Paper presented at World Conference on New Trends in Science Education, September 19-23,

Kuşadası, Turkey

A THEMATIC REVIEW OF TECHNOLOGY EMBEDDED SCIENCE

INQUIRY1

Muammer ÇALIK1, Bayram COŞTU

2, Neslihan ÜLTAY

4, Ayşe AYTAR

5, Hüseyin

ARTUN3, Tuncay ÖZSEVGEÇ

1, Jazlin EBENEZER

6, Zeynel KÜÇÜK

3

1Fatih Faculty of Education, Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon, Turkey

2Buca Faculty of Education, Dokuz Eylül University, İzmir, Turkey

3Graduate School of Educational Science, Karadeniz Technical University, Trabzon, Turkey

4Faculty of Education, Giresun University, Giresun, Turkey

5Faculty of Education, Rize University, Rize, Turkey

6Wayne State University, Detroit, USA

Introduction

Because enabling learners to use technology as a tool in conducting scientific inquiry is

a National Science Education Standard, there are two standards pertinent to the use of

technologies in scientific inquiry. Using a variety of technologies for investigation refers to

the necessary tools (e.g., hand tools; measuring instruments and calculators; electronic

devices; and computers for the collection, analysis, and display of data). The use of

mathematical tools and statistical software refers to applying these to collect, analyze, and

display data in charts and graphs and to conduct statistical analyses. Closely aligned with

these scientific inquiry standards is one of the technology performance indicators--"research

and information fluency" advocated by the International Society for Technology Education

(ISTE‘s). Each of the science and technology standards may be accomplished by various

technologies. Even though there are several successful studies on transformative communication

as a cultural tool for guiding science inquiry, teaching science through on-line peer discussions,

1 This study was granted by The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TÜBİTAK) (Project

Number: 110K109)

Paper presented at World Conference on New Trends in Science Education, September 19-23,

Kuşadası, Turkey

and computer-mediated reasoned argumentation that have been successful in creating

communities of enquirers and effect of technological instruments on students‘ enhanced

learning of abstract concepts, there is a need to conduct a thematic review. Such a review and

synthesis of technology embedded scientific inquiry has much to offer science educators,

teachers, curriculum developers and policy makers. Further, an examination of the perceived

needs being address and aims of each study will not only reveal the motives of the researchers

who undertook it but also guide future researchers towards poorly researched issues. The

purpose of this study was to evaluate technology embedded scientific inquiry studies.

Methodology

In looking for these studies, the authors entered the keywords ‗scientific inquiry‘,

‗technology‘ and ‗science education‘ in well-known databases (i.e. Academic Search

Complete, Education Research Complete, ERIC, Springer LINK Contemporary). Further, in

case the computer search by key words may have missed a rather substantial part of the

important literature in the area, the authors also conducted a hand search of the related

journals. Finally, totally 50 research studies were elicited in this process, however, some of

them were not of interest in this review and the project entitled technological embedded

scientific inquiry (TESI): Modeling and measuring pre-service teacher knowledge and

practice, i.e., Geographic Information System (GIS). Finally, 25 studies refined with these

perspectives were exposed to thematic review. To present a detailed thematic review of

technology embedded scientific inquiry studies, a matrix was used to summarize the findings

by focusing on insights derived from the related studies. The matrix incorporates the

following themes: focus, participants, methodologies and general knowledge claims.

Paper presented at World Conference on New Trends in Science Education, September 19-23,

Kuşadası, Turkey

Figure 1. TESI Model (Ebenezer, Kaya & Ebenezer, 2011a, p.97)

Results

Since Technological Embedded Scientific Inquiry (TESI) Model has three components

of scientific inquiry (namely; scientific conceptualization, scientific investigation, and

scientific communication, see Figure 1), the results are also presented in regard to the three

components.

Paper presented at World Conference on New Trends in Science Education, September 19-23,

Kuşadası, Turkey

Table 1. Empirical Studies on Technology-Embedded Scientific Inquiry

Studies

(n=25)

Focus Participants Methodologies Knowledge Claims

Conceptualization

Ebenezer

(2001)--

Canada

HyperCard

AnimationDissolving

salt in water

High

School—12th

grade

Phenomenography Evidence of students‘

expressions and

representations indicate

that the animations in the

hypermedia environment

enabled students to

visualize how melting is

different from

dissolving; how ions are

formed; and how

hydration took place.

Sandoval &

Reiser (2003)-

-

USA

Explanation Constructor

Students‘ efforts to

construct and evaluate

explanations about

Biology concept of

evolution

High

School—9th

grade

Case study--

implementation data

focusing on

understanding the role

that Explanation

Constructor plays in

supporting students‘

construction and

evaluation of

explanations.

The variability in the

students‘ constructed

artifacts and

investigations suggests

that explanation-

evaluation has a crucial

role to play both in

helping students to

understand the specific

problems they

investigate and the

construction of scientific

explanations.

Means (1998)-

-

USA

Global Learning and

Observations to Benefit

the Environment

(GLOBE)Student

knowledge and skills of

environmental issues

and mathematics

4, 7, 10th

grades

Motivational value of

partnering with

scientists student

survey

The large proportions of

students agreed that the

GLOBE Program will

help people better

understand the earth

(93%, 72%, and 75% of

4th, 7th, and 10th

graders, respectively).

Chen, Tan,

Looi, Zhang,

& Seow

(2008)--

Singapore

Handheld computers as

cognitive tools

environmental learning

4th

grade

Pre-activity and post-

learning activity tests

of 3Rs concepts

There was a significant

difference in terms of

how much students

know about 3Rs between

pre-test and post-test.

Students held positive

attitude towards the use

of handheld computer in

the learning activities.

Ayvacı,

Özsevgeç &

Aydın (2004)-

-Turkey

Using data logger

instrument in computer-

aided science

laboratoryOhm Law

Grade 6 Experimental research

design (pre-post test)

Using data logger

instrument in computer-

aided science laboratory

increased substantially

the student achievement.

Further, this positively

affected student

motivation and learning

towards science teaching

Investigation

Linn, Clark & Web-Based Inquiry Middle School Pre-post Students were able to

Paper presented at World Conference on New Trends in Science Education, September 19-23,

Kuşadası, Turkey

Slotta (2003)--

USA

Science Environment

(WISE) Design

Sustaining classroom

inquiry in varying

contexts

questionnaires and

portfolios

identify their own ideas

by making predictions,

discussing with peers,

responding to prompts,

or designing preliminary

solutions. Students were

able to learn new views

from visualizations,

models, field trips,

evidence pages, peers,

and experiments.

Adams &

Shrum (1990)-

-

USA

Micro-computer Based

Laboratory (MBL) and

cognitive

developmentAbility to

construct and interpret

line graphs

High School

Experimental-

conventional

group design

Conventional laboratory

exercises that allowed

students to practice graph

construction skills

resulted in higher student

achievement on graph-

construction tasks

whereas MBL exercises

that collected and

presented experimental

data to students as ―real-

time‖ graphs resulted in

educationally significant

achievement on graph-

interpretation tasks.

Lapp & Cyrus

(2000)--

USA

Graphing technology

and data collecting

devisemath and

science

Some sample

teaching

designs for

High School

students

Not applicable

because this study is a

hypothetical paper

MBL (microcomputer-

based laboratory)

technology was useful in

connecting graphs and

physical events.

Bell (2000)--

USA

Knowledge Integration

Environment (KIE)

design

Students‘ arguments and

nature of science (NOS)

views

Middle School

Pre/post test

Survey for NOS

beliefs

Change from pretest to

post-test on the ‗full

instructed model‘

category was significant.

Also, the number and

length of explanations

were significantly

positively correlated. On

average, students

included warrants in over

70%of the argument

explanations - compared

to less than 20% who

used purely descriptive

‗explanations‘.

Kwon (2002)--

Korea

Calculator-Based

Ranger Activities

Students‘ Graphing

Ability

Middle School

High School

Pre/posttest Scores on the three

components

(interpreting, modeling,

and transforming)

showed a significant

change in students‘

graphing ability between

the pretest and the

posttest, indicating that

students gained

significantly higher

scores--The laboratory

learning environments

were more effective than

Paper presented at World Conference on New Trends in Science Education, September 19-23,

Kuşadası, Turkey

the paper-and-pencil

environment in

developing

understanding of graphs

in the context of real-

world situations.

Ebenezer,

Columbus,

Kaya, Zhang

& D. Ebenezer

(2011b)--

USA

Environmental Research

Projects with Innovative

Technologies

(IT)Teacher PD and

teacher explanations that

a/c for students‘ changes

in perception of the

fluency with Innovative

Technologies (FIT)

High School

Teacher and

his students

Narrative of one

science teacher; FIT-

survey pre/post of

students‘ perception

Teacher personal

commitment to

developing his

own and his students‘ IT

abilities in the context of

doing environmental

research projects, and

class time devoted to

science education

increased due to school-

time scheduling policy.

Nelson,

Ketelhut, Clarke, Bowman & Dede (2005)--

USA

Multi-User Virtual

Environment (MUVE)

Design Meaningful

learning of biology and

ecology that enhances

scientific literacy

Middle School

teachers

Survey, content test,

demographic data,

pre- and post-

questionnaire and

narrative

In a MUVE, students

could individualize their

learning based on their

own styles. It was

believed that this type of

controlled evolution of

DBR was important to its

acceptance as a

legitimate methodology

in education.

Schwartz,

Lederman &

Crawford

(2004)--

USA

Science Research

Internship

CourseNature of

Science (NOS)

Secondary

pre-service

teachers

Pre/post Views of

Nature of Science

Questionnaire

(VNOS-C) and

follow-up interviews,

journal entries,

seminar assignments,

video-recordings of

seminars, interviews

and participant

observations

Most interns showed

substantial developments

in NOS knowledge.

Three important

influential factors for

NOS developments

during the internship

were (1) active

reflection, (2) context for

reflection, and (3)

intern‘s perspective.

Friedrichsen,

Munford &

Orgill (2006)--

USA

Inquiry Empowering

Technologies for

Supporting Scientific

Inquiry

courseExplanation

and Argumentation

Secondary

pre-service

teacher

Peer review

assessment sheet, class

presentations and

electronic journals,

paper and pencil

questionnaire, written

assignment

Previous experiences in

this course appeared to

serve as powerful

referents for novice

teachers as they learned

to teach science as

argumentation through

the use of inquiry

empowering

technologies.

Dori & Sasson

(2008)--

Israel

Case-based

Computerized

LabGraphing Skills

High School

12th

grade;

honors

chemistry

Experimental/control

Pre- and post case-

based questionnaires

and reflection

questionnaires

The CCL learning

environment improved

students‘ graphing skills.

Paper presented at World Conference on New Trends in Science Education, September 19-23,

Kuşadası, Turkey

Banks, Elser

& Saltz

(2005)--USA

CAPLTER (Central

Arizona-Phoenix Long-

term Ecological

ResearchEcological

principles and processes

Teachers

4-12 grades

Survey questionnaires

with ordinal and

reflective questions.

Scientific methodologies

appeared to support

student use of the

Internet for research

purposes. Both internal

and external school

support are necessary to

ensure protocol

integration and Internet

use.

Reid-Griffin &

Carter (2008)-

-Taiwan

Scientific Inquiry (SI)—

heat & temperature

Middle

School—7 &

8th

grade

Audiocassette and

videocassette

recordings, field notes,

student artifacts

The three student groups

were able to use the tools

to conduct scientific

inquiry and engage in

scientific discourse. They

were able to use the

technologies provided to

improve the quality of

their scientific

investigations in a brief

amount of time. The

technologies enhanced

students‘ learning of

science concepts.

Aydeniz,

Baksa &

Skinner

(2010)--USA

Apprenticeship

ModelNature of

Science (NOS) and

Scientific Inquiry (SI)

Junior and

High School

A qualitative case

study

with open-ended

questionnaires

The participants

developed abilities and

knowledge to conduct

scientific investigations.

They gained unique

insights into the ways in

which scientists think,

reason and function.

However, they did not

make the same progress

in understanding the

nature of science.

Ebenezer,

Kaya, & D.

Ebenezer

(2011a)--USA

Environmental Research

Projects with Innovative

Technologies (IT)

Fluency with Innovative

Technologies (FIT) and

Scientific Inquiry (SI)

High

School—9th

-

12th

grades

Mixed-method

approach--Pre/post

fluency survey;

critical analysis of

students‘ research

papers to determine

scientific inquiry

ability levels

The results indicated

statistically significant

increases in students‘

perceptions of their

fluency with IT.

Qualitative analysis of

students‘ interview

results corroborated the

statistical findings of

students‘ changes in

perceptions of their

fluency with IT. The

study clearly points to

the correlation between

the development of IT

fluency and ability levels

to engage in scientific

inquiry based on

respective competencies.

Communication

Tal &

Hockberk

Web-based Inquiry

Science Environment

High

School—9th

Pre-post

questionnaires,

All students applied high

order thinking during the

Paper presented at World Conference on New Trends in Science Education, September 19-23,

Kuşadası, Turkey

(2003)--USA (WISE) DesignHigher

order thinking and

discussion

Malaria Project

grade portfolios, students‘

reflection sheets,

interviews

Malaria Project, which

enabled fruitful

collaboration on a joint

project, preparation and

presentation of posters,

Power Point slides, and

public discussions at

their conference.

Hoadley &

Linn (2000)--

USA

Knowledge Integration

Environment

(KIE)SpeakEasy

Discussion

Middle

School—8th

grade

Online discussion

(historical debate or

narrative text format)

with the SpeakEasy;

15 randomly assigned

discussion groups.

Looking at the facet

correctness score,

students in the historical

debate condition made

more progress than

students in the narrative

text.

Results from the post

discussion survey

showed that students in

the historical debate

recalled the theories from

the discussion better than

students in the narrative

text condition. In the

SpeakEasy discussion

students reported that

they had the opportunity

to hear more ideas about

the nature of color than

they would in a typical

class with text and a

discussion. Besides this,

students had a chance to

observe other students

and scientists‘ ideas and

select among them with

online discussion.

Ebenezer,

Lugo,

Beirnacka

& Puvirajah

(2003)--

Canada

WebCT Bulletin

dialoguesCommunity

building for Reflective

Practice

Secondary

chemistry pre-

service

teachers

Downloading and

analyzing the WebCT

Bulletin board

dialogues

WebCT discussion board

served as a viable tool

for building a community

of reflective teachers.

This study implies that

WebCT and similar

Internet electronic

discussion tools might be

effectively used for

community building to

carry out reflective

dialogues in teacher

education

Liang ,

Ebenezer &

Yost (2010)--

USA

WebCT Bulletin

Board scaffolding

online dialogues in

stream study projects

Elementary

pre-service

teachers

Downloading and

analyzing the WebCT

Bulletin board

dialogues

Group interaction

postings revealed three

main types of e-

dialogues: (1)

communication on

organizational tasks, (2)

communication through

simply posting

information without

analysis or evaluation,

and (3) collaborative

Paper presented at World Conference on New Trends in Science Education, September 19-23,

Kuşadası, Turkey

discourse. The online

discourse formats

enhanced

out-of-class

communication and

support edcollaborative

group work. But the

discourse on the critical

examination of one

another‘s point of views

rooted in scientific

inquiry were missing.

Hogan,

Nastasi &

Pressley

(2010)--USA

Long-term activity on

constructed mental

models of

matterDiscourse,

interaction patterns&

scientific reasoning

complexity

Middle

School-Grade

8 students

Student groups and

their classes were

videotaped and

audiotaped two to

three times per week

over a 12-week period

as

students constructed

and tested mental

models of the nature

of matter in a unit

consisting of four

phases.

Teacher-guided

discussions were a more

efficient means of

attaining higher levels of

reasoning and higher

quality explanations, but

peer discussions tended

to be more generative

and exploratory.

Students‘ discourse was

more varied within peer

groups, and some peer

groups attained higher

levels of reasoning on

their own.

Vries, Lund &

Baker (2002)--

France

Computer-mediated

epistemic dialogue

Explanation and

argumentation based on

texts

High School,

11th

grade

Qualitative and

quantitative analysis

of dyad epistemic

dialogue, produced

within the CONNECT

task. Augmented with

analysis of texts with

maximum semantic

differences between

texts and different

mental models

underlying the texts.

Qualitative analysis

showed episodes in

which the occurrence of

epistemic dialogue was

closely related to levels

of description, different

perspectives and double

meanings in the domain

and as such may

contribute to the

development of

conceptual understanding

in that domain. The

activities helped students

gain an understanding of

their partner‘s views,

reflect upon them, and

compare them with their

own.

Scientific Conceptualization

Since scientific conceptualization involves understanding subject matter knowledge,

testing and clarifying conceptual ideas; five of the studies under consideration focused on the

first phase of the TESI model (Ebenezer et al., 2011a). As seen in Table 1, their focuses were

Explanation Constructor (Sandoval & Reiser, 2003), Global Learning and Observations to

Paper presented at World Conference on New Trends in Science Education, September 19-23,

Kuşadası, Turkey

Benefit the Environment (GLOBE) (Means, 1998), HyperCard Animation (Ebenezer, 2001),

and Handheld computers as cognitive tools (Chen et al., 2008), using data logger instrument

(Ayvacı et al., 2004). Further, their subject matter topics were varied: evolution (Sandoval &

Reiser, 2003), dissolving salt in water (Ebenezer, 2001), 3Rs concepts (Reduce, Reuse and

Recycle) (Chen et al., 2008), Ohm Law (Ayvacı et al., 2004), knowledge and skills of

environmental issues and mathematics (Means, 1998). In fact, their samples were ranged from

grades 4th

to 12th

whilst they employed various research methodologies with their samples.

For example, Sandoval and Reiser (2003) preferred using case study whereas Means (1998)

followed survey research methodology. Also, Ebenezer (2001) exploited phenomenography,

while Ayvacı et al. (2004) and Chen et al. (2008) employed experimental research design.

In analyzing of their general knowledge claims, Sandovel and Reiser (2003) concluded

that the variability in the students‘ constructed artifacts and investigations suggests that

explanation-evaluation has a crucial role to play both in helping students to understand the

specific problems they investigate and the construction of scientific explanations while Means

(1998) reported that the large proportions of students agreed that the GLOBE Program will

help people better understand the earth. Also, while Ebenezer (2001) deduced that the

animations in the hypermedia environment enabled students to visualize how melting is

different from dissolving; how ions are formed; and how hydration took place, Chen et al.

(2008) addressed that students held positive attitude towards the use of handheld computer in

the learning activities about 3Rs (Reduce, Reuse and Recycle). Finally, Ayvacı et al. (2004)

depicted that using of data logger instrument in computer-aided science laboratory increased

substantially the student achievement and affected positively student motivation and learning.

Scientific Investigation

This phase focuses on critical abilities of students to study issues that have personal

meaning; formulate researchable questions or testable hypotheses; demonstrate the logical

Paper presented at World Conference on New Trends in Science Education, September 19-23,

Kuşadası, Turkey

connections between the scientific concepts guiding a hypothesis and the design of an

experiment; and design and conduct scientific investigations (Ebenezer et al., 2011a). In all of

these areas students need to develop skills to use a variety of information and communication

technologies, such as computers, internet, and graphical calculators. As seen in Table 1,

fourteen research studies focused on the second phase of the TESI model with diverse

scientific investigation areas. That is, Web-based Inquiry Science Environment (WISE) (Linn

et al., 2003), Microcomputer-Based Laboratory (MBL) (Adams & Shrum, 1990), Graphing

technology and data collecting devise (Lapp & Cyrus, 2000), Knowledge Integration

Environment (KIE) (Bell, 2000), Calculator-Based Ranger Activities (CBR) (Kwon, 2002),

Multi user virtual environment (MUVE) design (Nelson et al., 2005), Case-based

Computerized Lab (Dori & Sasson, 2008), Central Arizona-Phoenix Long-term Ecological

Research (CAPLTER) (Banks, Elser & Saltz, 2005), Apprenticeship/Intership Model

(Aydeniz et al., 2010; Schwartz et al., 2004), Scientific Inquiry Technologies (Friedrichsen et

al., 2006), Environmental Research Projects with Information Technology (Ebenezer et al.,

2011a, b), subject based –heat &temperature- scientific inquiry (Reid-Griffin & Carter, 2008).

Of these studies, their sample range were varied: primary students (Aydeniz et al.,

2010; Bell, 2000; Kwon, 2002; Linn et al., 2003; Nelson et al., 2005; Reid-Griffin & Carter,

2008), secondary students (Adams & Shrum, 1990; Aydeniz et al., 2010; Banks et al., 2005;

Dori & Sasson, 2008; Ebenezer et al., 2011a,b; Kwon, 2002; Lapp & Cyrus, 2000),

prospective teachers (Friedrichsen et al., 2006; Schwartz et al., 2004) and in-service teachers

(Banks et al., 2005; Ebenezer et al., 2011b). Meanwhile, their methodologies were

experimental research design (Adams & Shrum, 1990; Bell, 2000; Dori & Sasson, 2008;

Kwon, 2002; Linn et al., 2003; Nelson et al., 2005; Schwartz et al., 2004), qualitative research

design (Friedrichsen et al., 2006; Reid-Griffin & Carter, 2008), survey design (Banks et al.,

Paper presented at World Conference on New Trends in Science Education, September 19-23,

Kuşadası, Turkey

2005; Lapps & Cyrus, 2000), case study design (Aydeniz et al., 2010) and mixed method

(Ebenezer et al., 2011a,b).

In analyzing their general knowledge claims, some of the foregoing studies concluded

that their samples showed better performance, advancement and skills (Adams & Shrum,

1990; Aydeniz et al., 2010; Bell, 2000; Dori & Sasson, 2008; Ebenezer et al., 2011a,b; Kwon,

2002; Linn et al., 2003; Nelson et al., 2005; Schwartz et al., 2004). Furthermore, Lapp and

Cyrus (2000) also implied that the microcomputer-based laboratory (MBL) technology was

useful in connecting graphs and physical events. Also, Friedrichsen et al. (2006) concluded

that using technologies for supporting scientific inquiry course played as important role in

order to teach science as argumentation whilst Banks et al. (2005) alleged that scientific

methodologies supported student use of the Internet for research purposes. Reid-Griffin and

Carter (2008) deduced that students could use the tools to conduct scientific inquiry and

engage in scientific discourse and use the technologies provided to improve the quality of

their scientific investigations while Ebenezer et al. (2011b) reported that teacher‘s and his

students‘ information technology abilities in the context of doing environmental research

projects developed, and that class time devoted to science education due to school-time

scheduling policy increased.

Scientific Communication

Communication involves communicating research process, research results, and

knowledge claims via classroom discourse and public presentation with a critical response

from peers and experts (Ebenezer et al., 2011a). In the research studies reviewed, six studies

concentrated on third phase of the TESI model with different focuses--higher order thinking

and discussion through Malaria Project with Web-based Inquiry Science Environment

(WISE) (Tal & Hockberk, 2003), online discussion with the SpeakEasy in Knowledge

Paper presented at World Conference on New Trends in Science Education, September 19-23,

Kuşadası, Turkey

Integration Environment (KIE) (Hoadley & Linn, 2000), WebCT Bulletin dialogues

(Ebenezer et al., 2003; Liang et al., 2010), computer-mediated epistemic dialogue (Vries et

al., 2002) and discourse, interaction patterns and scientific reasoning complexity on

constructed mental models of matter (Hogan et al., 2010). Also, their samples fell in a wide

variety of grades, i.e. grade 8 students (Hoadley & Linn, 2000; Hogan et al., 2010), grade 9

students (Tal & Hockberk, 2003), grade 11 students (Vries et al., 2002) and prospective

teachers (Ebenezer et al., 2003; Liang et al., 2010). Moreover, they selected different research

methodology to test their hypothesis, e.g. mixed method (Tal & Hockberk, 2003), document

analysis of the discussion dialogues (Ebenezer et al., 2003; Hoadley & Linn, 2000; Liang et

al., 2010; Vries et al., 2002) and qualitative research (Hogan et al., 2010).

What their general knowledge claims were as follows: Tal and Hockberk (2003)

reported that all students in Web-based Inquiry Science Environment (WISE) applied high

order thinking during the Malaria Project and enabled fruitful collaboration on a joint project,

preparation and presentation of posters, Power Point slides, and public discussions at their

conference whilst Hoadley and Linn (2000) concluded that students had a chance to observe

other students and scientists‘ ideas with the SpeakEasy Discussion about the nature of color.

Also, while Ebenezer et al. (2003) stated that community building needed for reflective

practice, Liang et al. (2010) implied that the group interaction postings revealed following

three main types of e-dialogues: (1) communication on organizational tasks, (2)

communication through simply posting information without analysis or evaluation, and (3)

collaborative discourse. Further, Hogan et al. (2010) addressed that the teacher-guided

discussions were a more efficient means of attaining higher levels of reasoning and higher

quality explanations; however, peer discussions tended to be more generative and exploratory.

Lastly, Vries et al. (2002) deduced that the activities in the study helped students gain an

understanding of their partner‘s views, reflect upon them, and compare them with their own.

Paper presented at World Conference on New Trends in Science Education, September 19-23,

Kuşadası, Turkey

Discussion

As seen in Table 1, the aforementioned research studies generally focused on only

one of the three components of scientific inquiry--scientific conceptualization, scientific

investigation, and scientific communication. Phrased differently, there is a lack of

implementing on the entire components of scientific inquiry. Indeed, Ebenezer et al. (2011a)

who proposed to the TESI model (see Figure 1) paid more attention to merely scientific

investigation dimension in their study. Further, they conducted their study with grades 9-12

students. Taking the sample ranges of the studies under investigation shows that few studies

have been conducted on pre-service and in-service teachers (Banks et al., 2005; Ebenezer et

al., 2003, 2011b; Friedrichsen et al., 2006; Liang et al., 2010; Schwartz et al., 2004). Even

though Ebenezer et al. (2011b) probed a teacher and his own students‘ using information

technology (IT) abilities, none of the studies under investigation has concentrated on

prospective teachers‘ and teachers‘ subject matter content knowledge, technology, pedagogy

and content knowledge (TPACK) and their development in practicum. This indicates that

these perspectives seem to have missed in the related literature despite the fact that the three

TESI characteristics (scientific conceptualization, investigation, and communication) fit into

―subject matter content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge‖ needed for effective

classroom performance (Schulman, 1986; 1987) and incorporate Technology, Pedagogy and

Subject Matter Content Knowledge (TPVAB) (Mishra & Koehler, 2006; Schmidt, Baran,

Thompson, Koehler, Mishra & Shin, 2009). Although teachers need not be experts in

mastering scientific inquiry, we need to recognize the importance of acquiring sufficient

mastery to teach in a school context. In the science classroom, the issue is whether an

individual‘s knowledge of scientific inquiry is closer to ―good-for-a-science-teacher‖ than it is

to ―poor-for-a-science-teacher‖.

Paper presented at World Conference on New Trends in Science Education, September 19-23,

Kuşadası, Turkey

Furthermore, when we look at their used methodologies, they seem to have used a

wide variety of methodologies, however, two out of the studies under investigation tended to

employ a combination of qualitative and quantitative research methodologies, called mixed

method (Ebenezer et al., 2011a,b; Tal & Hockberk, 2003). This means that there is a need for

qualitative and quantitative research methodologies to provide much more evidence for the

TESI model and its whole components.

When examined results of the studies, the studies generally reported that interventions

enabled students to enhance performances, motivations, attitudes, or knowledge/skills; to

promote making and using of technology in scientific inquiry, and to develop abilities e.g.

high order thinking, defense their views, understanding and respecting of their partner‘s views

through communication and discussion environment.

Research evidence indicated that using TESI model embedded in all three components

of scientific inquiry represents a fundamental shift from teaching science as ―exploration and

experiment‖ to teaching science as ―argument and explanation‖ (NRC, 1996, p. 113). Hence,

the TESI model should enable students to participate in dialogic discourse and to practice

(e.g. Duschl & Osborne, 2002; Friedrichsen et al., 2006) with IT when considered that

teaching science through on-line peer discussions (e.g. Hoadley & Linn, 2000; Liang et al.,

2010) and computer-mediated reasoned argumentation have been successful in creating

communities of enquirers (e.g. Bell & Linn, 2000, Vries et al., 2002; Duschl et al., 1999;

Ebenezer & Puvirajah, 2005). The three TESI-characteristics also reflect a complex process

that is mastered through a socialization process of becoming a scientist. In fact, some of the

studies have attempted to combine the scientific inquiry with nature of science (e.g. Aydeniz

et al., 2010; Schwartz et al., 2004) in order for gaining tenets of NOS.

The results showed that there is a need to provide pre-service teachers more guidance

and opportunities in science courses when engaging in scientific discourse that reflects

Paper presented at World Conference on New Trends in Science Education, September 19-23,

Kuşadası, Turkey

reform-based scientific inquiry or technology embedded scientific inquiry, scientific inquiry

education based on reforms or embedded within technology should be undertaken. Further,

there is a study need to improve an efficient, reliable and valid technology embedded

scientific inquiry set that pre-service teachers can use. Also, there is a great literature gap in

conducting environmental chemistry study within technology embedded scientific inquiry. In

brief, future studies should be undertaken to prove applicability of TESI model in practicum.

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