CroCodiles: Guardians of the Gateways

Salima Ikram

I am a crocodile immersed in dread,1 I am a crocodile who takes by robbery, I am the great and mighty fish-like being who is in the Bitter Lakes, I am the Lord of those who bow down in Letopolis .

— Book of Going Forth by Day, Chapter 88

If one visits the famous Café el-Fishawy in Cairo, one might notice, among the more conventional objects of interior decoration such as mirrors and chandeliers, a large stuffed crocodile suspended over the doorway.2 This is not a unique phenomenon:

there are other houses in Cairo and many more in Upper Egypt, especially between Aswan and Luxor, that boast crocodiles over their doors, or above the entrance to a hara, or neighborhood. In Cairo, the builders of a nineteenth century house even went so far as to carve a limestone crocodile into the lintel over the main entrance.3

These crocodiles (from kroke meaning pebble and drilos meaning worm, describing the animal’s skin), both real and imitation, are intended to have an apotropaic function: placed above the door they avert the evil eye and safeguard the house’s residents. They are also believed to attract wealth and good luck (Ikram 1999). Now, with the dearth of crocodiles below the Aswan Dam, Nile Monitors (varun or Varanus niloticus, amphibious lizards) have taken the place of the former. The custom of using crocodiles (or now varuns) as guardians of the doorway appears to be unique to Egypt.4 Is it possible that this practice of placing a

1 Oneofmyfirstclasses I tookwithKentWeekswhen Iwasagraduate studentwasaboutanimalsand the rolethey played in Egyptian iconography. I affectionately offer this article on a possible interpretation of an ancient EgyptiantraditionthathasmetamorphosedandcontinuestoflourishinmodernEgypttoKentinmemoryofthatclass,fromthestudentWhoJustWouldNotGoAway.Someoftheresearchforthisarticlewascarriedoutonoff-daysfromworkatKV5,andprofitedgreatlyfromlivelydiscussionswithSusanaboutthemeaningof"over-doorornaments".

2 The crocodile has been moved inside in 2007, but sometimes is exhibited outside still.3 ThehouseislocatedatNumber5,DarbelTablawy,intheGamaliyyadistrictofCairo.ItwaskindlybroughttomyattentionbyN.WarnerwhomIwouldliketothankforbringingthisandtheHeliopolitanobeliskstorytomyattention.N.WalschaertsandY.el-Shazlyassistedmewithresearchonthisarticle,andIamgratefultothemboth.

4 ThisauthorhasnotfoundthispracticeinothercountriesoftheNearEast,andonlyafewexamplesfromtheSudan,alargepartofwhichwasgreatlyinfluencedbyancientEgyptiancustomsandculture.

85

86

S. Ikram

CASAE 42

crocodile above the door has its roots in ancient Egyptian beliefs and traditions? And if so, what other ancient Egyptian vestiges can be found in the role of crocodiles in modern Egypt? One obvious correlation is the modern Egyptian word for the crocodile itself: the Arabic timsaah is derived from the ancient Egyptian msÌ, or at least from the same root.

The Nile Crocodile, Crocodilis niloticus, is indigenous to the Nile River and has been found throughout theNileValleyfromprehistoric timesuntil thenineteenthcentury. Thisanimalwas socloselyassociatedwithEgypt, that in theRomanPeriodcrocodilesanddate-palms,generally represented together, but occasionally separately, were used as the symbol for Egypt,5 just as theShe-Wolf symbolizedRome. Thenumbersof crocodiles in theDelta started todecrease in the 1700s, and, by the end of the 1800s, their numbers had been seriously reduced by hunting and the press of humanity. The crocodile population was then concentrated in Upper Egypt from the area of Luxor south. A traveler who visited Egypt in the 1790s reports: "itwassaidthatthecrocodileshadakingwhoresidesnearEsna.Hehasearsbutnotail,anddoesnoharm"(Browne 1799: 140). The last crocodile sighting to be reported in the Delta wasin1753,althoughsmallspecimenswerefoundinandaboveCairothroughthenineteenthcentury (anderson 1898: 11-12). Apparently itwas believed by "the country people...that[crocodiles do not go north beyond Cairo] due to the Nilometer which, they believe, contains a talisman. Theactual reason is thevastboat-traffic" (antes 1800: 46). According to the Egyptians,theareaofCairowasprotectedagainstcrocodilesinavarietyofways.IbnJubayrmentions that the Giza plateau was adorned by marble crocodiles, which served to protect the banks of the Nile for three miles above and below them (Broadhurst1951:7),whileinthetenth century, according to the traveler al-Muqaddisi, it was believed that obelisks erectedaround Cairo served an apotropaic purpose and were inscribed with spells against crocodiles (Bachère 1969: 11).

The last large crocodiles were hunted in Aswan in the 1890s, before they started their retreat tobelowthecataracts,coincidentwiththeconstructionofthefirstAswanDam.In1891thestuffed skin of a crocodile used to hang over the door of the quarters of one of the British officers inAswan (anderson 1898: 12). Occasional rare crocodile sightings above Aswan havebeenreportedasrecentlyasAugust,1960,whenafivemetrelongcrocodilewascapturedat Asyut.6However,withtheconstructionoftheAswanHighDaminthe1960sthecrocodilepopulation was restricted to Lake Nasser and areas further south, where they now proliferate.

Crocodiles are one of the oldest vertebrates found on this planet. They are covered with a thick scaly armor that has, in modern times, been coveted for shoes, handbags, and luggage. Their length varies from 22 centimetres (newborns) up to 6 metres; their weight depends on their size and diet, and can vary between 272 to 910 kilograms (Grenard 1991). Males are largerthanfemales. Thefemalealwaysmanagestobuildanestforhereggs,some3x2.5

5 Mosaics and paintings of this period frequently employ this combination when alluding to Egypt, as can be seen in theNiloticmosaicintheTempleofFortunaatPalestrina,datingtothefirstcenturyBC.ThiscontinuesintheCopticandByzantinePeriods,with thecrocodileanddate-palmsymbolisingEgyptand theNile (e.g.CopticMuseum,Cairo 7211).

6 ThisincidentwaskindlyrelatedtomebyS.KoraieminMarch2000;hewaswitnesstothecaptureofthebeast.

87

CroCodIleS: GuardIanS of the GatewayS

2010

metres in area (alderton1998:81,85),7safelyabovethefloodzone,anaccomplishmentthatwas frequently remarked on in antiquity (saId 1973; PlInyVIII.xxxvii;Brunner-traut 1980: 791-801).BecauseofthistheancientEgyptians,aswellastheGreeksandRomans(PlInyVIII:xxxvii), thought that crocodiles could magically foretell the height of the inundation. It takes thirty minutes for the mother to lay her eggs in the nest, after which she moves away to guard them closely. Crocodile egg clutches vary in number from eighteen to eighty eggs, thereby givingrisetotheideaofthecrocodile’sfertility.Thelengthofacrocodile’spenis--nearlyuptoametre--alsosupportstheideaofthecrocodilebeinganexceptionallyvirile/fertileanimal.Perhaps theanimals" fertilitygave rise to thebelief thatcrocodilesplacedabovedoorwaysbring wealth to a home. In Utterance 317 of the Pyramid Texts (Faulkner1969:99),theKingturns into a crocodile and steals wives: a tribute to the animal’s great sexual potency. Crocodile eggs take between two to three months to hatch during which time they are prey to hyena, mongoose, and the Nile monitor (alderton 1998: 82). This is ironic, as the Nile monitor, in manycontemporary folk-beliefs has replaced the crocodiledue to the former’s availability.Once hatched the infant crocodiles rest on the back of their mother for parts of the day, safe fromcatfish,otters, turtles, andNilemonitors. Amummifiedcrocodile, probably from theFayum, now in the British Museum, had its (rather large) babies placed on its back, just as in life(EA38562);indeed,severalexamplesofcrocodileswithyoungontheirbackcomefromthe Fayum (BaGnanI1952).Inothercases,crocodilesgentlyplacetheiryoungintheirmouthandtransportthemthusforsafety;amummifiedcrocodilenowintheEgyptianMuseumwasfound with babies in its mouth (CG 29628).

TheNilecrocodilecanliveuptofiftyyearsofageormore(alderton1998:50);somecrocodiles have lived to 110 years in captivity. Generally these reptiles are slow moving and spendagreatdealoftimelyingimmobileonasandbankorsemi-submergedinrivers.Theyoften spend the night in the water, and clamber up to a sandbank with the rising of the sun, where they bask with their mouth open, only to submerge themselves again at nightfall. This habit led to their becoming associated with the sun god by the ancient Egyptians. Aspects of theirphysicalappearancemightalsohavecontributedtotheidentificationofthecrocodilewiththesun:thearmor,orupper-skinofcrocodilesismadeupofscutesorosteodermsthat trapheat, and look like dotted sun bursts around a central ridge; the spikes on their tails are also slightly reminiscent of sun rays; the crocodiles’ yellow eyes shine brightly at night, providing tiny suns in the dark; and the sunlight playing upon crocodile scales as it basks often shimmers and imparts a golden hue to the animal, further emphasizing its solar nature. Also, when these animals emerges from the water they open their mouth to the sun in order to help regulate their temperature—no doubt the gaping reddish maw of the animal, delineated by sharp, pointy teeth

7 Eggstakeabout85daystohatchandtherearegenerallyanequalorsemi-equalratioofmalestofemales.Acuriousfeatureofcrocodileeggsisthatthetemperaturecaninfluencethesexofthebaby:eggsthathavebeenkeptat32ºCdegrees or more tend to be male (lynne2006:51).Sexualmaturityisreachedataboutthreeyearswhentheanimalsmeasure an average of two metres (lynne 2006: 201). Many votive crocodile mummies are of approximately this length or less; presumably they were culled prior to arriving at sexual maturity as they are less biddable (and larger) thereafter.

88

S. Ikram

CASAE 42

were reminiscent of the sun and its rays. Perhaps the reason that the word kmm, or darkness uses the hieroglyph sign of a fragment of crocodile skin alludes not only to the dark hue of the crocodile’s hide, but also to the time that these animals spend in the dark and murky depths of the Nile. Despite their deceptive sloth, crocodiles can gallop up to 18 kph in short bursts when chasing their prey (alderton 1998: 66). Crocodiles have excellent night vision, as well as good day vision, both above and below water, as, when underwater, the crocodiles’ eyes are protected by transparent nictating membranes, or second eyelids (alderton1998:55).Theyalsoenjoyakeensenseofsmellandacutehearing(theirearsarecoveredbyflapswhentheanimal is submerged), all of which help them to hunt successfully.

Crocodilesenjoyawell-deservedreputationforferocity.Theyareequippedwithafinesetofteeth(64-68teethintotal)thatarereplacedthroughouttheirlifetime.Theteethareverystrong and sharp, and at the tip of the snout they interlock, permitting the animal to grasp its preywithfatalconsequences:"Alargecrocodilecanexertacrushingforceequivalentto13tonnes"(alderton1998:56).Thecrocodiledispatchesitspreybyseizingitfirmlywithitssharpteeth,andthenplungingdeepintothewatertodrownit.Whenfeeding,crocodilesclampontoalargepieceoftheirvictim’sflesh,and,iftheycannotpullitoffthecorpseimmediately,spinaroundrapidly,untilthemeatbreaksawayfromthebody.Crocodilesdonotchewflesh;they swallow it whole. Luckily for their victims, crocodiles do not need to eat too regularly. They can survive for several months without regular feeding (some have been reported to survive for almost two years between meals) as they can live off their body fat, which is stored in their tail.

Mammals form the mainstay of the crocodilian diet, with reptiles and fish following.Crocodileseatbuffalo,antelopes,fish,birdsandhumanswithpleasure.EvennowthereareoccasionalreportsofcrocodileskillingchildrenandadultfishermenintheareasouthoftheHighDam.ItisinterestingtonotethatinlaterperiodsofEgyptianhistory,peoplewhohadbeeneatenorattackedbycrocodilesachievedasemi-divinestatus(Brunner-traut1980:791-801; lloyd 1976, 1988: 307ff). The reasons for this are unclear; perhaps it has something to do with the crocodile’s association with a solar divinity, or perhaps because the crocodile was a sacred animal in certain areas of Egypt?

Crocodiles hunt solo and in groups, particularly if the kill is large. They patiently lie in wait for their prey in the water, and then silently ambush them, pulling them into the water to drown. The crocodile’s strength and skill in hunting was often remarked upon in ancient Egypt. They arecommonlydepictedontombwallsoftheOldKingdomastheylieinwaitforunsuspectingcattle—aSethianformofthecrocodile(harPur1987:figs.68,189,190,192,193,211).ThemajorityofthesescenesarefoundintheMemphitecemeteriesoftheFifthandSixthDynasty,andareespeciallywellillustratedintheSixthDynastytombsoftheTeticemetery.Herdsmenholdouttheirhandswiththeforefingerextendedandproclaimspellstowardoffthesebeasts.ThetombofAnkhmahoratSaqqaracontainssuchaspell:"Othisherdsman,live,yourfaceagainst that aquatic (crocodile) that is on the water so that these ones do not go to that aquatic (crocodile),hebeingasablindofhead.Liethyfaceagainsthimverymuch".Thecaptionin

89

CroCodIleS: GuardIanS of the GatewayS

2010

frontoftherearboatprovidesthetitleforthescene,"khesef meseh",orrepellingthecrocodile(rItner1993:227-30;Badawy 1978: 17). In the tomb of Ti, the inscription is more explicit and reads "toward off death" (rItner 1993: 227). Spells for repelling crocodiles are alsofound inmagical andotherpapyri (e.g.BMEA9997,BMEA10059andBMEA10042),including theBookof theDead (e.g.Spells31,32),and theCoffinTexts (Spells586,424,342). A particularly evocative example of Chapter 31 of the Book of the Dead: ‘Repulsing the crocodile which comes to carry away the magical spells from a man in the Underworld’, is accompanied 1610by a vignette featuring a man brandishing a knife in front of three crocodiles (P. BM EA10471, Book of the Dead of Nakht). The power of the crocodile is so strong that in thespellitisnotmentionedbyname,and"aquatic"isdeterminedbyareed.Clearlythisgreatbeast was feared.

Even in the Coptic era there are tales of how the power of faith and divine intervention saved people from ravening crocodiles. Abba Bes (a particularly appropriate name for a conqueror of such creatures) rid his area of ravaging crocodiles and hippopotami through prayer (russell 1980: 66), while other monks managed to save themselves from attacking crocodiles through prayerandfaith(Ward 1975: 46; reGnault1985:1046,1294,1610).Nodoubtstoriesofthedefeat of crocodiles at the hands of the faithful continued on throughout the 19th century.8

The only other riverine animal that can challenge the crocodile is the hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius).Generallythesetworiverinepowersco-existrelativelypeacefully.However, this peacemay be shatteredwhen cows have recently calved and the crocodilesattempt to seize the newborn calves (e.g. in the tomb of Idut at Saqqara). The mothers,equipped with enormous canine teeth that can crush a crocodile and kill it, may retaliate. This isillustratedinseveralMemphitetombreliefsdatingtotheOldKingdom,mostnotablyinthetombsofMereruka,Kagemni,Ti,andMekhu.

As they were so much a part of the environment and frequently a threat to the dwellers oftheNileValley,crocodileshaveplayedasignificantroleinthecultureofEgyptfromtheearliest times. Crocodile bones have been found in the middens of Predynastic settlements of Merimde, Omari, and Maadi (Boessneck 1988: 109), indicating that they were a source of foodfortheearlydwellersoftheNileValley.Herodotus,thefifthcenturyBCIonianhistorian,alsoclaimed that the inhabitantsofElephantineate thefleshofcrocodiles (II:69),whileJ.Anderson,thenaturalist,reportsthattheywereeatenbytheSudaneseandcertainAfricantribesmainly for their aphrodisiacal properties (1898: 18).

Crocodiles, or parts thereof, were also commonly used in ancient Egyptian medicines, and arestillused insomefolk-medicines today. For legpains,crampsandstiffnessP.Ram.Vlists crocodile oil as a curative ingredient; crocodile oil and fat is also recommended for pains andstiffnessinotherpartsofthebody(P.RamesseumV,andEbers656[BardInet1995:472-73]). It is also suggested that, when crocodile fat is rubbed into the scalp of a bald or balding person,thehairwillbeencouragedtogrow(Eb.465[BardInet1995:318]).Crocodiledungwas used as part of the cure for river blindness, caused by the parasitic roundworm Onchocerca

8 I am grateful to R. Bagnall and E. Bolman who assisted greatly in my quest for these references.

90

S. Ikram

CASAE 42

(Eb. 344 and others [BardInet1995:304]).Thereferencestocrocodilesinwardingspellsas:blind one, or requests that it be blind in order to protect the herds and men that were crossing might be related to this belief. Crocodile dung was also used to test pregnancy in women (P. Ram.IV,C,Kahun21[BardInet1995:441,444]). Burning dung was also used to fumigate men, and crocodile blood was used possibly as a remedy for snakebite (P. Brooklyn, Remedy 90c [BardInet1995:418;543]).ThehealersoftheGraeco-Romanperiodadoptedmanyofthese ancient Egyptian cures, and added to them. Pliny writes that crocodile teeth worn on the right arm act as amulets; that fever patients or those with pains in their joints should be rubbed with crocodile fat; the ashes created from burning crocodile skin mixed with vinegar have an anaesthetizing effect; crocodile blood when boiled is a cure for a chronic cough, lumbago, and sciatica (PlInyBookXXVIII:107-113). Crocodilescouldcertainlyactasguardiansofpeople’s health.

The image of the crocodile was also used in a peculiar way in healing practices during the laterperiodsofEgyptianhistory(DynastyXXVItothefirstcenturyADorlater,withafewexamplesdatingasearlyasDynastyXVIII(rItner 1993: 106; rItner 1989; Jacquet-Gordon 1965-1966: 54-64;kakosy 1999). The stelae of Horus-on-the-Crocodiles, also known ascippi,showHorus,carvedinveryhighrelief,facingforward,andstandingonthebackoftwocrocodiles,thusshowinghisdominanceoverthesefiercecreatures.Ineitherhandhegrasps(andsometimes throttles or inverts, thus emphasizing his power over them) a mixture of dangerous animalsincludinglions,oryx,scorpionsandsnakes.HisheadissurmountedbyanapotropaicBes head, and other protective divinities. The top, sides, and back of this stela are covered with incised inscriptions that are cures for stings and bites from all the animals featured on the stela. These stelae could safeguard the donor after their dedication. They could also play a part in a ritual where liquid, poured over the stela to absorb the magic from the spells and images carved upon it, was consumed,9 which conferred magical protection to the drinker against attacks by the various vicious animals that are shown on the stela. A variant on this theme can be seen on apectoralintheHildesheimPelizaeusMuseum(No.5922).ThepectoralshowsthegodShedinashrine,witharrowsinaquiver.Heholdsantelopes,gazelles,andsnakes,andstandsontwocrocodilesinthesamemannerasHorus-on-the-crocodiles.Presumablythewearerofthispiecewould be protected from all these potentially harmful animals, most of all the crocodile.

CrocodilescontinuedaspartofthemateriamedicainArabtimes.Inal-Biruni’sBook on Pharmacy and Materia Medica, crocodile fat is used in conjunction with poppy seeds against the bites of venomous animals, the faeces are used to help cataracts and other eye diseases, and the kidneys are considered aphrodisiacs (saId 1973: 93). The use of crocodile dung for eye diseasesdefinitelyappearstostemfromancientEgyptianpractices.ThethirteenthcenturyArabdoctor,al-Bahdadi,basinghisresearchonthatofAristotle,wrote,‘theliverofthecrocodilefurnishes a powerful aphrodisiac: but its kidneys and its fat which they recover produce the same effect with more energy. Iron will not pierce its skin. From its cervical vertebrae to the

9 The modern Egyptian tasset el khadda work on this principle.

91

CroCodIleS: GuardIanS of the GatewayS

2010

tail is only a single bone: for this reason, when it is reversed on its back it cannot return by itself’ (al-BaGhdadI 1204/1964:93).

Even today attarin (herbalists) and magicians use crocodiles and their by-products inremediesandincantations. In1934J. WalkerpublishedabookonEgyptianfolkmedicinein which he listed the following uses for crocodiles: the nails were burnt with incense for blackmagic,thepaws/feetandentireanimalwereregardedasapotropaicamulets,theskinwassometimes used for writing spells upon, certain bones and hunks of skin were used as amulets in Nubia, and the penis was used, in a powdered form, for virility. Interviews conducted with the attarininMayof1999indicatedthatmanyoftheuseslistedbyWalkercontinuetoday.10 Crocodile fat is used for rheumatism and other joint pains, just as it was in ancient Egypt. The animal’s claws are sometimes still used in black magic, as are its teeth. Portions of, or entire pawsandskinareusedasprotectiveamuletsinNubiaandSudan.Similarly,inMadagascar,theMerina people wear charms (mohara) made from crocodile teeth (real or modeled) that protect them from crocodiles, or express and transfer the power of the animal to the wearer and the Thonga tribe in Zululand uses crocodile fat in medicines, particularly apotropaic concoctions that are meant to guard against lightning as well as more general types of illness (lynne 2006: 50).Thewholeanimalplacedoverthedoorwayguardsahouse.Clawsaremixedwithincense,andonacertainWednesday(thedayofEvil),atacertainhour,withacertaincombinationofstars,canbeusedtosummonupthekingoftheJinnswhowillgrantone’severywish.Somepeopleinterviewedthoughtthatcrocodileteethcanalsobeusedforthisspell.Anunspecifiedbone in the left hind leg is also used to write spells upon as it is supposed to be particularly powerful.

The most prized and frequently utilised portion of a crocodile is its penis that is ground up andmixedwithhoney(10ggroundmemberto0.5kghoney).Thisremedyistakenregularlyover a prescribed period of time (this varies depending upon the doctor and the case) to make a man virile. In fact, a certain brand of honey on sale in Egypt today sports a crocodile on its label.CertainlytheancientEgyptiansassociatedthecrocodilewithvirility,andcalledSobek,‘lord of semen’ (BrovarskI 1984: 998). Thus the importance of crocodiles in folk medicine and belief continues today, though their limited availability will probably contribute to the ultimate demise of these beliefs and uses.

The ancient Egyptians represented crocodiles in many different contexts, each with its own meaning,bothpositiveandnegative.ThecrocodileisthemanifestationofthegodSobek,agod associated with a good inundation and, consequently, fertility. Perhaps this is why, in the OldKingdom,heissometimesdepictedcrownedwithanaquaticplant(BrovarskI 1984: 996). The ancient Egyptians believed that a large number of crocodiles in the river heralded a good inundation. Perhaps this belief continued into the modern period. Thus, the placement of a crocodileaboveonesdoor,especiallyinagriculturalareas,insuredgoodfloodsandwealthtothe homeowner in the form of a rich harvest

10S.IkramandY.el-Shazly,Interviewswithattarin in Cairo, (1999).

92

S. Ikram

CASAE 42

Crocodiles(andSobek)werealsoassociatedwithotherdivinitiessuchasRe,Khepri,Shu,Tefnut, Seth, and his crocodilian sonMaga (Brunner-traut 1980: 791-801;wIlson 1997: 180ff). Certainly, from the later periods of Egyptian history, and perhaps as early as the Eighteenth dynasty, images of crocodiles with falcon heads are known. Perhaps the crocodile’s association with solar deities and resurrection is due to its habit of emerging from the water and opening its mouth to the sun when it appears, and then sinking into the depths again at nightfall, and being reborn the next day.11 Also,hymnsaddressedtoSobek-Reinvokehimasa protector of Osiris, and therefore the dead (Bucher1928:5).SomescholarshavealsoputforwardthesuggestionthatcrocodilesareassociatedwithHorusastheycanspendalongtimeunderwater, and would have been capable of looking for the body parts of Osiris, which had beenscatteredthroughoutEgyptandintheNilebySeth(vernus1998:72-73). Onecouldextend that metaphor and say that these fearsome beasts can also be said to aid and protect thedead,whoarehailedasOsirisaftertheOldKingdom.TheambivalentwayinwhichtheEgyptiansviewed thecrocodile is especiallyapparent in theGraeco-Romanperiodwhen itwas both used as a protective emblem and one that was dangerous and needed subjugation. A carvedlimestoneimageofasphinxwhichhasacrocodileprotrudingfromitschest(CG27574)underlies the more positive aspects of crocodiles and their relationship with solar deities (edGar 1903:59,pl.xxviii),ascanbeseeninthetempleofKomOmbo.Thisisalsoapparentinthehawkheadedandcrocodilebodied"sphinx"statuesthatdatefromthelaterperiodsofEgyptianhistory,andareevenillustratedonstelaededicatedtoSobekduringthisperiod(e.g.CG27575[edGar1903:59,pl.xxviii]).

Conversely, some texts, addressed to Re, relate to the protection from attacks by crocodiles, who, in thiscaseisassociatedwiththeevilaspectsofSeth(alsoseeBrunner-traut 1980: 791-801;wIlson 1997: 180ff; leItz1999:35),andalsoSeth’sson,Maga.12 Crocodiles are alsoshownbeingvanquishedbyHorusinthecippistelae.ItsassociationwithSethreferstothe more chaotic aspects of its character, as well as to the time that it spends underwater in darkness.ItsSethianaspectscanbeseenwhenitisbeingspearedbyHorusatEdfu13 and also

11 Amenhotep III, in particular, exploited the crocodile’s solar association as is seen in the dyad showing the king togetherwithSobek(LuxorMuseumJ155),andthecrocodiliansphinxesthatformedapartofthedecorationofhisfunerarytempleinThebes.HealsofoundedtheSobektempleatDamansha(ancientSemenu),atemplethatenjoyeda great deal of popularity in the 18th and 19th dynasties (ex votos and portions of the temple are on display in the KomOmboCrocodileMuseumfrom2010).Also,itappearsthatthemummyofRamessesIIIwascoveredbyalinenshroud cut and painted to resemble a crocodile that would magically protect the mummy. It is, however, possible that this shroud might actually have been intended to resemble Anubis, but the tail is very crocodile like, as are the ears. However, itsstateofconservationmakesanaccurate identificationdifficult.Unfortunately theshroud,currentlyinRoom52oftheCairoMuseum,hasnoseparatemuseumnumber,andlittleisknownaboutit; thenumberofRamesses III’s mummy is CG 61083. As an interesting aside, Ramesses III appears to have been keen on healing statuesaswell.Onequartzitestatue,featuresthePharaohhimself(JE69771;drIoton1939:57-89)witheitheragoddess or queen beside him, and is inscribed with spells and requests to guard against various ills. In this instance, thepharaohisactingasHorus.IwouldliketothankDr.L.Kakosyforbringingthisstatuetomyattention.

12Inthe"LegendoftheWingedDisk’Seth’sconfederatesareturnedintoanimalsasdiscussedbyrItner (1993: 160).13TherehasbeensomespeculationthatthecrocodilemightalsobeassociatedwiththeevildragonofSt.GeorgeastheimageryofHoruskillingSethissosimilar.

93

CroCodIleS: GuardIanS of the GatewayS

2010

at Dendera (wIlson 1997). The ambiguous nature of the animal itself, comfortable both on land and in the water, parallels this dichotomy of good and evil.

This dichotomy is often expressed in ancient Egyptian literary texts. In the ‘Instructions’ fromPapyrusInsingerwefind:(19thinstruction,line15)Thereistheevilmanwhoiscalmlikea crocodile in water (lIchtheIm 1980: 204); (23rd instruction, line 14) ...he is merciless like the crocodile (lIchtheIm1980:208);and(23rdinstruction,line15)Onecannotremovethepoisonof the crocodile, the snake, or the evil man (lIchtheIm 1980: 208). From the "Instructionof Ptahhotep": "But where the crocodile enters hatred arises" (lIchtheIm 1975: 68). TheInstruction for King Merykare adopts a similar theme for the cunning but slightly cowardly (at leastinEgyptianmilitaryandroyalrhetoric)Asiatic:ëLothemiserableAsiaticÖfightssincethetimeofHorus,notconqueringnorbeingconquered,Hedoesnotannouncethedayofcombat,like a thief who darts about a group... The Asiatic is a crocodile on its shore, it snatches from alonelyroad,Itcannotseizefromapopuloustowní(Lichtheim2006a:103-04).Onamorepositivenote,in"AMorningHymntoKhnum",thegodisinvokedascrocodile-kingandGreatcrocodile (lIchtheIm1980:110-11),andin"ThePoeticalStelaofThutmoseIII",thekingiscomparedtoacrocodile,"masterofterrorinthewater,unapproached"(lIchtheIm 1976: 37), a frightening comparison, but one that was very good for the ancient Egyptians, and bad for their enemies.Indeed,infunerarycontextscrocodilesaretheagentsofpursuitofevil-doers,andthebringers of justice (eyre 1976: 106).

Asadeity,thecrocodileisfoundinbothtwo-andthree-dimensional representations and in several temples. Crocodile deities were most common in the Fayum and the Thebaid, notably thesiteofKomOmboandtheneighboringnecropolisofel-Shatb,althoughothersitesintheThebaidhavebeenfoundtohouseseveralmummifiedcrocodiles,anda temple toSobekissuspectedontheWestBank(kockelmann 2009). Herodotusdescribesthecareandupkeepofasacredcrocodile:itsearsareadornedwithgoldenearrings,itwearsbraceletsonitsfore-paws,it is fed with bread and meat, and when it dies it is embalmed and buried with great pomp and circumstance (herodotusII:69).Strabodescribessimilarcrocodilesthatarefedoncakes,andwinemixedwithhoney(VIII:XVII).

CrocodilesfeatureinpaintedandapplieddecorationonPre-andEarlyDynasticpottery,perhaps just as simple decoration or for as yet undetermined ritual reasons (e.g. the Naqada I bowlwithappliquédcrocodilesintheCairoMuseum,JE38384).Smallfigurinesandamuletsin the shape of crocodiles and made out of many materials are found throughout the course ofEgyptianhistory.Petriefoundsomeespeciallyfinelymodeledcrocodilesinapre-Twelfthdynasty context (PetrIe1896:5).Forthemostparttheyappeartobeapotropaic:theywereused to repel attackbycrocodiles. Somescholarsbelieve that theprotection from thegodSobekwasonlyinvokedbyamuletsclearlyintheformofthegod:crocodileswearingcrowns,sun-discs,orbyamuletsintheformofamanwithacrocodile’shead,ratherthanbyimagesofthe animal itself (andrews1994:26-27;36-37).

Crocodiles also feature on magic wands of the Middle Kingdom, presumably in anapotropaic role (Brunner-traut1980).IntheOldKingdomtombofPetty,GizaSouthEast

94

S. Ikram

CASAE 42

(GSE)1923,inthecemeteryoftheworkmenatGiza,despoilersofthetombarethreatenedwithbeing attacked by a crocodile (hawass 2004). Crocodiles with knives, representing demons orgeni,guardtheunderworld,especiallyshownfromtheNewKingdomonward.CrocodilesandsnakesguardthetiredeveningSunGodashesetsinthetombofRamessesVI. Inthe"Bookof theCaves", fourcrocodiles riseoutof theearthat sunrise toaccompany thesun.Crocodiles are part of the composite creature Ammit, the devourer of the Underworld, as well as, sometimes, part of the protective and nurturing Taweret. Thus, it is apparent that crocodiles, like other animals in ancient Egypt, have both good and evil manifestations, and are used to represent both chaos (evil aspect) and maat (positive or good aspect) depending on the context inwhich theyareportrayed. Similarly,hippopotami(male)aregenerallyshownasSethianand destructive, while the females of the species are associated with Taweret. Perhaps the amphibious nature of both crocodiles and hippopotami contribute to this duality?

It is also interesting to note that crocodile skin was used as armor in the Roman Period, as isillustratedbysuchasuitnowintheBritishMuseum(EA5473).Perhapsitwasnotjustusedbecause of its toughness, but because of the belief in the protective and apotropaic properties ofcrocodiles,aswellasabeliefinsympatheticmagic,withthewearertakingonthefiercenessof the crocodile. Another notable point is that the door of one of the three Churches in the MonasteryofAbuSefein,inOldCairo,"wasplatedwithcrocodilescales,andpartofitliesnowinthenarthexofthechurch,thoughscarcelyashredofthescalesremains"(Butler 1884: 76).14 The reason for this is not known; perhaps the crocodile skin was purely decorative, although it is more likely that it had a protective and apotropaic function.15 The doors of other Coptic churches and monasteries are often covered with a dense concentration of studs that give the appearance of crocodile hide—perhaps these take the idea of the skin one step further? Certainly crocodile skin is quite sturdy, and would afford further protection to a wooden door, and was used to line the doors of forts, citadels and strongholds (surIano 1949: chapter 81; warner 2006: legend 28).

It seems that, aside from their continued use in folk medicine from antiquity to the present day,crocodileshavemaintainedtheirpositioninEgyptianfolk-cultureasguardians,whichiswhy they are placed over doorways. Although crocodiles are dangerous animals, they often serve as protectors, a belief that might be based in the mother crocodile’s vigilant protection ofhernest.AmmitguardstheFieldsofReedsagainstevilinterlopers,crocodile-headedgeniguard the gates of the Underworld, and crocodiles protect the person of the sun god. The king,metaphoricallyacrocodile,guardedEgypt,andmorepractically,SetiIstockedthemoataroundthefortressofSilehwithcrocodiles,whoactedasitsguardians.Inthesameway,inthe"TaleofTwoBrothers",Batawasprotectedfromtheunjustwrathofhisolderbrother,Anubis,byabodyofwaterfilledwithcrocodiles.SupposedlyKingMeneswassavedfromhishuntingdogs by riding on the back of a crocodile across Lake Moeris to safety (dIodorus LXXXIX:

14 I would like to thank Dr. E. Bolman for bringing this reference to my attention.15 It is possible that many other Coptic church door’s were similarly clad, but this knowledge is now lost to us. AlthoughthemaindoorofDeirel-Abyad,nearSohag,isnotcoveredwithcrocodilehide,itiscoveredwithverycloselysettogetherbroad-headedmetalnailsthatgivetheimpressionofacrocodile’shide.

95

CroCodIleS: GuardIanS of the GatewayS

2010

115),andatPhilae temple,acrocodile isshowncarrying themummyofOsirison itsback(kakosy1980:801-11). Evenin theCopticperiodstoriesofcrocodilescarryingpeopleontheirbacksareattested,suchasthetaleofAbbaHellewhousedthepoorbeastasaferry,beforecommanding it to die (russell 1980:90-91).Thus,forthehome-ownerwhoplacesacrocodileabove his door (or perhaps even covers the door with its skin), the crocodile is tame or subdued, whileforanyoneapproachingwithevilintention,thecrocodileiswildandfierce.Ifthehouseowner was responsible for killing the crocodile, it is a mark of his strength and virility, and as such,thecrocodile-trophyshowsthattheownerofthehouseiswellabletoprotecthisown.InGourna there was one house that had two large Nile Monitors over the door that the owner had killed.Heregardedthesebothastrophies,aswellasapotropaicprotectorsofhishome(Ikram 1999). The animal’s fearsome aspect with scaley back and fearsome teeth might also aid in scaring away the evil intentioned. Crocodiles protect not only against evil, whether human or supernatural,butalsoagainsttheveryphysicaldangerofflooddamage. Crocodilesalwaysknow where to build their nests so that they are safe from the inundation, thus, especially in UpperEgyptianvillages(especiallyprior to theconstructionof theHighDam),acrocodileabove thedoorwaymightavert thewatersof thefloodfromdemolishing thehouse. WhencrocodileswerecommonintheNileValley,itmayalsohaveservedtoprotecttheinmatesofthe house from being carried off by crocodiles. Thus, it is possible that although the reasons why crocodiles are guardians might have been forgotten, the Egyptians continue to use them apotropaically above their doors as protectors of their homes.

Bibliographyal-BaGhdadI, ABd al-LatIF 1204/1964The Eastern Key,K.zand,J.vIdean, and I. vIdean (trans.), London. alderton, D. 1998 Crocodiles and Alligators of the World, London.antes,J.1800 Observations on the manners and customs of the Egyptians, the overflowing of the Nile and its

effects; with remarks on the plague, and other subjects, London.anderson,J.1898 Zoology of Egypt: Reptiles and Batrachia, London.andrews, C. 1994 Amulets of Ancient Egypt, London.Bachère, R. 1969 "L’agglomération du Caire vue par quatre voyageurs arabes du Moyen Age", Annales

Islamologiques 8: 11.Badawy, A. 1978 The Tomb of Nyhetep-Ptah at Giza, and the Tomb of Ankhmahor at Saqqara, Los Angeles. BaGnanI, G. 1952 "TheGreatEgyptianCrocodileMystery",Archaeology5.2,76-78.

96

S. Ikram

CASAE 42

BardInet, T. 1995 Les Papyrus Médicaux de l’Egypte Pharaonique, Paris.Broadhurst,R.J.C.1951/2003 The Travels of Ibn Jubayr, London.BrovarskI, E. 1984 "Sobek",LÄV,998.Browne,W.G.1799 Travels in Africa, Egypt, and Syria, from the year 1792 to 1798, London.Brunner-traut, E. 1980 "Krokodil",LÄIII,791-801.Bucher, P. 1928 "LesHymnesaSobek-Ra",KemiI.3,5.Butler,A.J.1884 The Ancient Coptic Churches of Egypt I, Oxford.dIodorus sIculus 1985 On Egypt, I. E. murPhy (trans.), London.edGar, C. 1903 Greek Sculpture: Catalogue General Nos. 27425-27630, Cairo.eyre, C. 1976 "Fate,CrocodilesandtheJudgementoftheDead",SAK4,103-14.Faulkner, R. 1998 The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts, Cairo.Grenard,S.1991 Handbook of Alligators and Crocodiles, Malabar, FL.harPur,Y.1987 Decoration in Egyptian Tombs of the Old Kingdom, London.hawass, z.2004 "TheTombsofthePyramidBuilders—thetomboftheArtisanPetetyandHisCurse",21-40,in:

G. N. knoPPers and A. hIrsch (eds.) Egypt, Israel, and the Ancient Mediterranean World: Studies in Honor of Donald B. Redford, Leiden.

Ikram,S.1999 Interviews conducted with home owners in Cairo, Luxor, and Aswan.Jacquet-Gordon,H.1965-1966 TwoStelaeofHorus-on-the-Crocodiles,Brooklyn Museum Annual,54-64.kakosy, L. 1980 ‘Krokodilscult",LÄIII,801-11.kakosy, L. 1999 Egyptian Healing Statues in Three Museums in Italy: Turin, Florence and Naples, Turin. kockelmann,H.2009 Lectureandpersonalcommunication."Sobek neb Waset. On the crocodile cults at Thebes and its

neighbourhood".leItz, C. 1999 Magical and Medical Papyri of the New Kingdom, London.

97

CroCodIleS: GuardIanS of the GatewayS

2010

lIchtheIm, M. 1975,1976,1980,Ancient Egyptian LiteratureI-III,Berkeley.lloyd, A. 1976, 1988 Herodotus Book II, Commentary, Leiden.lynne,K.2006 Crocodile: Evolution’s Greatest Survivor,NewSouthWales.manetho

1940 Manetho and Ptolemy, Tetrabiblos,W.G.waddel (trans), London.PetrIe,W.M.F.1896 Koptos, London.PlIny 1942 Natural History,H.rackham (trans), London. reGnault, l.1985 Les sentences des pères du desert, série des anonymes. Paris. rItner,R.K.1989 "HorusontheCrocodiles:AJunctureofReligionandMagicinLateDynasticEgypt",103-16, in:

W.K.sImPson, (ed), Religion and Philosophy in Ancient Egypt,NewHaven.rItner,R.K.1993 The Mechanics of Ancient Egyptian Magical Practice, Chicago.russell, n. (trans)1980 The Lives of the Desert Fathers; The Historia Monachorum in Aegypto, London.saId, M. 1973 Al-Biruni’s Book on Pharmacy and Materia Medica,Karachi.straBo

1932 Geography,H.L.Jones (trans.), London.surIano, F. 1949 Treatise on the Holy Land, T. BellorInI and E. hoade(trans.andeds.),Jerusalem.vernus, P. 1998 The Gods of Ancient Egypt, London.ward, B. (trans.)1975 The Wisdom of the Desert Fathers: Systematic Sayings from the Anonymous Series of the

Apophthegmata Patrum, Oxford.warner, N. 2006 The True Description of Cairo: A Sixteenth Century City View from Venice, Oxford.wIlson, P. 1997 "SlaughteringtheCrocodileinEdfuandDendera",179-203,in,S.quIrke (ed), The Temple in

Ancient Egypt, London.

98

S. Ikram

CASAE 42

a varun guarding a door on luxor's west bank (photo h. alexander)