The role of family and parenting styles in the development of substance abuse Erika Klara

Running head: FAMILY FACTORS, PARENTING STYLE AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE1

THE ROLE OF FAMILY FACTORS AND PARENTING STYLE IN THE DEVELOPMENT

OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE

Erika Klara

Palo Alto University

FAMILY FACTORS, PARENTING STYLE AND SUBSTANCE ABUSE 2

Abstract

It seems that myriad intermediate processes have been implicated

in the early onset of substance abuse among youth. Some of the

family factors include family cohesiveness, parenting style,

parenting monitoring, communication, parent-child affiliation and

other bio-psycho-social and cultural normative factors. Two

categories of parenting practices have been associated with drug

use during adolescence, namely parental monitoring and

expressions of parental warmth. Parental practices such as

behavioral control and parent’s responsiveness are related to

adolescent self-disclosure and parental knowledge which predicts

adolescent’s substance use.

There is a clear relationship between parental styles and

psychological well-being especially in the case of authoritative

parenting style (Henry & Glendinning, 1995 in Garcia 2013). Some

studies suggest that there is some degree of inconsistency when

we take into account ethnicity, culture and socioeconomic status.

In certain Asian cultures or in high risk neighborhoods the

authoritarian parenting styles are more protective. In Spain


Garcia (2010) found that the optimal parenting style was

indulgent. This parental style was associated with less substance

use in children and adolescents. Family influences do not occur

in a vacuum. There are other determinants on drug use and

addiction including intrapersonal factors, peer influence and

wider cultural and community and environmental factors such as

cultural values, media influences, advertising and others. These

factors cannot be ignored when we are making a comprehensive

assessment.


THE ROLE OF FAMILY FACTORS AND PARENTING STYLE IN THE DEVELOPMENT

OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE

Substance abuse is influenced by a complex interacting

network of sociological, psychological and biological factors

(Barnes, 1977; Campbell 1983 in Kampfe & Denton 1994). There is

a significant relationship between teenage substance abuse and

certain family characteristics. According to research the family

plays a key role in both inducing risk and encouraging and

promoting protection and resilience against substance abuse.

Recent data from the Department of Health and Human Sciences

indicate that approximately 20 million people of the total

population aged 12 years or more in the USA, and nearly 12 % of

young people aged 12-17 are current users of illicit drugs.

Substance abuse is a major problem among adolescents today. One

out every six teenagers suffers from chemical dependency (Thorne

& DeBlassie, 1985).


Family involvement and family bonding

The research literature assigns a pivotal role to the family

in the development or prevention of all delinquent behaviors

(Repetti R, Taylor S, Seeman T, 2002 in Velleman & Copello 2005).

Quality of parenting has been found to interact with such

variables as psychological well-being, life stress and social

support in predicting general antisocial behavior as well as

substance use and misuse (Velleman R & Copello A. 2005). The

family plays a role in inappropriate socialization. Research has

found that early antisocial behavior is a strong predictor of

later substance abuse (National Institute on Drug Abuse, McEvory

& Robbins 1990 in Velleman & Copello, 2005).

There have been many findings of statistically significant

associations between drug and alcohol use and particular

relational processes within the family. Because these are

correlations causal relationships cannot be determined. Social

factors that affect early development within the family such as

chaotic home environment, ineffective parenting and lack of

mutual attachment have been shown to be crucial indicators of


substance abuse risk (Clark et.al, Olsson &Repetti et al. in

Velleman & Copello, 2005). There is evidence that parent use of a

specific substance is the most powerful influence on adolescent

initiation into use of that substance.

According to Velleman and Copello there are seven areas in

which the family context could influence a teen’s substance abuse

behavior. These family factors are: family atmosphere, family

relations versus family structure, family cohesion, family

communication, parental modeling of behavior, family management,

parental supervision and parent/peer influences. Family

atmosphere is a second broad category that may influence

adolescent substance abuse.

Adolescents who abuse drugs frequently report poor family

environments (Adler, Lotecka, 1993 in Van Ryzin & Fosco 2007).

Family atmosphere includes family composition, family interaction

and discrepancies in family perceptions of each other. Addicts

describe their family environment as hostile (Pandina, Streit,

Halstead & Pascale, 1974 in Fosco 2007), lacking love, lacking

family cohesiveness, having a sense of alienation (Tolone &


Dermott, 1975; Adler & Lotecka1973; Wechsler and Thum, 1973 in

Fosco 2007). Some addicts reported that the parents were self-

centered and non-supportive (Wilborn, 1983 in Huber & Catalano

2012).

Researchers have found that the parents of addicts viewed

parenting as a job that requires suffering and sacrifice. These

parents frequently report a lack of confidence in raising their

children (Rees, Wilborn, 1983; Blum et al. 1976 in Jackson &

Hecht, 2000). Many parents of addicts assumed a permissive

attitude while others have found them to practice excessive

control (Hecht, 2000).

According to research relational aspects of families

(cohesion, discipline, and communication) seem to have a greater

influence than structural aspects (single parent, family size,

birth order etc) on forming drug-related behaviors (Velleman &

Templeton & Copell0, 2005). Children in single parent families,

stepfamilies and in foster care were more likely to be offered

and use drugs, while little difference by gender or SES was noted

(Coleman & Young 1999 in Capello Velleman & Capello, 2005).


But according to research family cohesion is more important

than family structure. The closeness of the parent child bond has

been found to be a protective factor against drug use both

directly and indirectly through choosing non-drug using friends

(Andrews K. 1997 in Velleman & Capello, 2005). In addition family

bonding has a relatively strong positive association with

educational commitment, and adolescents with a higher educational

commitment tend to drink less often (Copello, 2007). There is

strong evidence in the research literature to the fact that low

family cohesion predisposes teens towards deviant behavior,

especially that which is modeled in the home, and that parents in

low cohesive families do not have enough influence to control

their children (Doherty & Allen J. 2002 in Copello, 2005).

Family communication

The quality of the parent-youth relationship has been linked to

decreased risk for substance abuse in adolescence. There is

strong evidence in the literature that relationship quality with

parents remains a robust predictor of youth delinquent behavior.

According to the literature youth who have a strong relationship


with their parents are more likely to disclose and turn to their

parents for advice and information (Allen & Land, 1999; Brody,

Moore & Geli, 1994). Although the relationship with both parents

is important, the maternal influence is slightly more influential

than the paternal relationship (Oliva and Parra, 2004 in Moreno &

Garcia, 2013). Therefore negligent mothers are more damaging to

adolescents than negligent fathers (Simons and Conger, 2007 in

Moreno & Garcia, 2013).

One thing is sure: good parent-child relationships are

protective factors against substance use (Hair et. al, 2009;

Ramos et al. 2011 in Moreno & Garcia, 2013). A low level of

communication between parent and child, poorly defined and

poorly-communicated expectations, excessively severe and

inconsistent discipline, and high levels of negative interaction

or family conflict have all been found predictive of increased

risk of substance use (Hawkins and Haggerty, 1995 in Costello

2005). Too much scolding and criticism has been linked to

delinquency and substance use (Ary and Harris 1997, in Valdeman

and Costello, 2005).


Regular communication of parental warmth and affection,

support for child competencies, presentation of clear prosocial

expectations, monitoring of children and consistent and moderate

discipline is a protective factor against substance abuse

(Valdemann, 2005). Not surprisingly affectionate parents who

properly promote the autonomy of their adolescent children have

been shown to be associated with lower levels of drug use (Parra

and Oliva 2007 in Garcia, 2013).

Research shows that parents who lack effective family

management skills are less well-equipped to protect their

children from negative peer pressure (Wilson et.al, 2001). Both

excessively authoritarian and permissive parenting has been found

to be associated with an earlier onset of drug and alcohol use

(Baumrind 1995, in Valdemann and Costello, 2005). A lack of

consistency or structure and a tendency to vacillate between

over-permissiveness and physical or verbal violence have been

observed clinically in the parents of drug abusers (Avery 1997 in

Costello, 2005). Parents who are responsive, demanding and


provide a sense of self-efficacy, tend to have offspring who are

less likely to engage in substance use.

Family management and parental supervision

Family management is a multidimensional construct that

incorporates parental monitoring, discipline practices,

behavioral control and reward system that the family uses to

reinforce good behavior. Studies linked poor family functioning

and poor family management to substance use and addiction (Engels

et al. 2005). Researchers who explore risk and protective factors

related to substance use stress the importance of the social

context. Some of the key aspects of this context are interactions

within the family, such as parental monitoring and parent- child

relationship quality (Nelson, & Bullock, 2004 in Van Ryzin &

Fosco, 2012).

Ineffective parental monitoring is linked with increased

association with deviant peers. Results from a number of studies

demonstrate that parental supervision or monitoring of children


can prevent or delay onset of drug use. Delay in onset may reduce

the risk of more serious involvement (Robbins 1998 in Van Rysin &

Fosco, 2012). The influence of parental supervision may be direct

in that it keeps children away from drugs, or indirect in that it

reduces a child’s contact with drug taking peers (Steinberg L &

Fletcher, 2010 in Van Ryzin & G. Fosco 2012).

Young people who spent more time with their family were less

likely to have tried illicit drugs (Sweeting & West, 1996 in

Fosco, 2012). Parental monitoring is associated with lower

substance use by adolescents (Laird et al. 2004; Parra and Oliva

2006 in Garcia 2013). Another key protective factor from illicit

drug use is parental knowledge (Head, 2002 in Oliva & Garcia,

2013). Parental knowledge is gained through monitoring and

solicitation. Parents who listen to their children with an open

mind when they speak and avoid reacting negatively, make is more

likely that their children will use more self-disclosure (Hayes &

Tilton, 2003 in Garcia 2013). Parental knowledge allows parents

to be informed about the lives of their children. Parental

knowledge is protective if parents use this knowledge.


Research shows that adolescent disclosure to parents in the

number one protective factor against substance use in adolescence

(Hayes et al. 2003, 2005; Weaver et.al 2010 in Garcia 2013). When

adolescents use self-disclosure parents are more likely to trust

them to make the right decisions (Marshall et. al 2005 in Garcia

2013). Research shows that the parenting style in adolescents’

friends’ homes plays a pivotal role in the development of

substance use. This can be more influential especially when the

teen has negligent parents at home.

Parenting styles and parent child interaction

Baumrind (1977), Maccoby and Martin (1983) analyzed parental

behavior through dimensions such as parental warmth, acceptance,

involvement, parental control or strictness. Familial variables

that can affect child outcomes are all considered within the

interactions between the parent and the child. Such variables

are: parental dispositions and other personality factors, marital

and sibling influences, sociocultural context in which the family


lives. According to the literature the parent-child interaction

is characterized by two major parenting dimensions. These are

nurturance expressed by warmth and support and control expressed

by supervision and discipline. Most of the time inadequate

parenting is characterized by lack of affection, high levels of

criticism and hostility, inconsistent discipline and inconsistent

child supervision, lack of involvement and the parent’s self-

centeredness. This parenting style provides the foundation for

the development of an aggressive, antisocial behavior pattern in

the child (Maccoby 1990 in Denton & Kampfe 1994).

Research shows that authoritative parents who are warm and

responsive that provide in the same time firm control and

realistic expectations is the optimal parenting style because it

has been consistently associated with optimum behavioral outcomes

in children. Maccoby and Martin (1991) proposed a four typology

model in which they define four types of parenting styles:

authoritative (responsive and demanding), neglectful (neither


responsive nor demanding), indulgent (responsive but not

demanding) and authoritarian (demanding but nor responsive).

Lamborn et al. (1991) and Steinberg et al. (1994) made a

global investigation of these parenting styles and confirmed that

the authoritative parenting style is the optimal parenting style

and it is associated with optimum youth outcomes. An

authoritative parent can be defined as somebody who is demanding

but sensitive or responsive the child’s needs. This type of

parent listens with an open mind without being over reactive, has

an open style of communication and applies flexible parenting

rules. Authoritarian parents apply rigid rules and sometimes

severely punish the child or non-compliance.

Research revealed that the parental style traditionally

associated with substance use is neglectful. These parents are

indifferent to the child’s needs, have no limit setting, and fail

to provide warmth and affect to their children. This style is

considered a risk factor for drug use in adolescence (Garcia &

Gracia 2009, Steinberg & Dornbusch, 1991 in Garcia 2013). Studies


show that indulgent parenting is as much as harmful as neglectful

parenting (Garcia 2013).

Interestingly studies with ethnic minority group were unable

to confirm the idea that authoritative parenting is the most

optimal of all parenting styles (Chao, 1994, Nurmi 2000,

Schwartz, 2003 in Garcia 2009). Some research in Middle East and

Asian societies suggested that authoritarian parenting was an

adequate parenting strategy. Quoss and Zhao (1998) found that

authoritarian parenting- not authoritative- predicted

satisfaction with the parent-child relationship (Garcia, 2009).

It seems that the optimal parenting style is culture-bound.

In white middle class families authoritative parenting is a

protective factor. However in the case of poor ethnic minority

families with low SES who live in dangerous neighborhoods

authoritarian parenting can be a protective factor against drug

use (Cook, Elder & Sameroff, 1999 in Garcia 2009). Children of

divorce or children who experience the negative consequences of

family disruption seem to be especially prone detrimental social


and behavioral outcomes including substance abuse (McLanahan,

1991 in Garcia 2009). Single parent youth are more emotionally

deprived and are more susceptible to negative peer influences

than youth from dual parent families (Camara 2008).

Parental Psychological Stress

Parents suffering from mental illness such as depression or

anxiety generally have fewer effective parenting practices than

other parents (Herman & Stahl et al. 2008 in Lemieux & Bertrand

2013). In addition research shows that parents who suffer from

depression or other mental illness are more likely to self-

medicate and use illicit drugs or alcohol. As a result they

transmit inappropriate behavior models for their children.

Research shows that children of such parents have more behavioral

problems including substance abuse problems (Weismann et al.

2006).

On a final note it is important to note that family

influences do not occur in a vacuum. There are other determinants


on drug use and addiction including intrapersonal factors, peer

influence and wider cultural and community and environmental

factors such as cultural values, media influences, advertising

and others. These factors cannot be ignored when we are making a

comprehensive assessment.


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The role of family and parenting styles in the development of substance abuse Erika Klara

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Transcript of The role of family and parenting styles in the development of substance abuse Erika Klara