Most appear slightly polygonal to subrounded. Hila arranged centrically. Fissures uncommon.

Figure 5: Zizania aquatica.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=ZIAQ.

Subfamily: Panicoideae Tribe: Andropogoneae Genus: Andropogon About 200 spp. of perennial grasses in warm and tropical regions of the world. Stems tend to be dense and are often coarse, grows in a dense mass. The inflorescences are compound, of few to many peduncled, sheathed racemes or spikelets (Hortorium 1976).

Species: A. gerardi Vitman (big bluestem)

Flowers between August and early October. Commonly occurring along stream banks and roadsides and in moist meadows (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: Andropogon sp. macrobotanical remains are reported from archaeological contexts in the Northeast (Crawford and Smith 2003). Ethnobotanical studies describe this grass as being used for building material, medicines (Gilmore 1919), and containers (Castetter and Opler 1936). Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single grains. Grains average 14.6 µm in size. Hila are positioned centrically. Initial and transverse fissures witnessed. Rounded to subrounded spheres occur in high frequencies. “Dimpled” surface texture (similar to the surface of a golf ball). This surface texture can be severe, covering the entire grain, or subtle, only vaguely pronounced. Grains exhibiting this morphology occur in low frequencies throughout the assemblage. Birefringence well defined, arms tend to cross straight through the centric hilum.

Figure 6: Andropogon gerardi.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=ANGE.

Genus: Schizachyrium Fewer than 100 spp. widely distributed around the world. These can be distinguished from Andropogon by their solitary racemes at the ends of the stems and their branches (Hortorium 1976). Species: S. scoparium (Michx.) Nash (little bluestem) [syn: Andropogon scoparius]

Flowers in early August to early October (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: Native peoples are described as using the culms of S. scoparium for a wide range of utilitarian purposes (Carlson and Jones 1940). Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single, subrounded spherical grains. Grains range in size from 5–21.25 µm, with an average of 13.68 × 11.85 µm, and a mean size of 12.76 µm. Fissuring is uncommon but tends to be of the longitudinal to initial type when present. Severe cracking also witnessed. Surface texture varies from smooth to intensive cracking, pitting, and dimpling. Faint dark lines can often be detected radiating from the centric hila. Starch is not well represented within S. scoparium. Starch appears to be easily damaged by processing, often resulting in the distortion or elimination of birefringent properties.

Figure 7: Schizachyrium scoparium.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=SCSC. Genus: Sorghastrum About 15 spp. of perennial grasses in America and Africa. Stems erect, leaf blades narrow and flat; panicles also tend to be narrow (Hortorium 1976).

Species: S. nutans (L.) Nash (Indian-grass) [syn: Sorghastrum avenaceum (Michx.) Nash.]

Flowers in August to September. Perennial, moist or dry fields, barrens, and roadsides—upland species (Rhoads and Block 2000). This genus has C4 photosynthetic pathway (Edwards and Walker 1983). Usage: No known usage. Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised spherical to dome-shaped single grains. These range in size from 4–18 µm, with an average size of 10.84 × 9.81 µm and a mean of 10.32 µm. Grains tend to be subrounded. Irregularity can be severe and is most likely caused by packing. Fissuring is uncommon; however, when encountered fissures were initial to transverse in orientation and extremely small in size. Hila are centric to semi-eccentric. Starch only produced in small amounts. The largest grains seem to be highly susceptible to damage, as seen in their weak birefringent property.

Figure 8: Sorghastrum nutans.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=SONU2.

Genus: Zea Species: Z. mays ssp. mays type Parker’s Flint (maize) Usage: See Chapter 2. Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single spheres, polygonal and irregular subangular forms, with the latter occurring with the highest frequency. Grains range in size from 5–20 µm, with an average size of 14.6 × 13.4 µm and a mean size of 14 µm. Surfaces and edges of irregular forms vary

widely and appear highly ragged. Stellate, tripartite or Y-shaped, initial, and longitudinal fissures also common—more so than on any other taxon surveyed. Hila are centric and often open. Birefringence is well defined and arms appear straight to wrinkled—a reflection of the uneven surface topography. Lamellae not witnessed. Starch is well represented in kernels and appears to be resilient to moderate levels of processing.

Figure 9: Zea mays Parker’s Flint.

Species: Z. mays ssp. mays type Winnebago Flint (maize)

Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single, spherical and subangular highly irregular forms. These tend to range in size from 5–23 µm, with an average size of 15.98 × 15.2 µm and a mean size of 15.58 µm. Surface textures vary from smooth (mainly present in spheres) to highly irregular or ragged surfaces and edges. Fissures common; these appear as stellate, transverse, or tripartite Y patterns. Birefringence is well defined and arms vary from straight to wrinkled. Hila are arranged centrically and tend to be open.

Figure 10: Zea mays Winnebago Flint.

Species: Z. mays ssp. mays type Indian Graves Flint (maize)

Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single (simple), spherical, subangular, and often highly irregular forms. Grain size ranges from 4–19 µm, with an average size of 13 × 12.3 µm and a mean size of 12.68 µm. Hila tend to be open, tripartite Y-shaped fissures present in assemblage. Spherical forms appear with greatest frequency. Birefringence well defined, arms straight in spheres and bent in angular forms. Dark radial lines extending outward from the hilum are often visible in spherical forms.

Figure 11: Zea mays Indian Graves Flint.

Tribe: Paniceae Genus: Digitaria

Over 100 spp. of annual or perennial widely dispersed taxa. These tend to be thought of as weeds. Inflorescence appears to digitate along slender racemes. Spikelets lanceolate or elliptic and often rounded on one side and nearly flat on the other. These tend to be paired or in threes (Hortorium 1976).

Species: D. serotina (Walter) Michx. (dwarf crabgrass)

Flowers between August and October. Native east of Pennsylvania (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: Seeds of D. cognata (fall witchgrass) were used by the Hopi as a food resource. Vestal (1940) notes that the seeds of D. serotina were ground into meal. Crawford and Smith (2003) report the recovery of Digitaria sp. seeds from archaeological sites in the Northeast. Description of Starch: Assemblage comprised single (simple and clusters) subrounded grains. The starch of this assemblage ranges in size from 2–5 µm. The small size of these grains prohibits a detailed examination. Subtle flattening of edges is present. Birefringence well defined and arms cross through the centric hilum, which appears to be generally closed. No fissures witnessed. Starch only produced in small amounts.

Figure 12: Digitaria serotina. Scale bar equals 10 µm.

Distribution:http://plants.usda.gov/java/nameSearch?keywordquery=Digitaria+serotina&mode=sciname&submit.x=12&submit.y=6. Genus: Echinochloa About 20 spp. of annual or perennial grasses in warm countries. The flower sheaths tend to roll in on themselves, leaf blades linear and flat; panicles tend to be compact, of short, densely flowered racemes along a main axis. Spikelets are rounded on one

side and flat on the other, solitary or irregularly clustered on one side of the panicle branches (Hortorium 1976). Species: E. muricata (P. Beasuv.) Fernald var. muricata (rough barnyard grass) [syn: E. pungens (Poir.) Rydb.]

Flowers in August and September. Moist ground and alluvial landscapes (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: Crawford and Smith (2003) report the recovery of a different species of Echinochloa, E. crus-galli, from archaeological sites in the Northeast. According to Rhoads and Block (2003) as well as the USDA Plants Database, this species of Echinchloa is not native to North America. Ethnographic and ethnobotanical studies also describe Native peoples as intensively utilizing the seeds of E. crus-galli. The Yuma processed the seeds for consumption by pounding, winnowing, parching, and then grinding them into meal (Castetter and Bell 1951:187). The Tubatulabal used these seeds extensively as food, as did the Paiute and Cocopa (Gifford 1933:267; Steward 1933:243; Voegelin 1938:15). Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single (simple and clusters) polygonal grains. Grains range in size from 4–11.5 µm and have an average size of 8.1 × 7.6 µm, with a mean size of 7.82 µm. The majority exhibit sharp edges. Grain surfaces grade from smooth to ragged. Spheres are also present in the assemblage but occur in the minority. Surfaces of spheres are smooth. Birefringence is well defined; arms cross through a centric hilum that varies from open to closed. No fissuring witnessed.

Figure 13: Echinochloa muricata.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=ECMU2.

Genus: Paspalum About 400 spp. distributed throughout the world. These tend to be both annuals and perennials. Spikelets are compressed but slightly convex on the sides, usually obtuse, early sessile, solitary or paired, in two rows on one side of the rachis (Hortorium 1976).

Species: P. distichum L. (knotgrass)

Flowers between June and October. Prefers moist, wet places (Stubbendieck et al. 2003). Usage: Crawford and Smith (2003) report the recovery of P. distichum from archaeological sites in the Northeast. Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single (simple and clusters) polygonal and spherical grains. Polygonal forms tend to be angular, often with sharp edges, while spheres vary from subrounded to subangular. Size ranges from 2–7.75 µm, with an average size of 6.53 × 5.82 µm (mean length of 6.18 µm). Surfaces tend to vary from smooth to slightly undulating. Birefringence well defined—straight arms cross through a centric hilum that generally appears closed. No fissures witnessed.

Figure 14: Paspalum distichum.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=PADI6.

Genus: Setaria About 125 spp. of annual or perennial grasses in warm countries. Panicles are narrow, terminal, dense, and spikelike. They also can be somewhat loose and open, awnless with a broad first glume that is usually less than half the length of the spikelet. Three to five nerves generally present (Hortorium 1976).

Species: S. leucopila (Scribn. & Merr) K. Schum. (streambed bristlegrass)

Flowers between May and September. S. leucopila has the ability to produce more than one seed crop if adequate moisture is available (Stubbendieck et al. 2003). Usage: Austin (2006) puts forth that Setaria sp. seeds were a dominant cereal in the Americas for at least 1,500 years. Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single (simple) spherical to angular polygons. Grains range in size from 2–12.5 µm, with an average size of 8.47 × 8.56 µm. Flattening is attributed to packing. Surfaces tend to be smooth; however, a small percentage of the assemblage exhibits ragged surfaces and initial fissures radiating from the centric hilum. These ragged grains tend to be spheres. These traits are characteristic of Setaria and are of taxonomic value. Birefringence is well defined and arms of the cross tend to be straight.

Figure 15: Setaria leucopila.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=SELE6.

Species: S. macrostachya Kunth (large spike bristlegrass) Open, dry areas and woods around the southwest United

States (Hitchcock 1971). Usage: Seeds from Setaria sp. were recovered from the intestinal tracts of two desiccated bodies found in the Southwest. The first was radiocarbon dated at ca. A.D. 850 (Turpin et al. 1986). The second dated to A.D. 1080–1220 and the seeds showed signs of processing using a mortar and pestle (Austin 2006:151). Though a more specific taxonomic identification was not provided, there

are several naturally occurring Setaria species in this area, including S. macrostachya (Correll and Johnston 1970). Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single (simple) spherical to angular polygonal forms. Grains range in size from 2–10.75 µm and have an average size of 7.75 × 7.46 µm. Most grains have smooth surfaces, although some exhibit ragged surfaces indicative of this genus. Tripartite or Y-shaped to initial fissures also present in the assemblage. Birefringence is well-defined and marked by straight arms crossing through the centric hilum.

Figure 16: Setaria macrostachya.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=SEMA5.

Species: S. magna Griseb (giant bristlegrass) Prefers marshes and poorly drained areas (Hitchcock 1971).

Usage: Only two species of Setaria are known to be native to the Middle Atlantic and Northeast regions–S. magna and S. parviflora (Fernald 1950; Hitchcock and Chase 1950). Crawford and Smith (2003) report small quantities of carbonized Setaria recovered from the Seed-Barker site located on the northwest side of Lake Ontario. Hart and Asch Sidell (1996) also recovered Setaria seeds from the Memorial Park site located on the West Branch of the Susquehanna River dated to A.D. 800–1350. Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single (simple) spheres and angular forms. Grains range in size from 2–7.5 µm, with an average size of 6.33 × 5.95 µm and a mean size of 6.14 µm. Ragged and slightly dimpled surface textures are present. Fissures are uncommon, but when present they are only slight/initial. This surface texture, in conjunction with size,

is a recognizable trait of Setaria. A small percentage of the assemblage exhibits black lines radiating away from the hilum. Birefringence is well defined. Straight “arms” cross through the centric hilum.

Figure 17: Setaria magna.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=SEMA6.

Species: S. parviflora (Poir.) Kerguelen (marsh bristlegrass)

Usage: Only two known species of Setaria are present in the Middle Atlantic and Northeast regions—S. parviflora and S. magna (Fernald 1950; Hitchcock and Chase 1950). Crawford and Smith (2003) report the recovery of small quantities of Setaria from the Seed-Barker site located northwest of Lake Ontario. At Memorial Park, located on the West Branch of the Susquehanna River in Pennsylvania, Setaria was also recovered (Hart and Asch Sidell 1996). Austin (2006) points out that S. parviflora is present in all areas where Setaria is known archaeologically. Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single (simple and clusters) spheres (globose) and subangular forms. Grains range in size from 2–10 µm and average 7.67 × 7.13 µm. Packing results in angularity. Ragged surfaces (mildly dimpled) and fissures (initial) present in small frequencies; these traits combined with their size are specific to Setaria. Birefringence well defined; straight arms cross through centric hilum.

Figure 18: Setaria parviflora.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=SEPA10.

Genus: Panicum About 600 spp. of annual or perennial grasses throughout the world. Inflorescence open or compact, rarely appears as a racemosa. Spikelets are more or less compressed dorsiventrally (Hortorium 1976). Species: P. amarum Elliot (bitter or coastal panicgrass)

Perennial, tall, robust, and adapted to coastal environments (Alderson and Sharp 1995). Usage: Crawford and Smith (2003) report the recovery of Panicum sp. seeds from archaeological sites in the Northeast. Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single (simple and clusters) subangular to spherical grains. These often appear semi-irregular with a wavy surface topography. Fissures are not common. Dark radiating lines also present in some spherical forms. These features extend from the hilum outward. Birefringence is well defined, with arms crossing through the centric hilum, which is often open.

Figure 19: Panicum amarum.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=PAAMA3.

Species: P. capillare L. (witchgrass) Flowers between August and October. Occurs in disturbed

areas including cultivated fields, shores, and roadsides (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: The Hopi and Navajo are both described as using the seeds of P. capillare for dietary purposes (Fewkes 1896; Vestal 1940). Both groups reportedly ground the seeds into meal for use in making breads. Macrobotanical remains of Pancium sp. have been recovered from archaeological contexts in the Northeast (Crawford and Smith 2003). Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised simple (single and clusters) polygonal grains with angular sharp edges. Subrounded spheres also present but in low frequencies. Grains range in size from 5–10 µm, with an average size of 7.68 × 6.7 µm. Clusters present, often comprised of hundreds of grains. Fissures generally not witnessed; however, an occasional initial fissure noted. Surfaces tend to be smooth to sub-irregular. Birefringence well defined, with arms crossing through the centric hilum.

Figure 20: Panicum capillare.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=PACA6.

Species: P. dichotomiflorum Michx. (smooth or fall panicgrass) Dry to moist open woods and meadows (Rhoads and Block

2000). Usage: Macrobotanical remains of Panicum sp. have been recovered from archaeological contexts in the Northeast (Crawford and Smith 2003). Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single (simple) polygonal grains. Sizes range from 3–9.25 µm, with an average size of 5.90 × 5.74 µm. These tend to be angular, yet not as severely sharp as P. capillare. Fissures not witnessed. Subrounded spheres present but in extremely low frequencies. Birefringence is well defined, crossing through a centric hilum, which is generally closed.

Figure 21: Panicum dichotomiflorum.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=PADI.

Species: P. hirticaule J. Presl (Mexican panicgrass)

Usage: The Cocopa of the American Southwest ground the seeds into meal for use in making bread. Often seeds were also stored for future use (Castetter and Bell 1951). The Yuma processed the seeds by first parching and winnowing the chaft, followed by grinding to produce a refined flour (Castetter and Bell 1951). Description of Starch: Single (simple and clusters) spheres (globose) well represented. Grains range in size from 1–8 µm, with an average size of 6.23 × 5.69 µm. Indentations common (surface expression resulting from packing against other spherical grains in amyloplast). Subangular forms present but in low numbers (an interesting attribute of this species). Hila tend to be semi-open to closed. Dark surface features present, as are radial lines in a significant percentage of the population. A double border is visible in most. Fissuring uncommon.

Figure 22: Panicum hirticaule.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=PAHI5.

Species: Dichanthelium latifolium (syn: Panicum latifolium) L. (panicgrass)

Occurring on roadsides, on shores, and in thickets (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: Crawford and Smith (2003) describe the recovery of carbonized Panicum sp. seeds from archaeological contexts in the Northeast.

Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single (simple) polygonal grains ranging in size from 3–10 µm. Average grain size approximately 7.57 × 6.68 µm. Subrounded spheres present but in small frequencies. Fissures uncommon; however, when present they appear as initial or slightly transverse types. Surfaces are slightly irregular to smooth. Hila tend to be open. Birefringence appears well defined, with straight arms crossing through the centric hila.

Figure 23: Dichanthelium latifolium (Panicum latifolium).

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=DILA8. Species: P. virgatum L. (switchgrass)

Flowers between June and September. Sandy shores, alluvial landscapes, fields, and banks (Rhoads and Block 2000). Coarse stemmed, with a vigorous root system, high yields of seed and forage (Alderson and Sharp 1995). Usage: Crawford and Smith (2003) report the recovery of Panicum sp. seeds from archaeological contexts in the Northeast. Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single (simple and clusters) polygonal grains. These tend to be angular with sharp edges. Surfaces can be ragged while the edges appear “chewed.” Fissures are common, and these vary from a tripartite or Y shape to initial transverse. Grains range in size from 4–12.5 µm, with an average size of 8.71 × 7.72 µm. Birefringence is well defined. Straight arms cross through a centric hilum. Hila vary from open to closed.

Figure 24: Panicum virgatum.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=PAVI2.

Subfamily: Pooideae Tribe: Aveneae Genus: Agrostis About 100 spp. of annual or usually perennial grasses, widely distributed. Flower blades are flat or sometimes involute. Spikelets tend to be small open to contracted panicles with one flower disarticulating above the glumes (Hortorium 1976). Species: A. hyemalis var. scabra (bentgrass)

Flowers in May and early June. Dry to moist sterile soil (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: Coville (1897) notes the use of Agrostis seeds by the Klamath for food. Description of Starch: Assemblage comprised compound grains and independent granules. Articulated grains range in size from 10–50 µm; however, individual granules are extremely small (approximately <1 µm). Granule morphology appears rounded to subrounded.

Figure 25: Agrostis hyemalis.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=AGHY.

Genus: Koeleria About 20 spp. of slender or perennial grasses in temperate regions of Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Flower blades are narrow and panicles appear glossy and spikelike. Compressed rachillas disarticulate above the glumes and between the florets (Hortorium 1976).

Species: K. macrantha (Ledeb.) Schultes (Junegrass) [syn: K. cristata (L.) Pers.]

Flowers in June and July. Produces seed through September. Distribution includes prairies, open woods, and foothills in all soil textures (Stubbendieck et al. 2003). Usage: The Havasupai used the seeds of K. macrantha for food (Weber and Seaman 1985). Castetter (1935) also notes that several southwestern Native groups incorporated Junegrass seeds into meal when making bread. This food source was considered a staple among the Isleta prior to the introduction of wheat (Jones 1931). Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised compound grains and granules. Articulated grains range in size from 10–50 µm. Individual granules are extremely small, <3 µm. Granules tend to be rounded to subrounded spheres with noticeable pressure facets. Grains are oval to amorphous in shape and birefringence is weak.

Figure 26: Koeleria macrantha.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=KOMA.

Genus: Phalaris About 15 spp. of annual or perennial grasses in North America, Europe, and North Africa. Flower blades are compressed. Rachilla disarticulating above the glumes, and a fertile lemma is noticeably shorter that the glumes (Hortorium 1976). Species: P. angusta Nees ex. Trin. (timothy canarygrass) Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised compound grains and granules. The latter are approximately 2–5 µm in size. These tend to be angular polygonal forms, often with sharp edges. Hila are in a centric position and tend to be generally closed. Articulated grains range in size from 10–50 µm and vary from well to poorly fused. Birefringence well defined in both granules and grains.

Figure 27: Phalaris angusta.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=PHAN2.

Species: P. arundinacea L. (reed canarygrass) Flowers in June and early July. Common in wetlands,

alluvial meadows, shores, and ditches (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: Ethnobotanical studies conducted in Washington and British Columbia note the use of P. arundinacea for utilitarian purposes such as weir construction (Turner et al. 1980). Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised compound grains and granules. The latter are angular polygonal forms, often with sharp edges. Multiple facets characterize the surface of these granules. Size ranges from 2–5 µm. Hila are centric and generally closed. Fissures are rare. Articulated grains vary from well to poorly fused. Usually these are composed of hundreds of granules. Sizes range from 10–50 µm. Birefringence well defined in granules and grains.

Figure 28: Phalaris arundinacea.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=PHAR3.

Tribe: Bromeae Genus: Bromus About 100 spp. of annual or perennial grasses native mostly to the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Leaves have closed sheaths and blades are usually flat. Inflorescences are open or contracted panicles of large spikelets. These can have many flowers and the rachilla is disarticulating above the glumes and between the florets (Hortorium 1976:183).

Species: B. ciliatus L. (fringed brome) Flowers between May and August. Common in wetlands, woods,

and clearings (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: The Iroquois used a decoction of B. ciliatus to encourage maize growth (Herrick 1977). Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single lenticular grains. Size ranges from 2–12.5 µm. The average grain size is 7.87 × 6.4 µm, with a mean size of 7.13 µm. Surfaces are smooth. A dark central feature is occasionally present. A faint double border is occasionally visible. Birefringence obscured through a central feature. Hila centric and closed.

Figure 29: Bromus ciliatus.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=BRCI2.

Species: B. marginatus Nees ex. Steud. (mountain brome) Flowers between May and July. Seeds mature by August.

Distribution ranges from mountain slopes and ridge lines to valleys and meadows (Stubbendieck et al. 2003). Usage: North American Native groups utilized B. marginatus for utilitarian and dietary purposes. The Keres tied culms together for use as brushes or brooms (Swank 1932). The Mendocino and Gosiute used the seeds for food (Chamberlin 1911; Chestnut 1902). Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single lenticular grains. These range in size from 2–12.5 µm. Average grains measure 8.33 × 6.45 µm. Grain surfaces are smooth. A bold, almost double, border is common. Often a dark central feature is

present. Birefringence is usually obscured in this central area. Grains without this feature produce birefringence that is well defined and curved inward. In plan view, grains are spherical to irregular oval in shape.

Figure 30: Bromus marginatus.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=BRMA4.

Tribe: Meliceae Genus: Melica About 60 spp. of tall, perennial grasses in temperate regions. The stems often swell into a corm and the leaves can be closed sheaths. Leaf blades are also usually flat and panicles appear narrow. The spikelets can be large, with multiple flowers. Rachilla usually disarticulating above the glumes and between the fertile upper florets; several nerves present and spikelets can be awnless or awned (Hortorium 1976). Species: M. nitens Nutt. (tall melicgrass, three flowered melicgrass)

Flowers in late May to July. Favors steep rocky slopes and river banks (Rhoads and Block 2000). Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised compound moderately fused grains constructed from polygonal granules. These tend to be cubic forms with sharp angles. Bells and domes also present but in small frequencies. Granules range in size from 3–12.5 µm and have an average size of 8.79 × 7.85 µm. Surfaces are generally smooth, with an occasional ragged surface present. Hila are centric, no fissures noted. Birefringence is sharp, with well-defined straight lines.

Figure 31: Melica nitens.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=MENI.

Tribe: Poeae Genus: Poa About 250 spp. of annual and perennial grasses in temperate and cool regions of the world. Blades are generally narrow and flat. Often these appear folded or involute, terminating in a distinctive “boat-shaped tip” (Hortorium 1976).

Species: P. nemoralis L. (wood bluegrass)

Flowers in June. Dry woods and edges (Rhoads and Block 2000). Native to Europe. Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised compound grains. Articulated grains constructed from hundreds of mainly polygonal forms. These tend to be angular, often with sharp edges. Rounded ovals are also present, but in the minority. Granules range in size from 3.75–7.5 µm, with an average size of 4.93 × 4.32 µm. Birefringence appears straight, with arms crossing through the centric hilum. No fissuring witnessed.

Figure 32: Poa nemoralis.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=PONE. Species: P. pratensis L. (Kentucky bluegrass)

Flowers between late April and July. Meadows, roadsides, open woods and disturbed landscapes (Rhoads and Block 2000). Cultivated and native. Usage: Native peoples in many segments of western North America utilized species from the bluegrass (Poa) genera for both dietary and utilitarian purposes. The Gosiute of Utah are noted as using the seeds of P. arida (plains bluegrass) for food (Chamberlin 1911). Havasupai people in the Southwest would prepare the seed of P. fendleriana (muttongrass) by parching, grinding fine, boiling, and forming into balls (Weber and Seaman 1985). Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised compound grains composed of hundreds of angular polygonal granules. Tiny lenticular grains also present in small frequencies. Granules range in size from 2.75–7.5 µm, with an average size of 4.11 × 3.46 µm. Birefringence dull; when well-defined, arms appear straight and cross through the closed centric hilum. No fissuring witnessed.

Figure 33: Poa pratensis.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=POPR.

Tribe: Stipeae Genus: Piptatherum (Oryzopsis) About 20 spp. of mostly perennial grasses in North America and Eurasia. Flower blades are flat or involute with terminal panicles that appear narrow or open. The fruit is hard and cylindrical in shape (Hortorium 1976). Species: O. canadensis (Poir) Dorn. (Canadian ricegrass) Usage: No known usage. Description of Starch: Assemblage comprised compound grains composed of angular polygonal granules often with sharp edges. Single (simple and clusters) grains also present. Granules range in size from 2.75–7.75 µm, with an average size of 4.95 × 4.70 µm. Grains large and well to poorly fused. Birefringence well defined and arms cross through the centric hilum, which is closed.

Figure 34: Piptatherma (Oryzopsis) canadensis.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=PICA17.

Genus: Piptochaetium Species: P. avenaceum (L.) Parodi (black oatgrass)

Flowers in May and early June. Rocky woods and sandy open ground (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: No known usage. Description of Starch: Assemblage comprised single polygonal grains and clusters. These often have sharp edges. Grains range in size from 2–7.5 µm, with an average size of 5.32 × 4.92 µm. Grains often have undulating surfaces. Birefringence tends to be well defined and arms cross through the centric hilum. Hila also tend to be open. No fissures witnessed.

Figure 35: Piptochaetium avenaceum.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=PIAV.

Tribe: Triticeae Researchers describe this tribe as one of the most evolutionarily advanced in the subfamily. They also note that no other tribe within Poaceae presents as great a problem with systematics due to its propensity for hybridization (Renvoize and Clayton 1992:22). Genus: Elymus About 50 spp. of erect annual or perennial grasses in the temperate Northern Hemisphere. Flower blades are flat and/or rarely convolute. Spikes can be slender or bristly and spikelets tend to be crowded. Multiple flowers present, usually two to six, and paired. These are positioned flat at each joint and rachilla disarticulate above the glumes (Hortorium 1976). Species: E. canadensis L. (Canada wildrye)

Flowers between July and September. Common along alluvial shores and thickets of large rivers and tributaries. Usage: Crawford and Smith (2003) report the recovery of Elymus sp. from archaeological contexts in the Northeast. Chamberlin (1911) notes that the Gosiute Indians of Utah used the seeds of wildrye as a food resource. Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single lenticular grains. These tend to range in size from 23.21–19.35 µm, with an average length of 21.28 µm. In plan view, surfaces tend to be predominantly smooth, although grains with undulating surfaces are present. The extinction cross ranges from curved to straight and generally grades from dull to well defined toward the centric hilum. Lamellae are not visible without polarized light. No fissures noticed in plan view. In profile, a longitudinal fissure is generally present, extending from margin to margin.

Figure 36: Elymus canadensis.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=ELCA4.

Species: E. hystrix L. (eastern bottlebrush grass) Flowers between June and early August. Alluvial woods

(Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: In the Northeast, seeds from this genus have been recovered from archaeological contexts (Crawford and Smith 2003). Waugh (1916) notes the Iroquoian use of this species for ceremonial/medicinal purposes. Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single lenticular grains. Grains tend to range in size from 18.75 × 15.37 µm, with an average length of 17.06 µm. Surfaces in plan view tend to be smooth; however, subtle dimpling (craters) can be common. Birefringence appears straight, with extinction cross being dull at margins and well defined toward the centric hilum (similar to E. canadensis). Extinction cross can become “blurred” or distorted centrically. Lamellae are not visible without polarized light. Grains have a double dark border.

Figure 37: Elymus hystrix.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=ELHY.

Species: E. submuticus (Virginia wildrye) Usage: Carbonized seeds from this genus have been recovered from archaeological contexts in the Northeast (Crawford and Smith 2003). Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single lenticular grains. These have an average size of 17.49 × 15.14 µm. Surfaces in plan view tend to be ragged or undulating. Birefringence tends to appear blurred at the margins. Lamellae noted only when viewed under cross-polarized light and these are subtle concentric rings. Fissures in plan view not noted. Dark central features present.

Figure 38: Elymus submuticus.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=ELSU.

Species: E. trachycaulus (Link) Gould ex Shinners (slender wheatgrass) [syn: Agropyron trachycaulum (Link) Steud.]

Flowers in June and July. Rare in Pennsylvania; found in open woods and in a few places at higher elevations (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: Carbonized remains of this genus have been recovered from archaeological contexts in the Northeast (Crawford and Smith 2003). Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single lenticular grains. These have an average size of 14.90 × 12.35 µm. Surfaces in plan view rarely smooth, often slightly undulating, especially in the botanical center. A double border, which appears dark, is noticed in the majority. In birefringence, the extinction cross tends to blur at the margins; however, it appears more defined than in other species in Elymus. Initial to tripartite or Y-shaped longitudinal fissures are often visible in plan view. Faint lamellae also noticed, but only under cross-polarized light.

Figure 39: Elymus trachycaulus.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=ELTR7.

Species: E. villosus Muhl. Ex. Willd. (hairy wildrye) Flowers between June and early August. Found in moist

woods, stream banks, and marshes (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: Carbonized macroremains of this genus have been recovered from archaeological contexts in the Northeast (Crawford and Smith 2003).

Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single lenticular grains. This assemblage ranges in size from 5–30 µm, with an average size of 19.30 × 16.53 µm. Surfaces in plan view tend to be highly distorted/irregular. Birefringence appears blurred, except in a small percentage of the assemblage that maintains characteristics consistent with other species of Elymus. These tend to have a defined X situated over the centric hilum. Lamellae are only visible under cross-polarized light.

Figure 40: Elymus villosus.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=ELVI.

Species: E. virginicus L. (Virginia wildrye) Flowers between June and September. Found in moist woods, streams, and meadows; described as a facultative wetland species in Pennsylvania (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: Carbonized seeds from this genus have been recovered from archaeological contexts in the Northeast (Crawford and Smith 2003). Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single lenticular grains. These generally range in size from 5–23 µm, with an average size of 16.08 × 14.08 µm. Grains generally appear smooth in plan view. Highly irregular grains are present, but only in small numbers. A small percentage of the assemblage also exhibits initial fissures in the planar view. Birefringence tends to be diffuse, although some grains exhibit an extinction cross of constant thickness. A large percentage of the population has a double border.

Figure 41: Elymus virginicus.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=ELVI3.

Genus: Hordeum About 25 spp. of annual or perennial grasses mainly distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere. Flower blades are flat. Spikes are bristly and dense, with a single flower on the spikelet. Each joint of the articulate or continuous rachis consists of three spikes (Hortorium 1976). Species: H. jubatum (foxtail barley)

Flowers betweeen June and August. Occurs in open areas and waste places; adapted to a variety of soil types yet tends to prefer moist areas (Stubbendieck et al. 2003). Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single lenticular grains. These range in size from 2–17 µm, with an average size of 13.53 × 11.25 µm. The largest percentage has smooth surfaces in the planar view. A slight initial fissure is often present. In profile, grains appear elongate to oval in shape and exhibit severe longitudinal fissuring. A double border can be seen in a few grains, as can a darkened central feature. Birefringence appears curved to straight, with semidefined extinction cross arms.

Figure 42: Hordeum jubatum.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=HOJU.

Species: H. pusillum (little barley) Flowers in May and June. Occurs in open areas but prefers dry or alkaline soils especially along agricultural plots (Stubbendieck et al. 2003). Usage: Researchers argue a quasi-domesticated status for this likely crop in segments of the Eastern Woodlands (Asch and Asch 1985). Crawford and Smith (2003) note the recovery of H. pusillum macroremains from archaeological contexts in the Northeast. Hart and Asch Sidell (1996) also report the recovery of H. pusillum from Memorial Park located on the West Branch of the Susquehanna. Description of Starch: Assemblage comprised single lenticular grains. These range in size from 2–20 µm and have an average size of 13 × 9.41 µm. The majority of grains appear spherical in plan view and as elongated ovals in profile. A longitudinal fissure and/or the medial margin is also visible in this view. These do not appear continuous across the entire margin. Smooth, featureless surfaces are common in plan view. In the botanical center of the grain, the hilum often appears as an open void. Birefringent properties take on an hourglass shape as each arm of the cross expands toward the margins.

Figure 43: Hordeum pusillum.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=HOPU.

Species: H. vulgare var. Silver King (barley) Flowers in late May to early August. Native to Eurasia,

occasionally persisting along cultivated field edges (Rhoads and Block 2000). Usage: Old World domesticate. Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single lenticular grains. Starch in this assemblage ranges from 2–27.5 µm, with an average grain size of 18.32 × 15.80 µm. Concentric lamellae present in a significant proportion of the assemblage (Henry and Piperno 2008; Piperno et al. 2004). Projections are also common in the planar view. Birefringence appears straight and often curved inward. Tapering of the extinction arms medially is also common. In profile, grains appear oblong, with a longitudinal fissure spanning the length of the grain.

Figure 44: Hordeum vulgare.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=HOVU.

Genus: Leymus Fifty spp. all native to the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere. Members of this genus are most abundant in eastern Asia, with North America being a secondary center. Barkworth (2007) describes these plants as having erect culms, leaves evenly distributed or basal; sheaths open; blades tend to be stiff and closely spaced with noticeably prominently ribbed veins. Inflorescence usually consists of distichous spikes with one to eight spikelets per node, sometimes panicles. Species: L. mollis (American dunegrass) Taxon especially well suited for sandy soils of the coastal plain at or near the high-tide level (Barkworth 2007). Usage: While no ethnobotanical references were encountered for L. mollis, there are many references to Native peoples of the western United States using germplasm of L. condensatus and L. triticoides for dietary purposes (Blankinship 1905; Coville 1897; Steward 1933). Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single lenticular grains. Starch in this assemblage ranges from 2–22.5 µm, with an average grain size of 16.25 × 12.89 µm. The majority of the assemblage exhibits smooth surfaces. Subtle double borders noted. Lamellae only slightly pronounced in cross-polarized light. Extinction cross tapers medially, with a well-defined X situated atop a centric hilum. Inward-bending arms of the extinction cross are also noted. Mild flattening of the margin, caused by packing, also present in a percentage of the assemblage.

Figure 45: Leymus mollis.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=LEMO8.

Genus: Triticum Approximately 30 spp. of annual grasses in the Mediterranean and Southwest Asia. Leaf blades tend to be flat and spikes are thick. Spikelets consist of approximately two to five flowers and are solitary compressed. These tend to be positioned flat at each joint of a continuous or articulate rachis. In cultivated forms, the rachilla disarticulates above the glumes and between the florets. Glumes ovate, rigid, and keeled; lemmas broad, keeled, and many nerved, abruptly pointed or awned (Hortorium 1976).

Species: T. aestrivum L. (common wheat) Usage: Old World domesticate. Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single lenticular grains. Starch in this assemblage ranges in size from 4–25 µm, with an average grain size of 16.07 × 14.32 µm. Surface texture appears ragged, and flattening and indentations resulting from packing often witnessed (Henry and Piperno 2008). Concentric lamellae are not visible in plan view (Piperno et al. 2004). Slight initial fissure in plan view also rare. Occasional double border witnessed in smaller grains. Birefringence dull yet pronounced, thick, and generally straight.

Figure 46: Triticum aestrivum.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=TRAE.

Differentiating Within Poaceae

Panicoideae: Maize and the Millets In spite of the presence of similar features among the

Panicoideae based on shared evolutionary history, bold morphological distinctions regularly occur throughout this subfamily that allow for identifications to be made on high taxonomic levels (Figure 48). These distinctions include grain size and a combination of morphological attributes, including fissure type and expression, overall grain shape, and the presence of unique surface features.

Two tribes of Panicoideae were studied here, Paniceae and Andropogoneae. Starch grain size varies consistently between these two groups, with the Paniceae generally producing smaller grains than those of Andropogoneae (Figure 47) (Holst et al. 2007). The Paniceae tribe tends to produce starch grains consistently averaging around ~8 µm, while those of Andropogoneae tend to be significantly larger, ~13 µm.1

While most genera within Paniceae overlap in size, several morphological traits are taxonomically valuable for identifying and distinguishing between two economic genera in this tribe, Panicum and Setaria. Several species of Setaria, including S. magna (giant bristlegrass), produce a spherical to oval-shaped grain that exhibits a rather wavy and ragged surface texture. Ragged to dimpled morphotypes are also present in the Andropogoneae tribe (discussed further below); however, the surface texture of Setaria can be distinguished by its application, pronunciation, and overall grain size. Panicum virgatum (switchgrass) tends to produce grains that exhibit severe angularity of the margins, often appearing similar to sharp, irregular edges. Fissures also tend to be present in this assemblage; these are usually of the tripartite Y-shaped or stellate type. Fissures in general are rare in all other Paniceae taxa studied. These attributes are therefore specific to P. virgatum and are of taxonomic value.

Figure 47: Panicoideae grasses studied. Graph depicts one standard deviation above and below the mean length of each taxon. The dashed circle denotes taxa all derived from the Paniceae tribe, while the solid circle contains species grouped within Andropogoneae, Eragrostideae, and Centotheceae.

Figure 48: Phylogeny of Poaceae taxa studied and their representative starch grain morphologies.

In Northern Flint maize there exist two main types of starch produced within each kernel (see Dombrink-Kurtzman and Knutson 1997; Piperno and Holst 1998; Zarrillo and Kooyman 2006:491). The first is a soft or floury endosperm variety, which tends to range in size from 4–24 µm and has an irregular rounded to spherical form with smooth surfaces, often a distinct double border and a lack of lamellae. This type is consistent with other soft endosperm maize studied in Central and South America as well as in the Canadian Great Plains (Pearsall et al. 2004:430–432; Perry 2001:136; Piperno et al. 2000:897; Zarrillo and Kooyman 2006:491). In two of the flint varieties studied, Parker’s Flint and Winnebago Flint, the soft endosperm starch occurs in the minority (Brown and Anderson 1947). The second type, the hard or flint endosperm variety, is diagnostic of this species (Holst et al. 2007; Piperno and Holst 1998:766). Flint endosperm grains tend to exhibit the following characteristics: (1) large grain size (often reaching ~20 µm in size), (2) ragged, subangular, irregular surface topography that appears three dimensionally across the grain thus resulting in a highly irregular form2; grains occasionally have smooth pointed to almost rounded jagged edges and (3) a propensity toward fissuring, with Y-shaped and stellate types occurring most frequently (these are often deeply incised and expand outward from the hilum); (4) lamellae are not visible; however, (5) a distinct and continuous double border often is; (6) the hilum is positioned centrically to semi-eccentrically (Cortella and Pochettino 1994:175–176; Pearsall et al. 2004:430–432; Perry 2001:136; Piperno and Holst 1998:775; Piperno et al. 2000:897; Reichert 1913:346–348; Zarrillo and Kooyman 2006:490–491). These attributes are diagnostic of Zea mays and are integral for distinguishing this species from all other grasses native to the prehistoric Eastern Woodlands.

Several Poaceae genera studied produce starch grains of comparable size to Zea. Starch from Tridens flavus (purpletop tridens) can rival Zea mays in size. In spite of this potential overlap, starch from T. flavus differs in very distinctive ways. First, Tridens tends to have highly angular edges that almost appear sharp, with grain shapes that mimic highly ordered polygonal forms. Second, Tridens grains studied here also failed to exhibit evidence of fissuring and the grain surfaces tended to be smooth. Chasmanthium latifolium (sea-oats) of Centotheceae also overlaps in size with Zea. This species exhibits a wavy, sometimes ragged surface topography especially around the margins; however, Chasmanthium lacks the distinctive well-incised Y-shaped to stellate fissures common in Zea mays. Both Tridens flavus and Chasmanthium latifolium starch are highly susceptible to processing damaged, especially within the largest

grain sizes. This damage often causes the central portion of the grain to collapse, thereby obscuring birefringence and leaving a feature much like a crater encompassing the majority of the grain.

Maize starch also overlaps in size with Andropogon gerardi (big bluestem) and Schizachyrium scoparium (little bluestem). Both A. gerardi and S. scoparium produce predominantly rounded forms, often with pressure-flattened edges. Initial transverse and radial fissures are sometimes noted in the latter. Neither of these taxa exhibits diagnostic morphological features common in Zea. Alternatively, both Andropogon (bluestem) and Schizachyrium (little bluestem), often produce starch that exhibits a highly ordered dimpled surface texture (similar to the surface of a golf ball), a trait not present in Zea mays starch populations.

Pooideae All Pooideae taxa studied, with the exception of the tribes

Bromeae and Triticeae (discussed further below), produce starch assemblages consisting of compound grains made up of ~12–3,000 individual polygonal to spherical granules.3 The number of granules present has a negative correlation to their size (Reichert 1913:273). For instance, individual granules comprising grains of Agrostis hyemalis (winter bentgrass) tend be ~2 µm. Each individual bentgrass grain is therefore made up of thousands of tiny granules. Alternatively, starch grains of Avena fatua (wild oat) tend to be larger (~7 µm) and as a result individual grains consist of far fewer granules (between 20 and several hundred grains). All Pooideae granules studied appear angular to polygonal in form, with flattened surfaces due to packing, or as oval to spherical. The amount of angularity present also tends to vary among taxa. For instance, granules studied within Phalaris (canarygrass) tend to grade from subangular to angular polygonal forms, often with sharp edges, while Koeleria (Junegrass) granules tend to be rounded to irregularly subround forms.

Theoretically, each granule composing a grain should react when viewed under polarized light (Barton and Fullager 2006:50; Loy 1994; Perry 2001; Piperno and Holst 1998). Each of the Pooideae grasses studied here exhibits at least subtle traces of an extinction cross when viewed under cross-polarized light (as both articulated grains and disarticulated granules). In other non-Poaceae taxa, the small granule size tends to obscure birefringence, resulting in starch that glows in polarized light but fails to produce an extinction cross. This birefringent property may aid in distinguishing between compound grains produced in Poaceae (particularly members of the Pooideae tribe)

and in other nonrelated taxa such as Chenopodium berlandieri (chenopod) and Nuphar lutea (yellow pond-lily).

Also present within Pooideae are two tribes that produce single lenticular-shaped starch grains. The first, Bromeae, is a small tribe composed of only one genus, Bromus (USDA NRCS 2008). Only one of the six species included in this collection, Bromus marginatus, can be found in the Middle Atlantic region (USDA NRCS 2008). Starch from this species generally averages less than 10 µm in size.

The tribe Triticeae also produces lenticular-shaped starch grains. Triticeae consists of the Old World domesticates, wheat and barley, as well as the New World quasi-domesticate Hordeum pusillum (little barley) and a range of potentially economic wild species such as Elymus canadensis (wildrye). Plants of Triticeae have a propensity toward hybridization (Renvoize and Clayton 1992). In spite of this, starch from Old World domesticates such as Triticum aestivum (wheat) and Hordeum vulgare (barley) not only can be differentiated from each other (Henry and Piperno 2008; Piperno et al. 2004) but also can be distinguished from New World taxa. Hordeum vulgare tends to exhibit concentric lamellae and initial fissures in plan view (Henry and Piperno 2008). These traits are also present in other Old World Hordeum taxa (Henry and Piperno 2008; Piperno et al. 2004; Reichert 1913:372). Lamellae were not witnessed in starch produced by either of the New World taxa, Hordeum pusillum (little barley) or Hordeum jubatum (foxtail barley). In fact, grain surfaces in plan view tend to be smooth and generally featureless except for an occasional initial longitudinal fissure. H. pusillum also tends to exhibit a hilum that appears enlarged, much like a spherical void in the botanical center of the grain. This void was not noted in any of the Old World taxa nor within the six species of native perennial Elymus spp. (wildrye). This characteristic may be diagnostic of this species; however, further comparative work is needed to substantiate this determination. In profile, Hordeum pusillum grains also have an elongated rodlike shape (with rounded ends). A faint longitudinal fissure is also present in this view, but it rarely extends the length of the grain.

Figure 49: One standard deviation above and below the mean length of Triticeae grains.

Triticum aestivum (wheat) starch also failed to exhibit visible lamellae in plan view (Henry and Piperno 2008; Piperno et al. 2004). Surface topography in these grains often tends to undulate severely. “Crater-like” depressions are often visible, sometimes covering a large portion of the grain surface (Henry and Piperno 2008; Piperno et al. 2004). Slight, initial longitudinal fissures are also occasionally visible in plan view. 1 The majority of the taxa studied from Paniceae fall within this 7–10 µm range. 2 In some varieties of maize, researchers also note the presence of hemispherical and “vase” shaped grains (Pearsall et al. 2004:430; Zarrillo and Kooyman 2006:490). 3 These all fall within Reichert’s (1913) “Type 16 Grains Compound, Many Components” group.

Works Cited: Alderson, J., and C. W. Sharp, for the United States Department of Agriculture 1995 Grass Varieties in the United States. Lewis

Publishers, Boca Raton, Florida. Austin, D. 2006 Fox-Tail Millets (Setaria: Poaceae)—Abandoned

Food in Two Hemispheres. Economic Botany 60:143–158. Barkworth, M. E. 2007 13.17 LEYMUS Hochst. Electronic document,

http://herbarium.usu.edu/treatments/Leymus.htm, accessed April 30, 2010.

Barton, H., and R. Fullagar 2006 Microscopy. In Ancient Starch Research, edited by

R. Torrence and H. Barton, pp. 47–52. Left Coast Press, Walnut Creek, California.

Blankinship, J. W. 1905 Native Economic Plants of Montana. Bulletin 56.

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Indians. Papers of the Michigan Academy of Science, Arts and Letters 25:527–542.

Castetter, E. F. 1935 Uncultivated Native Plants Used as Sources of

Food. Ethnobiological Studies in the American Southwest 1. University of New Mexico Bulletin 4(1):1–44.

Castetter, E. F., and W. H. Bell 1951 Yuman Indian Agriculture. University of New

Mexico Press, Albuquerque.

Castetter, E. F., and M. E. Opler 1936 The Ethnobiology of the Chiricahua and Mescalero

Apache: The Use of Plants for Foods, Beverages and Narcotics. Ethnobiological Studies in the American Southwest 3, Biological Series 4(5), University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque; Bulletin, University of New Mexico 297.

Chamberlin, R. V. 1911 The Ethno-Botany of the Gosiute Indians of Utah.

Memoirs of the American Anthropological Association 2(5):331–405.

Chestnut, V. K. 1902 Plants Used by the Indians of Mendocino County,

California. Contributions from the U.S. National Herbarium 7:295–408.

Correll, D. S., and M. C. Johnston 1970 Manual of the Vascular Plants of Texas. Texas

Research Foundation, Renner. Cortella, A. R., and M. L. Pochettino 1994 Starch Grain Analysis as a Microscopic Diagnostic

Feature in the Identification of Plant Material. Economic Botany 48:171–181.

Coville, F. V. 1897 Notes on the Plants Used by the Klamath Indians

of Oregon. Contributions from the U.S. National Herbarium 5(2):87–110.

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to Amylose Content and Susceptibility to Damage. Cereal Chemistry 74(6):776–780.

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Fernald, M. L. 1950 Gray's Manual of Botany. American Book Company,

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Fewkes, J. W. 1896 A Contribution to Ethnobotany. American

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the Dakota. Collections of the Nebraska State Historical Society 17:358–370.

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in Mesoamerica by Using Pollen, Starch Grains and Phytoliths. PNAS 104:17608–17613.

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Cultivated in the United States and Canada. Wiley, Hoboken, New Jersey.

Jones, V. H. 1931 The Ethnobotany of the Isleta Indians. University

of New Mexico, Albuquerque. Loy, T. 1994 Methods in the Analysis of Starch Residues on

Prehistoric Stone Tools. In Tropical Archaeobotany: Applications and New Developments, edited by J. G. Hather, pp. 86–114. Routledge, New York.

Pearsall, D. M., K. Chandler-Ezell, and J. A. Zeidler 2004 Maize in Ancient Ecuador: Results of Residue

Analysis of Stone Tools from the Real Alto Site. Journal of Archaeological Science 31(4):423–442.

Perry, L. 2001 Prehispanic Subsistence in the Middle Orinoco

Basin: Starch Analysis Yields New Evidence. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.

Piperno, D. R., and I. Holst 1998 The Presence of Starch Grains on Prehistoric

Stone Tools from the Humid Neotropics: Indications of Early Tuber Use and Agriculture in Panama. Journal of Archaeological Science 25:765–776.

Piperno, D. R., A. J. Ranere, I. Holst, and P. Hansell 2000 Starch Grains Reveal Early Root Crop Horticulture

in Panamanian Tropical Forest. Nature 407:894–897. Piperno, D. R., E. Weiss, I. Holst, and D. Nadel 2004 Processing of Wild Cereal Grains in the Upper

Palaeolithic Revealed by Starch Grain Analysis. Nature 430:670–673.

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Indians of Minnesota. Wisconsin Archaeologist 7(4):230–248.

Reichert, E. T. 1913 The Differentiation and Specificity of Starches

in Relation to Genera, Species, etc. Carnegie Institute, Washington, D.C.

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Grass Evolution and Domestication, edited by G. P. Chapman, pp. 3–38. Cambridge University Press, New York.

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Plants by Sicangu (Brule) People in the Rosebud Area, South Dakota. Rosebud Educational Society, St. Francis, South Dakota.

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the Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee 4:1–174.

1928 Ethnobotany of the Meskwaki Indians. Bulletin of the Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee 4:175–326.

Steward, J. H. 1933 Ethnography of the Owens Valley Paiute.

University of California Publications in American Archaeology and Ethnology 33:233–250.

Stubbendieck, J., S. L. Hatch, and L. M. Landholt 2003 North American Wildland Plants. University of

Nebraska Press, Lincoln. Swank, G. R. 1932 The Ethnobotany of the Acoma and Laguna Indians.

University of New Mexico, Albuquerque. Thieret, J. W. 2007 17.32 Calamovilfa (A. Gray) Hack. Electronic

document, http://herbarium.usu.edu/treatments/Calamovilfa.htm, accessed April 30, 2010.


British Columbia and Washington. British Columbia Provincial Museum, Victoria.

Turpin, S. A., M. Hennenberg, and L. C. Bement 1986 Late Archaic Mortuary Practices of the Lower

Pecos River Region, Southwest Texas. Plains Anthropologist 31:295–315.

U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service 2008 The PLANTS Database. National Plant Data Center,

Baton Rouge, Louisiana, 70874-4490 USA. Electronic document, http://plants.usda.gov, accessed March 18, 2008.

Vestal, P. A. 1940 Notes on a Collection of Plants from the Hopi

Indian Region of Arizona Made by J. G. Owens in 1891. Botanical Museum Leaflets (Harvard University) 8(8):153–168.

Vestal, P. A., and R. E. Schultes 1939 The Economic Botany of the Kiowa Indians.

Botanical Museum of Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

Voegelin, E. W. 1938 Tubatulabal Ethnography. Anthropological Records

2(1):1–84. Waugh, F. W. 1916 Iroquois Foods and Food Preparation.

Anthropological Series 12. Canada Department of Mines, Geological Survey, Ottawa.

Weber, S. A., and P. D. Seaman 1985 Havasupai Habitat: A. F. Whiting's Ethnography of

a Traditional Indian Culture. The University of Arizona Press, Tucson.

Zarrillo, S., and B. Kooyman 2006 Evidence for Berry and Maize Processing on the

Canadian Plains from Starch Grain Analysis. American Antiquity 71:473–500.

Family: Polygonaceae Genus: Polygonum Species: P. amphibium L. (water knotweed) Rhoads and Block (2000:547) describe this species as a robust perennial with oval to lanceolate leaves, stout rhizomes, trailing on water, flowers pink to red on a terminal spike. Frequent on shores of lakes and in ditches. Usage: According to ethnobotanical studies, rhizomes of Polygonum amphibium were used for a wide range of medicinal purposes (Leighton 1985; Turner et al. 1980). Description of Starch: Assemblage (rhizome) primarily comprised single (simple) ovoid to elliptical forms with acuminate distal ends and irregular subangular grains. Grains range in size from 5–20 µm, with an average size of 14 × 9 µm. Hila arranged eccentrically and are often open. Fissures infrequent and when present are of the stellate type. No lamellae noticed and birefringence is well defined.

Figure: Polygonum amphibium (rhizome).

Distribution:http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=POAM8. Species: P. hydropiper L. (marshpepper knotweed) Rhoads and Block (2000:550) describe this annual as ascending from a taproot, having reddish branches, lanceolate leaves, achenes with both three sides and lens shapes; prefers wet meadows, swamps, and stream margins. Native to Europe.

Description of Starch: Assemblage (seed) primarily comprised single (simple and clusters) spherical (globose) forms. Grains range in size from 2–5 µm. Hila are positioned centrically. Birefringence is well defined. Subtle flattening common, as is a continuous bold/thick border (almost double border). No lamellae or fissures witnessed.

Figure: Polygonum hydropiper.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=POHY.

Species: P. pensylvanicum L. (Pennsylvania smartweed) Rhoads and Block (2000:550–551) describe this plant as erect and ascending from a stout taproot, leaves broad lanceolate, spikes cylindric and erect, fruiting calyx pink, achenes lens shaped and somewhat flattened or depressed on each side. Prefers moist ditches, meadows, fields, and waste places. Usage: Polygonum seeds often occur in the macrobotanical record. There is strong evidence supporting the hypothesis that Polygonum erectum was cultivated in the Midwest (Asch and Asch 1985). Description of Starch: Assemblage primarily comprised single (simple and clusters) spherical (globose) grains. Grains range in size from 2–5 µm; often subtle flattening present due to packing. Hila arranged centrically. No lamellae or fissures witnessed. Continuous bold/thick double border is often present. Birefringence well defined. A straight cross is formed through the centric hilum.

Figure: Polygonum pensylvanicum.

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=POPE2.

Summary: Polygonum Starch is produced in large quantities within the seeds and rhizomes. Polygonaceae produces subrounded starch with smooth to slightly flattened surfaces, continuous thickened borders, and lacking fissures. Starch from Polygonum amphibium rhizomes is characteristic of this species. These elongate grains have an eccentric hilum, are <17 µm in length, lack fissures, and are sometimes bent.

Works Cited: Asch, D. L., and N. B. Asch 1985 Prehistoric Plant Cultivation in West-Central

Illinois. In Prehistoric Food Production in North America, vol. 75, edited by R. I. Ford, pp. 149–205. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.

Leighton, A. L. 1985 Wild Plant Use by the Woods Cree (Nihithawak) of East-

Central Saskatchewan. National Museums of Canada, Ottawa. Rhoads, A. F., and T. Block 2000 The Plants of Pennsylvania. University of Pennsylvania



British Columbia and Washington. British Columbia Provinical Museum, Victoria, Canada.

Family: Smilacaceae Genus: Smilax Rhoads and Block (2000:997) describe these plants (greenbrier) as a rhizomatous climbing vine often with prickles, ovate to ovate-lanceolate leaves, bluish fruit; prefers moist to dry woods, thickets, and old fields. Usage: Ethnobotanical accounts describe Native peoples as using the rhizomes of this plant for dietary purposes (Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975; Speck 1941). Description of Starch: Assemblage (rhizome) primarily comprised single (simple and clusters) dome/hemispherical-shaped grains. These range in size from 5—20 µm, with an average size of 14 × 14 µm; usually two to three flattened surfaces occur on the distal surface. Hila vary from centric to semi-eccentric, with an initial to slight V-shaped fissure rarely occurring. Concentric lamellae present. Birefringence bold and well defined and arms appear straight.

Figure: Smilax sp. (rhizome).

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=SMILA2.

Summary: Smilax sp. Starch is produced in moderate levels within the rhizomes of this taxon, at least on a seasonal basis. These grains are taxonomically valuable, particularly the large symmetrical dome forms that are of nearly equal length and width and exhibit concentric lamellae and a small facet positioned bilaterally.

Works Cited: Hamel, P. B., and M. U. Chiltoskey 1975 Cherokee Plants and Their Uses—A 400 Year History.

Herald Publishing, Sylva, North Carolina. Rhoads, A. F., and T. Block 2000 The Plants of Pennsylvania. University of Pennsylvania

Press, Philadelphia. Speck, F. G. 1941 List of Plant Curatives Obtained from the Houma

Indians of Louisiana. Primitive Man 14:49–75.

Family: Typhaceae Genus: Typha Species: T. latifolia L. (common cattail) Rhoads and Block (2000:1001) describe this aquatic plant as reaching 1—3 m in height, with flat lanceolate leaves 10—23 mm wide. Common in swamps, in marshes, and on wet shores. Usage: Cattail served many purposes in Native economies. The starch-rich rhizomes were used for treating a large number of different ailments (Black 1980; Herrick 1977; Tantaquidgeon 1972). Rhizomes were also used for dietary purposes (Castetter 1935; Heller 1953; Leighton 1985). Description of Starch: Assemblage (rhizome) comprised single (clusters) bells and domes. These grains range in size from 2–20 µm, with an average size of 9 × 8 µm. Facets vary from one to three in number. Hila positioned centrically to semi-eccentrically. Lamellae and fissures uncommon. Birefringence well defined and arms appear straight.

Figure: Typha latifolia (rhizome).

Distribution: http://plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=TYLA.

Summary: Typha latifolia Starch is produced in large amounts within the rhizomes of this taxon. Many of these forms occur across a

wide range of unrelated taxa, although some are of taxonomic value. These grains tend to have bell shapes that appear rounded at the proximal end and taper, often drastically, to the distal surface. Works Cited: Black, M. J. 1980 Algonquin Ethnobotany: An Interpretation of

Aboriginal Adaptation in South Western Quebec. National Museums of Canada, Ottawa.

Castetter, E. F. 1935 The Ethnobiology of the Chiricahua and Mescalero

Apache: The Use of Plants for Foods, Beverages and Narcotics. Ethnobiological Studies in the American Southwest 3, Biological Series 4(5), University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque; Bulletin, University of New Mexico 297.

Heller, C. A. 1953 Edible and Poisonous Plants of Alaska. University

of Alaska, Fairbanks. Herrick, J. W. 1977 Iroquois Medical Botany. Unpublished Ph.D.


Leighton, A. L. 1985 Wild Plant Use by the Woods Cree (Nihithawak) of

East-Central Saskatchewan. National Museums of Canada, Ottawa.

Rhoads, A. F., and T. Block 2000 The Plants of Pennsylvania. University of

Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia. Tantaquidgeon, G. 1972 Folk Medicine of the Delaware and Related

Algonkian Indians. Anthropological Series 3. Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, Harrisburg.

Appendix 1

Plants of the Eastern Woodlands Targeted for Their Subterranean Storage Organs: A Survey of Moerman’s (2003) Native American Ethnobotany Database

Family Taxa Common Name Medicinal

Use Dietary

Use Acoraceae Acorus americanus sweetflag X X Agavaceae Manfreda virginica false aloe X

Alismataceae

Sagittaria falcata duck potato (arrowhead)

X

Alismataceae

Sagittaria graminea

duck potato X

Alismataceae

Sagittaria latifolia

duck potato X

Alismataceae

Sagittaria subulata

duck potato X

Anacardiaceae

Rhus copallinum winged sumac X

Anacardiaceae

Rhus typhina staghorn sumac X

Anacardiaceae

Toxicodendron pubescens

Atlantic poison oak

X

Apiaceae Angelica atropurpurea

purplestem angelica

X

Apiaceae Angelica lucida seacoast angelica X Apiaceae Cicuta maculata spotted water

hemlock X

Apiaceae Eryngium aquaticum rattlesnakemaster X Apiaceae Eryngium

yuccifolium button eryngo X

Apiaceae Heracleum maximum common cowparsnip X Apiaceae Osmorhiza

claytonii Clayton's sweetroot

X

Apiaceae Osmorhiza longistylis (berteroi)

sweet cicely, anise root

X

Apiaceae Sanicula canadensis

Canadian blacksnakeroot

X

Apiaceae Sanicula marilandica

Maryland sanicle X

Apiaceae Sanicula odorata clustered blacksnakeroot

X

Apiaceae Sium suave waterparsnip X Apiaceae Thaspium barbinode meadow-parsnip X

Apocynaceae Apocynum androsaemifolium

dogbane X

Apocynaceae Apocynum cannabinum

Indianhemp X

Araceae Arisaema triphyllum

jack-in-the-pulpit

X

Araceae Calla palustris water arum X

Araceae Orontium aquaticum golden club X Araceae Peltandra

virginica arrow arum X X

Araceae Symplocarpus foetidus

skunk cabbage X

Araliaceae Aralia nudicaulis wild sarsaparilla X Araliaceae Aralia racemosa spikenard X Araliaceae Panax

quinquefolius American ginseng X

Araliaceae Panax trifolius dwarf ginseng X Aristolochi

aceae Aristolochia serpentaria

Virginia snakeroot

X

Aristolochiaceae

Asarum canadense Canadian wildginger

X X

Asclepiadaceae

Asclepias syriaca common milkweed X

Asclepiadaceae

Asclepias tuberosa butterfly milkweed

X

Asclepiadaceae

Asclepias viridiflora

green comet milkweed

X

Family Taxa Common Name Medicinal Use

Dietary Use

Asteraceae Anaphalis margaritacea

western pearly everlasting

X

Asteraceae Artemisia frigida prairie sagewort X Asteraceae Artemisia

ludoviciana white sagebrush X

Asteraceae Brickellia eupatorioides

false boneset X

Asteraceae Chrysopsis mariana Maryland goldenaster

X

Asteraceae Coreopsis tinctoria

golden tickseed X

Asteraceae Echinacea purpurea eastern purple coneflower

X

Asteraceae Eupatorium perfoliatum

common boneset X

Asteraceae Eupatorium purpureum

sweetscented joepyeweed

X X

Asteraceae Euthamia graminifolia

flat-top goldentop

X

Asteraceae Grindelia nuda curlytop gumweed X Asteraceae Helianthus annuus common sunflower X Asteraceae Helianthus

occidentalis fewleaf sunflower X

Asteraceae Helianthus tuberosus

Jerusalum artichoke

X

Asteraceae Lactuca biennis tall blue lettuce X Asteraceae Lactuca tatarica blue lettuce X Asteraceae Liatris spicata dense blazing

star X

Asteraceae Oclemena nemoralis bog aster X Asteraceae Petasites frigidus arctic sweet

coltsfoot X

Asteraceae Prenanthes alba white rattlesnakeroot

X

Asteraceae Prenanthes trifoliolata

gall of the earth X

Asteraceae Rudbeckia fulgida orange coneflower X Asteraceae Rudbeckia hirta blackeyed susan X Asteraceae Rudbeckia

laciniata coneflower X

Asteraceae Silphium perfoliatum

cupplant X

Asteraceae Solidago frigida goldenrod X Asteraceae Symphyotrichum

puniceum purplestem aster X

Berberidaceae

Berberis vulgaris common barberry X

Berberidaceae

Caulophyllum thalictroides

blue cohosh X

Berberidaceae

Mahonia aquifolium hollyleaved barberry

X

Berberidaceae

Podophyllum peltatum

mayapple X

Betulaceae Alnus incana speckled alder X Betulaceae Betula papyrifera paper birch X Betulaceae Carpinus

caroliniana American hornbeam X

Betulaceae Ostrya virginiana hophornbeam X Boraginacea

e Lithospermum canescens

hoary puccoon X

Brassicaceae

Cardamine diphylla crinkleroot X

Campanulaceae

Campanula rotundifolia

bluebell bellflower

X

Campanulaceae

Lobelia cardinalis cardinalflower X


Dietary Use

Caprifoliaceae

Lonicera canadensis

fly honeysuckle X

Caprifoliaceae

Symphoricarpos orbiculatus

coralberry X

Caprifoliaceae

Viburnum opulus American cranberrybush

X

Caprifoliaceae

Viburnum prunifolium

blackhaw X

Celastraceae

Celastrus scandens bittersweet X

Cistaceae Helianthemum canadense

longbranch frostweed

X

Clusiaceae Hypericum punctatum

spotted St. Johnswort

X

Convolvulaceae

Ipomoea pandurata man of the earth X

Cornaceae Cornus alternifolia

alternateleaf dogwood

X

Cornaceae Cornus florida dogwood X Cornaceae Cornus sericea redosier dogwood X Cornaceae Nyssa sylvatica blackgum X

Cucurbitaceae

Echinocystis lobata

wild cucumber X

Cyperaceae Carex sp. sedge X Cyperaceae Carex utriculata northwest

territory sedge X

Cyperaceae Cyperus esculentus chufa X Cyperaceae Scirpus validus great bulrush X Dennstaedtia

ceae Pteridium aquilinum

bracken fern X

Dioscoreaceae

Dioscorea villosa wild potato X

Dryopteridaceae

Athyrium filix-femina

lady fern X

Dryopteridaceae

Dryopteris cristata

shield/crested wood fern

X

Equisetaceae

Equisetum hyemale scouringrush horsetail

X

Ericaceae Gaultheria procumbens

eastern teaberry X

Fabaceae Amphicarpa bracteata

hogpeanut X

Fabaceae Apios americana groundnut X Fabaceae Astragalus

canadensis Canadian milkvetch

X

Fabaceae Baptisia tinctoria horseflyweed X Fabaceae Chamaecrista

fasciculata partridge pea X

Fabaceae Chamaecrista nictitans

sensitive partridge pea

X

Fabaceae Crotalaria arrowhead X

sagittalis rattlebox Fabaceae Lathyrus venosus veiny pea X Fabaceae Psoralea esculenta large Indian

bread root X

Fabaceae Senna hebecarpa American senna X Fabaceae Senna marilandica Maryland senna X

Fumariaceae Dicentra cucullaria

dutchman's breeches

X

Gentianaceae

Gentiana andrewsii closed bottle gentian

X

Gentianaceae

Gentiana flavida yellowish/plain gentian

X

Gentianaceae

Gentianopsis crinita

greater fringed gentian

X


Dietary Use

Geraniaceae Geranium maculatum wild geranium X Grossularia

ceae Ribes cynosbati eastern prickly

gooseberry X

Hydrangeaceae

Hydrangea arborescens

wild hydrangea X

Hydrophyllaceae

Hydrophyllum virginianum

eastern waterleaf X

Iridaceae Iris versicolor harlequin blueflag

X X

Lamiaceae Agastache anethiodora

giant hyssop X

Lamiaceae Lycopus uniflorus northern bugleweed

X

Lamiaceae Prunella vulgaris common selfheal X Lamiaceae Scutellaria

elliptica hairy skullcap X

Lamiaceae Scutellaria incana hoary skullcap X Lamiaceae Scutellaria

lateriflora blue skullcap X

Lamiaceae Stachys palustris marsh hedgenettle X Lauraceae Sassafras albidum sassafras X X Liliaceae Allium canadense meadow garlic X Liliaceae Allium stellatum wild onion X Liliaceae Camassia sp. camas X Liliaceae Erythronium

americanum dogtooth violet X

Liliaceae Erythronium sp. lilies X Liliaceae Lilium canadense Canada lily X X Liliaceae Lilium

philadelphicum wood lily X X

Liliaceae Maianthemum racemosum

feathery false lily of the

valley

X

Liliaceae Maianthemum stellatum

starry false lily of the valley

X

Liliaceae Medeola virginiana Indian cucumber X Liliaceae Polygonatum

commutatum Solomon’s seal X

Liliaceae Streptopus lanceolatus

twisted stalk X

Liliaceae Trillium grandiflorum

white trillium X

Liliaceae Uvularia sessilifolia

sessileleaf bellwort

X

Loganiaceae Gelsemium sempervirens

evening trumpetflower

X

Malvaceae Napaea dioica glademallow X Melastomatac

eae Rhexia mariana meadow beauties X

Melastomataceae

Rhexia virginica meadow beauties X

Menyanthaceae

Menyanthes trifoliata

buckbean X

Monotropaceae

Monotropa uniflora Indianpipe X

Moraceae Maclura pomifera osage orange X Moraceae Morus rubra red mulberry X

Myricaceae Comptonia peregrina

sweet fern X

Myricaceae Morella sp. bayberrry X Nelumbonace

ae Nelumbo lutea American lotus X


Dietary Use

Nymphaeaceae

Nuphar lutea yellow pond-lily X

Nymphaeaceae

Nymphaea odorata American white waterlily

X

Ophioglossaceae

Botrychium virginianum

rattlesnake fern X

Orchidaceae Cypripedium acaule moccasin flower X Orchidaceae Cypripedium sp. ladyslipper X Orchidaceae Goodyera pubescens downy rattlesnake

plantain X

Orchidaceae Platanthera dilatata

scentbottle X

Orchidaceae Platanthera lesser purple X

psycodes fringed orchid Papaveracea

e Sanguinaria canadensis

bloodroot X

Passifloraceae

Passiflora incarnata

purple passionflower

X

Phytolaccaceae

Phytolacca americana

American pokeweed X

Plantaginaceae

Plantago major common plantain X

Poaceae Bouteloua gracilis blue grama X Poaceae Hordeum jubatum foxtail barley X Poaceae Phragmites

australis reed X

Poaceae Sporobolus heterolepis

prairie dropseed X

Polemoniaceae

Phlox pilosa downy phlox X

Polygalaceae

Polygala senaga seneca snakeroot X

Polygonaceae

Eriogonum sp. buckwheat X

Polygonaceae

Polygonum erectum knotweed X

Polygonaceae

P. hydropiperoides knotweed X

Polygonaceae

P. pennsylvanicum knotweed X

Polygonaceae

P. prolificum proliferous knotweed

X

Polygonaceae

Rumex orbiculatus greater water dock

X

Pteridaceae Adiantum pedatum maidenhair fern X Pyrolaceae Orthilia secunda sidebells

wintergreen X

Ranunculaceae

Actaea rubra red baneberry, snakeberry

X

Ranunculaceae

Anemone canadensis Canadian anemone X

Ranunculaceae

Anemone cylindrica thimbleweed X

Ranunculaceae

Anemone virginiana tall thimbleweed X

Ranunculaceae

Aquilegia canadensis

red columbine X

Ranunculaceae

Caltha palustris cowslip X

Ranunculaceae

Delphinium tricorne

dwarf larkspur X

Ranunculaceae

Hepatica americana roundlobe hepatica

X

Rhamnaceae Ceanothus ovatus New Jersey tea X Rosaceae Agrimonia

gryposepala tall hairy agrimony

X

Rosaceae Amelanchier canadensis

Canadian serviceberry

X

Rosaceae Aruncus dioicus bride's feathers X

Family Taxa Common Name Medicinal

Use Dietary

Use Rosaceae Crataegus

chrysocarpa fireberry hawthorn

X

Rosaceae Drymocallis arguta

five-finger/tall cinquefoil

X

Rosaceae Filipendula rubra queen of the prairie

X

Rosaceae Geum aleppicum yellow avens X Rosaceae Geum rivale purple avens X Rosaceae Potentilla

monspeliensis cinquefoil

X Rosaceae Prunus americana American plum X Rosaceae Prunus

pensylvanica pin cherry

X Rosaceae Rosa arkansana wild

rose/prairie rose

X

Rosaceae Rubus allegheniensis

blackberry X

Rosaceae Rubus idaeus grayleaf red raspberry

X

Rosaceae Rubus occidentalis

black raspberry X

Rosaceae Rubus odoratus purpleflowering raspberry

X

Rosaceae Sorbus americana American mt. ash

X

Rutaceae Ptelea trifoliata common hoptree X Rutaceae Zanthoxylum

americanum prickly ash X

Salicaceae Populus balsamifera

balsam poplar X

Salicaceae Salix nigra black willow X Sarraceniaceae Sarracenia

purpurea purple

pitcherplant X

Saxifragaceae Heuchera hispida American X

alumroot Scrophulariaceae Pedicularis

canadensis Canadian lousewort

X X

Scrophulariaceae Veronicastrum virginicum

Culver's root X

Smilacaceae Smiliax sp. briers X Solanaceae Datura wrightii sacred thorn-

apple X

Solanaceae Physalis heterophylla

clammy groundcherry

X

Solanaceae Physalis pubescens

husk tomato X

Thymelaeaceae Dirca palustris eastern leatherwood

X

Typhaceae Typha latifolia broadleaf cattail

X

Ulmaceae Ulmus americana American elm X Ulmaceae Ulmus fulva

(ruba) slippery elm X

Urticaceae Laportea canadensis

wood nettle X

Urticaceae Urtica gracilis stinging nettle X Valerianaceae Valeriana

uliginosa swamp valerian X

Verbenaceae Phryma leptostachya

lopseed X

Verbenaceae Verbena hastata swamp verbena X Violaceae Viola canadensis Canadian white

violet X

Violaceae Viola pubescens downy yellow violet

X

Vitaceae Parthenocissus quinquefolia

Virginia creeper

X

Zosteraceae Zostera marina seawrack X

Appendix 2 Bibliographic Material: Sites Distributed Throughout the Delaware River Watershed Surveyed for the Compilation of Archaeobotanical Data Presented Throughout This Study Asch Sidell, N. 2002 Deposit Airport I (SUMi-2048) Subsistence Remains. Public

Archaeology Facility Report, Binghamton University, Binghamton, New York.

2008a Manna Site (36PI4) Floral Remains. Prepared for the Department of Anthropology, Temple University, Philadelphia.

2008b Union Chapel Floral Remains. Prepared for the Department of Anthropology, Temple University, Philadelphia.

Berger, L. 1997 Phase III Archaeological Data Recovery at Maple Grange Road

Bridge Site (28-SX-297) for Maple Grange Road Bridge Replacement and Relocation, Federal Project #BRZ-1922(101). The Cultural Resource Group, Louis Berger and Associates, Inc., East Orange, New Jersey.

Bergman, C. A., J. F. Doershuk, H. A. Fassler, and O. G. Miller 1994 Archaeological Data Recovery for Transcontinental Gas Pipe

Line Corporation's 6.79 Mile Leidy Natural Gas Pipeline Expansion, Padula Site (36-NM-15). 3D/Environmental Services, Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio, Report on file, Bureau for Historic Preservation, Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, Harrisburg.

Bergman, C. A., J. F. Doershuk, L. R. Kimball, and V. Riegel 1994 Archaeological Data Recovery for Transcontinental Gas Pipe

Line Corporation's 6.79 Mile Leidy Natural Gas Pipeline Expansion, Sandts Eddy Site (36-NM-12), Northampton County, Pennsylvania. 3D/Environmental Services, Inc., Cincinnati Ohio, Report on file, Bureau for Historic Preservation, Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, Harrisburg.

Crabtree, P. J., and A. Langendorfer 1981 Paleoethnobotany of the Delaware Park Site. MASCA Research

Papers in Science and Archaeology 1(7):195–201.

Custer, J. F., and B. H. Silber 1995 Final Archaeological Investigations at the Snapp

Prehistoric Site (7NC-G-101), State Route 1 Corridor, Chesapeake and Delaware Canal Section, New Castle County, Delaware. DelDOT Archaeology Series No. 122. Delaware Department of Transportation, Dover.

Doms, K. R., J. F. Custer, and C. Trivelli 1985 Archaeological Investigations at the Bay Vista Site (7S-G-

26) and the Cole Site (7s-G-79). Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of Delaware 19:1–26.

Fischler, B. R., and J. W. French 1991 The Middle Woodland to Late Woodland Transition in the

Upper Delaware Valley: New Information from the Smithfield Beach Site (36Mr5). In The People of Minisink, edited by D. G. Orr and D. V. Campana, pp. 145–169. National Park Service, Mid-Atlantic Region, Philadelphia.

Fleming, G. 2002 Archaeological Data Recovery Excavations and Monitoring,

New Jersey Route 29, City of Trenton, Mercer County, New Jersey. Prepared by Hunter Research, Trenton, New Jersey, for the Federal Highway Administration and the New Jersey Department of Transportation, Trenton.

Forks of the Delaware Chapter 14 1980 The Overpeck Site (36BU5). Pennsylvania Archaeologist

50(3):1–46. Grossman-Bailey, I. 2003 Phase I/II Archaeological Survey, Block 24, Lot 37,

Mansfield Township, Burlington County. Prepared by Richard Grubb and Associates, Inc., Cranberry, New Jersey.

Grossman-Bailey, I., and P. McEachen 2003 Mantua Creek Watershed Case Study. Paper presented at the

70th Annual Eastern States Archaeological Federation Meeting, Mt. Laurel, New Jersey.

Harbison, J., and R. Dickau 2006 Cooked Corn from Carbonized Crust: Starch Grain Analysis

from Food Residue on Ceramic Sherds, Shoemaker's Ferry Site, New Jersey. Paper presented at the 71st Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, San Juan, Puerto Rico.

Hart, J. P., and D. L. Cremeens 1991 Phase III Archaeological Data Recovery Investigations at

the Piersol II Site (36CH339), Chester County, Pennsylvania. Prepared by GAI Consultants, Inc., Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, ER # 87-0343-042-DD.

Hummer, C. 1991 Biface and Ceramic Assemblage Variability in the Early

Woodland: Continuity and Change at the Williamson Site, Hunterdon County, New Jersey. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Temple University, Philadelphia.

Kraft, H. C. 1970 The Miller Field Site, Warren County, New Jersey, Part 1:

Archaic and Transitional Stages. Archaeological Research Center, Seton Hall University, South Orange, New Jersey.

1978 The Minisink Site: A Reevaluation of a Late Prehistoric and Early Historic Contact Site in Sussex County, New Jersey. Herbert C. Kraft Archaeological Research Center, South Orange, New Jersey.

LeeDecker, C., B. Koldehoff, and C. A. Holt 1996 Excavation of the Two Guys Site (7S-F-68), Sussex County,

Delaware. The Cultural Resource Group, Louis Berger and Associates, Inc., East Orange, New Jersey.

McLearen, D., and J. V. Dumont 1986 Bordentown Waterworks (28Me37): Archaeological Data

Recovery, I-195 Segment 1-A, 1-E, 10-D. Prepared by the Cultural Resource Group, Louis Berger and Associates, Inc., East Orange, New Jersey, for the Federal Highway Administration and the New Jersey Department of Transportation, Trenton.

McLearen, D. C., and M. Fokken 1986 White Horse West Site (28Me119), Data Recovery. Trenton

Complex Archaeology: Report 4. Revised 1996. Prepared by the Cultural Resource Group, Louis Berger and Associates, Inc., East Orange, New Jersey, for the Federal Highway Administration, Bureau of Environmental Analysis, Trenton, New Jersey.

Martin, J. 1991 Prehistoric Cultural Resources at the Old Barracks,

Trenton, New Jersey. Bulletin of the Archaeological Society of New Jersey 46:19–30.

Messner, T. C., R. M. Stewart, and P. Perazio 2008 Archaeological Investigations of Ten Proposed Comfort

Station Locations, Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area, Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Department of Anthropology, Temple University. Technical report prepared for the National Park Service, Bushkill, Pennsylvania.

Moeller, R. W. 1992 Analyzing and Interpreting Late Woodland Features.

Occasional Publications in Northeast Anthropology No. 12. Archaeological Services, Bethlehem, Connecticut.

Perazio, P. 1996 Abbott's Lane Site (28Me1-I), Data Recovery. Trenton

Complex Archaeology: Report 7. Rev. ed. (1986). Prepared by the Cultural Resource Group, Louis Berger and Associates, Inc., East Orange, New Jersey, for the Federal Highway Administration, Bureau of Environmental Analysis, Trenton, New Jersey.

Petraglia, M., D. Knepper, J. Rutherford, P. LaPorta, K. Puseman, J. Schuldenrein, and N. Tuross 1998 The Prehistory of Lums Pond: The Formation of an

Archaeological Site in Delaware. Prepared by the Cultural Resources Division, Parsons-Engineering Science, Fairfax, Virginia. Delaware Department of Transportation Archaeology Series No. 155.

Raymer, L., and M. Theresa 1998 Paleoethnobotany of the Fahs II and Oberly Island Sites,

Northampton County, Pennsylvania. Prepared for John Miller Associates, West Chester, Pennsylvania.

Stewart, R. M. 1986a Lister Site (28Me1-A): Archaeological Data Recovery, I-

195, Segment 1-A, 1-E, 10-D. Prepared by the Cultural Resource Group, Louis Berger and Associates, Inc., East Orange, New Jersey, for the Federal Highway Administration and the New Jersey Department of Transportation, Trenton.

1986b Shady Brook Site (28Me20 and 28Me99): Archaeological Data Recovery, I-295, Arena Drive Interchange. Prepared by the Cultural Resource Group, Louis Berger and Associates, Inc., East Orange, New Jersey, for the Federal Highway Administration and the New Jersey Department of Transportation, Trenton.

1987 Gropp's Lake Site (28Me100G): Archaeological Data Recovery, I-195, Segment 1-A, 1-E, 10-D. Prepared by the Cultural Resource Group, Louis Berger and Associates, Inc., East

Orange, New Jersey, for the Federal Highway Administration and the New Jersey Department of Transportation, Trenton.

Struthers, T. L., and D. G. Roberts 1982 The Lambertville Site (28-Hu-468): An Early-Middle and Late

Woodland Site in the Middle Delaware Valley. John Milner Associates, Inc., Philadelphia. Report on file, Bureau for Historic Preservation, Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission, Harrisburg.

Walker, J. O., and R. J. Lore 2006 Phase I/II/III Archaeological Investigations, Park and

Recreation Maintenance Facility, Upper Nazareth Township, Northampton County, PA. Richard Grubb and Associates, Inc., Cranbury, New Jersey, BHP Environmental: 2004-0860-095.

Wall, R. D., and R. M. Stewart 1996 Sturgeon Pond Site (28Me114): Data Recovery. Trenton

Complex Archaeology: Report 10. Prepared by Louis Berger and Associates, Inc., East Orange, New Jersey, for the Federal Highway Administration, Bureau of Environmental Analysis, Trenton.

Wall, R. D., R. M. Stewart, J. A. Cavallo, and V. B. Busby 1995 A Stratified Sequence in the Lower Delaware Valley, Site

28ME1-D (Area D): Archaeological Data Recovery, I-295, and Wetlands Interchange Area. 2 vols. Prepared by Louis Berger and Associates, Inc., East Orange, New Jersey, for the Federal Highway Administration, Bureau of Environmental Analysis, Trenton.

Williams, L. E., A. Puniello, and K. A. Flinn 1982 Reinvestigation of the Late Woodland Occupation in the

Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area, New Jersey. New Jersey State Museum.

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