Download - 2015_Raczky, P.: Settlement in South-east Europe. In: Fowler, C. - Harding, J. - Hofmann, D.: The Oxford Handbook of Neolithic Europe

Settlement in South-east Europe

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PRINTED FROM OXFORD HANDBOOKS ONLINE (www.oxfordhandbooks.com). (c) Oxford University Press, 2014. All RightsReserved. Under the terms of the l icence agreement, an individual user may print out a PDF of a single chapter of a title in OxfordHandbooks Online for personal use (for details see Privacy Policy).Subscriber: Oxford University Press - Master Gratis Access; date: 01 September 2014

Subject: Archaeology,ArchaeologyofEuropeOnlinePublicationDate: Aug2014

DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199545841.013.072

SettlementinSouth-eastEuropePálRaczkyTheOxfordHandbookofNeolithicEurope(Forthcoming)EditedbyChrisFowler,JanHarding,andDanielaHofmann

OxfordHandbooksOnline

AbstractandKeywords

Thiscontributiontracesthedevelopmentoftells,orsettlementmounds,insouth-eastEurope.Owingtotheirsurvivingheight,thesehabitationmonumentsbecamethefociofregionalresearchtraditions,butmorerecentlythebalancehasshiftedtoincludehorizontalor‘flat’sites.Thishasallowedtointegratetellsintotheirsocialcontext,tosystematicallyinvestigateoff-tellactivity,thedifferentnotionsoftimeandcommunityplayedoutinbothtypesofsettlement,andtherelationstootherkindsofsite,suchascemeteries.ThischapteroffersachronologicaloverviewfromtheearliesttellsinthesouthernBalkansinthemidseventhmillennium,whenhouseholdsengagedinavarietyofmobilitystrategies,totheirexpansionnorth-westwardsintotheHungarianPlain,duringwhichthesignificanceoftellsalsoaltered.Whiletellscontinuetobebuiltuntilaround3700BC,theincreasingsocialstratificationmaybeafactorintheirultimatelyrapidabandonment.

Keywords:tell, horizontalsettlement,Balkans,Neolithic,CopperAge,time,habitationmonument,status

Introduction:TellandNon-tellSettlements

Neolithicopen-airsettlementsinsouth-eastEuropefallintotwogroups.Oneconsistsofasingle,usuallyhorizontallayer,theothercomprisessuperimposedremainsfromseveralhabitationlayers.WhilehorizontalsettlementsoccurthroughoutEurope,thedistributionof‘settlementmounds’risingabovethenaturalsurfaceofthelandscapeislimitedtotheNearEast,theBalkans,andthesouth-easternpartoftheCarpathianBasin(Childe1950,38-9;WaceandThompson1912;Gimbutas1974,19–25,29–33;KaliczandRaczky1987,14–19;Chapman1989;1997a,158–162;Raczky1995;Whittle1996,chapters3–5;Bailey2000,156–177;Steadman2000;Gogâltan2003;Link2006,7–14;Rosenstock2005;2006;2009;RaczkyandAnders2008,35–37;Andersetal.2010).

ThenorthernmostNeolithicsettlementmoundisthetellofPolgár-Csőszhalom(Hungary),locatedbythenorthernreachesoftheTiszariver,veryclosetothefamousobsidiansourcesnearTokaj(seereferencesinRaczkyandAnders2008).ArtificialsettlementmoundsinEuropearebetween2.5and10mhigh,theircounterpartsinsouth-westAsia5–50m.Tellsmaybeofconicalorflattishshape,withhorizontalextentsvaryingbetween0.1to10ha,butreachingupto20haintheNearEast(Chapman1989,36–38,Fig.2;Rosenstock2005,222–224,Fig.1a–b;Menzeetal.2006,322,325,Fig.10–11).

Dependingonlocallanguages,theseoftenattractivelandscapefeaturesarecalled‘tell’,‘hüyük’,‘tepe’,‘magoula’,‘tumba’,‘mogila’,‘mǎgura’,‘település-halom–lakódomb’or‘Siedlungshügel–Wohnhügel’(Chapman1997a;Rosenstock2005;2006).Theterm‘tell’(mound)wasfirstusedinaEuropeancontextbyFerencTompa(1937,47)forsettlementsoftheTiszacultureontheGreatHungarianPlainandhassincebecomegenerallyacceptedinthearchaeologicalliterature(Gogâltan2003,222–223).Insouth-eastEurope,tell-likesettlementsmaybeatleast1to2.5mthick,andpossessatleasttwosuperposedhabitationlayers.Single-layer,horizontalsettlementsareusuallycharacterizedbyadepositonly25–50cmthick,althoughsomehavefillsupto1mthick


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(KaliczandRaczky1987,14–16;Link2006,10–14;Gogâltan2003,223–224).

Dependingonlocalresearchtraditions,differentformsofphasingandterminology(Neolithic,Eneolithic,etc.)areusedforthefirsttell-buildingculturesinsouth-eastEurope.Inabsoluteterms,thebeginningsoftellsitesdatetoaround6700/6500BC,andtheirendtoapproximately4000/3700BC.Tellsthusexistedoverc.2500–3000yearsduringaperiodwhenfood-producingeconomiesemergedoverawideareabetweenGreeceandHungary.

ThePhysicalandSocialConditionsoftheFirstTells

Tellsettlementsmainlyconsistofstratifieddebrisfromclayhouses,constructedusingvarioustechniques(pisé,mudbrick,wattle-and-daub,etc.;Aurenche1981,42–72;Naumann1971,43–51;Stevanović1997,341–345;Rosenstock2005,228–233;Piesbergen2007,20–32).Thesestructuresfrequentlyburntdown,butweresystematicallyreconstructedonthesamespot.Constructiondepositswerethuscreatedbyintentionallevelling,alongsidethedailyaccumulationofrefuse.Settlementmoundshencerepresentlong-term,plannedactivity.Inadditiontonaturalerosion,thereisalsoevidenceofconsciouslandscapingthroughthesystematicremovalofrubbleandtheremainsofearlierhouses.Physically,theresultingtell‘body’wascreatedthroughacomplexcreativeprocessincludingbroad-basedcommunaleffortandresultinginaregionallysignificanttopographicmonument.Themounditselfmayhencebeseenasthematerialmanifestationofacommunity,itscoordinatedactivityandcommunallife(Evans2005).Theapparentlyundisturbed2500yearsoftelldevelopmentinsouth-eastEuropesuggestlong-termeconomicandsocialstability,whichpartlyinspiredGimbutas’(1974,17–19)ideaofacollectiveidentitylabelledthe‘CivilizationofOldEurope’,presumingtheevolutionofanurban-typesystemofinstitutions.

Evidently,thesystematicactivityoftellcreationhadafeedbackeffectonthosewhobuiltthesesitesand,overthelongrun,contributedtothecohesionofcommunitiesandtheirinseparable,complexsystemofeconomic,social,sacral,andsymbolicnorms(Chapman1997a;Kotsakis1999;Bailey1999;Tringham2000b;Evans2005;Gheorghiu2008).

EarlyResearchHistoryofTellsinEurope

TellsinEuropehavelongfuelledtheimaginationofmodernvillagersandtreasurehunters,whiletheirsequenceofsuperimposedstrataofferedrelativechronologiesforartefactualassemblages.Unsurprisingly,thefirstmore-or-lessscholarlyexcavationsinEuropealsotargetedthesemounds.OnetellofkeyimportancewasinvestigatedbyVasić(1932–1936)nearVinčainSerbiabetween1908and1934.Hefoundperiodicallyrenewedadobehousesbuiltonwoodenframes,plasteredopen-airfireplaces,andrefusefromNeolithicdailylife,downtoadepthof9.5m.

ThefindsfromitssuperimposedlayersmadetheVinčatellayardstickfortheBalkanNeolithicand,tosomeextent,CopperAgeculturaldevelopment.ItsphaseshavebeenalternativelylabelledVinčaI(Tordos)andVinčaII(Pločnik),orAtoD(Chapman1981;Schier1997).GordonChildecomparedthissitetothetellofTroyinwesternAnatolia,and—onthebasisofitsfinds—hypothesizedacultural/chronologicalconnectionbetweenthetwosettlementsatthebeginningofthethirdmillenniumBC(Childe1929,34–35;Renfrew1976,42–52).Thiswasoneofthecornerstonesofhishistoricalmodelof‘exorientelux—fromtheeastthelight’,wherebyethnicgroupsoriginatingintheNearEastcrossedtheAegeanandpenetratedtheVardarandMoravarivervalleysbeforereachingtheDanuberegion(Childe1939;1950,36–57).IntheGermanliterature,FritzSchachermeyr(1953)popularizedthesameideaas‘vorderasiatischeKulturtrift—NearEasterncultureflow’.

Duringthefirsthalfofthe20thcentury,researcherslinkedsouth-eastEuropeanmoundstothispopulationmovement,whichsupposedlytookplaceinseveralwavesandresultedinthecolonizationofThrace,Macedonia,andtheLowerDanuberegion(Gaul1948,49–79;Childe1950,41–42,51–53).

TellsinSouth-eastEuropeandtheirLocalStratigraphicSequences

Tellresearchfollowedthedevelopmentofdifferentnationalarchaeologies.InGreece,Sesklohaslongservedasareferencepointforstudiesofsettlementstructureandrelativechronology(Tsountas1908;Theocharis1973,68;Kotsakis2006).Excavationsduringthe1950srevealedstratigraphicsequencesatthemagulaofArgissa,Otzaki,


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Arapi,AgiaSofia,andPevkakia,whichtogethercreatedacoherentdiachronicsystemforrefiningregionalNeolithicchronologies(Milojčić1960).InBulgaria,chronologicalphasesIthroughVIatKaranovohaveframedthestandardchronologyfortheNeolithicandCopperAge(Georgiev1961;Vajsová1966,5–8;Todorova1981;HillerandNikolov2000),whilestratigraphiesatVidra,Gumelniţa,Sǎlcuţa,andHârsova—tonamebutafew—becamethechronologicalstandardinRomania(Berciu1961,82–86,158–166;Comşa1974,32–33;Mantu2000;Gogâltan2003).Tells,especiallythoseatHódmezővásárhely-Gorzsa,Öcsöd-Kováshalom,andBerettyóújfalu-Herpály,alsohelpedestablishrelativechronologiesfortheGreatHungarianPlain(seereferencesinTálasandRaczky1987).

Theseexamplesillustratehowtellstratigraphiesinsouth-eastEuropebecamealmostexclusiveyardsticksforreconstructingNeolithicdevelopment.Synthesesandinterregionalcomparisonswereattemptedusingparallelphenomenaandthepresenceof‘import–export’artefacts(Treuil1983,13–114).Consequently,thesouth-eastEuropeanNeolithicwassummarizedinunifiedchronologicaltablespresentingalatosensuculturalsysteminaclearlyvisualizedformat(e.g.Ehrich1992;Parzinger1993,Beilage1–5;Todorova1998,Tables1–3;Bailey2000,Fig.1.3).

Withtheradiocarbonrevolution,settlementsalongtheinterfacebetweentheAegeanandtheBalkansgainedpivotalsignificance.Bythe1970s,thestratigraphicsequenceattheSitagroitellineastMacedoniahadshownthatlocalearlyBronzeAgetypefindssimilartomaterialfromTroyweredepositedinlayersabovestrataoftheVinča-GumelniţacultureintheBalkans(Renfrew1970,295–308):thisprovidedevidencethattheVinča-GumelniţaculturalcomplexwasolderthanthatfromTroy,lendingcredibilitytopreviouslycontestedradiocarbondateswhich,contradictingChilde’sideas,hadplacedthebeginningoftheVinčatell2300yearsbeforetheemergenceofurbandevelopmentatTroyataround3000BC.Evidently,theVinčasettlementwasnotestablishedbyemigrantsfromTroy,whohencedidnotcolonizetheBalkans(Renfrew1976,101–109).

TheRepresentativeValuesofTellsandHorizontal/extendedSettlements

Increasingly,then,tellsbecameaprimarysourceofinformationforsettlementhistory.Indeed,comparedwithtells,horizontal/extendedsettlementsandcavesites(similarlynumerousintheregion)wereoftenunderrepresentedorneglectedinlargethematicsummaries.Telldistributionsincertainregionsoftenmeantthatanentireculturewasconsidereda‘moundculture’(cf.theBulgarianMoundCulture;Gaul1948,79–207).

Untilthe1990s,thisresearchbiashinderedthedevelopmentofabalancedviewoftellsandhorizontalsettlementsacrosssouth-eastEurope.Yet,manytellswereconnectedtoadjacenthorizontalsettlementsforminganorganicunitwiththemound(Bailey1999;2000,174–177).AtSesklo,forinstance,Theocharisreconstructedalarge(almost10ha)horizontalsettlementaroundthetell,fortifiedbyastonewall.Herecognizedthatthetellanditsexternalhorizontalsettlementprobablyrepresentedacomplex,acropolis–polissettlementstructure(Theocharis1973,68,Fig.178)inwhichtheacropolishadaspecialfunctionrelativetotheoutersettlement,thesceneofdailylife(Kotsakis1999,69;2006,209–218).Thisshowedthatprevioustell-centredsettlementhistoriesforsouth-eastEuropehadledtothegeneralizationofspecialphenomenaerroneouslyseenas‘representative’onabroadscale(e.g.Todorova1982).

Followingthesedevelopments,andfosteredbyplannedexcavations,largeandsmallhorizontalsettlementswereobservedinassociationwithtellsfromvariousNeolithicandCopperAgeperiods.AtPodgoritsainnorthernBulgaria,theassociationbetweenthetellandexternal‘non-tell’featurescouldbedemonstratedasageneralsouth-eastEuropeanphenomenon(Bailey1999;2000,175,Fig.5.8).Recently,geophysicalsurveysandlarge-scaleexcavationshaverevealednumerousexamplesshowingthis‘symbiosis’betweentellandhorizontal/extendedsettlements,includingPaliambelainGreece(Kontogiorgos2010),PietreleandUivarinRomania(Hansenetal.2006,4–8,Abb.5–7;Schier2009,222–224),OkolişteinBosnia(Mülleretal.2011),andÖcsöd-Kováshalom,Berettyóújfalu-Herpály,Polgár-BosnyákdombandPolgár-CsőszhalominHungary(RaczkyandAnders2008;2010).

Actually,Chapmanhadalreadyoutlinedtheimportanceofexternalspacesforearlyfoodproduction.Tellsweredenselycoveredbyhouses,andwithintheirlimitedspacesitwouldhavebeenimpossibletocultivateplantsandkeepanimalstofeedthepopulation.Consequently,mostsubsistenceactivitiesmusthavetakenplaceinthewiderenvironment(Chapman1989,34–39).Moreover,externalspaceshadtobesharedfollowingprinciplesofthestructuredcommunaleconomyvalidinsidethetelltopermitsustainable,long-termsedentaryagriculture.


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AccordingtoHodder(1990,83–87),thehouse-centricworldoftellscorrespondstothedomestic,domus,surroundedbythewild(agrios).ThesetwospatialspheresrepresentedacomplementarydualisticrelationshipthroughouttheNeolithic.

ThereisadiversityofphysicalrelationshipsbetweentellsandcontemporaneoushorizontalsettlementsacrossNeolithicsouth-eastEurope(Chapman1981;1997a;Kotsakis1999;2006;Bailey2000,174–177;Halstead2005),withstratifiedmoundsforminganincreasinglycomplexsettlementstructureimpactingonhorizontalsitesadjacenttothetellandbeyond(Chapman1998,113–118;2010;Halstead1999;RaczkyandAnders2008;2010).AlongtheedgeoftheBalkantelldistributionarea,Makkay(1982,104–164)andSherratt(1982)identifiedsuchacomplexsystem,consistingofatellanditsnumeroussmall,horizontalsatellitesettlements,intheTiszacultureofthesouthernGreatHungarianPlain(seealsoParkinson2006,139–143).InthenorthernGreatHungarianPlain,onlyhorizontalTiszaculturesettlementsareknown,illustratinghowdualisticsettlementcharacteristicsvarybetweengeographicalzoneswithinthisculture(KaliczandRaczky1987,14–19;Makkay1991;Raczky1995).

CulturalPatternsc.6700/6500–5500BC

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Figure1 .ThegeographicaldistributionofNeolithictellsettlementsinsouth-eastEuropebetween6700/6500and4600/4500BC.Solidline:firstphaseoftelldistribution,6000BC;dashedline:secondphaseoftelldistribution,5500BC;dashedanddottedline:thirdphaseoftelldistribution,5100/5000BC;dashedanddoubledottedline:fourthphaseoftelldistribution,4600/4500BC.

Selectedlistofstratified(tellandtell-like)settlementsandhorizontalsitesinsouth-eastEurope.1Achilleion,2Anza,3Argissa,4Ariuşd,5Bapska,6Berettyóújfalu-Herpály,7Bernadea,8Bolgrad,9Cašciorale,10Čavdar,11Čoka,12CrnokalačkaBara,13Dimini,14Dolnoslav,15Drama,16Durankulak,17Elateia,18Ezero,19Fajsz-Garadomb,20Gǎlǎbnik,21GoljanoDelčevo,22Gomolava,23GornjaTuzla,24Gumelniţa,25Hârşova,26Hódmezővásárhely-Gorzsa,27Hódmezővásárhely-Kökénydomb,28Karanovo,29Korintosz,30Kovačevo,31Kremikovci,32LepenskiVir,33Lerna,34NeaMakri,35NeaNikomedea,36ObreI,37Okolište,38Otok,39Otzaki,40Ovčarovo,41Öcsöd-Kováshalom,42Padina,43Parţa,44Pavlovac,45Pepelane,46Pietrele,47Podgorica,48Poduri,49Polgár-Csőszhalom,50Poljanica,51Porodin,52Prodromos,53Rakitovo,54Rast,55Ruse,56Sava,57Sǎlcuţa,58Servia,59Sesklo,60Sitagroi,61Slatina,62StaraZagora,63Suceveni,64Szegvár-Tűzköves,65Tǎrtǎria,66Teliš,67TellAzmak,68TumbaMadjari,69Uivar,70Vadaštra,71Varna,72Varoš,73Vésztő-Mágor,74Vidra,75Vinča,76Vinica,77Vlasac,78Vršnik.

Between6700/6500and6000BC,thefirstlong-termsettlementsinthesouth-eastEuropeanNeolithicwerebuiltinGreece,Macedonia,Kosovo,andBulgaria.TheymirroredcontemporarysitesinAnatolia,includingtells(Whittle1996,37–59;Chapman1997a;Tringham2000a,19–26;Bailey2000,39–55;Rosenstock2005,225–233;2009,102–106;Perlès2005;Guilaine2007).Thebest-knownearlytellsareArgissaMagoula,OtzakiMagoula,Prodromos,Achilleion,Anzabegovo,Vršnik,VeluskaTumba,TumbaMadjari,Rudnik,Karanovo,TellAzmak,Čavdar,Rakitovo,


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Slatino,andKovačevo(Fig.1).Tellsclusterinthealluvialareasofmajorrivervalleys,andavoidlessfavourableenvironmentsinbetween.Forexample,severaltellsareknownfromtheLarissaBasinineasternThessalyandalongtheMaritsaandTundjariversandtheirtributariesinBulgaria(vanAndelandRunnels1995;Perlès2001;125–131;Nikolov2002,Abb.2).Horizontalsettlementsofvariouslevelsofintegration(fromhouseholdthroughhamlettovillage,indynamicinteraction)canoccurnearthesetells(Chapman2008).NeolithicvillagesappearedwithanexplosiveintensityintheCarpathianBasinaround6000BC,possiblythroughtheendemicdiffusionoftheNearEastern‘Neolithicpackage’alongthegreatrivervalleys(Tringham2000a,19–33,Fig.2.3;Biagietal.2005;Davisonetal.2006;Bocquet-Appeletal.2009).However,therewereinitiallynotellsnorthofthecentralBalkans,whereamoremobilewayoflifewasservedbylesspermanent,horizontalsettlements.Housesbuiltatadistancefromeachotherenabledhorticultural,small-scalehousehold-levelcultivationintheimmediateproximityofbuildingsandpermittedanimalkeepingnearby.

Duringthisinitial,expansiveformofsubsistencestrategy,timewasconceivedofinbothhorizontalandlinearways,respectivelyreflectedinpatternsofdispersedsettlementnetworksanddiffusevillageplansinsouth-easternEurope.Thesesettlementformsfacilitatedmobilityonamicro(household)andmacro(community)scale.Variabilitywithinthehouse–hamlet–villagesystem(Chapman2008)offeredaspectrumofadaptativepossibilitiesanddifferentmobilitylevelsunderdivergentenvironmentalconditions.Onemayalsopresumesubsistenceformsrelyingondifferentandcomplementarydegreesandtypesofmobility(Halstead2005,45–49).AsintheNearEast,thebasisofthissystemwasthehouseholdunit,definedbyitsphysical,economic,social,andideologicalintegrity(Flannery1972;2002;Tringham2000b;Steadman2000,167–174;Borić2008;Souvatzi2008).

Followingthisexpansive‘settlingin’,tellsemergedinthesouthernBalkansduringaresidentialconsolidationphasewithinthecontextoftheProtosesklo–KaranovoI–Kremikovci–Anzabegovo–Vršnikculturalcomplex(Runnels2003,127–129;Tringham2000b,116–120).Tellsrepresentedanewattitudetowardsbuiltspaceandtime,stressingtheverticaldimension.Theseartificiallyerectedcommunalstructures,ofteninstrategicallyimportantpositions,accentuateddistinguishedgeographicalloci,therebyconstruingtheexternal,physicalwebforthecommonmentalityofcommunities,uponwhichcohesionwithinthecontrolledregioncouldbebased(Chapman1997b;Gheorghiu2008,87–88).Eachtellformedahorizontallydefined,tightlyaggregatedsystemofhouses.Theirproximitytoeachotherexpressesanewformofself-definition,aspecialhabitusonacommunitylevelorlevels,beyondthehousehold.Thetimedepthofneighbouringhouseplots,whichaddedauthorityandvalue,isexpressedbytheappreciationofearlierbuildings,reconstructedonthesamespot(Hodder1998;Borić2008).UsingSherratt’s(1997,22)term,tellsare‘habitationmonuments’.Speciallyarrangedbuildingswithuncommonfunctionsoffertheclearestevidenceforactionatacommunallevel,forinstancethe9by9mbuildingfromTumbaMadjaritellnearSkopje,whichyieldedanartefactualassemblageindicativeofacommunal–ritualplace(Sanev1988).Similarbuildings,forexampleatNeaNikomedeiainGreeceandRakitovoinBulgaria(Pyke1996,32,48–49;Matsanova2003),indicatethatthiswasageneraldevelopmentintheBalkansatthetime.

Therelatively(?)mobileandadaptive‘housesociety’oftheearlyNeolithicthusbecameintegratedintotheframeworkofthe‘tellsociety’characterizedbysedentismandacertainperceptionoftime-depth.Therefore,adualityinattitudestospaceandtimemaybereconstructedfor,respectively,horizontalandtellsettlements,adualityalreadypresentinthe‘Neolithicpackage’offood-producingeconomies(Sherratt1997,22;2005,143).Itispossiblethatthetell/non-telldichotomyisalsoreflectedatthelevelofbuildings,respectivelyconstructedasabove-groundwattleanddaubhousesonthemoundsandlesspermanent,semi-subterraneandwellingsinhorizontalsettlements(LichardusandLichardus-Itten2004).

TheexpansionofearlyfoodproductionintheBalkanswasmediatedbytheStarčevocultureanditscommunities,whoencounteredspecializedforagersofthelocalMesolithicLepenskiVircultureintheIronGatesGorgeoftheDanube.Theircharacteristictrapezoidalhousesandanthropo/ichthyomorphicstonesculptureswerediscoveredattheriverbanksitesof,amongothers,LepenskiVir,Padina,andVlasac.Theyreflectspecificculturalresponsestoandrelationsbetweenhumansandtheirparticularmicroregionalenvironmentbetween9500and5500BCwithinaclosedecologicalzone(cf.Borić2008).TherewereinteractionsbetweenthethinlyspreadlocalMesolithicpopulationsandimmigrant,sedentaryfood-producingcommunities,buttheLepenskiVirsettlementtraditioneventuallydissolvedwithouttraceintotheearlyNeolithicStarčevoculture,withoutinfluencingsubsequentculturaldevelopment(Tringham2000b,33–55;KaczanowskaandKozłowski2003,228–231).


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CulturalPatternsc.5500–4600BC

Between5500and5100/5000BCaclearnorth–north-westexpansionoftellsettlementstookplacethroughouttheBalkans.MoundsbeganoccurringalongtheBosna,Sava,Drava,andMarosrivers,beyondtheLowerDanubeandintoTransylvania(Fig.1).ThisisfirstapparentfortheDimini–Vinča–Kakanj–KaranovoIII–IVcultures.LifeatVinčaalsobeganatthistime(Chapman1981,6–32;1998).Atenclosedtells,houseswerearrangedinastrictorder,oftenseparatedbyverynarrowalleys,makingitdifficulttoaccesshousesatthecentreofthesite(Chapman1990).Thisofferedanopportunitytomarkthedistinguishedpositionofcertainhouseholds.Meanwhile,theincreasingconcentrationofhouseslimitedthespaceinwhichindividualandcommunalsocialinterestscouldbeplayedout,perhapsresultinginanincreasingappreciationoflivingoutsidethetellandintheexpressionofprestigeandstatusinanewarenaoutsidethetell.Thistendencymayexplainthecreationofcommunalcemeteries,newplacesfornegotiatingindividualandgroupinterests(seeBorić,thisvolume).Mosttellswereenclosedbyacombinationofditches,earthworks,andwalls.Some,forinstanceParţainRomania(Lazarovicietal.2001),havebuildingsdedicatedtospecialcommunalfunctions,indicatedbyatypicalartefactualassemblages.TheVinčaculturesystemoftellsandnumeroushorizontalsettlementscontinuedthetraditionofcommunalmentalityasitdevelopedinthesouthernBalkans.Thebroadgeographicalnetworkofstabilizingfood-producingeconomiesandincreasingsocialcomplexitywerethelikelydrivingforces.

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Figure2 .ThetellsettlementofBerettyóújfalu-Herpálywithexcavationtrenchesfrom1977to1982.

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Figure3 .ThetellsettlementofBerettyóújfalu-Herpály.Detailofanorth–southsectionshowingthestratigraphicsequence.

Byapproximately5100/5000BC,thenorthwardspreadofsettlementmoundsreachedthesouthernGreatHungarianPlain(Fig.1),wheretheTiszaandHerpálycultures(Figs2and3and)includetell,tell-like(e.g.Tisza:Hódmezővásárhely-Kökénydomb,Hódmezővásárhely-Gorzsa,Vésztő-Mágor,Szegvár-Tűzköves,Öcsöd-Kováshalom;Herpály:Berettyóújfalu-Herpály)andhorizontalsettlements(cf.TálasandRaczky1987;Link2006).ThePolgár-Csőszhalomtellandits34–35haexternalhorizontalsettlementarelocatedsome100kmnorthofthemainblockofTiszaandHerpálytells(RaczkyandAnders2008).ItsextremesizemakesthissiteaspecialphenomenoninthelateNeolithicoftheregion.A3.5hatellissurroundedbyamultipleenclosureandpalisadesystem,usuallyknownfromsettlementsinhillyTransdanubia(westernHungary)andthecentralEuropeanLengyelculture(Trnka2005;seePetrasch,thisvolume).Thesiteislocatedatthemeetingpointoftwomajorculturalregionsandmayrepresentasymbolicsynthesis.Activitieswithinthetelldifferedfromthosedictatedbydailylifeinthehorizontalsettlement.Mostlikely,thetellanditsexternalsettlementreflectdifferentattitudestowardsspaceandtime(RaczkyandAnders2008,39–49;2010).Sherratt’sconclusionthatthismoundwasan‘ersatzTell’seemscorrect:Polgár-Csőszhalomfunctionedasacontinuouslyconstructedcommunalmonument,ratherthananordinaryhabitationmound(Sherratt2005,142–143).


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Newformsofspatialpatterning,suchasorthogonalstreetlayoutswithverynarrowalleys,emergedwithinsouthernBalkantells,amongthelaterDimini–KaranovoIV–V–Boian–Maritsa–Poljanica–Sava–Vinča-Pločnik–Sopot–Butmircultures(e.g.Ovčarovo,GoljamoDelčevo,Poljanitza,Sava:Todorova1982).Theproductionofclayhousemodels(tectomorphs)wasinterpretedasatokenofcontinuitybetweensubsequenthouseholdunitsandanactivecomponentofmaintainingsocialstabilitythroughtime(Bailey1990).AtOvčarovohouse7(layerIX),aspecialassemblageofclayfigurinesandahousemodelindicatessymbolic/sacralactivitiesonacommunitylevel(Todorova1982,67–67,135–136;Trenner2010).Housesintellcommunitieswerethusnotsimpledwellingsbutbecamesymbolsforhouseholdunits(Tringham2000b;Souvatzi2008).WithinlateNeolithictellcommunities,socialinteractionswererealizedonthelevelofhouseholdclusters.Theperiodicalhorizontalandverticalredefinitionofhousesimpliestheredefinitionand/orreinforcementofcommunitystructureinamoreabstract,socialspace.Astrongideologicalmotivationmaythereforealsoliebehindthecyclicalandapparentlyintentionalburningofhousesattellsites,anactivityalwaysfollowedbyrebuilding(Tringham2005).

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Figure4 .ThetellsettlementofBerettyóújfalu-Herpály.ReconstructionofHouse11,atwo-storeybuilding,withtheobjectsfoundwithin.

Thephysicallimitationoftells,however,alsodefinedtightsocialspacesforhouseholdunitswithinacommunity,eventuallyleadingtotheerectionofmulti-storiedbuildingsonsometells(Fig.4).Theyemphasizedthesignificanceofcertainhouseholdsinyetanotherverticaldimension(Hiller2001),illustratingincreasingsocialtensionwithinaggregatedhouseholdclusters.

LateTellsandTellsinDecline:c.4600/4500–4000/3700BC

OccupationattellsintheGreatHungarianPlain,thenorthernperipheryoftelldistribution,lastedabout500years,endingabruptlyaround4600/4500BC.ThesubsequentTiszapolgárcultureischaracterizedbyadispersedsettlementpatternintheareabetweentheMarosandKörösrivers(Parkinson2006).ThecomplexenclosuresatthePolgártellwerefilledinduringasinglemajorcommunalaction,markingthesymbolicendofthelocalcommunitybeforethetellwasabandoned.Similarly,therewasabreakinthesouthernregionofearlytellformation,includingThessalyandMacedonia,atseverallateNeolithictells(Alram-Stern1996,90–101;Todorova1998).Atthesametime,tell-formingcommunitiescontinuedinthecentralBalkanKodžadermen–Gumelniţa–KaranovoVI(KGK)–Varna,Vinča-Pločnik,andKrivodol-Sǎlcuţacultures(Todorova1995;HansenandToderaş2010).TherewasalsoanexpansionoftheBalkanicwayoflifeintoMoldova,withsporadicstratifiedsettlementssupportingamoresedentaryEneolithiceconomy(Chapman2010).

InthecentralBalkans,tellplansshowthetightarrangementtypicalofthepreviousperiod.AtDurankulak,Hamangiaculturelayerswerecoveredbyoblongmegaron-typehousesonstonefoundationsbetweenlayersVIandIII.Theexcavatorsreconstructedanumberofsanctuariesandacentral‘palace’,thelatterdatedtophaseIIIoftheVarnaculture(Todorova2002).Thisdiversityofbuildingsmust,tosomeextent,reflectunderlyingeconomic,social,andideologicaldifferences.However,gravegoodsfromtheassociatedcemeteryshowthatsocialdifferenceswereprimarilyexpressedinburials,anewarenafordisplayingprestigeandsocialstatus(Renfrew1986;Chapman1991;Slavchev2010).Whilesomecemeteriesareassociatedwithtells,thelargeVarnaburialgroundcouldnotbeconnectedtoany(Lichardus1991).Possiblythiscemetery,withitsunusualquantitiesofhigh-prestigecopper,gold,andSpondylusshellobjects,wasusedbyhigh-statusindividualsfromseveralcommunities,withoutstandinglyrichgravesamidstgroupsofmoremodestburials.TheVarnacemeterythusrepresentsanew,


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externalspacecontrastingwithindividualtellsandtheircommunities(Renfrew2003,142–143;Highametal.2006).Inthiscontext,theappreciationofspecialindividualsandtheircommunitiesisrealizedthroughnewartefacttypes,materialrepresentationsofanewsystemofvalues(Manolakakis2007)andnewnetworksofprocurementwellbeyondtheearliersmall,regionalscale(Strahm2007;Hansen2009;Chapman,thisvolume).

Meanwhile,inthecoreareaoftheBalkans,earliersocialcustomsweremaintainedwithinanaltogethermorepeacefuldevelopment,forinstanceatPietreleinRomania(cf.Hansenetal.2007).GumelniţaculturetellsdisplayaprosperitysimilartosettlementmoundsintheVedeaandTeleormanrivervalleys(AndreescuandMirea2008).

Around4000BC,tellculturesendedrelativelyrapidlyinalmosttheentireareaoftheBalkans.Somespecialsettlementmoundsremainedinuseuntilc.3700BC,includingGalatininnorth-westBulgaria,whereahousewithstonefoundationsisindicativeofcontinuedhabitation.Thedeclineandultimatedisappearanceoftell-formingculturesinsouth-eastEuropeproceededfromthelowerDanuberegiontowardDobrudja,Muntenia,andnorth-eastBulgaria.Thesuddendisruptionhasbeenexplainedbyacombinationofexternalcircumstances,includingthewestwardexpansionoftheKurganculturefromthesteppesandclimaticchange(Gimbutas1979;Todorova1998).Recently,scholarshavesoughtabetterunderstandingofacomplexsystemofexternalandinternalfactorsthatwouldexplaintheall-encompassinghistoricalchangeoverbothsouth-eastEuropeandwesternAnatolia(Parzinger1998;Nikolova2003;Hansen2009;Anthony2010).

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