303 DRUG AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE AMONG YOUTH IN ...

International Journal of Management, Social Sciences, Peace and Conflict Studies (IJMSSPCS), Vol.4 No.1 March, 2021;

p.g. 303 - 318; ISSN: 2682-6135

DRUG AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE AMONG YOUTH IN NIGERIA… 303

DRUG AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE AMONG YOUTH IN NIGERIA: TYPES, CAUSES

AND IMPLICATIONS ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

AMINU M. DUKKU (PhD)

Department of Sociology

Bayero University Kano

[email protected]

+234(0)703 304 2943

Abstract

The phenomenon of drug and substance abuse has become a contemporary social

problem among youth. Alarmingly, large number of youth in Nigeria becomes

involved up to the extent of some of them becoming dependents thereby affecting their

quality of life. Understanding the nature of this phenomenon is related to

operationalizing basic concepts such as use, misuse and abuse. The boundaries that

separate these concepts have remained ambiguous and debatable, varying from

drug/substance to drug/substance, user to user. Given the broad typology and varied

nature of what is consumed and abused today, some of the drugs/substances put users

to sleep while some wake them up. They are typically grouped as – depressants,

hallucinogens, narcotics, over-the-counter drugs, prescription drugs, sedatives,

stimulants, synthetic drugs, solvents/inhalants and tranquilizers. The reasons for

abusing drugs/substances and the implications are so complex involving many issues,

some of which are situated around the individual; external to the individual or are

situated within the society or the environment. There is no single theory of

drug/substance abuse, the propositions of scholars in respect of socio-psychological,

trait, bio-social, learning, availability, relative deprivation, social disorganization,

gateway/stepping-stone, strain and anomie theories are instructive. No society has

been spared from the devastating havoc caused by drug/substance abuse especially the

implications on socio-economic and political development. The adverse consequences

could be social, economic, political, physical, psychological, medical and physiological,

affecting users, immediate families and the society. Government, communities, using

educators, should continue with the efforts on raising awareness about

drugs/substances and their effects.

Keywords: Depression, Gadagi, Hallucinogens, Stimulants, Youth.

Introduction

The phenomenon of drug and substance abuse has become a contemporary global social

problem that is found among youth (males and females) in many countries. In 2014, it was

estimated by the UN’s Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population division that

between 165m and 350m people aged 15 – 64 had used an illicit substance at least once. In the

developing countries like Nigeria, the use of drugs/substances has been increasing

dramatically over the years. Very disturbingly, large number of youth in Nigeria is engaged

in drug/substance and other related abuses. In 2012, the estimated annual prevalence for

cannabis use in Nigeria is almost 9 percent of persons aged 15 – 65; in 2014 it moved to 11.6

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percent. In Kano State, statistics have shown prevalence in cannabis and psychotropic

substances use. For example, between June 2015 and June 2016, the National Drugs Law

Enforcement Agency (NDLEA), Kano State Command seized 22,291.767kg drugs: Cannabis

sativa (3,072,695kg), cocaine (76.5grms), heroine (14.7grms) and psychotropic substances

(19,127.872kg).

Youth that are generally regarded as leaders of tomorrow are now regrettably found to have

been involved with drugs/substances, even up to the extent of becoming drug/substance-

dependents. Studies have established a very strong relationship between drug use and crime;

hence, crime rate rises as drug use increases. Due to the tendency of drugs to induce other

social vices, and the reality of drugs affecting the quality of life of those involved, many

countries established drug control agencies. In Nigeria, for example, the National Drugs Law

Enforcement Agency (NDLEA) was established to regulate drug and other related activities.

With the return of Nigeria to democracy, the phenomena of drug/substance use, misuse,

abuse, and dependence have become very pronounced among youth, especially during

political rallies, campaigns and elections. The continuous intake of drugs and substances lead

to undesirable consequences. Substance/drug abuse plays a major part in illness, premature

death and traffic accidents (Howard, 1995). In other studies, family and peer influence,

individual characteristics including behaviour and personality can be considered as factors

that influence children and adolescents to engage in drug/substance abuse (Brook, Whiteman,

Gordon, & Cohen, 2014).

There are several ways for youth to be at-risk of drug/substance abuse. Fatoye & Morakinyo

(2002) cited that researchers have identified a number of demographic and behavioural

characteristics of youth that contribute to their risk of involvement with drug/substance

abuse. These include ethnic minority status; aggressive, antisocial behaviour; difficulties in

school and school failure (including educational disabilities). These risk factors are common

denominators in the backgrounds of youth today. This paper seeks to analyze the

phenomenon of drug/substance abuse among youth in Nigeria with a focus on the types,

causes and consequences or implications on the socio-economic and political development.

Many of today's youth face conflicts that they can barely handle in a very young age. Factors

such as modernization have brought many social changes in the society. Children are being

taken for granted, usually by parents who both work and have no time for their children. The

issue of broken family, peer pressure, other pressing issues that would make a youth feel

inferior of him/herself are an addendum. The search for self–expression among the youth has

often led to deviant practices such as joining gangs, engaging in pre-marital sex and engaging

in drug/substance abuse. Spooner (2005) stress that growing numbers of children are being

neglected, abused, and ignored; and that without some positive steps, the dark spectre of

generational trouble could become real.

It is against the above background that this paper focuses on understanding the issue of

drug/substance abuse among youth, the types, factors and the implications on the socio-

economic and political development of the country. The paper is divided into seven parts. The

first part is the introduction and the second part consists of conceptual clarifications, the third

part presents theoretical explanations leveraging on the propositions of scholars in respect of


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relative deprivation and social structure and anomie, availability-proneness, differential

association, social disorganization, among others. The fourth part dwells on the typology of

drug/substance abuse. The fifth part focuses on the factors associated with drug/substance

abuse; the sixth section dwells on the consequences of drug/substance abuse in relation to the

socio-economic and political development of Nigeria while the last part of the paper presents

summary/conclusions and recommendations respectively.

Conceptual Clarifications

This section presents key concepts that are relevant to the context used in respect of the issue

of drug and substance abuse in Nigeria. Applying the concepts and their meanings to some

different contexts other than the one referred to in this paper may give different layers of

meaning to the issue of drug and substance abuse as the case may be.

1. Drug

The term drug is thought to originate from an old French word “drogue” or “droge-vate”

referring to medicinal plants preserved in dry vessels that invokes psychoactive properties.

The term drug is generally used in reference to any material other than food of natural or

synthetic origin that invokes psychoactive properties by altering the body’s functions

physically and/or psychologically. Drug also refers to a substance taken for both therapeutic

and non-therapeutic purposes (Ossaine, 2005). Other experts have defined drug as any

medical or chemical substance that when taken into the body by any means causes a change

in the body (Kilonzo & Mbatia, 1999). Drug alters the body functions either positively or

otherwise depending on the body composition of the user, the type of drug used, the amount

used and whether used singly or with other drugs at the same time.

2. Substances

Substances are any material other than food which due to their chemical nature affects the

structure or functioning of the living organisms especially psychologically (Szasz, 1975).

Examples of substances are heroin, cocaine, inhalants, solvents, glues, tube repair solution,

petrol, gasoline, spot removers, nail polish, nail polish remover (dissolver), spirit

(mentholated spirit). Others are amphatemines (aji garau), syrups like benylyn, cleaning

fluids, bula (robin blue), kashin kadangare, burkutu, pito, zakami, kolanut, hankufa, dankamaru,

angur, gagai, etc.

3. Drug Dependence/Addiction

This is defined as the set of physiological, behavioural and cognitive manifestations in which

the use of a drug is a priority for the individual. This term is usually linked to tolerance, or

the need to consume more of a substance to achieve the effects of previous consumption.

Physical dependence can be seen as a state of adaptation of an organism on the presence of

the drug and this is manifested by the appearance of intense physical discomfort such as

tremors, chills, insomnia, vomiting, pain in the muscles and bones, etc. when consumption of

the substance is stopped, then the same physical discomfort will occur when the substance´s

action on the organism is influenced by drugs which is designed to block its effects.

Psychological dependence refers to the situation in which a person feels an emotional need

and urge to consume a drug on a regular basis in order to feel good, relax or be satisfied so as

to obtain pleasure or avoid discomfort, although he/she does not need the substance


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physiologically, but may be associated with different contexts or social interactions. When a

dependent person does not consume, then withdrawal syndrome appears.

4. Youth

The term youth refers to anybody in the period between early childhood and old age or those

between 6 - 30 years. It is defined further as “a psycho-mental and socio-economic age

category with certain time honored attributes like physical and mental agility, buoyancy,

freshness, vigor, curiosity, deviance, vulnerability, malleability, a can-do-it disposition, etc.”

(Odekunle, 2002:8). According to Attahiru (2007), the concept youth is multi-dimensional and

consists of several age ranges even at the international level. For some countries, the age range

of the youth is from 12 years to a maximum of 40 years. UN defines the youth as people in the

age category of 15 to 24 years while the Commonwealth of Nations recognizes the age between

16 and 29 years. The Nigerian state defines the youth to include those in the age bracket of 18

to 30 years. The relevance of these definitions depends on the objective situation of social

policy in a given social formation.

5. Drug/Substance Use, Misuse and Abuse

The boundaries that separate drug/substance use and abuse are ambiguous and debatable,

and vary from drug/substance to drug/substance, user to user. On the one hand,

drug/substance use is a general term referring to both legitimate and illegitimate use of

drugs/substances, while misuse denotes the use of prescription/legitimate drugs that alter

mood or intoxicate ignoring the fact that overdose of such drugs have serious adverse effects.

On the other hand, abuse reflects the misuse of both legitimate and illegitimate drugs for non-

therapeutic or non-medical effect; use to intoxicate or alter mood. This refers to any use of

drugs/substances for non-medical purposes almost always for altering consciousness.

Furthermore, drug/substance abuse denotes use of substances that change the mental or

physical state of a person and that may be used repeatedly for that effect leading to

abnormality (Home Office, 2009). In spite of these narrations, it has been argued that there is

no common pharmacological property/ingredient distinguishing drugs from substances. The

distinction is social (Goode, 1992).

The Table below shows a schema depicting the thin lines between the three behaviours.

Table 1: Distinguishing between Drug/Substance Use, Misuse and Abuse

Behaviour Description Focus

Drug/Substance Use General term referring to both legitimate and

illegitimate use of drugs/substances

Legal and illegal

drugs

Drug/Substance Misuse

Inappropriate use

Use of prescription/legitimate drugs that alter

mood or intoxicate ignoring the fact that overdose

of such drugs have serious adverse effects.

Legal drugs

Drug/Substance Abuse

Bad or excessive use

Misuse of both legitimate and illegitimate drugs for

non-therapeutic or non-medical effect. Use to

intoxicate or alter mood. Socially and medically

disapproved usage of drugs.

Legal and illegal

drugs


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Types of Drugs/Substances of Abuse

In trying to get an overall picture of drug/substance abuse in the society today, reference is

made to knowing and investigating the types of drugs/substances in use. Some of the

drugs/substances put users to sleep while some wake them up. Several methods have been

used in classifying drugs. Some methods are based on compliance with laws where drugs are

classified as legal or illegal, example; alcohol, tobacco, coffee, hypnotics, sedatives, inhalants,

etc.; and opiates cannabis, cocaine, synthetic drugs, hallucinogens, etc. respectively. There has

also been a differentiation between soft and hard drugs, noting that the soft-hard distinction

is rarely used because of the rise to erroneous interpretations. Given the broad and varied

nature of what is consumed and abused today, the following categorizations are considered

for the purpose of this presentation – depressants, hallucinogens, narcotics, over-the-counter

drugs, prescription drugs, sedatives, stimulants, solvents/inhalants and tranquilizers.

Depressants

These are drugs that slow the body’s vital functions, with slowing effect, able to sedate or

lower the rate of the body’s vital functions. They are popularly referred to as “downers” with

depressive action properties. They are also regarded as part of the most widely used and

abused drugs in existence believed to relive stress and anxiety, and some induce sleep.

Depressants produce a host of other side effects including problems of dependence. Alcohol

is the commonest depressant used to ease tension, cause relaxation or help users to forget their

problems.

Hallucinogens

This is a general group of pharmacological agents that can cause psychoactive subjective

changes in perception, thought, emotion and consciousness. Unlike stimulants and opioids,

hallucinogens induce experiences that are qualitatively different from those of ordinary

consciousness. These experiences come often in form of things like trance, meditation, dreams

or insanity. Hallucinogens have a long history of use within medicinal and religious traditions

worldwide. They are used in Shamanic forms of ritual healing and divination in initiation

rites. Hallucinogens are drugs that alter the sensory processing unit in the brain producing

distorted perception, feeling of anxiety and euphoria e.g. marijuana, LSD, etc. Overall,

hallucinogens are substances that alter sensory processing in the brain, causing perceptual

disturbances, changes in thought processing. Examples include volatile solvents and aromatic

hydrocarbons.

Narcotics

The term narcotic is believed to have been coined by a Greek physician Galen to refer to agents

that numb or deaden, causing loss of feeling or paralysis. It is from an ancient Greek meaning

“to make numb” originally referred medically to any psychoactive compound with any sleep-

inducing properties. It is based on the Greek word narcosis, the term used for the process of

numbing or the numbed state e.g. heroin, cocaine, cannabis, morphine, opium (powder),

codeine (liquid or syrup), methadone, tobacco, etc. Narcotic drugs are substances whose

ultimate effect is to produce insensibility and torpor. In the context of International Drug

Control (UNODC) terminology and information on drugs, narcotic drugs mean any drug

defined as such under the 1961 Convention (UN). Narcotics are substances and preparations

that induce drowsiness, sleep, stupor or reduced consciousness, insensibility, etc. Narcotics


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are drugs that cause drowsiness or induce sleep and can also relieve pain. Heroin for example

produces dream world where all cares and worries disappear, physical pain diminishes, fear

disappear, foolish courage develops and natural inhibitions are dropped.

Over-the-Counter Drugs

Over-the-counter drugs are drugs or medicines sold directly to a consumer without a

prescription from a healthcare professional. Over-the-counter drugs are usually referred to as

“ok” drugs and are acceptably sold without essentially any prescription. In many countries,

many over-the-counter drugs are available in stores e.g. supermarkets, filling stations,

licensed pharmacy stores, chemists, etc. Cough syrups and many other brands of drugs are

accessible through these outlets periodically.

Prescription Drugs

Medicine is used to connote substances that are used to prevent or treat the symptoms of

illness. Prescription drugs are licensed drugs or medicines that are regulated by legislation to

require a medical prescription before they can be obtained. A drug prescribed by a physician

is what is referred to as medicine. In view of this, such drugs presented by physicians are

known as prescription drugs and can only be authorized by professionals and licensed

medical practitioners.

Sedatives

Sedatives are drugs that relieve stress and anxiety, induce sleep, ease tension, cause relaxation

or help users forget their problems. They are social opposites of stimulants e.g. alcohol,

valium, chloroform, etc. They are used to get relief from tension or anxiety. They are

commonly regarded as hypnotizing drugs.

Stimulants

Stimulants mean drugs, substances and/or consumables that increase body activity by

producing greater alertness; when taken they cause a person to act faster than usual. They are

substances that stimulate the Central Nervous System (CNS); they are performance enhancers

and promote wakefulness. Drugs under this category include marijuana, nicotine, cocaine,

amphetamines, etc. Stimulants increase the activity of mood elevating regions in the brain,

that is, they excite or speed up the CNS producing a feeling of mental alertness, excitation,

euphoria and well being. Generally, they are used for their ability to increase alertness and

endurance to keep people awake for a long period of time, to produce feel of well being. While

stimulants are believed to produce severe psychological dependence (Garba, 2003), overdose

brings about agitation, increases in body temperature, hallucination and aggression

(Odebunmi, 2008; Umar et al., 2010). Furthermore, users experience pleasant effects initially,

such as a sense of increased energy and sometimes a state of euphoria. Overall, stimulants

speed up mental and physical processes, which can produce desirable effects in the short-term

by increasing levels of dopamine in the brain. While users may feel great due to the short-

term effects of stimulants, long-term abuse of these drugs can have significant consequences.

Solvents/Inhalants

Solvents and/or inhalants are drugs or substances administered through the nostrils. When

the drugs are used for a long time, they cause euphoria, emotional dis-inhibition, sneezing,


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fatigue and perpetual distortion. They cause damage to the lungs, brain, and liver and could

lead to blindness e.g. nail polish remover, glue, gasoline, rubber solution, petrol, etc. They are

also called miscellaneous group of drugs/substances. This group includes inhalants like

nitrous oxide, volatile solvents and household products like glues, spot removers, tube repair

kits or sholisho, etc.

Tranquilizers

These are drugs legally used to control the behaviours of psychiatric patients suffering from

psychoses, aggressiveness and agitation but are abused to release uncomfortable emotional

feelings by reducing anxiety and tension and promoting a condition of relaxation. They are

usually identified by their brand names such as ampazine, thorazine, sparine, pacetal, librium,

valium, etc. This category of drugs produce a feeling of calmness, relieving anxiety and

tension e.g. diazepam. Tranquilizers are also believed to produce calmness without bringing

in drowsiness.

Another classification criterion is based on the effects produced in the CNS. Chalout (2001)

proposed a typology that distinguishes between drugs that are depressants, stimulants and

perturbers of the CNS. The Table below provides a complete account based on this criterion.

The first group includes alcohol, opiates and psychotropic drugs such as hypnotics,

anxiolytics and antipsychotics. Among the second group are major alertness stimulants (e.g.,

amphetamines and cocaine) and minor alertness stimulants (e.g., caffeine and nicotine), and

mood boosters (anti-depressants). In the third group, consisting of psychedelic drugs, are

hallucinogens, cannabis, synthetic drugs and solvents (e.g., glues, adhesives, etc.).

Table 2: Classification of Drugs/Substances According to their Main Effects

SN Classification Drugs/Substances and Main Effects

1.

Central Nervous System

(CNS) Depressants

a) Alcohol

b) Hypnotics: Barbiturates and non-barbiturates

c) Anxiolytics: diazepam

d) Narcotic analgesics:

i. Opium and derivatives: Heroin, morphine, codeine, etc.

ii. Synthetic narcotics: methadone, etc.

e) Antipsychotics (major tranquilizers)

2.


(CNS) Stimulants

a) Alertness stimulants.

i. Major: amphetamines, cocaine

ii. Minor: nicotine, xanthenes (coffee, tea, cocoa, etc.)

b) Mood Boosters: antidepressants

3.


(CNS) Perturbants

(Psychedelic)

a) Hallucinogens: mescaline, LSD, etc.

b) Derivatives of cannabis: marijuana, hashish

c) Volatile solvents: glue, etc.

d) Designer drugs: MDA, MDMA, etc.

Source: European Network on Exchange Early Detection Drug-consumption (2012)

In line with the breakdown of the explanations on the Table 2, drug/substance use fall into

categories depending on their general effects on the body. Depressants and stimulants each


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have different effects on users. Another distinction between hallucinogens and narcotics also

applies. As the names imply, depressants mute mental and physical activity in varying

degrees, depending on dosages, while stimulants excite and sustain activity and diminish

symptoms of fatigue. The depressants are morphine, heroin and marijuana; are substances of

abuse that persist globally by users. For instance, users that frequently take heroine morphine,

both white, powered substances derived from opium, by injection either subcutaneously or

directly into their veins. Both produce highly toxic or poisonous effects. Almost immediately

after injecting either substance, the user becomes flushed and experiences a mild itching and

tingling sensation. Diverseness gradually follows, leading to a relaxed state of reverie. The

user needs higher doses of the drug to reach a state of euphoria. Thus, addicts build up a

tolerance for the drug as well as a physical dependence.

Theoretical Explanations on the Nature of Drug/Substance Abuse

The issue of drug/substance abuse has been of serious concern for different societies. The

people who experiment with drugs/substances continue to use them because the

drug/substance either makes them feel good, or stops them from feeling bad. While frequency

or the amounts of drugs/substances consumed do not in themselves constitute abuse or

addiction, they can often be indicators of drug/substance-related problems. The reasons for

abusing drugs/substance and the implications of drug/substance abuse are so complex that

several theories have been propounded on it. Hence, there is no single theory of

drug/substance abuse, socio-psychological theories largely look at the aspects that explain

what drug/substance abuse is, why people abuse drug/substance and the consequences of

drug/substance abuse among the victims. In examining the issue of the abuse of

drugs/substances, reference to the propositions of scholars in respect of trait, bio-social,

relative deprivation and social structure and anomie theories is worth making. Other theories

such as the availability-proneness, differential association, frustration aggression, social

disorganization, gateway theory, among others, are instructive too.

Several features of a normal life are believed to actively promote drug use. For instance,

recognizing a close connection between drugs and physical well-being is a clear indication.

For example, it is widely learnt that drugs relieve various physical discomforts such as

headaches. Also, people associate use of alcohol, an important part of the drug world, with

certain social and life events. Drugs often play important roles in some people’s celebration

or mourning rituals. In addition, people think of substance use as a way to attain desired

moods or psychological well-being, which perhaps is a universal desire (Weil, 1996). People

learn that, when they fall into undesirable moods, they can alter their feelings with substance

use. A single substance use may generate a new mood, such as euphoria, or alter an existing

one, such as depression. Scholars have observed that lack of supervision is also connected to

poor relationship between children and parents, as children who are often in conflict with

their parents may be less willing to discuss their activities with them. In other words this

implies that children with a weak attachment to their parents are more likely to be delinquent

and abuse substances. The assertion of social control theory as posited by Hirschi (1969) that

weak social bonds do fail to prevent both association with delinquents in abusing substance

and delinquency itself.


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Peer group influence calls for making reference to Sutherland’s differential association theory,

explaining the adage that “birds of the same feather, flock together”. When applied to

drug/substance use, peer influence can be described as one of the set of external social

environmental pressures, which influence experimentation or continuation with drug

consumption. Peer influence includes cognitive and situational factors. Cognitive in form of

perception of the person’s behavior (modeling) and perceived drug use norms of the peer

group while situational segment refers to the direct peer pressure on individual to conform

and the importance of socializing and conformity in group.

To buttress the fact about the factors responsible for substance abuse, Nalah and Audu (2014)

were of the view that a factor responsible to substance abuse among youths is peer group

pressure. Karofi (2012) further added that peer group influence is a significant factor because

a certain skill is required for the injection of drugs and peers initially play an important role

in helping a new recruit to learn the technical skills. The conclusion he arrives is that selective

peer group interaction and socialization comprised the probability that the most powerful

factors related to drug usage among youths are imitation and social influence. Sub-cultural

theorists have examined why this is the case. Miller (1958) suggested that the idea of

masculinity may make young males more likely to abuse substances. Being tough, powerful,

aggressive, daring and competitive may be a way young boys attempt to express their

masculinity. Acting out these ideals makes young boys more likely to engage in antisocial

behaviors and substance abuse. From the foregoing, it is apparent that the different theoretical

propositions aid in painting a picture of the problem of drug/substance abuse across societies.

Factors Associated with Drug/Substance Abuse

The causes of, or reasons for drug/substance abuse are complex involving many issues some

of which are situated or revolve around the individual, some of which are external to the

individual and are situated within the society or the environment where the individual

resides. As such, the factors associated with drug/substance abuse can be explained in terms

of the various social, economic, political, legal and cultural forces existing within the society.

Most of these factors determine the types and patterns of drugs/substances that are being

abused. In Nigeria, getting precise statistical data of the number of drug abuse cases, misuse

or addicts routinely proves difficult. However, findings have shown that there is no single

factor that is solely considered to be responsible for drug/substance abuse; rather the

combination of two or more factors is scientifically considered as responsible for the

behaviour. The contributing factors could be social-cultural, biological, psychological,

technological and environmental in nature (Siegel, 2004). The three sub-sections below

provide a summary of factors:

Individual-level Factors

This sub-section focuses on issues around the individual including pleasure/benefits that

gives users benefits such as alertness, increased performance, agility and reduction in fatigue.

Researchers have found that the feeling of pleasure is one of the emotions connected to

survival. The feeling of pleasure or reward is a strong biological force, if something brings

strong pleasure; we develop behaviours that individuals learn quickly, to reproduce events

that bring pleasure. A person involved in drug use/abuse may frequent his/her habit in

anticipation of the reward (pleasure) may reproduce. The output overtime alters user’s


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thoughts, perceptions, emotions, actions and behaviours. For the factor on curiosity and

experimentation, the World Health Organization (WHO, 2003) presents five basic reasons

why young ones get into drug and substance abuse. They want to feel grown up, want to fit

in, want to relax and feel good, want to take risks and rebel and want to satisfy their curiosity.

Emotional and psychological stress as a factor entails situations that, for whatever reason, lead

to loneliness and frustration, boredom, idleness, anxiety, depression, low self esteem/worth

and fatigue. The explanation here is that serious problems usually manifest in form of

personality disorders, emotional maladjustment, mental retardation and even psychic

disturbance.

Other individual-level factors include self medication, which has become a typical habit

among Nigerians partly influenced by the availability of chemists/shops, vendors and many

other outlets in that respect. In addition, the integrating period of physiological and

psychological self is believed to occur within the age brackets of 10-12; 15-17 or 18 depicting

the transition periods between childhood and adolescence or early adulthood stages of

development. The periods between primary school to secondary school ages where young

ones exhibit some form of youthful exuberance – a “can-do-it” disposition, a feeling of

becoming grown up and capable of taking bold decisions without recourse to any parent

and/or parental guide. Most of members of the society in such transition stages demonstrate

some low level of frustration. The issue of genes and heredity are also critical as far as drug

and substance abuse issue is concerned.

Socio-Economic/Structural

This sub-section focuses on issues external to the individual including peer group influence,

economic depression, blocked opportunities, poverty, unemployment, occupational

demands, availability of drugs/substances, urbanization, indiscipline, party politics, weak

family ties, weak social values, poor parental care, weak government plans/initiatives and

media projections and portrayals. In addition, peer group influence, economic depression,

bustle of city life, desire to achieve success in a competitive world, academic pressure, warped

materialistic value system in the society – the craze-to-get-rich quick syndrome and profit

maximization are critical. Blocked opportunities and failure to achieve or attain cultural goals,

failure to get job, employment, good education, degree, a wife; admission into a tertiary

institution, etc. are highly influential. Poverty is another critical factor affecting the stabilizing

roles of parents and capable adults and/or guardians. Rising, and not too well checked,

unemployment is alarming and has a significant role in pushing members of the society into

drugs and substances. In the same vein, occupational demands push members of the society

into drugs/substances, for instance Long Distance Drivers (LDDs), soldiers, students, artists,

athletes, truck pushers, brick layers, etc. fall into this category with significant influences.

Availability of drugs and substances also play a major factor; this is supported by easy access

and acceptability. Physical, economic and social aspects of availability are greatly considered.

Urbanization and party politics involving the unpatriotic use of youth in politics via drugs

and weapons becomes detrimental. Other issues are weak family ties, weak social values,

weak government plans/initiatives/programmes, government policies e.g. demolition,

displacement, ban on Okada, downsizing, retrenchment, unlawful sack reflect a situation of

removed stimuli or something of value for survival. Such conditions can lead to compulsive


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drug/substance use with psychological dependence. Disasters such as flood or fire incidence

where things of value are lost also serve as fueling outlets. Media portrayals/projections and

the internet; and other group and cultural influences are important factors too.

Youthful exuberance could also be adduced to be a factor for substance abuse in Nigeria. Fareo

(2012) had attributed the manifestation of substance abuse among youths to experimental

curiosity. He explained that the curiosity to experiment the unknown fact about illicit

substance subsequently result to continuous substance abuse among youths. The first

experience in substance abuse produces a state of arousal such as happiness and pleasure

which in turn motivate them to continue.

Social disability occasioned by corruption, uncontrolled greed, political instability and a

mismanaged economy has impacted negatively on youths, forcing them to exhibit neurotic

need for money and power. Many people with selfish motives as manifested by desire to

amass wealth and not by any altruism or desire to improve the society are lured into substance

use and trafficking. Other factors such as poor parenting, experimentation, dysfunctional

family system and faulty moral values have been reported as being responsible for increasing

drug/substance use (Abasiubong, Udobang, Idung, Udoh and Jombo, 2014: 55).

Environment level

This level examines exposure to poor environmental settings. Specifically, emphasizing on the

influence of the environment in terms of broken homes, school, work place, neighborhood,

and community/ghetto areas in predisposing members of the society to drugs/substances.

Sources of drugs/substances are mostly believed to be found in the lower economic areas such

as slums, shops, public transport outlets, etc. Similarly, crime is viewed as a likely a function

of neighborhood dynamics and not necessarily a function of the individuals within

neighborhoods. Furthermore, exposure to environmental settings such as cold-prone areas,

weather conditions, riverine areas e.g. Warri, Russia, necessitate taking hot drinks, which

makes alcoholism typical over there. Growing up in dis-organized locations with disturbing

levels of poverty, divorce, squalor, violence-prone areas, thuggery, hostility, low social

control, areas in shambles, ghetto areas stand the high chance of luring members into

drugs/substances. The issue of proneness to drugs/substances reveals that locations, spots,

manufacture areas, sale areas, drug dealing corridors, under the bridges, motor stations, etc.

remain hot spots with high tendencies for flourishing drug/substance behaviours. A core

principle of social disorganization theory (1942) is that location matters. Unfavorable

conditions in communities in form of drop outs, single parent homes, unemployment and

other deviant neighborhood characteristics breed unwanted behaviours – drug/substance

abuse inclusive.

Indiscipline and lack of adequate parental care – first line of defense in drug abuse war,

conflicts with parents and/or having abusive parents and other family factors have an

influence in the use of drugs and substances. Level of parental supervision, the way parents

discipline a child, parental conflict or separation, criminal parents or siblings, parental abuse

or neglect and the quality of the parent-child relationship are important. Children brought up

by lone parent are more likely to abuse drugs and substances than those who live with two

biological parents. However, once the attachment a child feels towards their parent(s) and the


p.g. 303 - 318; ISSN: 2682-6135


level of parental supervision are taken into account, children in single parent families are no

more likely to abuse substances than others. Conflict between a child’s parents is also much

more closely linked to substance abuse than being raised by a lone parent. If a child has no

parental supervision they are much more likely to abuse substances. There is a strong

correlation between lack of supervision and the abuse of drugs and substances or drug use

and delinquency. This also appears to be the most important family influence on delinquency

(Erhun and Adeola, 1995).

In explaining factors responsible for drug/substance abuse, Ekpenyong (2012) identified

neglect by parents or guardians as a factor responsible for substance abuse among youths.

More so, this ideology was supported by Carson, Butcher and Mineka (2000) as they argued

that children who are exposed to negative role models early in their lives or experience other

negative circumstances such as having parents who are drug addicts, drug traffickers,

alcoholics among others may likely engage in substance abuse (Yunusa, 2015).

Similarly, Liddle and Rowe (2006) have identified marital breakdown or divorce among

couples as a factor responsible for substance abuse among the youths. They noted that marital

breakdown affects the quality of parenting on children and may consequently result in an

increased risk of substance abuse among them. They added further that visible change in

family structures such as remarriages and cohabitation which is on the increase is also

responsible for substance abuse among youths. In addition, Davison, Neale and Kring (2004),

Berk (2007) and Mahasoa (2010) have identified factor such as rapid social changes in the home

and environment due to globalization and urbanization to also be responsible for substance

abuse among youths. They explain further that the society is not only characterized by

changes in roles, norms, ideologies and values, but also by rapid technological changes which

are used in some daily activities. Similarly, other supporting evidences include the National

Centre on Addiction and Substance Abuse (NCASA, 2011); Ekpenyong (2012); and Atoyebi

and Atoyebi (2013) explaining that substance abuse among youths is seen to be intrinsically

connected to the increasing urbanization and globalization.

Also, Yunusa (2015) posit that, being part of a particular environment or society where there

is a higher exposure to substance abuse can also increase the likelihood of a person becoming

involved in substance abuse. Therefore, Visser and Routledge (2007) argued that, all social

contacts such as the availability of substances in an environment needs to be put into

consideration in order to understand the causes of substance abuse among youths. Similarly,

scholars such as Liddle and Rowe (2006); and Parry and Pithey (2006) have argued this point

further by explaining that the degree to which hard drugs and alcoholic beverages are

accessible to people affects the amount and pattern of their usage. This is evident in a large

number of licensed bottle stores, bars and relaxation spots found in some towns, cities and

metropolitan areas.

The Consequences and Implications of Drug/Substance Abuse

Drug/substance abuse poses a very big problem in the world today; it is ruining the lives of

millions of people both in adolescent and general population. The problem has spread at a

high rate and has penetrated every part of the world. In effect, it could be said that no society

has been spared from the devastating havoc caused by drug and substance abuse. While


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drug/substance abuse has implications on the socio-economic and political development of a

society or a nation like Nigeria, it is notable that there are many adverse consequences, which

affect the user, immediate family and the entire society. The adverse consequences can be

divided into broad categories, namely, social, economic, political, physical, psychological,

medical and physiological. Socially, the consequences on the user, family and the society or

nation are devastating. The preponderance of youth addicts roaming the streets negatively

affects the economy as a result of low productivity and shortage of efficient manpower in

Nigeria’s institutions. Public safety is subverted, as drug addiction is leading to incitement of

both sexes to prostitution and criminal behaviour. Drug/substance abuse problem affects the

Criminal Justice System (CJS), as more personnel and resources are deployed to handle

drug/substance cases. The major destroyer of youth usefulness on this earth is nothing more

than the abuse of drugs and substances. Eze and Omeje (2017:1) strongly believe that no

matter the usefulness of drugs, that their harmfulness is more than the usefulness, and that it

affects the abuser and the people around him.

Factors such as modernization and many social changes have been brought into the society

such that many of today's youth face conflicts that they can barely handle in a very young age.

The issue of broken family, peer pressure, and other pressing issues that would make a youth

feel inferior of him/herself are additional factors. Advocates indicate that up to 15% of 16 to

19-year-olds are at risk of never reaching their potential and simply becoming lost in society

(Spooner, 2005).

Drugs and substances increase the likelihood of many kinds of criminal activity, because

drug-related crime occurs primarily in the form of trafficking-related activity, including

violent conflicts among trafficking groups competing for increased market share. As such, the

scope for crime and violence is enhanced because of the economic opportunities provided to

criminal groups by illicit drug markets, as criminals compete for a share of those markets;

that, in turn, may have dire consequences for the local community. Communities may become

dependent on local illicit drug markets that support whole economies. Thus, authorities

themselves may also be in no position to challenge violent drug-related crime in certain

communities, as they too are at risk of violence or they have been influenced by corruption

and are consequently in a state of inertia (Collins, 1981).

The stress and fear generated by exposure to crime and violence; interfere with the daily lives

and normal developmental progress of people particularly young people. For example, their

ability to trust and have a sense of personal safety; their ability to develop skills to control

their emotions; their freedom to explore the local environment; and their ability to form

normal social relationships is being challenged. Thus, the social harm caused to communities

by the involvement of both adults and young people in drug-related crime and violence is

immense. The very fabric of society is challenged by the continued presence in communities

of drug-related crime.

Drug/substance abuse blocks meaningful use of time, energy and creative thinking and

destroys ambitions to progress by making members hopeless and unproductive; thereby

robbing the nation off. These serious facts notwithstanding, various research reports have

confirmed that Nigerian youths in both urban and rural areas and of different socio-economic


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backgrounds have indulged in the use and abuse of dangerous and illicit drugs/substances.

When this fact is viewed against the background that youths are often larger in number as

compared to other age groups in any society, there is much cause for alarm and concern. Over

the years, the indulgence of youths in drug/substance abuse has caused a lot of problems in

Nigeria even in higher institutions. Sampers (1994:11) lamented thus:

I invoke the memory of the thousands of young people who, combating or

consuming drugs, have lost their lives and also invoke the future of our

children who are threatened by drugs and gin. I call on the solidarity of the

world to commit ourselves to this formidable challenge of blocking the way to

organize crime.

Akah and Akunyili (2003:2) reserves that recreational use of marijuana develops into a chronic

pattern of substance abuse. And this abuse leads to a variety of psychological disorders which

take an appalling toll on individual well-being, and severally tax treatment facilities.

Vandalism, thuggery and gang warfare have also been linked to drug abuse (Dukku, 2010)

with the image of the family and the society at large being tarnished through domestic

violence, divorce and other related problems. With these problems, individuals, immediate

families, nations and/or societies are left robbed, visionless and highly unproductive.

Summary and Conclusion

This paper dwells on the phenomenon of drug/substance abuse as a global social problem

with devastating socio-economic and political consequences and implications to the

development of societies, Nigeria inclusive. The problem has become quite widespread

dramatically, especially among youths in the developing countries where the continuous

intake of drugs and substances (even in small quantities) lead to undesirable consequences

such that researchers, academics, and policy makers have focused on studying the

phenomenon. Relevant concepts reveal more underlying meanings to drug and substance use

contexts in Nigeria, making reference to investigating the types, classifications, theoretical

propositions, factors and consequences or implications. Some drugs/substances put users to

sleep while some wake them up. Classifications range from alcohol, tobacco, coffee, hypnotics,

sedatives, inhalants, etc.; and opiates cannabis, cocaine, synthetic drugs, hallucinogens, etc.

Other differentiations come along legal and illegal, soft and hard lines. The paper unveils

causes of and/or factors associated with drug/substance abuse as complex involving many

issues some of which are situated or revolve around the individual, some external to the

individual and others situated within the society or the environment where the individual

resides. Factors such as modernization have brought many social changes in the society, the

issue of broken family, peer pressure, and other pressing issues propel youths into

consumables. The contributing factors drug/substance abuse could be social-cultural,

biological, psychological, technological and environmental in nature.

There is no single theory of drug/substance abuse; socio-psychological theories largely look

at the aspects that explain what drug/substance abuse is, why people abuse drugs/substances

and the consequences or implications of drug/substance abuse among the victims and the

development of societies. In effect, no society has been spared from the devastating havoc

caused by drug and substance abuse. The adverse consequences affect users, immediate


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family and the entire society with severe implications on the socio-economic and political

development aspects. The paper concludes that the consequences and implications are

adverse and grouped into social, economic, political, physical, psychological, medical and

physiological leaving individuals, families, nations and/or societies robbed, with highly

punctured goals and aspirations.

Recommendations

1. The Nigerian government at all levels should always be educating the public on the

dangers of drug/substance abuse through awareness programmes for the Nigerian

youths, etc.

2. Pushers and sellers that are well known by community members should be reported

by the community so that they can be sent to courts and be charged for possession of

illegal drugs.

3. Communities, through Community-Based Organizations (CBOs) should collaborate

with educators for educating members of the community by raising awareness about

substances/drugs and their effects especially on the emerging substances and cough

syrup brands.

4. Parents should live up to their expectations in dedicating adequate and quality time

for socialization of their children in order to impart good morals, ethics and ideals.

5. Government drug enforcement agents should be empowered with adequate resources

to be effective in the fight against drug/substance use and misuse in the societies.

6. Funds should be set aside periodically to conduct surveys for a data bank on

drug/substance abuse; the information should be utilized in policy formulation,

planning and implementation purposes.

7. The National Drug Law Enforcement Agency (NDLEA), National Agency for Food

and Drug Abuse Control (NAFDAC) and other control groups should not relent in

carrying out their responsibilities on drug/substance abuse in order to make Nigeria a

drug/substance abuse free society with a special focus on the Nigerian youths as the

future leaders of the great country.

8. The Nigerian government should plan for a viable, holistic and realistic framework for

addressing unemployment and joblessness. This can be actualized by restructuring the

efforts on creating conducive environment for job creation and other employment

opportunities available for the teeming youths in Nigeria.


p.g. 303 - 318; ISSN: 2682-6135


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