Notes

1 Introduction

1. It is worth mentioning that neither film sound nor film music will beconsidered here in extensive historical, theoretical or aesthetic contexts.My investigations of speech, music, sound effects, soundscapes and audio-visual musique concrète will be limited to examples directly relating to theconcept of film musicality and its appearance in practice.

2. Auster talks about the writing process as a ‘buzzing in the head’, ‘a certainkind of music, rhythm, tone’ (Wood, 2004, pp. 43–4) while Hornby (2002)aims to achieve the ‘effects of listening to music’ through his structures.

3. For a detailed analysis of musicality in non-narrative cinema see Mollaghan(2015).

4. For a critical discussion about Romantic notions of music’s uniqueness seeGoehr (1992).

2 Music as Model and Metaphor

1. The study of music inspired one of the first scientific explanations of theuniverse, proposed by Pythagoras, according to which the laws and propor-tions of the universe are mirrored in the mathematical principles of musicalharmony. The idea of music containing the secrets of the universe and mir-roring the ‘harmony of the spheres’ can be traced throughout the historyof music theory and esoteric science in the work of theoreticians such asGioseffo Zarlino, Johannes Kepler and Albert Freiherr von Thimus, while itsresonances can be identified in the philosophical writings of 20th-centurycomposers, including Arnold Schoenberg, Paul Hindemith and KarlheinzStockhausen.

2. Eisenstein explains natural synchronization as a mechanical matching ofimage and sound; rhythmical synchronization creates metric relationships,syncopated combinations and a rhythmical counterpoint between the hori-zontals; melodic synchronization is a relationship between the linear struc-tures of music and image; tonal synchronization is a relationship betweensonic movement and the tonality of a picture, which involves relationshipsbetween light, shadow, colour and tone (1986, pp. 70–2).

3. For Eisenstein polyphonic montage is a means of combining constructiveelements of a composition’s whole, not only those that are part of theimage but also conceptual and affective ones. For instance, in the ‘processionsequence’ in his film The Old and the New (1934) he identifies polyphonic‘lines of the heat’, ‘line of growing ecstasy’, lines of male and female voices(the faces of male and female singers), the lines of those who are kneelingalong with the lines of those who are crawling. In this, ‘the general course ofthe montage was an uninterrupted interweaving of these diverse themes into

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one unified movement. Each montage-piece had a double responsibility – tobuild the total line as well as to continue the movement within each of thecontributory themes,’ (1986, p. 65).

4. The connections between film and opera have often been evoked in scholar-ship but mostly to emphasize the influence of late-Romantic practices, andWagner’s leitmotif techniques in particular, on the conventions of classicalHollywood scoring (London, 2000; Paulin, 2000). In his book Cinema’s Illu-sions, Opera’s Allure, David Schroeder expands that discussion to argue thatopening credits have the function of an overture and traces mythologicalaspects in film plots to opera librettos.

5. Until recently, and starting with Claudia Gorbman’s groundbreakingUnheard Melodies, the list of significant monographs that set the foundationsof modern film music theory was relatively short (Flinn, 1992; Kalinak, 1992;Brown, 1994; Donnelly, 2001, 2005; Kassabian, 2001; Davison, 2004) andhabitually cited in all new publications, but in the last decade the numberof monographs and edited collections in this field have grown dramati-cally, especially since the appearance of two new prominent series publishedby Oxford University Press (Music and Media) and Routledge (Music andScreen).

6. For a detailed analysis of the influences of serial and aleatoric music onGodard’s films Vivre sa vie and Pierrot le fou, see Royal S. Brown (1994).

7. A detailed analysis of the soundtrack to Godard’s Prénom: Carmen can befound in Davison (2004) and Gorbman (2007).

8. The numerous studies exploring the collaboration between Ennio Morriconeand Sergio Leone and the ‘operatic’ elements of Spaghetti Westerns includethose by Staig and Williams (1975), Brown (1994), Cumbow (1997) andSmith (1998).

9. Kubrick’s idiosyncratic use of pre-existing music and his musical approach tothe soundtrack have been extensively explored by scholars including Chion(2001), Patterson (2004), Donnelly (2005), Gorbman (2006) and Paulus(2009).

10. See also Alan Williams (1985).11. Until his collaboration with Anthony Minghella, Murch had worked almost

exclusively with directors living in the San Francisco Bay area (FrancisCoppola, George Lucas, Philip Kaufman). The Bay Area approach to soundencourages longer stages of post-production during which sound design ismeticulously built to incorporate dialogue, sound effects and music fromthe very beginning, as opposed to the practice of mixing these elementsafter they have been prepared separately. Gianluca Sergi distinguishes thisfrom the New York Metropolitan sound, which is more ‘gutsy . . . influenced,among other things, by rap and other forms of black music’ (quoted inDavison, 2004, pp. 192–3).

12. Chris Cunningham’s video for the song ‘Only You’ (1998) by Portishead isan effective example of this approach. Here Cunningham creates an imageof a night-time world as if submerged under water by filming a teenage boyfloating in a huge underwater tank and then superimposing this materialin slow-motion over the background of a dark alley. Frame cutting is usedto speed up and slow down his movements under the water so that theycoincide perfectly with the flow and changes in the music.

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3 The Musicality of Film Rhythm

1. A bibliography covering all writings about rhythm in music collected byJonathan D. Kramer and published in 1985 has around 850 items. When itcomes to rhythm in film, apart from the French film Impressionists, JeanMitry (1997, 2000), Andrey Tarkovsky (1986) and Claudia Widgery (1990),few theoreticians and directors have discussed this subject in depth.

2. A long shot full of action will appear shorter than a static close-up of thesame duration. However, a dynamic close shot will be perceived as shorterthan a static long shot. As Mitry concluded, ‘the more dynamic the con-tent and the wider the framing, the shorter the shot appears; the morestatic the content and narrower the framing, the longer the shot appears’(2000, p. 223). For the relationship between mobile framing and our senseof duration in film see also Bordwell and Thompson (1993, pp. 226–7).

3. It is revealing, though, that the term ‘rhythmic editing’ still has the samemeaning in contemporary textbooks about film as in the era of the Sovietmontage school: it considers the length of the shots in relation to each other,implying that the actual durations of the takes are the most important factorsin establishing rhythmic relations between them (Bordwell and Thompson,1993, pp. 256–66; 277–9).

4. The distinctive slow-motion shots in The Matrix and The Matrix Reloaded werecreated as a result of a special effects technique called ‘bullet-time’, designedspecifically for the first Matrix film in order to illustrate the action in theconstructed (‘virtual’) reality and the superior mind-over-Matrix capabilitiesof the main protagonist Neo. Not until The Matrix Reloaded were they usedconsistently as rhythmic accents.

5. The Gestalt ‘laws of organization’, discussed in depth by Wertheimer, Köhler,Koffka and others, involve, for example, the ‘law of symmetry’, whichdescribes the tendency to see shapes as being as symmetrical as possible;the ‘law of good continuation’ relating to the tendency to see lines andedges as being as uninterrupted as possible; the ‘law of proximity’ relatingto the tendency to see things that are close together as belonging together,which corresponds to the similar law of temporal Gestalt. The law of ‘com-mon fate’ says that objects which move or change together are seen as aunit. This law reflects the power of relative movement as an organizingforce for perception. However, these laws are useful descriptors mostly fortwo-dimensional symbolic or abstract representation. Haber and Hershenson(1980, pp. 315–6); Julian Hochberg (1972, pp. 51–2).

6. See ‘Temporal Factors in Visual Perception’ in Haber and Hershenson (1980,pp. 113–40).

7. This is the timing of the scene in the DVD release of Mirror (Artificial Eye,2002, PAL).

8. In his chapter about how the development of certain technological sounddevices influenced the practice and style of Hollywood cinema of the 1930s,Barry Salt points out that as soon as technology allowed it (by the intro-duction of ‘rubber numbering’ of the cutting copies), most directors movedtowards faster cutting and established an average shot length that wasin most cases just slightly longer than that typical of silent films of thelate 1920s (around five seconds). This observation proves the tendencyof American directors towards shorter shot lengths compared to European

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directors (Salt, 1985, pp. 37–43). The same inclination for short shots wasconfirmed after the introduction of the CinemaScope system, which wasexpected to instigate a revision of the norms of staging and cutting – theelimination of close-ups, the slowing down of cutting, decreased depthof fields, reduction of camera movements, etc. – but Hollywood quicklyadapted the new screen shape to classical stylistic norms, keeping the aver-age length of shots between six and eight seconds (Bordwell, 1997, pp.199–200).

9. This is the timing of the scene in the DVD release of Requiem for a Dream(Momentum Pictures, DVD Video, 2001, PAL).

10. The influence of hip hop on Aronofsky’s early work will be explored in detailin Chapter 8.

11. The choice of Epstein’s terminology here can be confusing because generallyin literature pulse is more often identified with metre and beat (chronometrictime) than rhythm (integral time). According to Cooper and Meyer (1966,pp. 3–4), a ‘pulse is one of a series of regularly recurring, precisely equiv-alent stimuli’ and when ‘pulses are counted within a metric context, theyare referred to as beats’. They also say that ‘rhythm is at least theoreticallyindependent of pulse’, which means that in this context pulse is identi-fied with metre. Epstein, on the other hand, employs the word ‘pulse’ asa manifestation of rhythmic, not metric content.

4 The Rhythm of Rhythms

1. Tenney and Polansky’s (1980, pp. 205–39) definition of the temporal Gestaltunit (or TG) is based on the recognition of the hierarchical levels of percep-tual organization in music. It encompasses TG units at the simplest level,which are not temporally divisible (an element), to the ‘clangs’ that consistof a succession of two or more elements, followed by TG units at successivelevels embodied in sequences, segments, sections, to the TG at the highest levelidentified with the piece itself.

2. A possible analogy between TG units in music in film would be that elementcorresponds to shot, clang to scene, sequence to sequence and so on.

3. Cone’s remark was later conceptualized in the context of a theory of rhythmdeveloped by Lerdahl and Jackendoff (1983, pp. 30–3) and typified by theterms structural anacrusis (upbeat) and structural downbeat, where the for-mer describes the time span of prolonged tension, while the latter refersto the moment of release marked by the convergence of different musicalparameters relating to grouping structure, metrical structure and harmonicstructure.

4. According to Rose, by conceiving repetition as if it were a singular force,Adorno, Jameson and Attali suggest that

mass production sets the terms for repetition and that any other culturalforms of repetition, once practiced inside systems of mass production, aresubsumed by the larger logic of industrialization. Consequently, no othermass-produced or mass-consumed forms that privilege forms of repeti-tion are accessible or relevant once inside this larger logic of industrialrepetition.

(1994, p. 72)

190 Notes

5. Sexy Beast was written by Louis Mellis, David Scinto and Andrew MichaelJolley (story).

6. Both Ray Winston and Ben Kingsley in ‘behind the scenes’ interviews referto the rhythmic aspect of the writing as ‘poetry’ (Sexy Beast DVD release,Extra Features, Film Four 4 Video, 2002).

7. In the European DVD release of the film (Region 2, PAL), the rhythmic dia-logue exchange between Don and Gal which precedes the montage sequencestarts around 0.23.00 and moves into the montage sequence at 0.24.11.

8. This theme was originally composed by Shigeru Umebayashi for SeijunSuzuki’s film Yumeji (1991).

9. ‘The viewer builds the fabula on the basis of prototype schemata (identifi-able types of persons, actions, locales, etc.), template schemata (principallythe “canonic” story) and procedural schemata (a search for appropriatemotivations and relations of causality, time, and space),’ (Bordwell, 1997,p. 49).

10. The first story is about a young man, Matsumoto, who leaves his fiancéeSawako in order to marry his boss’s daughter. When he finds out aboutSawako’s attempted suicide, which leaves her brain-damaged, Matsumotois riddled with guilt and decides to abandon everything and devote the restof his life to being with her. They end up wandering through the countryjoined by a rope, enacting the traditional Bunraku role of ‘bounded beggars’.In the second story, an old man, Hiro, remembers how he deserted the girl heloved in order to fulfil his ambition to become a gangster boss. When he wasbreaking up with her, the girl said she would return every Saturday afternoonto the same bench in the park with two lunch boxes. Decades later, full ofregret, Hiro returns to the park one Saturday afternoon and finds the womansitting on the same bench, with two lunches. He continues meeting her thereon Saturdays, until one day, on his way back to the car, he is murdered.The third story is about a young pop-star who chooses isolation after becom-ing disfigured in a car accident. The only one who manages to get throughto her is a devoted fan who puts out his own eyes so she knows he cannotsee her. Like Hiro in the previous story, he also dies after one meeting withthe girl – he is run down by a car.

11. The title itself refers to this theatrical form which uses dolls, instead of actors,each controlled by puppeteers visible onstage.

12. For instance, if two scenes (A and B) consist of six shots each, instead ofpresenting them in chronological order Kitano might present the first oneas follows: A1 A2 A3 A4 A6 A5 A6, or A1 A2 A3 A4 A6 A5 A6 A5. He mightalso combine two scenes by inserting a shot from the second scene intothe first one: A1 A2 A3 B4 A4 A5 A6 and then present the second scenechronologically. Other variations are also used.

5 Musical and Film Kinesis

1. I am using this word of Greek origin as it covers the meanings of both‘motion’ and ‘movement’ and as it is the obvious and only source of theadjective ‘kinetic’, which describes what relates to, is caused by or producesmotion. I also like the fact that this word still carries a remnant of its originalmeaning as employed by Plato in his Timaeus, where kinesis refers to the

Notes 191

‘movements of the soul’ which have ’an affinity with the divine part withinus’ (Plato, 1969, p. 46; pp. 52–3; Rouge, 1985, pp. 203–4).

2. Some scholars, like Gregory Currie (1996, p. 336) for instance, challenge theview of film movement as an illusion with the claim that ‘a certain, restrictedkind of apparent motion in cinema is, in fact, not merely apparent, but real’and he calls it ‘cinematic motion’.

3. Unlike the idea of music being expressive of human feelings, which is stillone of the most contentious issues in music aesthetics, the notion of music’sinductive potential has not only rarely been challenged but also its connec-tion with movement has often been noted (see Sessions, 1962, p. 22; Epstein,1995, p. 457; Langer, 1996, p. 228; Scherer and Zentner, 2001, p. 377 andso on.)

4. The other kind of exception is Aleksandar Sokurov’s film Russian Ark (2002),which was shot in its totality in a single, 90-minute-long take, using a digitalcamera.

5. Despite Kolker’s previously cited remark that continuous camera movementhas often been used with the intention to provide ‘a kind of visual ana-logue to the form of the music’, it is hardly necessary to add that not alldiegetic and camera movements exercise that intention or induce a sense ofmusicality. How much the perception of the nature and effect of movementdepends on the context can be illustrated by Alan Clarke’s Elephant (1989),which provided the original inspiration for Van Sant’s film. Clarke’s unusualtake on the Northern Irish problem of ‘getting used to living with the ele-phant in your lounge’ consists of a series of silent long takes showing peoplewalking and then committing murders. While Van Sant combines long track-ing shots with dialogue scenes and actually takes some time to introduce hischaracters, Clarke’s film is deliberately monotonous, repetitive and detached,gradually building up an overwhelming feeling of senselessness and theabsurdity of sectarian crimes rather than musicality.

6. This is the timing of the scene in the DVD of Gerry (Film Four, 2004, PAL).7. Tintinnabuli is a stylistic device in which one voice arpeggiates the pitches

of the tonic triad while another moves in stepwise motion.8. See also Chapter 2.9. That is not to say that his concept of audio-visual counterpoint presented in

the ‘Statement’ he wrote with Pudovkin and Alexandrov in 1928 should beunderstood simply as contrasting the relationship between music and image,as was interpreted by Kracauer and then repeatedly misused in film theoryand criticism. Eisenstein’s use of the term polyphonic montage in silent film(see Chpt. 2, note 3) makes it clear that his understanding of counterpointis closer to the original musical meaning advocating the interweaving ofindependent lines of visual composition, editing and music.

10. See for instance Adorno and Eisler (1947/1994, pp. 78–9, 152–7); Prendergast(1977/1992, pp. 223–6); Brown (1994, pp. 136–8); Thompson (1981).

11. The experiments of G. Harrer and H. Harrer demonstrated that in react-ing to music that has a prominent acceleration or deceleration in tempo,some of the subjects tended to synchronize with the music primarilythrough pulse, while others did it through breathing (Epstein, 1995, p. 151).C. L. Krumhansl’s research shows that, even though subjects did not alwaysagree about the type of emotional responses to music, in all cases musicaffected their vegetative nervous system and produced changes in heart rate,

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blood pressure, skin conductance and temperature, or changes in respiratorypatterns (Scherer and Zentner, 2001, p. 375) and Ben Winters stressed that asimilar effect can be ascribed to film music (2008).

12. The director of photography in this film was Henri Alekan who worked withWenders on The State of Things (1982) and is also famous for his work onJean Cocteau’s Beauty and the Beast (1945).

13. This is the timing of the scene in the DVD release of Wings of Desire (AxiomFilms, 1987, PAL).

14. This is the timing of the scene in the DVD release of The Matrix (WarnerHome Video, UK, 1999, PAL).

6 The Symbolic Nature of Musical and Film Time

1. Before the standardization of projection speed to 24 frames per second forsound film, silent films were shot and projected at speeds which variedbetween 12 and 26 fps, depending on the year and the studio.

2. Ralph Stephenson and Guy Phelps (1989, p. 139) give the example of ‘expres-sive montage’ which connects the pictures of a crowd of commuters and aflock of sheep in Charlie Chaplin’s City Lights (1931), or women gossipingand hens cackling in Fritz Lang’s Fury (1936).

3. Obviously, this statement is applicable to both spatial and temporal art formsexcept in cases of musical open form or musical and theatrical works whichinclude improvisation.

4. Contemplative cinema was a widely used term until 2010 (February) when,on the pages of UK magazine Sight and Sound, Jonathan Romney coined theterm ‘Slow Cinema’ to describe the ‘varied strain of austere minimalist cin-ema’ that had marked the first decade of our century in the work of LisandroAlonso, Béla Tarr and Carlos Reygadas.

5. The term was famously used by Paul Schrader in his book TranscendentalStyle in Film which discusses the work of Yasujiro Ozu, Robert Bresson andCarl Dreyer (1972).

6. Eisenstein’s techniques of ‘montage of attractions’, ‘intellectual montage’and ‘vertical montage’ were all based on the belief that only through theconflict or synthesis of two different shots can the envisioned new meaningemerge, the meaning that allows the filmmaker to create significant aes-thetic, ideological or even historical statements. The main aim of classicalHollywood style and its continuity editing, though, is to make form ‘invisi-ble’, so that the viewer becomes immersed in the story and can easily identifywith its participants.

7. ‘The instant is what comes, and at the same time what distracts; in a basiccontradiction, it is both what makes time pass over us by manifesting ourbeing-for-death, and that which distances us from the thought of death,from care’ (Aumont, 2000, p. 102).

8. According to the biological origin of the world, Umwelt represents the ‘self-world’ or a ‘circumscribed portion of the environment’ for a given species,while in Fraser’s interpretation the meaning is extended to represent ‘self-worlds’ and temporalities of matter, animals and man.

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9. Fraser defines nootemporality as the temporal reality of the mature humanmind characterized by a clear distinction between future, past and present.Biotemporality is the temporal reality of living organisms including man, asfar as his biological functions are concerned. Eotemporality is the temporalreality of the astronomical universe of massive matter. It is a continuous butnondirected, nonflowing time to which our ideas of present, future or pastcannot be applied. The time of the world of elementary particles is calledprototemporality. This is an undirected, nonflowing as well as fragmented(noncontinuous) time for which precise locations of instants have no mean-ing. The world of electromagnetic radiation is termed ‘atemporal’ for none ofour ordinary notions associated with time apply to its state of energy. It is themost primitive level of the universe, that of radiative chaos. Physics dividesits concerns along the distinctive temporalities of the physical world. Thespecial theory of relativity addresses the atemporal world of light, quantumtheory focuses on the prototemporal universe of particle-waves, the generaltheory of relativity deals with the eotemporal cosmos and thermodynamicsencompasses them all, at least as far as the discoveries of physics about timego (1981, pp. 106–12, 358, 367–8).

10. As Marshall McLuhan showed, the linear conception of time can also be con-nected with language, because the word and the sentence are linear in form,analytical, consequential, progressive. In preliterate society, where time wasviewed cyclically, language too was more ‘organic’ (Shallis, 1982, p. 15).

11. One storyline is based on the character of a movie star who inadvertentlystarts living the life of the character she’s playing; one features a working-class woman who becomes pregnant without knowing that her husband issterile; another focuses on a possibly homeless woman whose recollection ofadultery is just a minor incident in a story of abuse and loss communicatedthrough a long monologue. All these characters are played by Laura Dern,but they all could be projections of another character, a Polish woman, whois shown at the beginning and throughout the film watching a TV screenon which some of the movie’s other plot strands appear. The connectionbetween her and Laura Dern’s character is confirmed at the end in the scenein which they kiss and merge into one – an archetypal image of integration asexplained by Jung; a process in which the disturbed, wounded, traumatized,borderline-insane self is accepted and forgiven by the psyche, the two ofthem becoming one.

12. In the second episode the girls dance to Carol King’s song ‘Locomotion’, andin the third they lip-sync ‘At Last’ by Etta James.

7 Jim Jarmusch’s Dead Man and the Rhythmof Musical Form

1. It’s just another brand slapped on something to market it. I don’t knowwhat it means anymore. It’s like ‘alternative’ music. It means nothing now.It’s used to make alternative music commercial, you know, mainstream.I’ve never liked titles slapped on things anyway . . . At this point, what thehell does that mean?

(Jarmusch quoted in Baumgarten, 2001, p. 174)

194 Notes

2. As a student, Jarmusch made the film Permanent Vacation (1980).3. . . . In be-bop and in hip-hop Charlie Parker can play at what was at the

time considered an incredibly outside solo, but he will quote a standardwithin that solo. He’s not playing the standard, but he is referring to itand weaving it into something completely new and his own. And in hip-hop, the backing tracks are made from other things and put together toconstruct something new out of them. In the past, when I was writing andI thought of a reference to another film or another book, I always pushedit away because it was not original. But this time I just opened that doorand I think music convinced me to do that.

(Jarmusch quoted in Geoff Andrew, 2001, pp. 189–90)

4. The urban character of the first part is emphasized by funky jazz music writtenby John Lurie, who is also one of the actors. The second part takes place ina prison without any music whatsoever, and the escape from the prison inthe third part brings the characters into the swamps of Louisiana, which areteeming with Lurie’s ‘ambient’ jazz.

5. Jarmusch explained his approach while discussing the use of blackouts inStranger than Paradise:

They get shorter towards the end as the pace of the story picks up a littlebit. That was something done very carefully. It took a long time to makethose decisions and you wouldn’t even know it unless you had a stop-watch, but I think the rhythm influences the story a lot. It’s somethingthat took a long time to decide. We decided each one individually.

(Quoted in Belsito, 2001, p. 35)

6. Beside the theme of William Blake’s destined journey which dominates themovie, Neil Young’s score also contains the short motif of the ‘hunt’, as wellas the motif of Blake’s Indian friend, Nobody, which resembles Indian ritualchanting on one tone and a short theme of the ‘ghost visions’.

7. See Royal S. Brown’s Overtones and Undertones (1994, pp. 8–11) for an insightfulapplication of Lévi-Strauss’ ideas to film music analysis.

8. Rickman insists that Blake is a protagonist ‘who never learns anything fromhis ordeal. He is a traveller across a mythic landscape who remains obliviousto it’ (1998, p. 390). He finds the proof of Blake’s ignorance in the last joke inwhich, having been told by Nobody that his journey will take him ‘back wherehe came from’, he responds with the words ‘You mean Cleveland’? It seemsto me that this joke is more about the final misunderstanding between thetwo cultures than the ‘comic deflation of the very notion of a spiritualquest’.

8 Hip Hop and Techno Composing Techniques and Modelsof Structuring in Darren Aronofsky’s π

1. Originally, The Fountain was supposed to be made with a $70 million budgetstarring Brad Pitt and Cate Blanchett, but, after Pitt pulled out of the project,production was shut down. Aronofsky eventually made the film with thebudget slashed in half, starring Hugh Jackman and Rachel Weisz, but the

Notes 195

reception among critics was divided and the release in Europe was limited.The film has gathered a cult following since.

2. Also, in video and DVD distribution the film was given the subtitle ‘Faith inChaos’.

3. Sound design was created by Brian Emrich.4. This is the timing of the scene in the DVD release of π (Pathé!, 1998, PAL).5. Dub is a musical style originating in reggae music of the late 1960s, involv-

ing remixing records to bring certain instruments to the foreground (usuallybass and drums) and causing others to echo. In a dub the original tuneis still recognizable, but it may be ‘stretched, broken and bent into themost extraordinary shapes by all kinds of electronic wizardry’. It usuallyinvolves distortion of a sound with echo and reverb but a more experimentalapproach to dub can even make the music resemble free jazz (Hebdige, 1987,pp. 82–4).

6. I refer here not only to music, but to all other sonic aspects of the film thatinclude dialogue, Max’s voice-over, diegetic and non-diegetic sound effects.

7. This title is given to this sequence in the DVD chapter index.8. There is also a short transitional scene in the third act (1.10.10–1.10.43),

showing Max rushing home after declaring to the Jewish mystics that hewas the one chosen to communicate with God. Corresponding to his stateof exhilaration, the soundtrack for this scene is created by overlapping seg-ments of Max’s voice-overs, electronically produced noises and a fragmentof Max’s musical theme.

9. As all the elements of the story that concern the number Pi, the GoldenSpiral, the Golden Ratio, the 216-digit number behind the Torah and soon, are based on real facts, so Max’s belief that a certain shape or patternis behind the constitution of the universe can be supported by the theoryof the ‘interconnected universe’ proposed by physicist David Bohm. In hisbook Wholeness and the Implicate Order Bohm explains the concept of ‘undi-vided wholeness’ according to which the universe is constructed on the sameprinciples as a hologram, so that the entire information of the universe iscontained in each of its parts. See also Reyner (2001, pp. 20–1).

10. Fragments of Max’s voice-over were also used for the π music soundtrack CD(Thrive Records, 1998), inserted between tracks by different artists.

11. Beside Mansell’s original score, the film also uses tracks by other artists andbands like Autechre, Orbital, Banco de Gaia, Spacetime Continuum andso on.

12. It is important to distinguish here between films about hip hop, like 8 Mile(2002) and films like π and Requiem for a Dream that are not at all about hiphop but inspired by it in terms of its sampling practices.

9 Audio-Visual Musicality and Reflexivity in Joe Wright’sAnna Karenina

1. On the CD this track is entitled ‘Beyond the Stage’.2. A similarly powerful moment can be found in War and Peace when

Andrei Bolkonsky, wounded during Napoleon’s invasion of Russia, regains

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consciousness in a crowded hospital and seeing the face of the girl he loves,Natasha, believes it is an apparition.

3. Levin’s high strings are also combined with Masha’s song in the scene inwhich Kitty nurses his sick brother Nikolay in the presence of an ‘indecent’woman. Even though having a ‘fallen woman’ under the same roof as hisbride seems at first unimaginable to Levin, since even the maid won’t cometo the house while Masha is there, the musical juxtaposition is deliberatelyconsonant. The worlds of the highly idealistic Konstantin and his alienated,rebellious brother who married a former prostitute are brought together in thenursing scene through Kitty’s no-nonsense approach and kindness and arerepresented musically in a gentle, lyrical combination of high-pitched stringsand Masha’s song presented non-diegetically.

4. This is the timing of the scene in the DVD release of Anna Karenina (UniversalPictures, 2012, PAL).

5. Even though only the germ of this waltz is chromatic (its first four notessurrounding the dominant of the waltz’s original key, D minor), I’ll call thistheme a ‘chromatic waltz’ to distinguish it from the other waltz with which itis sometimes combined.

6. Tchaikovsky’s own description of the 1st movement of his Symphony No. 4 inhis letter to Nadezhda von Meck (E. Garden and N. Gotteri).

Conclusion

1. Lessing’s famous treatise on arts, Laocoon (1766), which insisted on a strictdivision between spatial (painting, sculpture, architecture) and temporal(poetry and music) arts, was quite influential until the mid-20th century andspurred many supporting studies including Irving Babbitt’s The New Laocoon(1910) and Clement Greenberg’s ‘Towards a Newer Laocoon’ (1940).

2. In my 2008 article ‘Sound Design is the New Score’ I discuss the trendof replacing traditional scores with musically conceived sound effects andmusique concrète as a consequence of the musical approach to film on onehand and the general saturation of filmmaking practice with the scoring con-ventions of narrative cueing and using music to tell the audience ‘how itshould feel’ on the other. It is also worth noting Anahid Kassabian’s (2003,p. 95) point that the approach to film soundtrack ‘in which sound materialsare no longer treated according to clearly established hierarchies of voice overmusic over sound over noise’ can be traced to the fact that after Cage muchof 20th-century music history has been about absorbing noise into music.

Bibliography

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Filmography

Alexander Nevsky (Sergei Eisenstein, Soviet Union, 1938).Amores Perros (Alejandro González Iñárritu, Mexico, 2000).Anna Karenina (Joe Wright, UK, 2012).L’année dernière à Marienbad (Alain Resnais, France, 1961).Apocalypse Now (Francis Ford Coppola, USA, 1979).Ascenseur pour l’échafaud (Louis Malle, France, 1957).Atonement (Joe Wright, UK, 2007).Ballet mécanique (Fernand Léger, France, 1924).Batman Begins (Christopher Nolan, USA, 2005).Battleship Potemkin (Sergei Eisenstein, Soviet Union, 1925).Black Swan (Darren Aronofsky, USA, 2010).Blue Velvet (David Lynch, USA, 1986).Boogie Doodle (Norman McLaren, Canada, 1948).Breathe In (Drake Doremus, USA, 2013).Broken Flowers (Jim Jarmusch, USA/France, 2005).Chungking Express (Wong Kar-wai, Hong Kong, 1994).Cinq minutes de cinéma pur (Henri Chomette, France, 1925).Code Unknown: Incomplete Tales of Several Journeys (Code inconnu: Récit incomplet de

divers voyages, Michael Haneke, France/Germany/Romania, 2000).Colour Box, A (Len Lye, UK, 1935).Conversation, The (Francis Ford Coppola, USA, 1974).Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (Ang Lee, Taiwan/Hong Kong/USA/China, 2000).Crucified Lovers, The (Kenji Mizoguchi, Japan, 1954).Damnation (Béla Tarr, Hungary, 1988).Dead Man (Jim Jarmusch, USA/Germany/Japan, 1995).Dolls (Takeshi Kitano, Japan, 2002).Don Jon (Joseph Gordon-Levitt, USA, 2013).Don’t Look Now (Nicolas Roeg, UK, 1973).Down By Law (Jim Jarmusch, USA, 1986).Elephant (Alan Clarke, UK, 1989).Elephant (Gus Van Sant, USA, 2003).Eraserhead (David Lynch, USA, 1977).Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (Michel Gondry, USA, 2004).Fountain, The (Darren Aronofsky, USA, 2006).Gerry (Gas Van Sant, USA, 2002).Ghost Dog: The Way of the Samurai (Jim Jarmusch, France/Germany/USA/Japan,

1999).Godfather, The I–III (Francis Ford Coppola, USA, 1972/1974/1990).Go (Doug Liman, USA, 1999).GoodFellas (Martin Scorsese, USA, 1990).Hero (Zhang Yimou, Hong Kong/China/USA, 2002).Hidden (Caché, Michael Haneke, France/Austria/Germany, 2005).Hiroshima mon amour (Alain Resnais, France, 1958).

209

210 Filmography

House of Flying Daggers (Zhang Yimou, Hong Kong/China, 2004).In the Mood for Love (Wong Kar-wai, Hong Kong, 2000).Inland Empire (David Lynch, France/Poland/USA, 2006).Irréversible (Gaspar Noé, France, 2002).Jackie Brown (Quentin Tarantino, USA, 1997).JFK (Oliver Stone, USA, 1991).Kill Bill vols 1 and 2 (Quentin Tarantino, USA, 2003; 2004).Lantana (Ray Lawrence, Australia, 2001).Last Days (Gus Van Sant, USA, 2005).Limits of Control, The (Jim Jarmusch, USA, 2009).Lost Highway (David Lynch, USA, 1997).Magnolia (Paul Thomas Anderson, 1999, USA).Mambo (Jordan Belson, USA, 1952).Matrix Reloaded, The (The Wachowski Brothers, USA, 2003).Matrix, The (The Wachowski Brothers, USA, 1999).Memento (Christopher Nolan, USA, 2000).Mirror, The (Andrei Tarkovsky, Soviet Union, 1974).Mother, The (Vsevolod Pudovkin, Soviet Union, 1926).Moulin Rouge! (Baz Luhrmann, USA/Australia, 2001).Mulholland Drive (David Lynch, USA, 2001).Mystery Train (Jim Jarmusch, USA/Japan, 1989).Natural Born Killers (Oliver Stone, USA, 1994).Night on Earth (Jim Jarmusch, USA, 1991).October (Sergei Eisenstein, Soviet Union, 1928).Once Upon a Time in America (Sergio Leone, USA, 1984).Only Lovers Left Alive (Jim Jarmusch, UK/Germany, 2013).Optical Poem, An (Oscar Fischinger, USA, 1938).Opus 1, 2, 3, 4 (Lichtspiel, Walter Ruttman, Germany, 1921–5).Pi (Darren Aronofsky, USA, 1998).Pierrot le fou (Jean-Luc Godard, France, 1965).Prénom: Carmen (Jean-Luc Godard, France, 1983).Prospero’s Books (Peter Greenaway, UK/France, 1991).Pulp Fiction (Quentin Tarantino, USA, 1994).Raging Bull (Martin Scorsese, USA, 1980).Rashomon (Akira Kurosawa, Japan, 1950).Requiem for a Dream (Darren Aronofsky, USA, 2000).Romeo + Juliet (Baz Luhrmann, USA/Australia/UK, 1996).Royal Tenenbaums, The (Wes Anderson, USA, 2001).Run Lola Run (Tom Tykwer, Germany, 1998).Russian Arc (Aleksander Sokurov, Russia/Germany, 2002).Samurai, The (Le Samouraï, Jean-Pierre Melville, France, 1967).Sátántangó (Béla Tarr, Hungary/Germany/Switzerland, 1994).Sexy Beast (Jonathan Glazer, UK/Spain, 2000).Shaun of the Dead (Simon Pegg, UK/France/USA, 2004).Short Cuts (Robert Altman, USA, 1993).Sixth Part of the World, A (Dziga Vertov, Soviet Union, 1926).Spider (David Cronenberg, France, Canada, UK, 2002).Spring Breakers (Harmony Korine, USA, 2012).Spun (Jonas Åkerlund, USA, 2002).

Filmography 211

Stranger Than Paradise (Jim Jarmusch, USA, 1984).Tempest, The (Derek Jarman, UK, 1979).Thémes et variations (Germaine Dulac, France, 1928).Timecode (Mike Figgis, USA, 2000).Touch of Evil (Orson Welles, USA, 1958).Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me (David Lynch, USA/France, 1992).21 grams (Alejandro González Iñárritu, Germany/USA, 2003).Under the Skin (Jonathan Glazer, UK/USA, 2013).Upstream Color (Shane Carruth, USA, 2013).Vivre sa vie (Jean-Luc Godard, France, 1962).Wings of Desire (Der Himmel über Berlin, Wim Wenders, Germany, 1987).World’s End, The (Simon Pegg, UK/USA, 2013).

Index

Note: Locators followed by the letter ‘n’ refer to notes.

accents, 38, 40–1, 45, 47, 49, 51, 55,65, 72, 82, 90, 123, 127, 131, 151,155, 173, 188n

audio-visual, 90, 127rhythmic, 82, 155, 188nstructural, 55, 72, 123

Adorno, Theodor, 59, 189n, 191naesthetics, 5, 14, 16, 23, 30–2, 37, 43,

44–7, 50, 52, 79, 88, 100–2, 142,184, 191n

of the cut, 37, 43, 44–5, 100, see alsorhythm

of MTV (music video), 30–2, 46of the shot, 16, 37, 43, 44–5, 50,

100, 102, see also rhythmÅkerlund, Jonas, 181Alexander Nevsky, 83–5Alexandrov, G.V., 24, 46, 191nAltman, Rick, 23, 24Altman, Robert, 104Alvarez, Javier, 52, 68ambient music, 8, 75American Independent cinema, 14,

26, 28, 117–18Amores Perros, 104Anderson, Jeffrey M., 138, 139Anderson, Paul Thomas, 31Anderson, Wes, 31Anger, Kenneth, 28Anna Karenina, 17, 27, 158–77,

179, 183L’année dernière à Marienbad, 22, 104Apocalypse Now, 25Aronofsky, Darren, 28, 30, 47, 49, 117,

137–57, 159, 181, 183, 189n,194n

art hybridity, 179–80Ascenseur pour l’échafaud, 132Ashby, Arved, 13Atonement, 162–3, 172Attali, Jacques, 59, 189n

audio-visualaesthetics, 5, 88composing (scoring), 62, 82, 89–90,

126, 133counterpoint, 40, 45–6, 85, 173–4,

191ndesign, 122, 131, 140, 142, 177flow, 27, 127, 157, 177interaction, 40, 86kinesis, 26, 88–9, 148–9musique concrète, 79, 179rhythm, 40, 44–5, 147structure, 14, 27, 29, 51, 60,

140, 155synthesis, 83, 85, 90, 121texture, 4, 133, 177

Aumont, Jacques, 102, 192nAuster, Paul, 6, 8, 186n‘auteur music’, 13, 28

Ballet mécanique, 20Battleship Potemkin, 63‘Bay Area sound’, 25Bayer, Raymond, 54Bazin, André, 100–1Beckett, Samuel, 6, 19Bellour, Raymond, 57, 70Belson, Jordan, 21Bergson, Henri, 9, 93, 97Birtwistle, Harrison, 104Black Swan, 137Blue Velvet, 25, 110Bohlman, Philip V., 96Boogie-Doodle, 21Bordwell, David, 9, 12, 22, 46, 58, 63,

67, 68, 69, 76, 95, 98, 102, 105,188n, 189n, 190n

Boulez, Pierre, 104Brakhage, Stan, 13, 28Breathe In, 183Brelèt, Gisele, 130

212

Index 213

Broken Flowers, 124, 132Brown, Royal S., 187n, 194nBuhler, James, 23‘bullet-time’, 88–9, 188n

see also The MatrixBurch, Noël, 9, 22, 26

Cage, John, 7, 104, 124–5, 155,196n

Campbell, Joseph, 129, 130Carruth, Shane, 32, 183Cherkaoui, Sidi Larbi, 165, 169Chion, Michel, 40, 43, 187nChomette, Henri, 20Chungking Express, 140Cinq minutes de cinéma pur, 20Clarke, Alan, 184, 191nclassical Hollywood, 14, 24, 46, 98,

182, 187n, 192nscoring, 182, 187nstyle, 46, 192n

Code Unknown, 29cognitive psychology, 14, 23, 57Cohen, Annabel J., 22, 40, 58Colour Box, A, 21comparative analysis, 3, 4, 11, 13, 35,

40, 91, 93, 94Cone, Edward T., 53, 56, 95, 96, 127,

189nConversation, The, 25Cook, Nicholas, 10, 11, 43, 87Cooper, Grosvenor, 38, 41, 189nCoppola, Francis Ford, 25, 187nCronenberg, David, 39Cross, Brian, 143Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon, 26,

89–90Crowe, Cameron, 32Crucified Lovers, The, 26Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly, 8Cunningham, Chris, 31, 187n

Damnation, 45Davies, Stephen, 23Davison, Annette, 24, 87, 88,

187nDead Man, 16–17, 117–36, 182Deleuze, Gilles, 81, 101Deren, Maya, 28

Dern, Laura, 111–12, 193ndigital editing, 30–1, 82, 88Dolls, 70–2, 190nDon Jon, 181–2Donnelly, Kevin, 10, 110, 183,

187nDon’t Look Now, 60Doremus, Drake, 183Down By Law, 119, 121, 122, 124, 132Dreyer, Carl Theodor, 120, 192nDulac, Germaine, 20Dürr, Walter, 37

editing, 16–17, 27–8, 30–3, 45–50,55–6, 60–3, 69–72, 74, 76, 80–2,88–91, 98–102, 126–8, 141–3,147–51, 153–7, 171–2, 179, 181,188n, 192n

see also montage; digital editingEisenstein, Sergei, 3, 21, 22, 24, 40, 46,

63, 82–5, 91, 98, 186n, 191n,192n

electronic music, 7, 155, 156Elephant (1989), 184, 191nElephant (2003), 62, 77–8, 184Epstein, David, 8, 37, 41, 49, 73, 76–7,

86, 189n, 191nEraserhead, 39, 109Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind, 28European cinema, 14, 24–6, 29, 46

Fatboy Slim, 31Figgis, Mike, 3, 27, 32film/music analogy, 3, 9, 14, 15, 22,

23, 72Fischinger, Oskar, 13, 20flow, 8–9, 48–9, 56, 73–5, 77–8, 80–1,

100–2, 127, 128, 141, 143, 148,155–7, 159, 165–7, 169, 171–4,176–7, 185, 187n

formalism, 9, 12, 22, 54, 62, 73, 185Fountain, The, 137, 194nFraser, J. T., 105, 112, 192n, 193n

Gance, Abel, 20Garwood, Ian, 87Gerry, 78–9Gesamtkunstwerk, 19, 21, 180

see also Wagner

214 Index

Gestalt, 9, 14, 37, 40–2, 43, 51, 54, 65,66, 72, 74, 188n, 189n

dominants, 42–3, 51laws of perception, 40, 42, 65, 72psychology, 37, 41, 43, 74temporal Gestalt, 9, 41–2, 54, 188n,

189nGhost Dog: The Way of the Samurai,

121, 124, 182Glazer, Jonathan, 30, 31, 60, 183Godard, Jean-Luc, 3, 25, 27, 178,

187nGodfather, The, 25Goehr, Lydia, 19, 186nGondry, Michel, 28, 30, 31GoodFellas, 77, 81Gorbman, Claudia, 13, 28, 187nGordon-Levitt, Joseph, 181–2Gostuški, Dragutin, 94, 95, 96Greenaway, Peter, 159Greenwood, E. B., 159, 161, 175grouping, 37, 41–2, 47, 50, 51, 53–5,

90, 189nrhythmical, 42, 51, 53see also Gestalt

Hall, Stuart, 103Haneke, Michael, 29, 183Hanslick, Eduard, 7Hebdige, Dick, 143, 195nHero, 26, 89Hidden (Caché), 29hip hop, 17, 28, 30, 47–8, 55, 121,

137, 139, 141–9, 151, 154–5,156–7, 179, 181, 182, 189n,194n, 195n

montage/editing, 47, 48, 55, 60,141–9, 154–5, 157, 179, 181

montage sequence, 47, 55, 141,143–8, 149, 154, 155

techniques, 17, 28, 48see also montage

Hiroshima mon amour, 104Hodenfield, Chris, 31, 82Hornby, Nick, 6, 8, 186nHouse of Flying Daggers, 26, 89Husserl, Edmund, 93, 97, 125

immersivity, 8, 16, 55, 164, 178immersive form, 16, 55, 178

Impressionists (film), 3, 13, 20,27, 38

Iñárritu, Alejandro González, 32–3,104

In the Mood for Love, 64–5, 70Inland Empire, 108–12

Jackendoff, Ray, 55, 59, 189nJackie Brown, 62, 104Jarman, Derek, 159Jarmusch, Jim, 16, 28, 32, 55, 62, 81,

101, 104, 117–36, 137, 159, 182,193n, 194n

JFK, 82Johnson, Mark, 10–11Johnson, Nathan, 181Jones, Kent, 123Jones, McGraw, 23Jonze, Spike, 30, 31

Kandinsky, Vasilly, 19Kant, Immanuel, 19, 93, 100Kar-wai, Wong, 64, 67, 104Kassabian, Anahid, 187n, 196nKaufman, Charlie, 28Kitano, Takeshi, 70–2, 190nKite, B., 108–9Kolker, Robert, 37, 43, 77, 191nKorine, Harmony, 28, 63, 183Kracauer, Siegfried, 191nKramer, Jonathan, 8, 94, 97, 102, 103,

104, 105, 112, 188nKubrick, Stanley, 3, 25, 187nKurosawa, Akira, 62, 121, 124

Lakoff, George, 10–11Langer, Susanne K., 74, 107, 112,

191nLantana, 69Last Days, 77Lawrence, Ray, 69Lee, Ang, 26, 89–90Lee, Spike, 28Léger, Fernand, 20Leibowitz, Flo, 23Leone, Sergio, 3, 25, 63, 140, 187nLerdahl, Fred, 55, 58, 189n

Index 215

Lévi-Strauss, Claude, 96, 135, 194nLiman, Doug, 104Limits of Control, The, 28, 124,

159, 182Lloyd, Genevieve, 97Lost Highway, 109Luhrmann, Baz, 82, 159, 178Lye, Len, 13, 21Lynch, David, 3, 25, 32, 39, 68,

107–12

Macaulay Scott, 81, 101, 127, 161,165

Magnolia, 31Malle, Louis, 132Mambo, 21Marianelli, Dario, 159–62, 165, 167,

169, 171Mask of Orpheus, The, 104Matrix, The, 26, 39, 89, 90–1, 188nMatrix Reloaded, The, 39, 49, 60, 89,

188nMcClary, Susan, 59McLaren, Norman, 21McLuhan, Marshall, 193nMelville, Jean-Pierre, 121Memento, 63, 104Mertens, Wim, 98, 99metaphor, 3, 6, 10–11, 18, 50, 120,

164, 178, 184see also musical metaphor

metre, 40–1, 45, 48–50, 83, 189nsee also rhythm

Metz, Christian, 24, 76Meyer, Leonard B., 38, 41, 68,

189nMinghella, Anthony, 32, 187nMing-Liang, Tsai, 28minimalism, 8, 56, 65, 79, 98, 99, 100,

134, 192nminimalist style/aesthetics, 118,

131, 192nMirror, The, 44mise-en-bande, 22, 23mise-en-scène, 4, 17, 23, 43, 56, 67,

70, 72, 100, 159, 162, 165, 167,171–2, 177, 184

Mitry, Jean, 20, 38–9, 40, 42, 53, 85,188n

Mizoguchi, Kenji, 26, 124montage, 21, 46, 47–9, 55, 60, 61, 70,

71, 96, 98, 101–3, 141, 142–9,154, 155, 181, 186–7n, 188n,190n, 191n, 192n

hip hop montage, 47–8, 55, 60,141–9, 154–5, 181

montage sequence, 47, 48–9, 55, 60,61, 70, 71, 96, 141, 142–9, 149,154, 155, 190n

polyphonic montage, 21, 186n,191n

vertical montage, 21, 192nMorin, Edgar, 29, 86morphing, 9, 17, 73, 109, 153, 159,

165, 167, 169, 171–4, 176, 177Mother, The, 63motion, 7–8, 56, 73–9, 82, 84, 128,

130, 190n, 191nMoulin Rouge!, 82Moussinac, Leon, 48movement, 7–9, 15–17, 41–5, 72– 91,

125–7, 148–9, 154–6, 165–7,169–76, 183, 189n, 190n,191n

camera movement, 4, 5, 16, 17, 23,27, 33, 38, 42, 45, 76, 77, 81,86–8, 89, 91, 149, 154, 155,156, 159, 171, 183, 189n, 191n

of editing, 42, 74, 80–2within a shot, 4, 16, 31, 42, 74, 76,

77–80, 81, 86, 88, 183see also motion and flow

MTV, 3, 27, 29–32, 82, 127aesthetics, 30–2culture, 30, 82generation, 3, 27, 32see also music video

Mulholland Drive, 107, 108, 110,111, 112

Münsterberg, Hugo, 21Murch, Walter, 25, 29, 70, 80–1, 82,

187nsee also ‘Bay Area sound’

musical analogy, 6, 9, 22musical approach, 4, 17, 22, 27, 33,

151, 159, 182, 183, 184, 187n,196n

216 Index

musicality, 3, 4–7, 9, 10, 13–18, 20,24–6, 32, 56, 73, 74, 85–91, 93,117, 120, 127, 131, 151–2, 154–5,157, 162, 179, 181, 183, 184, 185,186n, 191n

of film, 3, 5, 9, 10, 13–16, 18, 20,24–6, 32, 85–7, 117, 131, 157,179, 181, 183, 184, 186n

of language, 87, 151–2of movement, 74, 162

musical metaphor, 3, 6musical patterning, 148–9, 152musical poetics, 12musical potential, 4, 10, 12, 15, 17, 20,

24–5, 29, 33, 179, 182, 184, 185musical principles, 5, 9, 14, 19, 107,

110, 181, 183musical time, see timemusic video, 15, 18, 30–2, 46, 47,

150, 180musique concrète, 7, 78, 79, 109, 155,

179, 183, 186n, 196naudiovisual musique concrète,

79, 179Mystery Train, 62, 104, 119, 121, 122

Natural Born Killers, 31, 82Night on Earth, 119, 121Nolan, Christopher, 63, 104, 137

October, 63Once Upon a Time in America, 63, 140Ondaatje, Michael, 70, 80Only Lovers Left Alive, 28, 182Optical Poem, An, 20Opus 1, 2, 3, 4 (Lichtspiel), 20

parametric narration, 22, 25, 68see also serialism

Pärt, Arvo, 79, 99, 125patterns, 41, 50, 52, 54, 55, 57–9,

62–67, 69–72, 102, 106, 136–141,149, 151, 152–4, 181

editing patterns, 69–72musical patterns, 154rhythmic patterns, 41, 50, 102, 106structural patterns, 41, 52,see also musical patterning

Pegg, Simon, 181

periodicity, 53–4, 57see also rhythm

Pi (π), 16–17, 30, 47, 117, 137–5, 181,195n

Pierrot le fou, 25, 187nPlato, 5–6, 190–1nPolansky, Larry, 41, 54, 189nPortishead, 31, 187nPrénom: Carmen, 25, 187nPudovkin, Vsevolod, 24, 46, 63, 191nPulp Fiction, 62, 104punch phrasing, 143, 144, 145, 148

Raging Bull, 81, 82Rashomon, 62, 121Rayns, Tony, 64repetition, 16, 22, 29, 45, 47, 48, 52–5,

57–66, 69–72, 96, 99, 104, 106,133, 135, 140–1, 143, 148–51,157, 183, 189n

Requiem for a Dream, 28, 30, 47–9, 55,61, 70, 137, 142, 147, 181

Resnais, Alan, 22, 104rhythm, 4, 5, 6, 7, 15–16, 21, 27,

37–51, 52–72, 73–6, 79–87, 89–91,100–1, 102, 117–18, 120–4,125–9, 131, 133–4, 139–43,146–51, 154–7, 184, 185, 186n,188n, 189n

affective rhythm, 131–5external rhythm, 48–50, 56, 80–1,

90, 101, 127, 155, 156, 157film rhythm, 4, 7, 15, 37–43, 46, 49,

51, 80, 85, 100, 129internal rhythm, 33, 48–51, 56, 80,

81, 89, 124, 148, 149, 155, 157musical rhythm, 5, 27, 37–8, 52rhythm of editing, 16, 21, 27, 38,

47, 154structural (macro) rhythm, 16, 52–4,

56, 69, 121–4Rickman, Gregg, 120, 136, 194nRicoeur, Paul, 50, 97Robbe-Grillet, Alain, 22Rodley, Chris, 25, 108, 111Romanticism, 19, 96

Romantic, 14–15, 18–19, 49, 119,177, 186n, 187n

Romeo + Juliet, 159

Index 217

Romney, Jonathan, 32, 192nRosenbaum, Jonathan, 118, 119–20,

123, 124, 129, 132, 133Rose, Tricia, 58, 59, 143, 148, 189nRoyal Tenenbaums, The, 31Run Lola Run, 28, 104, 159rupture, 110, 143, 148Ruttman, Walter, 20

Sátántangó, 45, 78Schaeffer, Pierre, 79Schlegel, Friedrich, 19Schoenberg, Arnold, 59, 186nSchopenhauer, Arthur, 19, 101,

102, 175Schrader, Paul, 120, 192nSchroeder, David, 187nScorsese, Martin, 3, 8, 32, 77, 81, 82Scruton, Roger, 11serialism, 9, 21–2, 58–9, 68

see also parametric narrationSessions, Roger, 7–8, 69, 191nSexy Beast, 60, 190nShallis, Michael, 106, 193nShaun of the Dead, 181Shaw-Miller, Simon, 180Shklovsky, Viktor, 63, 72Short Cuts, 104silence, 7, 17, 19, 23, 26, 33, 82, 91,

95, 99, 124–6, 128, 130, 184Sixth Part of the World, A, 63‘slow cinema’, 44, 99, 192nSmall, Christopher, 58Sorkin, Aaron, 6sound design, 4, 5, 17, 25, 45, 80, 107,

111, 137, 140, 159, 182, 183,187n, 195n, 196n

sound effects, 4, 5, 7, 14, 23, 24, 25,26, 28, 47–8, 63, 82, 140–4,146–7, 155–7, 173, 183, 186n,187n, 196n

soundtrack, 4, 7, 23, 25, 28, 63, 148,151, 155–7, 183, 187n, 196n

Spaghetti Western, 25, 187nSpider, 39Splet, Alan, 25, 107, 109Spring Breakers, 28, 63, 183Spun, 181Stockhausen, Karlheinz, 104, 186n

Stojanovic, Dušan, 42Stone, Oliver, 31, 82Storr, Anthony, 58, 66Stranger than Paradise, 28, 117–19, 122,

123, 124, 125, 128, 132, 194nStravinsky, Igor, 59stylistic highlighting, 159, 166,

173, 176Szaloky, Melinda, 120, 130

Takemitsu, Toru, 26Tarantino, Quentin, 26, 28, 32, 62, 89,

104, 159, 178Tarkovsky, Andrei, 39, 44–5, 63, 94,

100–1, 106, 108, 129, 188nTarr, Béla, 44–5, 78–9, 99, 101, 192nTatroe, Sonia, 23Tempest, The, 159Tenney, James, 41, 54, 189nThemès et variations, 20Thompson, Kristine, 22, 46, 67, 82,

95, 188n, 191ntime, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 14, 16, 37, 39,

41, 42–5, 49– 50, 58, 59, 79–80,88–9, 93–113, 126, 127, 128–31,135, 189n, 193n

chronometric time, 41, 49–50,189n, see also metre; externalrhythm; aesthetics of the cut

film time, 16, 43, 93–113integral time, 37, 41, 49–50, 189n,

see also internal rhythm;aesthetics of the shot

linear time, 96–8, 112multiple temporalities, 16,

102–5, 107musical time, 6, 58, 59, 95, 97, 112nonlinear time, 97–9

Timecode, 27, 32Touch of Evil, 77transsensorial perception, 40, 43Twin Peaks: Fire Walk with Me, 11021 grams, 104Tykwer, Tom, 28, 104, 159

Umwelt, 105–6, 112, 192nUnder the Skin, 183Upstream Color, 32, 183

218 Index

Van Sant, Gus, 32, 77–8, 99, 101, 183,184, 191n

Vernallis, Carol, 28, 30Vertov, Dziga, 63Viola, Bill, 13visual music, 18, 20Vivre sa vie, 25, 27, 187n

Wachowski Brothers, 26, 39Wagner, Richard, 19, 21, 96, 180, 187n

see also GesamtkunstwerkWalker, Elsie, 29, 183Webern, Anton, 58

Welles, Orson, 77Wenders, Wim, 86–8, 192nWidgery, Claudia Joan, 42–3, 85, 188nWings of Desire (Der Himmel über

Berlin), 86–8World’s End, The, 181Wright, Joe, 17, 27, 158–7, 179, 183

Yared, Gabriel, 32Yimou, Zhang, 26, 89

Zuckerkandl, Victor, 5, 8, 9, 41, 75