VERBO-PICTORIAL METAPHOR IN THE BUSINESS PRESS

ISABEL NEGRO ALOUSQUE Universidad Complutense

RESUMEN En los últimos treinta años se han realizado numerosas investigaciones sobre

la metáfora en el marco de la Teoría Cognitiva de la Metáfora (Johnson 1987; Kövecses 1986, 2002; Lakoff 1987, 2006; Lakoff y Johnson 1980, 1999). Aunque la mayoría de los trabajos se han centrado en la metáfora verbal, algunos estudios han analizado otros tipos de metáfora como la metáfora visual o pictórica (Forceville 1994, 1996) y multimodal, en la que se combinan diferentes modalidades de representación (Forceville 2007, 2008, 2009). Se ha abordado también el uso de la metáfora en determinados géneros discursivos, incluyendo el lenguaje del vino, la publicidad y las viñetas políticas. Sin embargo, el discurso económico ha recibido escasa atención (Cortés 2010; Rojo & Orts 2010; Bounegru y Forceville 2011). El objetivo del presente artículo es estudiar las metáforas verbo-pictóricas en la prensa económica inglesa a través de un pequeño corpus de portadas publicadas en el periódico The Economist. Analizaremos las metáforas en términos de dominio meta y dominio fuente y la interacción entre imagen y texto. Postulamos que la metáfora desempeña un papel importante en la construcción del significado.

PALABRAS CLAVE: Metáfora verbo-pictórica, metonimia, esquema de imagen, multimodalidad

ABSTRACT In the last thirty years metaphor has been vastly researched within the

framework of the Cognitive Metaphor Theory (Johnson 1987; Kövecses 1986, 2002; Lakoff 1987, 2006; Lakoff & Johnson 1980, 1999). Although the body of work has focused on verbal metaphor, other types of metaphor such as visual (or pictorial) metaphor (Forceville 1994, 1996) and multimodal (i.e. occurring in diverse modes) metaphor (Forceville 2007, 2008, 2009) have been investigated. The use of metaphor has been discussed in specific genres, including winespeak (Caballero 2009), advertising (Forceville 2007, 2008, 2009; Koller 2009) and political cartooning (El Refaie 2003, 2009; Yus 2009; Schilperoord & Maes 2009). In contrast, the financial press has attracted less attention (Cortés 2010; Rojo & Orts 2010; Bounegru & Forceville 2011) .The present contribution seeks to study visual metaphors and multimodal metaphors of the verbo-pictorial variety in the English business press through a small corpus of covers published in The Economist. We will analyse the metaphors in terms of target and source and the text-image interaction. It shall be argued that metaphor plays a central role in meaning construction.

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KEY WORDS: Verbo-pictorial metaphor, metonymy, image schema, multimodality

1. INTRODUCTION

In the last decades the development of the Cognitive Metaphor Theory (Johnson 1987; Kövecses 1986, 2002; Lakoff 1987, 2006; Lakoff & Johnson 1980, 1999; Lakoff & Turner 1989) has led to research into metaphor in specialised language. Although most studies have focused on verbal metaphor, other types of metaphor such as visual metaphor (Forceville 1994, 1996) and multimodal metaphor, i.e. metaphor occurring in diverse modes (Forceville 2007, 2008, 2009) have attracted much attention in recent years. The presence of metaphor in specific genres has been discussed, including winespeak (Caballero 2009), advertising (Forceville 2007, 2008, 2009; Koller 2009) and political cartooning (El Refaie 2003, 2009; Yus 2009; Schilperoord & Maes 2009). By contrast, there has been relatively little research into business discourse (e.g. Cortés 2010; Rojo & Orts 2010; Bounegru & Forceville 2011). This article aims to analyse verbo-pictorial metaphors in the business press through a small corpus of covers published in The Economist in 2012. We will first provide a theoretical overview of metaphor and then proceed to the corpus study.

2. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

From a cognitive linguistics perspective, metaphor is a cognitive device structuring human thought and action. A metaphor is a mapping (e.g. a fixed set of conceptual correspondences) between a source domain and a target domain, where one or more features of the source are projected upon the target.

A metaphor can occur in a single mode (monomodal metaphor) or in a range of combinations (multimodal metaphor). Forceville (2009: 24) defines multimodal metaphors in the following terms:

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“Metaphors whose target and source are rendered in two different modes/modalities […] and in many cases the verbal is one of these”.

The metaphors encoded in our sample fall into Forceville’s (1996, 2009) verbo-pictorial variety of multimodal metaphor. Forceville’s notion of verbo-pictorial metaphor considers the mode in which a conceptual metaphor is manifested and the representation of the source and the target domains. In his first scheme (1996), Forceville defines a verbo-pictorial metaphor as a metaphor whose source is visually represented and the target is verbally represented or viceversa; in a subsequent study (2009), a verbo-pictorial metaphor is a metaphor always encoded visually and occasionally in additional verbal form. We claim that verbo-pictorial metaphors may draw on the modes of written language and visuals in one of the following ways:

a) Both the source and the target are visually and verbally cued. b) The source is rendered visually and verbally and the target is rendered visually. c) The source is visually and verbally cued and the target is rendered verbally. d) The source is verbally rendered and the target is visually and verbally cued. e) The source is represented via language and the target is represented via image. f) The source is pictorially represented and the target is verbally represented.

3. SAMPLE ANALYSIS

In order to illustrate verbo-pictorial metaphor in the business press, a set of covers published in The Economist in 2012 have been selected. We use a cognitive approach to analyse the metaphors encoded in terms of target and source and the text-image interaction.

The cover in figure 1 gives a metaphorical account of Greece’s economy, which risks leaving the eurozone. The central metaphor to

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be construed is LEAVING THE EURO IS RUNNING and is represented through the pictorial and verbal modes. This metaphor is integrated into the game scenario inasmuch as the image evokes the Olympic Games ritual about the Olympic torch relay that will carry it from Olympia in Greece (the birthplace of the Olympic Games) to the host city’s Olympic Stadium. The choice of this metaphoric scenario is meaningful as it provides a metonymic basis for the metaphor, the event standing for the country where it is held (Greece), as cued by the headline The Greek run. The Olympic flame connects this metaphor with another metaphor rendered by the picture of a burning euro note. This metaphor can be rephrased as GREECE’S DEPARTURE FROM THE EURO (metonymically represented as a banknote) IS A SPREADING FIRE, since it will cost banks, firms and taxpayers in other European countries a lot of money, thus driving them to head out of the single currency. What is striking is the strong axiological value of the metaphor. The flame that in the game scenario symbolizes a set of ideals turns into a devastating fire that will destroy the European economies.

Fig. 1. The Economist (May 2012)

The next covers illustrate the use of animals and ships as prototypical source objects for nations, states or political parties (Shiperoord & Maes 2009: 227).

The cover in figure 2 encodes the metaphor COMPANIES ARE ENDANGERED SPECIES. Both the source domain and the target

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domain are cued by language and image simultaneously. We see a herd of mammoths running away from hunters (governments) and getting close to the edge of a cliff, thus risking being killed. There is a very relevant detail that establishes a connection between the source and the target, namely the abbreviation Inc. on the animals’ back.

Fig. 2. The Economist (May 2012)

The cover in figure 3 refers to the current state of the global economy and conveys the message that it is in danger through the source image of a sinking ship with the words ‘WORLD ECONOMY’ written on it, which yields the metaphor THE ECONOMY IS A SINKING SHIP. This metaphor relies on the up-down schema,1 which gives rise to the orientational metaphor GOOD IS UP / BAD IS DOWN.2 The source domain is also cued through the verbal content: Can we start the engines now, Mrs. Merkel?, which suggests that the fate of the world economy largely depends on Germany’s chancellor, Angela Merkel. As a matter of fact, she is regarded as the captain of the ship who may pull the global economy out of the crisis.

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Fig. 3. The Economist (June 2012)

A similar orientational metaphor is to be construed in the cover shown in figure 4, which depicts the state of the Spanish economy. The target (Spain) is rendered verbally in the headline, while the source is conveyed pictorially through the image of the bull. This image serves two purposes: first, it works as a cultural icon representing Spain; second, it activates the scenario of bullfighting, inasmuch as the bull is hooked and will soon be killed. As regards the headline, it is worth noting the original use of lettering. The letter ‘S’ in ‘Spain’ moves downwards, thus yielding the BAD IS DOWN metaphor. The pictorial detail of the moving ‘s’ and the bull facilitate the correct interpretation of the cover. Thus, the separation of the initial letter in Spain leaves the word ‘pain’, which is visually reflected in the image of the bull. The image triggers the metaphor THE SPANISH ECONOMY IS AN INJURED BULL. The bullfighting scenario thus serves as the source domain for the metaphor.

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Fig. 4. The Economist (June 2012)

In the next cover (figure 5) the future of Europe is at stake. The text-image connection is noticeable. As a matter of fact, the image of two road signs showing two destinations (i.e. Break-up and Superstate) provides an answer to the question in the caption Is there a better way for Europe? Although the question implies that there are not any other alternatives, it invites readers to think of a further possible answer, thus involving them in the interpretation of the image. Both the caption and the image instantiate the metonymy-based metaphor DECIDING IS MOVING IN A DIRECTION. European countries, which stand metonymically for their rulers, must make a decision and are not sure about which alternative is better (the break-up of the euro or a version of federalism). The understanding of the verbal and visual elements call for the activation of the PATH schema (Johnson 1987; Lakoff 1987), an image schema that involves metaphorical movement from place to place and consists of three basic structural elements: a starting point, an end point, and a direction. Thus, in the metaphor DECIDING IS MOVING IN A DIRECTION, the following correspondences between the source domain and the target domain can be noted:

the person who makes a decision is conceived as a moving entity

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making a decision corresponds to choosing a direction of movement

different options are different destinations In this way, European rulers must take the road that leads to

federalism or the one leading to the split of the euro, with its economic and political repercussions.

Fig. 5. The Economist (May 2012)

The reading of the cover shown in figure 6 also relies on the PATH schema. The cover depicts Europe’s recession. The PATH schema lies at the basis of the metaphor ACHIEVING A GOAL (economic recovery) IS REACHING A DESTINATION (getting out of the woods). This metaphor is grounded on the scenario of fairy tales. The elements of the tale Little Red Riding Hood provide the source, which is cued visually. In this light, the cover shows a case of intertextuality. As we all know, the tale revolves round a girl walking through the woods to deliver food to her sick grandmother. The girl, who wears a dress with the EU flag pattern – a circle of gold stars – is a metonymic representation of Europe. The representation of the trees as hostile and scary creatures draws from other folktales. They represent the problems that Europe faces – lack of growth, high unemployment, the euro devaluation. The image suggests that the road to recovery is long and full of obstacles.

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Fig. 5. The Economist (February 2012)

4. CONCLUSION

Multimodal metaphor has attracted much scholarly attention in the last years. A particular type of multimodal metaphor, i.e. verbo-pictorial metaphor, has been shown to play an important role in specific genres, including advertising, political cartooning and economics. In this paper we have attempted to give proof of the presence of verbo-pictorial metaphor in the business press through a small-scale corpus analysis. The study highlights the image-text interaction in the meaning construction process and suggests that metonymy, image schemas and metaphoric scenarios often provide a blueprint for many metaphors.

NOTES

1 Image schemas are schematic mental patterns derived from sensory and perceptual experience that structure our thinking and reasoning about the world. 2 Orientational metaphors (Lakoff & Johnson 1980) structure an abstract concept in terms of a spatial concept.

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