Sex Roles, Vol. 3, No. 3, 1977

A Methodological Study of Sex Stereotypes

Margie L. Cowan 2 Wichita Veterans Administration Center

Barbara J. Stewart Oklahoma State University

This methodological investigation o f sex stereotypes employed three different instruments to collect sex stereotypes from 264 undergraduate students. The Adjective Cheek List and the Stereotype Questionnaire elicited different stereo- types, while an open-ended form elicited no stereoO~pic items. I t was found that Ss reported visual imagery o f specific persons while responding. In a second phase o f the research, the stereotypic items obtained in the collection phase were marked on the appropriate instrument form for a male and female descrip- tion. These forms with a set of multiple choice questions concerning such things as sex o f the description, desirability, adjustment, and o f the S's experience o f visual imagery were given to 180 different Ss, The stereotypic items were found to convey reliable information as to/udgment o f the sex o f the stimulus stereo- typic items, however, the different instruments conveyed differential informa- tion as to sex o f stimulus items, desirability, and adfustment o f the instrument description. Visual imagery o f Ss was found to be significantly related to correct judgment of sex of stimulus items and to high confidence in that fudgment.

Recently the focus in stereotyping, as in other areas of person perception re- search, has been directed toward methods of obtaining the stereotypes rather than the stereotypes themselves. Sex stereotypes are well documented in the psychological literature (Diamond, 1955; Fernberger, 1948; Lunneborg, 1970; Rosenkrantz, Vogel, Bee, Broverman, & Broverman, 1968; Sherriff & McKee, i957) and relationships between sex stereotypes and clinicians' judgments of mental health, and sex stereotypes and family size have also been demonstrated

~This article was originally presented as a paper at the Southwestern Psychological Asso- ciation Convention, Dallas, 1973.

2 All correspondence should be addressed to Margie L. Cowan, Ph.D., Psychology Service 452/116B, Veterans Administration Center, Wichita, Kansas 67218.

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(Broverman, Broverman, Clarkson, Rosenkrantz, & Vogel, 1970; Clarkson, Vogel, Broverman, Broverman, & Rosenkrantz, 1971). What has not been in- vestigated is the effect of the methodology employed on the results and con- clusions concerning sex stereotypes (Brigham, 1971 ; Campbell, 1967 ; Ehrlich & Rinehart, 1965). The present research's emphasis is on the influence of the methodology and instruments utilized.

In the present research, demand characteristics (Orne, 1961) were re- duced as much as possible by procedures such as the use of subtle stimulus cues (no mention was made of sex, sex stereotypes, male, or female) and the use of separate response forms for evaluating the female and male stimuli.

It was hypothesized that subjects would describe adult males and females differently, that different instruments would elicit different descriptions. Insofar as stereotypes function as a generalized means of storing information, an indi- vidual must have a process of reviewing this information before responding to a specific person or cue. Visual imagery serves such a function. It was, therefore, hypothesized that visual imagery of specific persons would be involved in the response process of the subjects. The experiment consisted of two phases: the collection of the stereotypes and the validation of the stereotypes. The method- ology and results of the two phases are presented separately, since different sub- ject samples and different procedures were employed.

PHASE I

Method

Subjects. Subjects (Ss) were 264 undergraduates enrolled in several sections of introductory psychology at a Midwestern university; half were male, half fe- male. From this group of Ss, 44 males and 44 females were randomly assigned to each of the three instrument conditions.

Instruments. Three different instruments were used in the collection of sex stereotypes: Gough and Heilbrun's Adjective Check List (1965), the Stereotype Questionnaire (Rosenkrantz et al., 1968), and an open-ended form. On the 300- item Adjective Check List, the Ss had to circle an item to include it in their de- scription. On the Stereotype Questionnaire, which has 82 bipolar items, a S responded quantitatively to each item. The open-ended form consisted only of the request for the description of the stimulus; nothing else appeared on the page. Subjects completed only one set of the above instruments.

Following the completion of one of the instruments, each S responded to a set of questions dealing with visual imagery that he or she experienced while describing the stimulus person. These responses indicate whether a S was re-

Methodological Study of Sex Stereotypes 207

sponding in terms of a generalized conceptualization of male-female or in terms of some specific person.

Procedure. The dependent variable was the S's description of the following stimulus cue:

Imagine you are going to meet someone for the first time, and the only thing you know in advance is that he (she) is an adult.

Each S described the male and female stimulus cues using a separate copy of the same instrument for each description. A response booklet was compiled for each S so that sex of the S and sequence of sex of stimuli were controlled as variables. The response booklet contained the (1) first stimulus cue, (2) first copy of the instrument, (3) first copy of the imagery questionnaire, (4) second stimulus cue, (5) second copy of the same instrument, (6) second copy of the imagery quest- ionnaire. Subjects were told they were participating in a reliability study dealing with instruments used in impression formation. A stereotypic item was opera- tionally defined as any item used by 40% of the subjects in their description of the male and female stimulus cues that differentiated the two descriptions at p < .01. This criterion avoids an item becoming stereotypic when in fact the ad- jective is not salient for the greater portion of the sample.

Results

The hypothesis of differences in trait attribution to male and female stimulus cues was supported for the Adjective Check List and the Stereotype Questionnaire, but not for the open-ended form.

Adjective Check List. A test for correlated proportions (Downie & Heath, 1965) was used to test for differences in items describing male and female sti- muli. Table I presents the items which differentiated male and female stimuli at the .01 level of significance and were used by at least 40% of the Ss in their descriptions of one or both of the stimuli. Table I also shows the items which did not reach the .01 level but were used by at least 40% of the sample in de- scribing male and female, and the items which did significantly differentiate but were used by less than 40% of the sample. Although few items (4%) exhi- bited sex-of-stimulus-sequence effect or sex-of-subject effect, of the 12 items that did reach the .01 level, 6 are stereotypic as indicated in Table I. Items re- flecting sequence differences were dependent, gentle, understanding, and wise. Sex of subject influenced the usage of the items affectionate, artistic, attractive, cheerful, good-looking, sexy, strong, understanding. Men were more likely to use words such as affectionate, attractive, artistic, cheerful, and sexy when describing a female cue than when describing a male cue. Women used good- looking, sexy, strong, and understanding to describe the male cue.

208 Cowan and Stewart

Table 1. Adjectives on the Check List Reaching One or Both Criteria

Significant sex difference a No significant sex difference

Male Female (greater than 40% endorsement stereotypes stereotypes for both sexes)

Greater than 40% endorsement

Adventurous Affectionate b Aggressive Attra ctive b Ambitious Cheerful b Confident Emotional Determined Feminine Frank Gentle c Handsome Kind Imaginative Pleasant Masculine Soft-hearted Pra ct ical War m Strong b Understanding c

Less than 40% endorsement

Boastful Effeminate Dominant Flirtatious Enterprising Modest Foresighted Prudish Forceful Shy Opportunistic

Active Independent Alert Intelligent Appreciative Interest wide Calm Mature Capable Natural Charming Outgoing Clear-thinking Patient Clever Reasonable Considerate Relaxes Dependable Reliable Easy-going Responsible Efficient Self-confident Energetic Sensitive Enthusiastic Sincere Fair-minded Sociable Forgiving Talkative Friendly Thoughtful Generous Witty Good-looking Good-natured Healthy Helpflfl Honest Humorous

ap < .01. bSex-of-subject effect. c Sex-of-stimulus-sequence effect.

Stereotype Questionnaire. Data analysis was by the statistical procedure

followed by Rosenkrantz et al. (1968). However, for an item to be stereotypic, the criterion was set at p < .01, rather than p < .001 as set by Rosenkrantz et al. With the use of this lower criterion offset by separate response forms which re-

duced contrast effects, 10 items differentiated male and female descriptions in contrast to the 41 items that Rosenkrantz et al. reported as stereotypic. This reduction in stereotypic items is contributed to reductions in demand character- istics. None of the items showed stimulus-sequence or sex-of-subject effects.

Table II shows the 10 items found to be stereotypic. Open-Ended Form. To be considered stereotypic, an item had to be used

by at least 40% of the sample in their description of the stimulus. Table III con- tains the most frequently used adjectives. The most frequently used items in Ss' descriptions of the male stimuli were tall, intelligent, and well dressed. For the female descriptions, attractive, intelligent, and some mention of hair style or

Methodological Study of Sex Stereotypes 209

Table I1. Differentiating Items on the Stereotype Questionnaire

Item Direction a

Not at all d e p e n d e n t . . . Very dependent F > M b Very emo t i ona l . . . Not at all emotional M > F c Does not hide e m o t i o n s . . . Almost always hides emotions M > F c Not at all excitable in major cr is is . . . Very excitable in

major crisis F > M b Not at all skilled in bus iness . . . Very skilled in business M > F c Never c r i e s . . . Cries very easily F > M c Does not enjoy art and literature at a l l . . . Enjoys art and

literature very much F > M c Thinks men are super io r . . . Does not think men are superior F > M b Very mascul ine . . . Not at all masculine F > M c Very f emin i ne . . . Not at all feminine M > F c

aThe right side of item continuum is numerically scored higher. bp < .01. Cp < .001.

color were the m o s t f r e q u e n t l y used i tems, No i t em reached the 40% cr i te r ion o f

use, and there was negligible d i f ference b e t w e e n male and female descr ip t ions . It

was, t he re fo re , conc luded f rom the results o f the open -ended fo rm tha t no

s t e reo types were el ic i ted by the ins t ruc t ions .

F r o m an e x a m i n a t i o n o f Tables I, II , III, and the above s t a t emen t s , i t can

be conc luded t h a t d i f fe ren t i n s t r u m e n t s do p r oduce d i f fe ren t s t e r eo typ ic i tems.

lrnagery Questionnaire. The da ta f rom the imagery ques t ionna i r e suppor t s

the h y p o t h e s i s t ha t Ss descr ibe specific pe r sons w h e n r e spond ing to the male and

female s t imulus cues. When Pea r son ' s X2 was used to tes t for the d i f fe rence be-

Table III. Percentage of Most Frequently Used Adjec- tives on Open-Ended Descriptions

Male stimulus Female stimulus

Tall 22.7 Attractive 22.7 Intelligent l 9.3 Intelligent 19.3 Well dressed 17.0 Easy to talk to 19.3 Easy to talk to 13.6 Hair 14.7 Friendly 11.0 Well dressed 11.0 Hair 10.0 Average build 11.0 Easy to get along 8.0 Friendly 10.2 Athletic 8.0 Polite 9.0 Average build 6.8 Outgoing 9,0 Polite 6.8 Has good time 9.0 Mature 6.8 Tall 8.0 Likable 6.8 Personality 8.0 Educated 6.8 Knowledgeable 6.8 Considerate 5.6 Pleasant 6.8 Nice 5.6 Easy to get along 6.8 Quiet 5.6 Mature 5.6

210 Cowan and Stewart

Table IV. Percentage of Subjects' Responses Regarding the Relationship of the Imaged Person

Checklist Questionnake Open-ended

Male Female Male Female Male Female stimulus stimulus stimulus stimulus stimulus stimulus

Relation Authority 5.8 6.1 13.1 4.6 21.6 9,6 Parental 20.2 13.6 14.7 13.8 16.6 12.9 Family 8.4 6.1 6.5 6.1 13.3 14.5 Spouse 2.9 3.1 11.4 1.5 4.0 1.6 Boyfriend 23.2 0.0 24.6 0.0 8.3 0.0 Girlfriend 2.9 30.0 0.0 16.9 1.6 16.1 Peer 20.2 25.8 19.6 40.0 16.6 29.0 Mass media 7.2 4.5 1.6 3.0 3.2 1.6 Other 8.4 10.6 8.1 13.8 13.3 14.5

No imagery reported Males in total

sample 45 34 5 2 36 45 34

Females in total sample 29 34 18 25 41 36

Both sexes 37.5 34.0 35.2 31.0 43.0 35,0

tween expected and observed frequency of reported imagery a significant dif- ference was found beyond p < .001 (X 2 = 41.4, df = 1). Table IV presents the classification of persons visually imagined as reported by the Ss. When results were combined across instruments a significantly larger propor t ion of males (48%) than females (29%) reported no visual imagery when responding to the female stimulus.

I t can be seen from the collection phase that there are differences in de- scriptions of male and female stimulus cues and that these differences in part depend on the instrument used to obtain the description. Visual imagery of specific persons appears to be involved in an S's stereotyping process. The questions to be answered by the validation phase are whether the differently obtained stereotypes convey differential information about the obtained sti- mulus description and whether visual imagery is involved in the processing of this information.

PHASE II

Me thod

Subjects. The subjects were 180 introductory psychology students who did not participate in Phase I.

Methodological Study of Sex Stereotypes 211

Instruments. Only the Adjective Check List and the Stereotype Question- naire were employed, since no stereotypes were elicited on the open-ended form. On both the male and female description on the Adjective Check List form, all items in Table I listed as showing no significant sex difference were circled. The stereotypic items for male and female, shown in Table I, were circled along with the former items on the appropriate sex description form. On the Stereotype Questionnaire, each items's scale was marked at the mean score for that item for sex of stimulus-cue. Again two forms were marked, one for the male stimulus de- scription and one for the female description. In this phase the items masculine and feminine were excluded from both instruments, although the items definitely reach criterion. The words masculine and feminine themselves are often substi- tute for the words male and female, respectively. These items were excluded, since the information of the other stereotypic items was o f interest.

A set of 11 questions in a multiple choice format were utilized in obtain- ing the validation information. The questions of specific interest were those ask- ing the sex of the stimulus-cue description, confidence in that response, desir- ability and adjustment indicated by the stimulus description, and reported visual imagery. If the stereotypic items are to be considered as valid information used to categorize perceptions into male or female, there should have been high per- centages of correctly judging the sex of the stimulus-cue description and high confidence in that judgment.

Procedure. Subjects were given only one stimulus description and were given the following directions:

This is a second part of a study on impression formation. We had previously asked a group of subjects to describe various people by filling out a response form. We would like you to study the responses on this attached form which was used to describe these different People. Then on the basis of these responses and your impression, please answer the following questions.

It was hypothesized that for the four stimulus descriptions there would be dif- ferences in percentage o f Ss responding to the questions concerning sex o f the stimulus description, desirability, and adjustment. It was further hypothesized that visual imagery would be related to S's accuracy of judgment of the sex of the stimulus-cue description.

Results

The degree to which the stereotypic items on the Adjective Check List and the Stereotype Questionnaire convey information enabling the correct attribu- tion of the sex o f the stimulus description is found in Table V. Using Pearson's chi square to compare the observed frequency of the response alternatives, it was found that all descriptions except the female description on the check list did de- part from expected frequencies at p < .01 (male questionnaire: p < .001, X 2 = 17.2; female questionnaire: p < .01, X 2 = 12.9; male checklist: p < .001, X 2 =

212 Cowan and Stewart

27.7; female checklist: p < .05, ) 2 = 6.9, df = 2). It was concluded that the stereotypic items do convey reliable information which enables Ss to correctly judge the sex of the stimulus-cue description. However, it is important to note that between 15% to 22% of the Ss responded that the stimulus-cue descriptions did not convey sufficient information to enable them to make a judgment of the sex of that stimulus-cue description.

In Table V, the responses on the validation questionnaire dealing with desirability, adjustment, and visual imagery are broken down by response cate- gory. The female description on the Stereotype Questionnaire is significantly less desirable than the other descriptions (p < .01, tested by the Lawshe-Baker Nomograph). On the adjustment dimension, both male and female descriptions on the Adjective Check List were rated higher than the Stereotype Questionnaire descriptions (p < .01, tested by Lawshe-Baker Nomograph). Interestingly, the judgments of stimulus-cue description that did not depart from chance, female checklist, received the highest ratings in desirability and adjustment. It appears that different instruments elicit different stereotypic images not only in content but also in evaluative connotations. This is especially true for the female stimulus- cue description.

Imagery. In testing the reported frequency of imagery in the validation phase for all description conditions, the significant difference in the number o f Ss reporting visual imagery was not greater than would be expected (?(z = 3.2,

Table V. Percentage of Subjects Responding to Alternatives on Validation Questionnaire

Questionnaire Check List

Male Female Male Female Question stimulus stimulus stimulus stimulus

6. Sex of descriptiona Male 62.2 26.6 68.8 28.8 Female 22.2 57.7 6.6 51.1 No information 15.5 15.5 22.2 20.0

8, Desirability a Desirable 82.2 55.7 84.4 93.3 Neither 11.1 37.7 8.8 6.6 Undesirable 4.4 6.6 6.6 0.0

9. Adjustment a Well-adjusted 37.7 33.3 75.5 84.4 Adequately 57.7 55.5 20.0 8.8 Poorly 2.2 8.8 0.0 0.0 No information 0.0 2.2 4.4 6.6

10. Imagery Yes imagery 62.2 53.3 55.5 55.5 No imagery 37.7 46.6 44.4 44.4

a Significant differences in percentages discussed in the test.

Methodological Study of Sex Stereotypes 213

df = 1). However, when the frequency of reported imagery was examined in conjunction with the S's judgment of sex of the stimulus-cue description, there emerged two relationships. Visual imagery was found to be related to the correct judgment of the sex of stimulus-cue description and to greater confidence in that judgment. Significantly more correct judgments were paired with visual imagery than with no imagery (p < .01, tested by Lawshe-Baker Nomograph). Of the 107 Ss who correctly judged the sex of the stimulus-cue description, 66 had 60% to 100% confidence in their answers and 41 had 0% to 50% confidence. The high confidence group consisted of 45 Ss who reported imagery and 21 Ss who did not. The low confidence group consisted of 19 Ss reporting imagery and 22 who did not. There was significantly more imagery reported in the high confi- dence group than would be expected (p < .01, X 2 = 8.7, df = 1). On the other hand, for Ss answering correctly but with low confidence, there was not a signi- ficant frequency of reported imagery (X 2 = 2.1, dr= 1).

From the validation phase it can be concluded that different instruments convey different stereotypic items which affect the perception of such character- istics as desirability and adjustment of the stimulus-cue description as well as judgment of sex of the stimulus-cue description. Visual imagery plays a role in Ss' responding to stereotypic descriptions.

DISCUSSION

The findings of this study by no means answer all the questions about the effect of methodology on the results and implications of sex-stereotyping re- search. Several aspects of methodology have been shown to be critical in the re- sultant stereotypes. Choice of instrument to be used in the measuring of any response is of primary concern. In psychological research, it has been demon- strated that the more unstructured the stimulus situation, the greater will be the contribution of internal factors of the S and the greater the effectiveness of ex- ternal influence in providing alternatives to the psychological patterning of the response (Sherif & Sherif, 1969). When a subject is considering a request for a description of some adult never before seen as a rather unstructured stimulus, two primary factors operate in the response process: the S's own stereotypic patterning and the structural possibilities of the instrument's response modality. There may be very real differences in the S's perception of males and females (e.g., in the realm of emotionality). How that difference is expressed and what conclusions can therefore be drawn about perceived emotionality in males and females is determined by the response alternatives of the instrument.

This is evidenced by the stereotypic items obtained from the Adjective Check List and Stereotype Questionnaire. Items reflecting a positive aspect of emotionality (e.g., affectionate, cheerful, gentle, kind, pleasant, warm, under- standing) emerged as significantly more characteristic of an adult female than

214 Cowan and Stewart

male according to the group of subjects responding on the Adjective Check List. The same content type item on the Stereotype Questionnaire (e.g., very affect- ionate, very gentle, very understanding) were not used with a significant differ- ence in describing the male and female stimulus cues. The aspects of emotion- ality that were significantly different for the sex stimulus cues were the more negative ones (e.g., does not hide emotions, very excitable in major crisis, cries very easily). The Ss responding on the two instruments agreed that fe- males are more emotional than males; however, the characteristics of that emo- tionality differed for the two instruments, although both instruments contain basically the same items of emotional content. We can conclude that the per- ception of the stereotypic male and female appear to be determined to a large extent by the instrument used to structure that expressed perception. For ex- ample, description of the female stimulus cue on the Stereotype Questionnaire was viewed as less desirable and less well adjusted. Similar conclusions - -bu t to a greater degree --have been obtained by Rozenkrantz et al. (1968) and Brover- man et al. (1970) in their work with the Stereotype Questionnaire.

A second aspect of the structuring provided by the different instruments is found in the comparision of the check list and questionnaire to the open-ended form. In omitting the structural possibilities, the open-ended format is assumed to allow Ss to respond with their own stereotypic patterning. The most frequently used items do not reflect stereotypic responses, but a basic physical description of a socially desirable person, that is, "someone I can relate to." In comparing items across instruments, the question emerges whether the Ss are being forced to respond to items which are not salient to them.

The factors of saliency and emotionality may be partially explained by the different process of response required by the structure of the instrument. Sub- jects are faced with either a generating task, forced present-absent choice, or continuous placement. This may be where imagery plays an important role. If stereotypes are a method of storage of perceptions and evaluations associated with a specific group of people, visual imagery may perform the function of re- leasing such information from cognitive storage. The S can then process the in- formation so as to respond in his or her characteristic styles to the stimulus situa- tion confronting him or her. Neisser's work (1967) showing that people are more accurate and confident in their recall of a task as long as their visual image of the task persists supports the data obtained in this sample. However, if the struc- ture of the instrument does not enable the S to fully explore and/or report the information from his or her visual images, information is very likely being lost or distorted. It is unclear at this point what parameters the Ss use in making their responses.

Perhaps the most significant implication of this methodological study is found in the responses to the stimulus cue "He is an adult." In the midst of growing awareness of sexism in language, these results raise more concern over

Methodological Study of Sex Stereotypes 215

the continued use of the masculine form of the third person pronoun as the neuter form. These data clearly show that the pronoun he generates a dist inctly

male image, that is, both men and women visually imagine male persons and respond with descriptions that are at least part ial ly stereotypic.

It should not be surprising that girls cannot imagine becoming scientists, politicians, and so on when what they see and hear in the mass media and text- books is his equipment, his findings, his home district, his commit tee assignment,

and so on. An example o f this is found within the psychologist 's ethics (American Psychological Association, 1963): "The psychologist believes in the dignity and wor th of the individual human being. He is commit ted to increasing man's under- standing of himself and o t h e r s . . . " (p. 3). Sex-role stereotypes will continue to

operate when such subtle forces as the individual's own visual imagery processes are integrally involved in responding to supposedly neuter references.

The findings of this research point to the effect of different instruments on obtained stereotypes and the judgments made from these stereotypic items. The possible role o f visual imagery in sex-role stereotyping has been investi-

gated. Before findings from sex and sex-role stereotyping research can be ap-

plied with the greatest benefit, more work is called for to examine the struc- ture and response bias of instruments and how the instruments are utilized. A

new and seemingly profitable source of information about the development, function, and change of stereotypes is available in the study of the process of visual imagery.

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