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2015_Raczky, P.: Settlement in South-east Europe. In: Fowler, C. - Harding, J. - Hofmann, D.: The...
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Settlement in South-east Europe Page 1 of 14 PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). (c) Oxford University Press, 2014. All Rights Reserved. Under the terms of the licence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in Oxford Handbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy ). Subscriber: Oxford University Press - Master Gratis Access; date: 01 September 2014 Subject: Archaeology, Archaeology of Europe Online Publication Date: Aug 2014 DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199545841.013.072 Settlement in South-east Europe Pál Raczky The Oxford Handbook of Neolithic Europe (Forthcoming) Edited by Chris Fowler, Jan Harding, and Daniela Hofmann Oxford Handbooks Online Abstract and Keywords This contribution traces the development of tells, or settlement mounds, in south-east Europe. Owing to their surviving height, these habitation monuments became the foci of regional research traditions, but more recently the balance has shifted to include horizontal or ‘flat’ sites. This has allowed to integrate tells into their social context, to systematically investigate off-tell activity, the different notions of time and community played out in both types of settlement, and the relations to other kinds of site, such as cemeteries. This chapter offers a chronological overview from the earliest tells in the southern Balkans in the mid seventh millennium, when households engaged in a variety of mobility strategies, to their expansion north-westwards into the Hungarian Plain, during which the significance of tells also altered. While tells continue to be built until around 3700 BC, the increasing social stratification may be a factor in their ultimately rapid abandonment. Keywords: tell, horizontal settlement, Balkans, Neolithic, Copper Age, time, habitation monument, status Introduction: Tell and Non-tell Settlements Neolithic open-air settlements in south-east Europe fall into two groups. One consists of a single, usually horizontal layer, the other comprises superimposed remains from several habitation layers. While horizontal settlements occur throughout Europe, the distribution of ‘settlement mounds’ rising above the natural surface of the landscape is limited to the Near East, the Balkans, and the south-eastern part of the Carpathian Basin (Childe 1950, 38-9; Wace and Thompson 1912; Gimbutas 1974, 19–25, 29–33; Kalicz and Raczky 1987, 14–19; Chapman 1989; 1997a, 158–162; Raczky 1995; Whittle 1996, chapters 3–5; Bailey 2000, 156–177; Steadman 2000; Gogâltan 2003; Link 2006, 7–14; Rosenstock 2005; 2006; 2009; Raczky and Anders 2008, 35–37; Anders et al. 2010). The northernmost Neolithic settlement mound is the tell of Polgár-Csőszhalom (Hungary), located by the northern reaches of the Tisza river, very close to the famous obsidian sources near Tokaj (see references in Raczky and Anders 2008). Artificial settlement mounds in Europe are between 2.5 and 10m high, their counterparts in south- west Asia 5–50m. Tells may be of conical or flattish shape, with horizontal extents varying between 0.1 to 10ha, but reaching up to 20ha in the Near East (Chapman 1989, 36–38, Fig. 2; Rosenstock 2005, 222–224, Fig. 1a–b; Menze et al. 2006, 322, 325, Fig. 10–11). Depending on local languages, these often attractive landscape features are called ‘tell’, ‘hüyük’, ‘tepe’, ‘magoula’, ‘tumba’, ‘mogila’, ‘mǎgura’, ‘település-halom–lakódomb’ or ‘Siedlungshügel–Wohnhügel’ (Chapman 1997a; Rosenstock 2005; 2006). The term ‘tell’ (mound) was first used in a European context by Ferenc Tompa (1937, 47) for settlements of the Tisza culture on the Great Hungarian Plain and has since become generally accepted in the archaeological literature (Gogâltan 2003, 222–223). In south-east Europe, tell-like settlements may be at least 1 to 2.5m thick, and possess at least two superposed habitation layers. Single-layer, horizontal settlements are usually characterized by a deposit only 25–50cm thick, although some have fills up to 1m thick
Transcript of 2015_Raczky, P.: Settlement in South-east Europe. In: Fowler, C. - Harding, J. - Hofmann, D.: The...
Settlement in South-east Europe
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Subject: Archaeology,ArchaeologyofEuropeOnlinePublicationDate: Aug2014
DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199545841.013.072
SettlementinSouth-eastEuropePálRaczkyTheOxfordHandbookofNeolithicEurope(Forthcoming)EditedbyChrisFowler,JanHarding,andDanielaHofmann
OxfordHandbooksOnline
AbstractandKeywords
Thiscontributiontracesthedevelopmentoftells,orsettlementmounds,insouth-eastEurope.Owingtotheirsurvivingheight,thesehabitationmonumentsbecamethefociofregionalresearchtraditions,butmorerecentlythebalancehasshiftedtoincludehorizontalor‘flat’sites.Thishasallowedtointegratetellsintotheirsocialcontext,tosystematicallyinvestigateoff-tellactivity,thedifferentnotionsoftimeandcommunityplayedoutinbothtypesofsettlement,andtherelationstootherkindsofsite,suchascemeteries.ThischapteroffersachronologicaloverviewfromtheearliesttellsinthesouthernBalkansinthemidseventhmillennium,whenhouseholdsengagedinavarietyofmobilitystrategies,totheirexpansionnorth-westwardsintotheHungarianPlain,duringwhichthesignificanceoftellsalsoaltered.Whiletellscontinuetobebuiltuntilaround3700BC,theincreasingsocialstratificationmaybeafactorintheirultimatelyrapidabandonment.
Keywords:tell, horizontalsettlement,Balkans,Neolithic,CopperAge,time,habitationmonument,status
Introduction:TellandNon-tellSettlements
Neolithicopen-airsettlementsinsouth-eastEuropefallintotwogroups.Oneconsistsofasingle,usuallyhorizontallayer,theothercomprisessuperimposedremainsfromseveralhabitationlayers.WhilehorizontalsettlementsoccurthroughoutEurope,thedistributionof‘settlementmounds’risingabovethenaturalsurfaceofthelandscapeislimitedtotheNearEast,theBalkans,andthesouth-easternpartoftheCarpathianBasin(Childe1950,38-9;WaceandThompson1912;Gimbutas1974,19–25,29–33;KaliczandRaczky1987,14–19;Chapman1989;1997a,158–162;Raczky1995;Whittle1996,chapters3–5;Bailey2000,156–177;Steadman2000;Gogâltan2003;Link2006,7–14;Rosenstock2005;2006;2009;RaczkyandAnders2008,35–37;Andersetal.2010).
ThenorthernmostNeolithicsettlementmoundisthetellofPolgár-Csőszhalom(Hungary),locatedbythenorthernreachesoftheTiszariver,veryclosetothefamousobsidiansourcesnearTokaj(seereferencesinRaczkyandAnders2008).ArtificialsettlementmoundsinEuropearebetween2.5and10mhigh,theircounterpartsinsouth-westAsia5–50m.Tellsmaybeofconicalorflattishshape,withhorizontalextentsvaryingbetween0.1to10ha,butreachingupto20haintheNearEast(Chapman1989,36–38,Fig.2;Rosenstock2005,222–224,Fig.1a–b;Menzeetal.2006,322,325,Fig.10–11).
Dependingonlocallanguages,theseoftenattractivelandscapefeaturesarecalled‘tell’,‘hüyük’,‘tepe’,‘magoula’,‘tumba’,‘mogila’,‘mǎgura’,‘település-halom–lakódomb’or‘Siedlungshügel–Wohnhügel’(Chapman1997a;Rosenstock2005;2006).Theterm‘tell’(mound)wasfirstusedinaEuropeancontextbyFerencTompa(1937,47)forsettlementsoftheTiszacultureontheGreatHungarianPlainandhassincebecomegenerallyacceptedinthearchaeologicalliterature(Gogâltan2003,222–223).Insouth-eastEurope,tell-likesettlementsmaybeatleast1to2.5mthick,andpossessatleasttwosuperposedhabitationlayers.Single-layer,horizontalsettlementsareusuallycharacterizedbyadepositonly25–50cmthick,althoughsomehavefillsupto1mthick
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(KaliczandRaczky1987,14–16;Link2006,10–14;Gogâltan2003,223–224).
Dependingonlocalresearchtraditions,differentformsofphasingandterminology(Neolithic,Eneolithic,etc.)areusedforthefirsttell-buildingculturesinsouth-eastEurope.Inabsoluteterms,thebeginningsoftellsitesdatetoaround6700/6500BC,andtheirendtoapproximately4000/3700BC.Tellsthusexistedoverc.2500–3000yearsduringaperiodwhenfood-producingeconomiesemergedoverawideareabetweenGreeceandHungary.
ThePhysicalandSocialConditionsoftheFirstTells
Tellsettlementsmainlyconsistofstratifieddebrisfromclayhouses,constructedusingvarioustechniques(pisé,mudbrick,wattle-and-daub,etc.;Aurenche1981,42–72;Naumann1971,43–51;Stevanović1997,341–345;Rosenstock2005,228–233;Piesbergen2007,20–32).Thesestructuresfrequentlyburntdown,butweresystematicallyreconstructedonthesamespot.Constructiondepositswerethuscreatedbyintentionallevelling,alongsidethedailyaccumulationofrefuse.Settlementmoundshencerepresentlong-term,plannedactivity.Inadditiontonaturalerosion,thereisalsoevidenceofconsciouslandscapingthroughthesystematicremovalofrubbleandtheremainsofearlierhouses.Physically,theresultingtell‘body’wascreatedthroughacomplexcreativeprocessincludingbroad-basedcommunaleffortandresultinginaregionallysignificanttopographicmonument.Themounditselfmayhencebeseenasthematerialmanifestationofacommunity,itscoordinatedactivityandcommunallife(Evans2005).Theapparentlyundisturbed2500yearsoftelldevelopmentinsouth-eastEuropesuggestlong-termeconomicandsocialstability,whichpartlyinspiredGimbutas’(1974,17–19)ideaofacollectiveidentitylabelledthe‘CivilizationofOldEurope’,presumingtheevolutionofanurban-typesystemofinstitutions.
Evidently,thesystematicactivityoftellcreationhadafeedbackeffectonthosewhobuiltthesesitesand,overthelongrun,contributedtothecohesionofcommunitiesandtheirinseparable,complexsystemofeconomic,social,sacral,andsymbolicnorms(Chapman1997a;Kotsakis1999;Bailey1999;Tringham2000b;Evans2005;Gheorghiu2008).
EarlyResearchHistoryofTellsinEurope
TellsinEuropehavelongfuelledtheimaginationofmodernvillagersandtreasurehunters,whiletheirsequenceofsuperimposedstrataofferedrelativechronologiesforartefactualassemblages.Unsurprisingly,thefirstmore-or-lessscholarlyexcavationsinEuropealsotargetedthesemounds.OnetellofkeyimportancewasinvestigatedbyVasić(1932–1936)nearVinčainSerbiabetween1908and1934.Hefoundperiodicallyrenewedadobehousesbuiltonwoodenframes,plasteredopen-airfireplaces,andrefusefromNeolithicdailylife,downtoadepthof9.5m.
ThefindsfromitssuperimposedlayersmadetheVinčatellayardstickfortheBalkanNeolithicand,tosomeextent,CopperAgeculturaldevelopment.ItsphaseshavebeenalternativelylabelledVinčaI(Tordos)andVinčaII(Pločnik),orAtoD(Chapman1981;Schier1997).GordonChildecomparedthissitetothetellofTroyinwesternAnatolia,and—onthebasisofitsfinds—hypothesizedacultural/chronologicalconnectionbetweenthetwosettlementsatthebeginningofthethirdmillenniumBC(Childe1929,34–35;Renfrew1976,42–52).Thiswasoneofthecornerstonesofhishistoricalmodelof‘exorientelux—fromtheeastthelight’,wherebyethnicgroupsoriginatingintheNearEastcrossedtheAegeanandpenetratedtheVardarandMoravarivervalleysbeforereachingtheDanuberegion(Childe1939;1950,36–57).IntheGermanliterature,FritzSchachermeyr(1953)popularizedthesameideaas‘vorderasiatischeKulturtrift—NearEasterncultureflow’.
Duringthefirsthalfofthe20thcentury,researcherslinkedsouth-eastEuropeanmoundstothispopulationmovement,whichsupposedlytookplaceinseveralwavesandresultedinthecolonizationofThrace,Macedonia,andtheLowerDanuberegion(Gaul1948,49–79;Childe1950,41–42,51–53).
TellsinSouth-eastEuropeandtheirLocalStratigraphicSequences
Tellresearchfollowedthedevelopmentofdifferentnationalarchaeologies.InGreece,Sesklohaslongservedasareferencepointforstudiesofsettlementstructureandrelativechronology(Tsountas1908;Theocharis1973,68;Kotsakis2006).Excavationsduringthe1950srevealedstratigraphicsequencesatthemagulaofArgissa,Otzaki,
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Arapi,AgiaSofia,andPevkakia,whichtogethercreatedacoherentdiachronicsystemforrefiningregionalNeolithicchronologies(Milojčić1960).InBulgaria,chronologicalphasesIthroughVIatKaranovohaveframedthestandardchronologyfortheNeolithicandCopperAge(Georgiev1961;Vajsová1966,5–8;Todorova1981;HillerandNikolov2000),whilestratigraphiesatVidra,Gumelniţa,Sǎlcuţa,andHârsova—tonamebutafew—becamethechronologicalstandardinRomania(Berciu1961,82–86,158–166;Comşa1974,32–33;Mantu2000;Gogâltan2003).Tells,especiallythoseatHódmezővásárhely-Gorzsa,Öcsöd-Kováshalom,andBerettyóújfalu-Herpály,alsohelpedestablishrelativechronologiesfortheGreatHungarianPlain(seereferencesinTálasandRaczky1987).
Theseexamplesillustratehowtellstratigraphiesinsouth-eastEuropebecamealmostexclusiveyardsticksforreconstructingNeolithicdevelopment.Synthesesandinterregionalcomparisonswereattemptedusingparallelphenomenaandthepresenceof‘import–export’artefacts(Treuil1983,13–114).Consequently,thesouth-eastEuropeanNeolithicwassummarizedinunifiedchronologicaltablespresentingalatosensuculturalsysteminaclearlyvisualizedformat(e.g.Ehrich1992;Parzinger1993,Beilage1–5;Todorova1998,Tables1–3;Bailey2000,Fig.1.3).
Withtheradiocarbonrevolution,settlementsalongtheinterfacebetweentheAegeanandtheBalkansgainedpivotalsignificance.Bythe1970s,thestratigraphicsequenceattheSitagroitellineastMacedoniahadshownthatlocalearlyBronzeAgetypefindssimilartomaterialfromTroyweredepositedinlayersabovestrataoftheVinča-GumelniţacultureintheBalkans(Renfrew1970,295–308):thisprovidedevidencethattheVinča-GumelniţaculturalcomplexwasolderthanthatfromTroy,lendingcredibilitytopreviouslycontestedradiocarbondateswhich,contradictingChilde’sideas,hadplacedthebeginningoftheVinčatell2300yearsbeforetheemergenceofurbandevelopmentatTroyataround3000BC.Evidently,theVinčasettlementwasnotestablishedbyemigrantsfromTroy,whohencedidnotcolonizetheBalkans(Renfrew1976,101–109).
TheRepresentativeValuesofTellsandHorizontal/extendedSettlements
Increasingly,then,tellsbecameaprimarysourceofinformationforsettlementhistory.Indeed,comparedwithtells,horizontal/extendedsettlementsandcavesites(similarlynumerousintheregion)wereoftenunderrepresentedorneglectedinlargethematicsummaries.Telldistributionsincertainregionsoftenmeantthatanentireculturewasconsidereda‘moundculture’(cf.theBulgarianMoundCulture;Gaul1948,79–207).
Untilthe1990s,thisresearchbiashinderedthedevelopmentofabalancedviewoftellsandhorizontalsettlementsacrosssouth-eastEurope.Yet,manytellswereconnectedtoadjacenthorizontalsettlementsforminganorganicunitwiththemound(Bailey1999;2000,174–177).AtSesklo,forinstance,Theocharisreconstructedalarge(almost10ha)horizontalsettlementaroundthetell,fortifiedbyastonewall.Herecognizedthatthetellanditsexternalhorizontalsettlementprobablyrepresentedacomplex,acropolis–polissettlementstructure(Theocharis1973,68,Fig.178)inwhichtheacropolishadaspecialfunctionrelativetotheoutersettlement,thesceneofdailylife(Kotsakis1999,69;2006,209–218).Thisshowedthatprevioustell-centredsettlementhistoriesforsouth-eastEuropehadledtothegeneralizationofspecialphenomenaerroneouslyseenas‘representative’onabroadscale(e.g.Todorova1982).
Followingthesedevelopments,andfosteredbyplannedexcavations,largeandsmallhorizontalsettlementswereobservedinassociationwithtellsfromvariousNeolithicandCopperAgeperiods.AtPodgoritsainnorthernBulgaria,theassociationbetweenthetellandexternal‘non-tell’featurescouldbedemonstratedasageneralsouth-eastEuropeanphenomenon(Bailey1999;2000,175,Fig.5.8).Recently,geophysicalsurveysandlarge-scaleexcavationshaverevealednumerousexamplesshowingthis‘symbiosis’betweentellandhorizontal/extendedsettlements,includingPaliambelainGreece(Kontogiorgos2010),PietreleandUivarinRomania(Hansenetal.2006,4–8,Abb.5–7;Schier2009,222–224),OkolişteinBosnia(Mülleretal.2011),andÖcsöd-Kováshalom,Berettyóújfalu-Herpály,Polgár-BosnyákdombandPolgár-CsőszhalominHungary(RaczkyandAnders2008;2010).
Actually,Chapmanhadalreadyoutlinedtheimportanceofexternalspacesforearlyfoodproduction.Tellsweredenselycoveredbyhouses,andwithintheirlimitedspacesitwouldhavebeenimpossibletocultivateplantsandkeepanimalstofeedthepopulation.Consequently,mostsubsistenceactivitiesmusthavetakenplaceinthewiderenvironment(Chapman1989,34–39).Moreover,externalspaceshadtobesharedfollowingprinciplesofthestructuredcommunaleconomyvalidinsidethetelltopermitsustainable,long-termsedentaryagriculture.
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AccordingtoHodder(1990,83–87),thehouse-centricworldoftellscorrespondstothedomestic,domus,surroundedbythewild(agrios).ThesetwospatialspheresrepresentedacomplementarydualisticrelationshipthroughouttheNeolithic.
ThereisadiversityofphysicalrelationshipsbetweentellsandcontemporaneoushorizontalsettlementsacrossNeolithicsouth-eastEurope(Chapman1981;1997a;Kotsakis1999;2006;Bailey2000,174–177;Halstead2005),withstratifiedmoundsforminganincreasinglycomplexsettlementstructureimpactingonhorizontalsitesadjacenttothetellandbeyond(Chapman1998,113–118;2010;Halstead1999;RaczkyandAnders2008;2010).AlongtheedgeoftheBalkantelldistributionarea,Makkay(1982,104–164)andSherratt(1982)identifiedsuchacomplexsystem,consistingofatellanditsnumeroussmall,horizontalsatellitesettlements,intheTiszacultureofthesouthernGreatHungarianPlain(seealsoParkinson2006,139–143).InthenorthernGreatHungarianPlain,onlyhorizontalTiszaculturesettlementsareknown,illustratinghowdualisticsettlementcharacteristicsvarybetweengeographicalzoneswithinthisculture(KaliczandRaczky1987,14–19;Makkay1991;Raczky1995).
CulturalPatternsc.6700/6500–5500BC
Clicktoviewlarger
Figure1 .ThegeographicaldistributionofNeolithictellsettlementsinsouth-eastEuropebetween6700/6500and4600/4500BC.Solidline:firstphaseoftelldistribution,6000BC;dashedline:secondphaseoftelldistribution,5500BC;dashedanddottedline:thirdphaseoftelldistribution,5100/5000BC;dashedanddoubledottedline:fourthphaseoftelldistribution,4600/4500BC.
Selectedlistofstratified(tellandtell-like)settlementsandhorizontalsitesinsouth-eastEurope.1Achilleion,2Anza,3Argissa,4Ariuşd,5Bapska,6Berettyóújfalu-Herpály,7Bernadea,8Bolgrad,9Cašciorale,10Čavdar,11Čoka,12CrnokalačkaBara,13Dimini,14Dolnoslav,15Drama,16Durankulak,17Elateia,18Ezero,19Fajsz-Garadomb,20Gǎlǎbnik,21GoljanoDelčevo,22Gomolava,23GornjaTuzla,24Gumelniţa,25Hârşova,26Hódmezővásárhely-Gorzsa,27Hódmezővásárhely-Kökénydomb,28Karanovo,29Korintosz,30Kovačevo,31Kremikovci,32LepenskiVir,33Lerna,34NeaMakri,35NeaNikomedea,36ObreI,37Okolište,38Otok,39Otzaki,40Ovčarovo,41Öcsöd-Kováshalom,42Padina,43Parţa,44Pavlovac,45Pepelane,46Pietrele,47Podgorica,48Poduri,49Polgár-Csőszhalom,50Poljanica,51Porodin,52Prodromos,53Rakitovo,54Rast,55Ruse,56Sava,57Sǎlcuţa,58Servia,59Sesklo,60Sitagroi,61Slatina,62StaraZagora,63Suceveni,64Szegvár-Tűzköves,65Tǎrtǎria,66Teliš,67TellAzmak,68TumbaMadjari,69Uivar,70Vadaštra,71Varna,72Varoš,73Vésztő-Mágor,74Vidra,75Vinča,76Vinica,77Vlasac,78Vršnik.
Between6700/6500and6000BC,thefirstlong-termsettlementsinthesouth-eastEuropeanNeolithicwerebuiltinGreece,Macedonia,Kosovo,andBulgaria.TheymirroredcontemporarysitesinAnatolia,includingtells(Whittle1996,37–59;Chapman1997a;Tringham2000a,19–26;Bailey2000,39–55;Rosenstock2005,225–233;2009,102–106;Perlès2005;Guilaine2007).Thebest-knownearlytellsareArgissaMagoula,OtzakiMagoula,Prodromos,Achilleion,Anzabegovo,Vršnik,VeluskaTumba,TumbaMadjari,Rudnik,Karanovo,TellAzmak,Čavdar,Rakitovo,
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Slatino,andKovačevo(Fig.1).Tellsclusterinthealluvialareasofmajorrivervalleys,andavoidlessfavourableenvironmentsinbetween.Forexample,severaltellsareknownfromtheLarissaBasinineasternThessalyandalongtheMaritsaandTundjariversandtheirtributariesinBulgaria(vanAndelandRunnels1995;Perlès2001;125–131;Nikolov2002,Abb.2).Horizontalsettlementsofvariouslevelsofintegration(fromhouseholdthroughhamlettovillage,indynamicinteraction)canoccurnearthesetells(Chapman2008).NeolithicvillagesappearedwithanexplosiveintensityintheCarpathianBasinaround6000BC,possiblythroughtheendemicdiffusionoftheNearEastern‘Neolithicpackage’alongthegreatrivervalleys(Tringham2000a,19–33,Fig.2.3;Biagietal.2005;Davisonetal.2006;Bocquet-Appeletal.2009).However,therewereinitiallynotellsnorthofthecentralBalkans,whereamoremobilewayoflifewasservedbylesspermanent,horizontalsettlements.Housesbuiltatadistancefromeachotherenabledhorticultural,small-scalehousehold-levelcultivationintheimmediateproximityofbuildingsandpermittedanimalkeepingnearby.
Duringthisinitial,expansiveformofsubsistencestrategy,timewasconceivedofinbothhorizontalandlinearways,respectivelyreflectedinpatternsofdispersedsettlementnetworksanddiffusevillageplansinsouth-easternEurope.Thesesettlementformsfacilitatedmobilityonamicro(household)andmacro(community)scale.Variabilitywithinthehouse–hamlet–villagesystem(Chapman2008)offeredaspectrumofadaptativepossibilitiesanddifferentmobilitylevelsunderdivergentenvironmentalconditions.Onemayalsopresumesubsistenceformsrelyingondifferentandcomplementarydegreesandtypesofmobility(Halstead2005,45–49).AsintheNearEast,thebasisofthissystemwasthehouseholdunit,definedbyitsphysical,economic,social,andideologicalintegrity(Flannery1972;2002;Tringham2000b;Steadman2000,167–174;Borić2008;Souvatzi2008).
Followingthisexpansive‘settlingin’,tellsemergedinthesouthernBalkansduringaresidentialconsolidationphasewithinthecontextoftheProtosesklo–KaranovoI–Kremikovci–Anzabegovo–Vršnikculturalcomplex(Runnels2003,127–129;Tringham2000b,116–120).Tellsrepresentedanewattitudetowardsbuiltspaceandtime,stressingtheverticaldimension.Theseartificiallyerectedcommunalstructures,ofteninstrategicallyimportantpositions,accentuateddistinguishedgeographicalloci,therebyconstruingtheexternal,physicalwebforthecommonmentalityofcommunities,uponwhichcohesionwithinthecontrolledregioncouldbebased(Chapman1997b;Gheorghiu2008,87–88).Eachtellformedahorizontallydefined,tightlyaggregatedsystemofhouses.Theirproximitytoeachotherexpressesanewformofself-definition,aspecialhabitusonacommunitylevelorlevels,beyondthehousehold.Thetimedepthofneighbouringhouseplots,whichaddedauthorityandvalue,isexpressedbytheappreciationofearlierbuildings,reconstructedonthesamespot(Hodder1998;Borić2008).UsingSherratt’s(1997,22)term,tellsare‘habitationmonuments’.Speciallyarrangedbuildingswithuncommonfunctionsoffertheclearestevidenceforactionatacommunallevel,forinstancethe9by9mbuildingfromTumbaMadjaritellnearSkopje,whichyieldedanartefactualassemblageindicativeofacommunal–ritualplace(Sanev1988).Similarbuildings,forexampleatNeaNikomedeiainGreeceandRakitovoinBulgaria(Pyke1996,32,48–49;Matsanova2003),indicatethatthiswasageneraldevelopmentintheBalkansatthetime.
Therelatively(?)mobileandadaptive‘housesociety’oftheearlyNeolithicthusbecameintegratedintotheframeworkofthe‘tellsociety’characterizedbysedentismandacertainperceptionoftime-depth.Therefore,adualityinattitudestospaceandtimemaybereconstructedfor,respectively,horizontalandtellsettlements,adualityalreadypresentinthe‘Neolithicpackage’offood-producingeconomies(Sherratt1997,22;2005,143).Itispossiblethatthetell/non-telldichotomyisalsoreflectedatthelevelofbuildings,respectivelyconstructedasabove-groundwattleanddaubhousesonthemoundsandlesspermanent,semi-subterraneandwellingsinhorizontalsettlements(LichardusandLichardus-Itten2004).
TheexpansionofearlyfoodproductionintheBalkanswasmediatedbytheStarčevocultureanditscommunities,whoencounteredspecializedforagersofthelocalMesolithicLepenskiVircultureintheIronGatesGorgeoftheDanube.Theircharacteristictrapezoidalhousesandanthropo/ichthyomorphicstonesculptureswerediscoveredattheriverbanksitesof,amongothers,LepenskiVir,Padina,andVlasac.Theyreflectspecificculturalresponsestoandrelationsbetweenhumansandtheirparticularmicroregionalenvironmentbetween9500and5500BCwithinaclosedecologicalzone(cf.Borić2008).TherewereinteractionsbetweenthethinlyspreadlocalMesolithicpopulationsandimmigrant,sedentaryfood-producingcommunities,buttheLepenskiVirsettlementtraditioneventuallydissolvedwithouttraceintotheearlyNeolithicStarčevoculture,withoutinfluencingsubsequentculturaldevelopment(Tringham2000b,33–55;KaczanowskaandKozłowski2003,228–231).
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CulturalPatternsc.5500–4600BC
Between5500and5100/5000BCaclearnorth–north-westexpansionoftellsettlementstookplacethroughouttheBalkans.MoundsbeganoccurringalongtheBosna,Sava,Drava,andMarosrivers,beyondtheLowerDanubeandintoTransylvania(Fig.1).ThisisfirstapparentfortheDimini–Vinča–Kakanj–KaranovoIII–IVcultures.LifeatVinčaalsobeganatthistime(Chapman1981,6–32;1998).Atenclosedtells,houseswerearrangedinastrictorder,oftenseparatedbyverynarrowalleys,makingitdifficulttoaccesshousesatthecentreofthesite(Chapman1990).Thisofferedanopportunitytomarkthedistinguishedpositionofcertainhouseholds.Meanwhile,theincreasingconcentrationofhouseslimitedthespaceinwhichindividualandcommunalsocialinterestscouldbeplayedout,perhapsresultinginanincreasingappreciationoflivingoutsidethetellandintheexpressionofprestigeandstatusinanewarenaoutsidethetell.Thistendencymayexplainthecreationofcommunalcemeteries,newplacesfornegotiatingindividualandgroupinterests(seeBorić,thisvolume).Mosttellswereenclosedbyacombinationofditches,earthworks,andwalls.Some,forinstanceParţainRomania(Lazarovicietal.2001),havebuildingsdedicatedtospecialcommunalfunctions,indicatedbyatypicalartefactualassemblages.TheVinčaculturesystemoftellsandnumeroushorizontalsettlementscontinuedthetraditionofcommunalmentalityasitdevelopedinthesouthernBalkans.Thebroadgeographicalnetworkofstabilizingfood-producingeconomiesandincreasingsocialcomplexitywerethelikelydrivingforces.
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Figure2 .ThetellsettlementofBerettyóújfalu-Herpálywithexcavationtrenchesfrom1977to1982.
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Figure3 .ThetellsettlementofBerettyóújfalu-Herpály.Detailofanorth–southsectionshowingthestratigraphicsequence.
Byapproximately5100/5000BC,thenorthwardspreadofsettlementmoundsreachedthesouthernGreatHungarianPlain(Fig.1),wheretheTiszaandHerpálycultures(Figs2and3and)includetell,tell-like(e.g.Tisza:Hódmezővásárhely-Kökénydomb,Hódmezővásárhely-Gorzsa,Vésztő-Mágor,Szegvár-Tűzköves,Öcsöd-Kováshalom;Herpály:Berettyóújfalu-Herpály)andhorizontalsettlements(cf.TálasandRaczky1987;Link2006).ThePolgár-Csőszhalomtellandits34–35haexternalhorizontalsettlementarelocatedsome100kmnorthofthemainblockofTiszaandHerpálytells(RaczkyandAnders2008).ItsextremesizemakesthissiteaspecialphenomenoninthelateNeolithicoftheregion.A3.5hatellissurroundedbyamultipleenclosureandpalisadesystem,usuallyknownfromsettlementsinhillyTransdanubia(westernHungary)andthecentralEuropeanLengyelculture(Trnka2005;seePetrasch,thisvolume).Thesiteislocatedatthemeetingpointoftwomajorculturalregionsandmayrepresentasymbolicsynthesis.Activitieswithinthetelldifferedfromthosedictatedbydailylifeinthehorizontalsettlement.Mostlikely,thetellanditsexternalsettlementreflectdifferentattitudestowardsspaceandtime(RaczkyandAnders2008,39–49;2010).Sherratt’sconclusionthatthismoundwasan‘ersatzTell’seemscorrect:Polgár-Csőszhalomfunctionedasacontinuouslyconstructedcommunalmonument,ratherthananordinaryhabitationmound(Sherratt2005,142–143).
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Newformsofspatialpatterning,suchasorthogonalstreetlayoutswithverynarrowalleys,emergedwithinsouthernBalkantells,amongthelaterDimini–KaranovoIV–V–Boian–Maritsa–Poljanica–Sava–Vinča-Pločnik–Sopot–Butmircultures(e.g.Ovčarovo,GoljamoDelčevo,Poljanitza,Sava:Todorova1982).Theproductionofclayhousemodels(tectomorphs)wasinterpretedasatokenofcontinuitybetweensubsequenthouseholdunitsandanactivecomponentofmaintainingsocialstabilitythroughtime(Bailey1990).AtOvčarovohouse7(layerIX),aspecialassemblageofclayfigurinesandahousemodelindicatessymbolic/sacralactivitiesonacommunitylevel(Todorova1982,67–67,135–136;Trenner2010).Housesintellcommunitieswerethusnotsimpledwellingsbutbecamesymbolsforhouseholdunits(Tringham2000b;Souvatzi2008).WithinlateNeolithictellcommunities,socialinteractionswererealizedonthelevelofhouseholdclusters.Theperiodicalhorizontalandverticalredefinitionofhousesimpliestheredefinitionand/orreinforcementofcommunitystructureinamoreabstract,socialspace.Astrongideologicalmotivationmaythereforealsoliebehindthecyclicalandapparentlyintentionalburningofhousesattellsites,anactivityalwaysfollowedbyrebuilding(Tringham2005).
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Figure4 .ThetellsettlementofBerettyóújfalu-Herpály.ReconstructionofHouse11,atwo-storeybuilding,withtheobjectsfoundwithin.
Thephysicallimitationoftells,however,alsodefinedtightsocialspacesforhouseholdunitswithinacommunity,eventuallyleadingtotheerectionofmulti-storiedbuildingsonsometells(Fig.4).Theyemphasizedthesignificanceofcertainhouseholdsinyetanotherverticaldimension(Hiller2001),illustratingincreasingsocialtensionwithinaggregatedhouseholdclusters.
LateTellsandTellsinDecline:c.4600/4500–4000/3700BC
OccupationattellsintheGreatHungarianPlain,thenorthernperipheryoftelldistribution,lastedabout500years,endingabruptlyaround4600/4500BC.ThesubsequentTiszapolgárcultureischaracterizedbyadispersedsettlementpatternintheareabetweentheMarosandKörösrivers(Parkinson2006).ThecomplexenclosuresatthePolgártellwerefilledinduringasinglemajorcommunalaction,markingthesymbolicendofthelocalcommunitybeforethetellwasabandoned.Similarly,therewasabreakinthesouthernregionofearlytellformation,includingThessalyandMacedonia,atseverallateNeolithictells(Alram-Stern1996,90–101;Todorova1998).Atthesametime,tell-formingcommunitiescontinuedinthecentralBalkanKodžadermen–Gumelniţa–KaranovoVI(KGK)–Varna,Vinča-Pločnik,andKrivodol-Sǎlcuţacultures(Todorova1995;HansenandToderaş2010).TherewasalsoanexpansionoftheBalkanicwayoflifeintoMoldova,withsporadicstratifiedsettlementssupportingamoresedentaryEneolithiceconomy(Chapman2010).
InthecentralBalkans,tellplansshowthetightarrangementtypicalofthepreviousperiod.AtDurankulak,Hamangiaculturelayerswerecoveredbyoblongmegaron-typehousesonstonefoundationsbetweenlayersVIandIII.Theexcavatorsreconstructedanumberofsanctuariesandacentral‘palace’,thelatterdatedtophaseIIIoftheVarnaculture(Todorova2002).Thisdiversityofbuildingsmust,tosomeextent,reflectunderlyingeconomic,social,andideologicaldifferences.However,gravegoodsfromtheassociatedcemeteryshowthatsocialdifferenceswereprimarilyexpressedinburials,anewarenafordisplayingprestigeandsocialstatus(Renfrew1986;Chapman1991;Slavchev2010).Whilesomecemeteriesareassociatedwithtells,thelargeVarnaburialgroundcouldnotbeconnectedtoany(Lichardus1991).Possiblythiscemetery,withitsunusualquantitiesofhigh-prestigecopper,gold,andSpondylusshellobjects,wasusedbyhigh-statusindividualsfromseveralcommunities,withoutstandinglyrichgravesamidstgroupsofmoremodestburials.TheVarnacemeterythusrepresentsanew,
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externalspacecontrastingwithindividualtellsandtheircommunities(Renfrew2003,142–143;Highametal.2006).Inthiscontext,theappreciationofspecialindividualsandtheircommunitiesisrealizedthroughnewartefacttypes,materialrepresentationsofanewsystemofvalues(Manolakakis2007)andnewnetworksofprocurementwellbeyondtheearliersmall,regionalscale(Strahm2007;Hansen2009;Chapman,thisvolume).
Meanwhile,inthecoreareaoftheBalkans,earliersocialcustomsweremaintainedwithinanaltogethermorepeacefuldevelopment,forinstanceatPietreleinRomania(cf.Hansenetal.2007).GumelniţaculturetellsdisplayaprosperitysimilartosettlementmoundsintheVedeaandTeleormanrivervalleys(AndreescuandMirea2008).
Around4000BC,tellculturesendedrelativelyrapidlyinalmosttheentireareaoftheBalkans.Somespecialsettlementmoundsremainedinuseuntilc.3700BC,includingGalatininnorth-westBulgaria,whereahousewithstonefoundationsisindicativeofcontinuedhabitation.Thedeclineandultimatedisappearanceoftell-formingculturesinsouth-eastEuropeproceededfromthelowerDanuberegiontowardDobrudja,Muntenia,andnorth-eastBulgaria.Thesuddendisruptionhasbeenexplainedbyacombinationofexternalcircumstances,includingthewestwardexpansionoftheKurganculturefromthesteppesandclimaticchange(Gimbutas1979;Todorova1998).Recently,scholarshavesoughtabetterunderstandingofacomplexsystemofexternalandinternalfactorsthatwouldexplaintheall-encompassinghistoricalchangeoverbothsouth-eastEuropeandwesternAnatolia(Parzinger1998;Nikolova2003;Hansen2009;Anthony2010).
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