1. THE NOTION OF TRANSLATION

Translation – a process of conveying or rendering the meaning (content) of SL units in the TL as well as the result of this process.

There are 2 forms of translation: 1) in writing and 2) in viva voce (orally). Translation conveys the meaning of the following language units:

The phoneme – is a speech sound, the smallest 1-facet language unit, it hasa form but has no meaning. Phonemes are graphically represented by letters.Phonemes usually do not take part in the process of translation, but they are used in translation of proper names, geographical names, internationalisms, neologisms and units of specific national lexicon.“a”, І-в-а-н-о-в - I-v-a-n-o-v

The morpheme – is the smallest indivisible 2-facet language unit (has both form and meaning). It is the smallest sense unit. superprofit – надприбуток, cloudless – безхмарний

The word – is the basic 2-facet language unit. The word is the smallest independent sense unit. Words are divisible (for morphemes). blackboard – дошка, strawberry – полуниця, dog – собака

The word group/word-combination – is the largest 2-facet lexical unit comprising more that 1 word. first night – прем’єра

The sentence – is a 2-facet unit of speech which conveys a more or less complete thought. Every dark cloud has a silver lining. – Немає лиха без добра. A cat may look at a king. – Дивитися не заборонено.

The text – is the largest 2-facet language unit, consisting of sentences bound by the same idea.Two languages are involved into translation process.The Source language (SL) – is the language of the original / the language from which the process of translation is performed.The Target language (TL) – is the language of the translation / the language into which the process of translation is performed.

Translation may imply any sense-to-sense substitution of a SL unit for its semantic (=having the same meaning) equivalent in the TL. I live in Kiev – Я живу в Києві first night – перша ніч pretty woman - гарна жінка

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Translation may imply any sense-to-sense conveying even if the lexical meaning of the constituents which make up a SL unit is not replaced with the identical lexical meaning in the TL. First night - прем’єра pretty woman - красунечкаTranslation may imply any functional substitution at the text level. It is aimed at recreating the function of a SL unit. Is used in the translation of titles and stylistic devices. “The Village” – “Таємничий ліс” (the title was changed for marketing purposes) “Some like it hot” – “В джазі лише дівчата” “Over the hedge” – “Лісова братва”

SIGNIFICANCE OF TRANSLATION

The importance of translation in the modern society has long been recognized. Not a single contact at the international level or between 2 foreign persons can be established without the help of translation. Translation is important for functioning of different international bodies.Numerous branches of national economies can be kept up with the modern development thanks to the everyday translation. The other branches of humanactivity dealing with the translation are: nuclear science, exploration of outer space, ecology, mining, medicine, electronics etc. The social and political role of translation has been the most felt in the XX-XXI century when it provided the dissemination (=spreading) of political ideas. Translation is a perfect means of sharing achievements and enriching the national languages, literatures and cultures. Finally, whatever the type ofmatter is translated, the linguistic and social significance of translationremains unchanged because it promotes the enrichment of lexicon in the target language.

2. TRANSLATION AS A MEANS OF INTERLINGUAL COMMUNICATION

Translation makes possible an exchange of information between users of different languages by producing the TL text which has an identical communicative value with the SL text. However, the TLT is not fully identical with the SLT as to its form or meaning/content due to the limitations imposed by the formal and semantic differences between the SL and the TL. But the users of the translation (translation receptors) identify the TLT with the SLT functionally, semantically and structurally. There are 3 types of identification:

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The functional identification – the TLT (the translation) functions as if it were the SLT (quoted, published, cited etc.).

The structural identification – the structure of translation (of the TLT) should follow that of the original. There should be no change in the sequence of narration or in the arrangement of the segments in the text (not the structure of every sentence!)

The semantic identification – the TLT (the translation) should have the same meaning as the SLT (the original) (the meaning of the whole text, not every word, otherwise it would be word-for-word translation, not literary artistic/proper).The translator is allowed to resort to different translation transformations if direct translation is impossible for some reasons.

3-6. WAYS OF TRANSLATION

Literal translation is used at the level of separate words, which have the same lexical meaning and similar form in the SL and in the TL. There are 2 ways of performing literal translation: transcription and transliteration. Transcription is the substitution of sounds in the process of translation. New-Castle – Нью-Касл impeachment – імпічмент (but not імпеачмент) leader – лідерTransliteration is the substitution of letters in the process of translation. London – Лондон (but not Ландан) Dublin - Дублін bank – банк club - клуб

Literal translation renders the meaning of the following words: 1) proper names (Іванов – Ivanov), 2) geographical names (Дніпро –Dnipro), 3)international words (football – футбол), 4)units of specific national lexicon (вареники – varenyky), 5)neologisms (metrosexual – метросексуал).The translator’s false friends are those words that have similar form but different meaning in the SL and in the TL. magazine – журнал (but not магазин) lunatic – божевільний, шалений (but not лунатик) artist – художник, митець (but not артист)

Verbal translation is used at the level of separate words, which have the same lexical meaning but different lingual form in the SL and in the TL.

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Verbal translation renders sometimes the morphological structure of the SL words (ex. helpless – безпорадний, superprofit – надприбуток). In most cases, the morphological structure is not preserved because of the differences in the morphological systems of the SL and the TL. bomber – терорист manager – управляючийVerbal translation permits the choice of variants, which is practically impossible in literal translating: minister – міністр (literal), посланник, священик (verbal) bank – банк (literal), берег (річки), край, мілина, вал/насип (verbal)Verbal translation, however, does not provide a faithful conveying of sense/content at other than word level. When employed at the level of word-combinations or sentences it may often make the language units ungrammatical and pervert or completely ruin their sense: I am reading now – is not Я є читаючий зараз but Я читаю зараз to take measures – is not брати міри but вживати заходів Word-for-word translation/ consecutive verbal translation (дослівний послідовний) is used at the level of word - combinations and sentences , whichhave the same structure, word order, and the same lexical meanings of the constituents in the SL and the TL.Who took my book? – Хто взяв мою книжку?Word-for-word translation is often used at the initial stage of translation. It does not always work with phraseological units (cold as a cucumber – незворушний) except some cases when a phraseological unit is taken from a third language – Latin or Greek (to cross the Rubicon – перейти Рубікон).

Interlinear translation is used for a faithful rendering of the meaning (but not structure) expressed by word-combinations and sentences, which aredifferent in structure, at the level of some text. The sense of phraseological units is not conveyed. Interlinear translation may be practically applied to all speech units (sentences, passages etc.)It is used at the higher level of translator’s activity. It is performed with transformations when there is no identical form in the TL. Interlinear translation offers more variants than word-for-word translation. Who took my book? – Де моя книжка?/ У кого моя книжка?Various transformations in interlinear and literary translations are inevitable because of grammatical/structural, stylistic and other divergences in the SL and in the TL. She said she would come. – Вона сказала, що прийде.Transformations are also inevitable when there is no direct equivalent for the SL units in the TL. a trip – коротка подорож, to ski – їздити на лижах

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Interlinear translation is widely practiced at the intermediary and advanced stages of studying a foreign language.But it doesn’t convey the literary merits/artistic features and beauty of the original (e.g. translation of a stanza or passage)

Literary translation represents the highest level of a translator’s activity. It can be either literary artistic or literary proper depending on the type of the matter under translation. Literary artistic translation (художній літературний) is used to translate prose or poetry and faithfully conveys the content and artistic merits of belles-lettres /bel’letr/ texts or passages of the literary text. Literary proper translation (власний літературний) is used to translate some texts that may include scientific or technical matter, business correspondence, newspapers and documents. In short, any printed or recordedmatter devoid of artistic merits (epithets, metaphors etc.).Literary translations are always performed with many transformations because of stylistic differences between the SL and the TL. Transformationsare necessary to convey the meaning of the original, and to achieve ease and beauty of the original composition. Literary proper/artistic translation of a larger passage often requires some additional research or linguistic, historical and other enquiries in order to clarify the obscure places (historic events, units of specific national lexicon, neologisms, archaisms etc.). Sometimes even the title of a work may require a philological or historical inquiry. Ex. «Слово о Полку Ігоревім» - “A word about Ihor’s Regiment” (in a word-for-word translation, which doesn’t correspond to the real meaning)

“The Tale/ lay of the Host of Ihor”, “The Song of Igor’s Campaign”, “Prince Igor’s Raid against the Polovtsi” (which corresponds to the real meaning of the title – повість, пісня про Ігореве військо,дружину)«Тихий Дон» (М.Шолохов) – “And Quiet Flows the Don” or “The Don Flows home to the Sea” (a word-for word translation “The Quiet Don” or “The Still Don” would not convey the poetic flavour of the original title)

These variants could have been suggested by the translator only after a deep inquiry into the novel’s content, into its main idea and into the whole system of images of these works.

7. KINDS OF TRANSLATION

The sense of a language unit (the content of a whole matter) can be conveyed in the TL either in writing or in viva voce (orally). Depending onthe form of conveying the sense/content, the following kinds of translating/ interpreting (oral translating) are to be distinguished:

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1. The written translation/-ing from a written matter/source – is a faithful conveying of a matter translating in writing from one language into another. It represents a literary or any other faithful sense-to-sense translation from or into a foreign language. It may also be a free interpreting performed in writing. The matter under translation may be different, ex. a belles-lettres passage (prose or poetry work), a scientific or technical, newspaper passage, article or even separate words(in a list) etc.

2. The oral translation/-ing from an oral matter/source – is a faithful conveying of a speech or recording (жива мова або запис). It can proceed/ be performed in 2 ways: in succession - after the whole matter or a part of it was heard. Thenit is consecutive translation (послідовний). There is a possibility to interrupt or stop the speaker or recording in order to clarify some obscure places. As a result, consecutive interpreting can take more or a little less time then the SL speech or recording lasts.

simultaneously (with its sounding) – the process of translation takes quite the same amount of time as the SL matter lasts and the interpreter faithfully conveys the meaning/content (синхронний). It is usually performed with some special equipment, technical devices (microphone, headphones)

3. The oral translation/-ing from a written matter/source – is interpreting at sight. It can also proceed either simultaneously with the process of getting acquainted with the content of the written matter, or in succession (after each part of the matter is first read through and comprehended (обміркований, осягнутий). The former way of interpreting, ifcarried out faithfully and exactly on time with the consecutive conveying of the matter, may be considered simultaneous too. Usually it is a regularprepared beforehand kind of interpreting.

4. The written translation/-ing from an orally presented matter/source isa rare occurrence, because a natural speech flow is too fast for putting it down in the TL (except for a shorthand presentation, which would be then a regular translation i.e. (that is to say) interpretation from a written matter). Translating from an oral speech/recording is now and thanresorted to for training practices. When the matter to be rendered is produced at a slower speed than the written translation, this matter/speech can naturally be performed and put down in the TL.

8-10. DESCRIPTIVE, ANTONYMIC AND MACHINE TRANSLATION

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The process of translation may be viewed as a number of manipulations with the form or content of the original (SLText) as a result of which the translator creates the TLText.

Translation transformations are operations with the SLT aimed at conveying its meaning with maximum (-al) faithfulness in strict compliance with the standards of the TL.

Descriptive translation is a complex transformation which is used to explain the meaning of SL units, often with the help of hierarchically different TL units. For example, a word may be translated as a word-combination or vice versa.

Descriptive translation may be used:1) to render the meaning of equivalent-lacking units, for instance: units of specific national lexicon: Верховна Рада – The Ukrainian Parliament (Descriptive), Verkhovna Rada (Literal), Supreme

Council (word-for-word), Supreme Rada (mixed) вареники – a traditional Ukrainian dish, mea or fruit dumplings (Descriptive), varenyky (literal) neologisms :

stepwife – the current wife of a women’s ex-husband or the ex-wife of a current husband (зведена дружина – теперішня дружина колишнього чоловіка або колишня дружина теперішнього чоловіка)

leather spinster – a successful heterosexual woman who is happily unmarried (успішна гетеросексуальна жінка, яка свідомо не прагне шлюбу)

Delhi belly – a disordered/ upset stomach (розлад шлунку)himbo – a man who is good-looking but unintelligent or superficial (хімбо – чоловік, привабливий

ззовні, але інтелектуально нерозвинутий і досить поверховий)bimbo – a girl of the same qualities (бімбо – дівчина або молода жінка таких же якостей – приваблива, але поверхова)gaydar – an intuitive sense that enables someone to identify whether another person is gay

(гейдар – здатність (дар) розпізнавати нетрадиційну орієнтацію іншої людини (геїв)

2) to render the meaning of phraseological units or idioms :as mad as a hatter – навіженийto have light fingers – бути нечистим на рукуto rain cats and dogs – лити як з ведраburn not your house to rid it of the mouse – жертвувати великим, щоб уникнути малої неприємності (співвідносити засоби та ціль)

3) in footnotes to explain obscure places in narration spiritual – спірічуел, релігійна пісня афроамериканцівWithin the text the word “metrosexual” may be referred to as метросексуал or in a footnote explained – чоловік, який витрачає багато часу та грошей на свою зовнішність та спосіб життя

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Antonymic translation is a complex transformation in which an affirmative in sense or structure SL unit is rendered as a negative in sense or structure but identical in meaning TL unit or vice versa.It is a complex transformation, which describes the situation from the opposite point of view. (2nd definition) Take it easy. – Не переймайся. (an affirmative SL unit corresponds to a negativeTL unit) Немає лиха без добра. – Every dark cloud has a silver lining. I mean it! – Я не жартую!Antonymic translation is used:1. when there is no direct equivalent for the SL units in the TL:He was in (his) short-sleeves. – Він був без піджака. (to be in (one’s) short-sleeves – means not

wearing a jacket, it has no direct equivalent in Ukrainian language andis translated automatically - без піджака )

Я думаю, що він не здасть екзамен. – I think he will fail the exam./ I don’t think he will pass the exam.The defeat of the team was the result of its inferiority. – Поразка команди була наслідком перевагисуперників.Do you mind – ви не проти2. when a SL unit has 2 negations which create an affirmation: She was by no means non-elegant. – Вона була досить елегантною. (This sentence contains 2 negations: by no means and non-elegant, which corresponds to an affirmation досить елегантною)The door was not unlocked. – Двері були зачинені.3. to achieve a necessary expressiveness: A bomb fell close. – Бомба впала неподалік.No, it makes all the difference in the world. – Ні, не все одно!I don’t think it will hurt you. – Думаю, вам це не зашкодить. (I don’t think – Думаю, will hurt you - не зашкодить)I hope you will stay. – Сподіваюся ви не втечете.She was a woman of character. – Вона була жінкою не без характеру. (експресивне речення)4. to avoid the repetition of the same structure close to each other in the same text:She didn’t utter a word and he said nothing . – Вона промовчала і він нічого не сказав.

Machine translation is a procedure in which a computer program analyzes a SLT and produces a TLT without further human intervention.Human interference into machine translation is represented with pre-editing, proof-reading and post-editing practice. Machine translating has made considerable progress in recent years. Nevertheless, its employment remains restricted because machine translationcan be performed only on the basis of programs elaborated by linguisticallytrained operators.

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Machine translation may be successful at the level of separate words, sometimes word-combinations and simple sentences and quite seldom at the level of text. Advantages of machine translation are: its speed and rich lexicon of its dictionaries, which can be useful for translation at the level of words. Disadvantages: preparing programs for any matter is connected with great difficulties and takes much time, when the quality of translation is far from being always satisfactory even at the lexical level – at the level of words, which have direct equivalent lexemes in the TL. ex. London – is the capital of GB. – Лондон – капітал ВеликобританіїGreater difficulties are connected with morphological elements (endings, suffixes, prefixes) and syntactic units (word combinations, sentences) withvarious means of connection between their parts. There are frequent violations of syntactic agreement and government between the parts of the sentence in the machine translated texts. Neither can the machine translator select in its memory the correct order of words in word-combinations and sentences in the TL. As a result, any machine translation needs a thorough proof-reading and editing, which can take even more time than the hand-made translation.

11-12. UNITS OF TRANSLATION

Since the formal description of any language is based on distinguishing a system of interrelated language units, it is possible to assume that the process of translation may be viewed on the basis of distinguishing certainunits (units of translation). There are different approaches to distinguishing units of translation.

APPROACH # 1

The unit of translation is the smallest unit of the SL text, functioning inthe process of translation more or less independently. The units of translation may be different for different languages and different kinds oftranslation. There are 2 kinds of translation: written and oral.

In written translation the unit of translation is usually represented by a sentence or sometimes 2 consecutive sentences – if one of them is structurally or semantically incomplete. These sentences usually contain all the information necessary to recreate the structure of a corresponding sentence in the TL. The sentence – is a speech unit which contains a more or less complete thought and that is why it may function more or less independently in the process of translation. ex. After all they all have day jobs. Not so Seed. – Зрештою, у них у всіх є робота, окрім Сіда. (the 2nd sentence is incomplete)

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Your presence at the meeting is not necessary. Nor is it desirable. – Ваша присутність на зустрічі є необов’язковою і навіть небажаною.

In oral translation, especially synchronized translation, the unit of translation is usually represented by a sense group (a group of words, which expresses the main idea) or a sentence, especially if elements important for understanding are located at the end of the sentence. ex. Mediators from 3 west African ECOWAS nations planned today to visit rebels in Ivory Coast as

France flew in 70 more soldiers to assist the Ivorian government. – Сьогодні посередники від 3 африканських країн-членів ЕКОВАС планували зустрітися з повстанцями в Кот-д’Івуарі. В той час як Франція відрядила до країни ще 70 військових на допомогу івуарійському урядові.

(This sentence represents 2 units of translation, since it consists of 2 sence groups. The 1st unit of tr. is ..., the 2nd - …)

APPROACH # 2 (= LEVELS OF TRANSLATION)

The unit of translation is the smallest SL unit which is translated as a whole. It means that in the TLT it is impossible to discover TL units reproducing the meaning of the constituents, which make up the SL unit. ex. pretty woman – красунечка (не можна віднайти безпосереднього відбиття лексичних одиниць) help yourself – пригощайтеся (translated as a whole)Each unit of translation belongs to a certain language level. So, every translation is performed at a definite language level.

The phoneme levelThe phoneme – is a speech sound, the smallest 1-facet language unit, it hasa form but has no meaning. This unit of translation is mainly relevant to the translation of proper names, geographical names, internationalisms, units of specific national lexicon and neologisms. Bush – Буш (а не Кущ), гривня – hryvnia, dollar – долар, computer – комп’ютер, вареники – varenyky

The morpheme level The morpheme – is the smallest indivisible 2-facet language unit (has both form and meaning). It is the smallest sense unit. superprofit – надприбуток, cloudless – безхмарний

The word levelThe word – is the basic 2-facet language unit. The word is the smallest independent sense unit. Words are divisible (for morphemes). blackboard – дошка ( - if translated at a word level, if translated as чорна дошка – it is a morpheme level) strawberry – полуниця, dog – собака

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The word-combination levelThe word-combination – is the largest 2-facet lexical unit comprising more that 1 word. first night – прем’єра to come up roses – чудово виходити

The sentence levelThe sentence – a 2-facet speech unit which conveys a more or less complete thought.The sentence may express a statement,a command or a question. Every dark cloud has a silver lining. – Немає лиха без добра. A cat may look at a king. – Дивитися не заборонено. Будь здоров! – Bless you!

The text levelThe text – is the largest 2-facet language unit, consisting of sentences bound by the same idea. This unit of translation may function in poetry.

13. EQUIVALENCE IN TRANSLATION (TRANSLATION EQUIVALENCE)

Translation equivalence – is a measure of semantic similarity between the SLT and TLT. The degree of semantic similarity between the texts involved in the process of translation may vary /’veeri/. The equivalence between the SLT and TLT may be based on the reproduction of different parts of the ST contents. So, several types of translation equivalents can be distinguished:

1 st type of Translation Equivalence implies retention (утримання, збереження) in the translation of the purport (=the purpose, the general intent, the intention) of communication. Ex. there is some chemistry between us that doesn’t mix – буває, що люди не сходяться характерами, velvet paws hide sharp claws – м’яко стелять, твердо спатиA dissimilarity of language units is accompanied by the absence of any obvious logical link between the SLT and TLT. But the information retained in the translation (=the purport of com.) is enough to ensure an adequate communication. (It is the lowest type/level – only the purport of communication is preserved).

2 nd type of TE implies retention in the tr.of the purport of communication and the identification of the situation (=there are 2 meaningful components) Ex. he answered the phone – він підняв слухавкуMost of the words and syntactical structures of the original have no directcorrespondences in the translation. But the SLT and TLT are based on the same situation which is described differently.

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3 rd type of TE implies retention in the translation of the purport of communication, the identification of the situation and the method of describing the situation. The translation retains the same basic notions asthe original. The translation may be viewed as a semantic paraphrase of theoriginal which preserves its basic notions and allows their free reshuffle/rearrangement in the sentence. Ex. scrubbing makes me bad-tempered – від миття підлоги в мене псується настрій

4 th type of TE implies retention in the translation of the purport of communication, the identification of the situation, the method of describing the situation and (the invariant meaning of) the syntactical structure. Ex. I don’t think that I need to convince you – Не бачу необхідності переконувати тебе (Sentences look dif but syntactic structure is the same, here the Eng. subordinate object clause corresponds to the Ukr.object) He was sitting with his arms crossed – Він сидів склавши руки (The Propositional Nominative Participial Construction – with his arms crossed corresponds to the adverbial modifier – склавши руки in the Ukr. sentence)

5 th type of TE implies retention in the translation of the purport of communication, the identification of the situation, the method of describing the situation, invariant meaning of the syntactical structure and word semantics (lexical meaning of words). (It is the highest type/level of TE)Ex. The president signed a very important agreement – Президент підписав дуже важливу угоду.

Every translation can be regarded as belonging to a certain type of translation equivalence. Since each subsequent type of translation equivalence implies a higher degree of semantic similarity, every translation is performed at a certain level of translation equivalence. Thelevel hierarchy doesn’t imply the idea of disapprobation and approbation because a good translation can be made at any level of translation equivalence.

14. TRANSLATION EQUIVALENTS

Since language units often function in their accepted meanings, many SL units have regular equivalents in the TL. Regular equivalents are divided into permanent and non-permanent (variable).

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Some SL units have permanent equivalents, it means there is a one-to-one correspondence between such units and their equivalents in the TL. (ex. phoneme - фонема). This type of correspondence is found with proper and geographical names, technical terms and similar words whose meaning is moreor less independent of any context. Ex. London – Лондон, Україна – UkraineOther SL units may have several equivalents each, they are called non-permanent equivalents. This type of one-to-many correspondence is usual forthe most regular equivalents. The existence of non-permanent equivalents implies the necessity of selecting one of them in the process of translation. Ex. execution – виконання, страта (here the word execution has at least two non-permanent equivalents – виконання, страта)

According to the type of the language units involved, regular equivalents are divided into: Lexical - it can be both permanent and non-permanent Ex. Мазепа – Mazepa, the Ukr. word Мазепа has a permanent equivalent in the Eng. language - Mazepa)The choice of a non-permanent equivalent depends on the context in which the SL unit is used in the SLT. There are 2 types of context:

1. The linguistic context is made up by the other SL units in the SLT. Ex. політика – politics, policy (The Ukr.word ‘політика’ is translated as ‘policy’ – in

the context ‘зовнішня політика’ – ‘foreign policy’, ‘politics’ – in the

context ‘іти в політику’ –‘ to go to politics’)

2. The situational context is made up by circumstances under which the SLT was produced. Ex. he gave me a ring – він подзвонив/зателефонував мені або він подарував мені каблучку

Phraseological units also have permanent and non-permanent equivalents.Permanent equivalents may be based on the same image or different images.Ex. to cross the Rubicon – and the Ukr.equivalent перейти Рубікон (is an example of the phraseological units based on the same image) to sink or swim – пан або пропав (is an example of the phraseological units based on the different images)Non-permanent equivalents: Ex.velvet paws hide sharp claws – м’яко стелять, твердо спати; слова ласкаві, думки лукаві; зовнішність оманлива

There are practically no permanent grammatical equivalents. Non-permanent equivalents in the sphere of grammar are usually analogous forms or different forms with similar meaning. Ex. He was a guest of honor at the reception given by the embassy – Він був почесним гостем на прийомі влаштованому в посольстві

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(here the Eng. Participle given may be translated as a Ukr. Participle влаштований or який було влаштовано – a subordinate attributive clause ?)The use of occasional equivalents is much more common in grammar than in vocabulary. Ex. He was a guest of honor at the reception given by the embassy – Він був почесним гостем на прийомі в посольстві.

15. TRANSLATION OF EQUIVALENT-LACKING UNITS

Since language units often function in their accepted meanings, many SL units have regular equivalents in the TL. A number of SL units have no regular equivalents in the TL. The absence of regular equivalents makes thetranslator resort to occasional equivalents.

Equivalent-lacking words may be translated in one of the following ways:

1. by imitating the form of a SL word/word group through transcription, transliteration or loan translation. In the course of time such occasional formations may get the status of regular equivalents: Ex. impeachment – імпічмент ( transcription), inauguration – інавгурація (transliteration), brain wash – промивка мізків (loan translation)

2. by using approximate substitutes, i.e. TL words with similar meaning which is extended to convey some additional information Ex. drug store – аптека (drug store sells medicine as well as other goods, so the choice of the variant depends on the context)

3. using lexical transformations (ex. The word “exposure” is equivalent-lacking in the meaning of “the medical condition caused when smb has been exposed to severe weather conditions”, so its meaning is modulated in the process of translation. Accordingly the sentence “He died of exposure” may be translated as “Він помер від переохолодження/сонячного удару”) or the same word drugstore may be translated as крамниця, so its meaning may be generalized.4. by using an explanation (landslide – переконлива перемога на виборах, перемога зі значним відривом)

Equivalent-lacking phraseological units are translated in one of the following ways: 1. by word-for word translation (ex. people who live in glass shouldn’t throw stones –

людям, які живуть у склі краще не кидати каміння)2. by explaining their figurative meaning (ex. to dine with duke Humphrey –

залишитись без обіду, white elephant – подарунок, який замість задоволення приносить багато клопоту)

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Equivalent-lacking grammatical units are translated in one of the followingways:

1. by using zero translations – the meaning of an equivalent-lacking unitis not rendered because it is practically identical to the meaning of someother SL units Ex. By that time he had already left – До того часу він вже поїхав (Here the Past Perf. Tense is equivalent-lacking, the meaning of the Past Perf. Tense (priority - попередність) is not conveyed by the verb left, because it is identical to the word “already” and “by that time”).

2. by using approximate translations – TL units with similar meaning Ex. I heard him playing the piano – Я чув як він грав на піаніно (Here a complex object

clause – him playing corresponds to a subordinate object

clause – як він грав (Objective Participial Construction)

3. by using grammatical transformations Ex. Your presence is not obligatory. Nor is it desirable – Ваша присутність є необов’язковою та

навіть небажаною (it represents integration)

16-18. MODELS OF TRANSLATION

A model is a conventional representation of the translating process describing mental operations by which the ST or some part of it may be translated, irrespective of whether these operations are actually performedby the translator.Translation models can be oriented either toward the situation reflected inthe ST or toward the meaningful components of the ST. Every translation model postulates the existence of some interlingual level of equivalence.

The situational (referential) model is based on the identity of the situations described in the original text and in the translation. The intermediate level is extralinguistic. The process of translating consists of two stages:1) the break-through to the situation (the translator understands the actual situation described in the ST);

2) the description of this situation in the TL (the translator says the same thing in the TL).

Wet paint. – Обережно, пофарбовано. Keep off the grass. – По газонах не ходити. Make yourself at home. – Почувайтеся як вдома.

The transformational model is based on the identity of nuclear structures in the SL and the TL. The immediate level is linguistic (structural). The

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model postulates the existence of nuclear structures common to the SL and the TL. The process of translating consists of three stages:1) the stage of analysis (the transformation of the original structures into the nuclear structures within the SL);

2) the stage of translation proper (the replacement of the SL nuclear structures with the equivalent nuclear structures in the TL);

3) the stage of synthesis (the development of the TL nuclear structures into the terminal structures in the TL).

1)They heard a bomb explode. – A bomb exploded. They heard.2)A bomb exploded. – Бомба вибухнула. They heard. – Вони чули (почули).3)Бомба вибухнула. Вони чули (почули). – Вони (по)чули, як вибухнула бомба. Вони почули

вибух бомби.

The semantic model is based on the identity of basic notions in the SL and TL. The intermediate level is linguistic (semantic). The model postulates the existence of deep semantic categories common to the SL and the TL. The process of translating consists of three stages:1) the stage of analysis (the reduction of the original semantic units tothe basic semantic categories within the SL);

2) the stage of translation proper (the replacement of the SL basic semantic categories with the equivalent basic semantic categories in the TL);

3) the stage of synthesis (the development of the TL basic semantic categories into the terminal notions in the TL).

1) студент – а) чоловічої статі, а не жіночої (на відміну від студентка) б) навчається, а не навчає (на відміну від викладач) в) навчається у ВНЗ, а не в школі (на відміну від учень) д) одна особа, а не множина (на відміну від студенти)2) а) чоловічої статі, а не жіночої (на відміну від студентка) – a male (not relevant) б) навчається, а не навчає (на відміну від викладач) – studies в) навчається у ВНЗ, а не в школі (на відміну від учень) – goes to college or university д) одна особа, а не множина (на відміну від студенти) – one person3) a person who is studying at a university or college - student

19. ROMANIZATION OF THE UKRAINIAN ALPHABET

Romanization – is the representation of a word or language with Roman (Latin) alphabet or a system for doing so.Romanization includes 2 methods: transcription and transliteration. Transcription – is the substitution of sounds in the process of translation.

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Transliteration – is the substitution of letters in the process of translation.

In most cases Romanization involves a compromise between transcription and transliteration.

There are 2 official systems of Romanization in Ukraine:I. The Ukrainian National Transliteration System – was adopted by the Ukrainian Legal Terminology Commission on the 19th of April 1996. This system is based on English orthography (only English letters) and is widely used to represent Ukrainian geographical names, which were romanizedfrom Russian before Ukrainian independence in 1991.

Provisions:1) The use of the approved system is binding for the transliteration of Ukrainian names into English in official and legislative acts.

2) This system itself is not mandatory for the transliteration of foreignnames into Ukrainian (it has only one-way direction Ukr-Eng).

3) Transliteration must be performed directly between Ukrainian and English without the use of any intermediary languagesex. Odessa (from Russian) – Odesa (from Ukrainian)

4) This system allows a number of simplifications: softening and apostrophe marks (ь/’) may be omitted in transliteration, except for ьо= ‘o / ьі= ‘i

Ukrainian letters which correspond to 2 Latin letters, if doubled in Ukrainian, may be transliterated as 1 Ukrainian letter ex. Zaporizhzhya – Zaporizhya

5) The system includes a short list of official spellings: Ukraine, Crimea (without the, not Ukrayina)the Black Sea, the Sea of Azov

6) In certain cases, traditional forms may be given in parentheses () after the official variants:ex. The traditional form Dnieper may be given after the official variant Dnipro: Dnipro (Dnieper)

Ukrainianletters

English letters

Notes Examples

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А AБ BВ VГ H, Gh H – in most cases, Gh

– when recreating “г” in combination “зг”

згинути

Г GД DЕ EЄ Ye, ie Ye – at the beginning,

ie – in other positionYeltsin

Ж ZhЗ ZИ YІ IЇ Yi, i Yi – at the beginning,

i – in other positionЙ Y, i Y – at the beginning,

i – in other positionК KЛ LМ MН NО OП PР RС SТ TУ UФ FХ KhЦ TsЧ ChШ ShЩ SchЬ ’ may be omittedЮ Yu, iu Yu – at the beginning,

iu – in other positionYushchenko

Я Ya, ia Ya – at the beginning,ia – in other position

Yanukovych

’ ’ may be omitted

II. The Ukrainian Official Transliteration System for Personal Names in Ukrainian Passports – was adopted by the Cabinet of Ministers in 2007 (on 26 of June?).

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According to this system:The Ukrainian letters Г and Г’ are transliterated as GЄ – Ie (irrespective of the position) І – I Щ - ShchЮ – Iu (irrespective of the position) Ї – I Ь – is not transliterated (ignored)Я – Ia (irrespective of the position) Й – I ’ – is not transliterated (ignored)

20. THE TRANSLATOR’S FALSE FRIENDS

The translator’s false friends are words and expressions which have similarform but different meaning in the SL and in the TL. Their formal similarityis deceptive (оманлива) and may lead to translation mistakes.

The translator’s false friends are divided into 2 groups: 1. words similar in form but absolutely different in meaning (The Eng. magazine and the Ukr. магазин, lunatic - лунатик)

2. words similar in form but partially different in meaning (student–студент,учень,той,хто чимось цікавиться(of); bank – банк, берег (річки))

The translator’s false friends are not interchangeable due to the followingfactors: 1. the semantic factor which results from different historical development of such words in the SL and in the TL minister – священик, посланник, член уряду

2. the stylistic factor which results from the difference in connotation (an ability to evoke negative/positive emotion) of such words in the SL and in the TL ambitious - амбітний (The Eng. ambitious is positive and the Ukr. амбітний – used to be/was

negative )3. The colocability factor/ valency factor which results from the difference in combinability rules in the SL and the TL defects – дефекти (The Eng. defects and the Ukr. дефекти – defects in the election campaign –

прорахунки/ помилки у виборчій кампанії, but not дефекти)

4. The pragmatic factor which results from the difference in background knowledge in the SL and the TL speech communities American Revolution – війна за незалежність СШАcoup d’etat – державний переворот

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aspirant – кандидат, претендентpresidential ~ - кандидат на посаду президентаorale – бойовий духvelvet – оксамитthe Emancipation Proclamation – Декл. про скасув. рабстваthe Am. Revolution – Війна за незал. вАмериціPremier – прем’єр~ Khrushchev – голова СРСР, генсек..(бо перед прізвищем)the Cuban Missile Crisis – Карибська криза accord – угода, згодаDutch – голландськийadept – знавець, експерт

ammunition – боєприпасиdecade – десятиріччя, 10 роківcensus – перепис населення intelligence – інтелект, розум, розвідка integrity – чесність extravagant – непомірний, марнотратний (і екстрав.) militia – ополчення, ополченціassembly – зібрання (і асамблея) pathetic – жалюгідний partisan – упереджений, завзятий invalid – недійсний, той,що немає законної сили guerilla – партизан, повстанець catholic – різносторонній execution – страта

21. NEOLOGISMS

22. TRANSLATION OF UNITS OF SPECIFIC NATIONAL LEXICON (РЕАЛІЇ)

Units of specific national lexicon – are words and phrases standing for (що означають) specific national phenomena, namely notions of material andspiritual life. They are: customs and traditions (Thanksgiving Day, Ivana Kupala), administrative and political systems (Verkhovna Rada, Congress, primaries), public bodies (назви партій), monetary systems (hryvnia, dollar), clothes (vyshyvanka), food (varenyky), drinks (Horilka), systems of weights andmeasures (English mile, Ukrainian verstva, pud), proper names (Klychko, Sergii) etc.In the course of time such words may get the status of internationalisms, if they are important for communication (Coca-Cola, jeans, vodka, champagne, whisky, pizza).

Taking into account various peculiarities of meaning and form of units of specific national lexicon, several ways of conveying their meaning can be distinguished:

1. transcription/ transliteration (if the meaning of these units of specific national lexicon is already familiar to the translation receptor and does not require any additional explanation): Lord – лорд Гривня – Hryvnia

2. transcription/ transliteration and description (when the unit of specific national lexicon is introduced in the TL for the 1st time or it is

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not yet known to the general public; the explanation may be given either in the TT or in a footnote): Tower of London – Лондонська фортеця Тауер Downing Street – резиденція прем’єр-міністра Великобританії на Даунінг стріт Хрещатик – Khreshchatyk (the main street of Kyiv) вареники – varenyky (dumplings/ a traditional Ukrainian dish)

3. description only (when transcription/ transliteration is not helpful orcould bring about unnecessary ambiguity (двозначність, неясність): The Union Jack – державний прапор Великобританії стати на рушник – to get married

4. word-for-word translation and additional explanation (description) (dueto the complexity of meaning): Inner Cabinet – внутрішній кабінет (кабінет у вузькому складі, до якого входять керівникинайважливіших міністерств) The Gulf War – війна у Перській затоці

5 . word-for-word translation (when constituents have transparent lexical meaning): колгосп – collective farm стінгазета – wall newspaper орден Ярослава Мудрого – Yaroslav the Wise Order

6. translation by means of semantic analogies (TL units analogous or similar in meaning): Князь – prince, диплома робота – graduation essay/project Mr – пан miss – панна Mrs – пані ms /miz/ - звернення до жінки, не зважаючи на те чи має вона чоловіка

Ex. Wall Street – Волл-Стріт, Уолл-Стріт/-стріт Threadneedle Street – Третнідл-стріт (вулиця банків) The Diamond State – Діамантовий штат, штат Делавер The Lone-Star State – штат самотньої зірки, штат Техас The Depression – Велика депресія

23. TRANSLATION OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS (IDIOMS)

Phraseological units – are structurally (не можна міняти місцями, бо втрачається смисл), lexically (якщо брати синонім, значення не зберігається) and semantically (утв. значення в цілому як заг. одиниця, єдине ціле) stable language units (word-combinations or sentences), the meaning of which is not made up by the sum of meanings of their component parts.

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Ph. units can’t be freely made up in speech but they are reproduced as ready-made units (готові).

Taking into account various peculiarities of meaning and form of ph.units,several ways of rendering their meaning can be distinguished:

1. By choosing absolute or complete equivalents This is the method of translating when every componential part of the SL idiom is retained unchanged in the TL. This method works when an idiom originates from Greek or other mythology (Augean stables – авгієві стайні, Pandora’s box – скринька пандори), ancient history or literature (to cross the Rubicon - перейти Рубікон), the Holy Scripture (a lost sheep – заблудла вівця), literary or historical sources (the fifth column – п’ята колона) or any other language (Eng. time is money – час-гроші, Fr. after us the deluge – після нас хоч потоп), also some expressions belonging to English and American writers and politicians (the cold war – холодна війна, ironcurtain – залізна завіса)

2. Translation of idioms by choosing near equivalents A considerable number of ph.units originating in the SL and the TL from a common source may have one or more of their components different.Ex. baker’s dozen – чортова дюжина as pale as paper – блідий як стіна love is the mother of love – любов породжує любов measure twice, cut once – сім раз одміряй, один раз одріж

3. Translation by choosing (genuine idiomatic) analogies A number of SL ph.units have idiomatic analogies in the TL. As a rule these ph.units are based on different images and may have quite different structures. Nevertheless such units are very close in their meaning and may be used interchangeably in the process of translation. Usually these are proverbs and sayings. A number of such ph.units may have several/ two or more analogies in the TL.Ex. like mistress, like maid – яблуко від яблуні недалеко падає don’t teach your grandmother to suck eggs – не вчи вченого, не вчи рибу плавати, яйця куркуне вчать

4. Translating idioms by choosing approximate analogies ? Some idioms may have a peculiar nature of their componental parts and there is no genuine phraseological analogies for the units in the TL. Therefore the lexical meaning can be expressed by means of approximate analogies or in a descriptive way. These analogies are slightly similar tothe SL but no less picturesque (to lose one’s breath – кидати слова на вітер, to come off scot free – вийти сухим з води)._Some SL ph.units are only partly/partially similar in their meaning to certain TL idioms. So they can be used interchangeable as translation equivalents only in certain contexts.

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Ex. to be born with a silver spoon in one’s mouth (means to be born lucky) – народитися в сорочці, під щасливою зіркою (=поталанило) (тобто значення частково співпадають, обмежено використ.) a jack of all trades (but master of nons) (negative meaning) – майстер на всі руки (positive meaning)

5. Descriptive translating of ph.units The meaning of a considerable number of ph.units can be rendered only in descriptive way. Depending on the complexity of meaning of the SL idiom, it can be expressed in the TL in following ways:

by single word (to pall and peal – грабувати, to go aloft – померти) with the help of word-combination or sentence (to shoot Niagara – вдаватися

до ризикованих дій, well-day – час між приступами хвороби)

Ex. a kid-glove policy – поміркована, обережна пол.-ка scorched-earth policy – пол.-ка випаленої землі (коли відходять) wait-and-see policy – пол.-ка очікування to play politics – вести пол. гру (нечесну)

dollar diplomacy – дипломатія долара carrot and stick diplomacy – дипломатія батога та пряника the common touch – вміння спілкуванняз народом (про великих) to strike the middle ground – погоджуватись, іти на компроміс

24-26. – COMPLEX SUBJECT, OBJECT

27-29. TRANSLATION TRANSFORMATIONS

The process of translation may be viewed as a number of manipulations withthe form or content of the original (SLText) as a result of which the translator creates the TLText. Translation transformations are operations with the SLT aimed at conveyingits meaning with maximum (-al) faithfulness in strict compliance with the standards of the TL. The type of the operation/ transformation is identified by comparing the SLT and the TLT. Translation transformations may be classified according to different criteria. These classifications offer an overlap and are rather conventional.

I group – imitation translation transformations are characterized by imitation of the form of a SL word /word group in the TL. This group includes:

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1) transcription (phonetic imitation) – is a substitution of sounds in theprocess of translation, i.e. (that is to say) the replacement of SL soundswith the corresponding sounds of the TL. New-Castle – Нью-Касл impeachment – імпічмент leader – лідер

2) transliteration (graphic imitation) – the substitution of letters in the process of translation, i.e. the replacement of SL letters with the corresponding letters of the TL. London – Лондон (but not Ландан) Dublin - Дублін club - клуб Transcription and transliteration are often used to translate proper names, including geographical names, streets, the names of newspapers and magazines, as well as internationalisms, neologisms and units of specific national lexicon. Bush – Буш General Motors – Дженерал Моторс The Financial Times – Файнєншал Таймс gaydar – гейдарIn recent decades there has been a tendency to transcribe rather then transliterate proper names.

3) loan translation (ways of translation equivalent-lacking units) – калькування, запозичення - is the creation of words and word-combinations from the material (of=) available in the TL but according to SL patterns by way of word-for-word or morpheme-for-morpheme translation. organized crime – організована злочинність world market – світовий ринок The United Nations Organization – Організація Об’єднаних Націй колхоз – collective farm (kolkhoz) superpfofit – надприбуток (morpheme-for-morpheme translation) superpower – наддержава (morpheme-for-morpheme translation)Loan translation is used to translate proper names, internationalisms, neologisms and units of specific national lexicon. Richard the Lionheart(ed) – Річард Левине серце (Річард - transliteration) Chingachgook the Big Serpent – Чінгачгук Великий змій (Chingachgook – transliteration from oneof the native American languages)In loan translation the word order of a word-combination may be changed. The United Nations Organization – Організація Об’єднаних Націй (ООН, but not ОНО) The World Trade Organization – Світова Організація Торгівлі (СОТ, but not СТО)Transcription and transliteration may go together with loan translation. petrodollar – нафтодолар superpower – суперсила (супер - transliteration, сила – калька=loan translation)

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II group – Lexical translation transformations involve various/ different/certain semantic changes. This group includes:

- Specialization ( конкретизація, уточнення ) – is the choice of a more specific TL word or word-combination, which gives a more detailed description of the notion designated to be the SL unit. It is frequently used in the English-Ukrainian translation because Englishoften uses/ makes use of general terms/ words to describe quite definite notions. to say/ tell – сказати, заявити, зазначити, зауважити… to come – приходити, підходити, підбігати… to go – йти, їхати, пливти, летіти… meal – сніданок (замість прийом їжі) рука – hand (частина руки) My bedroom was changed. And I was to lie a long way off. – Моєї спальні вже не було. І я змушений був спати/ночувати в іншому кінці дому

- Generalization ( узагальнення ) – is the use of an equivalent with a more general meaning. This transformation is more often used in the Ukrainian-English translation. заявити – to say дарувати – to give (She was given a box of chocolate.) hand – рука (частина руки) I packed my two Gladstones. – Я спакував мої дві валізи. (Gladstone – фірма, що виробляє валізи) (p.s. Gladstones – щасливі камінчики (loan translation), - Гладстоунз (transcription) (т.ч. відомі торгові марки не перекладаються, а транскрибуються, ex. Rolex - Ролекс)

- Modulation (засіб змістового розвитку) – is the creation of an equivalent by logical deducing its meaning from the SL unit.The window was full of clothes I wouldn’t want to be seen dead in. – У вітрині було повно одягу, у якому я б не хотіла навіть лежати у труні.A fiesta of tropical bounds – свято латиноамериканської музики (свято – generalization, латиноамер. музики – логічно вивели=modulation)

- Addition (додавання) – is the introduction of some additional lexicalcomponents to the TL text. He began a new book. – Він почав читати/ писати/ перекладати нову книгу (додавання нового слова, не конкретизація)oil countries – країни-експортери нафтиThey signed a cease(-)fire. – Вони підписали договір про припинення вогню.

- Omission (випущення, вилучення) – is the reduction of some excessive elements in the process of translation.

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Я себе добре почуваю. – I feel well.договір про припинення вогню – cease-firepollution and environmental damage – шкода, завдана навколишньому середовищу (pollution – omission, завдана - addition)bold and courageous struggle – мужня боротьба (т.я. це синоніми, для англ.мови це х-терно=>1 слово слід випустити, будь-яке)

III group – Grammatical translation transformations involve various grammatical changes.

This group includes:

1) Transposition (перестановка) – is the rearrangement of language units in the TLT in comparison with their arrangement in the SLT. Вчора на вечірці я з класним хлопцем познайомилась. – I met a great guy at the party yesterday/ Yesterday I met a great guy at the party.The most common case of transposition is the change of the word order in asentence or rearrangement of clauses. Russian President signed a limited partnership agreement in Rome on Friday. – У п’ятницю в Римі Президент Росії підписав угоду про обмежене партнерство. З того часу, як закінчилась війна в Перській затоці іракські курди прагнуть незалежності. – The Iraqi Kurds have been striving for/ seeking (for) independence since the Gulf war ended.

3) Substitution (заміна) – is the change of grammatical units in the process of translation. It includes:

1. The change of the grammatical form of a word.Я люблю полуницю. – I like strawberries. (here the Ukrainian word полуниця used in

the singular corresponds to/ is translated as theEnglish word strawberries , used in the plural)

outskirts – околиця, окраїна, передмістя. On the outskirts – У передмісті.money – грошіMr. Bush says – Буш заявив (here the English verb says used in the Present maybe translated as the Ukrainian verb заявив used in the Past).

2. The change of the part of speech.The Ukrainian President – Президент України (here the English adjective Ukrainian is translated as/ corresponds to the Ukr. noun України).Я мало їм. – I am a light eater.

3. The change of the parts of a sentence/ of the syntactical function.В заяві йдеться – The statement says (Here the Ukrainian adverbial modifier в заяві is translated as the English subject statement).The terrorist was killed by a/the US Marine. – Терориста вбив американський морський піхотинець. subject – підмет(Here the English subject terrorist is translated as/ corresponds to the Ukrainian object терориста) predicate – присудок

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(Here the English object Marine corresponds to the Ukrainian subject піхотинець) object – додаток, attribute – означення adverbial modifier – обставина

4. The change of the number of sentences or clauses. It includes: Partitioning (членування) – is breaking an original sentence into several parts (sentences) in the translation, or replacing a simple sentence in the original with a complex one in the translation.Ваша присутність на зустрічі є необов’язковою і навіть небажаною. – Your presence at the meeting is not necessary. Nor is it desirable.I saw you dancing. – Я бачив як ти танцювала. (dancing – object or complex subject)

Integration (об’єднання, інтеграція) – is combining 2 or more original sentences into 1 in the translation, or replacing a complex sentence in the original with a simple one in the translation. Your presence is not obligatory. Nor is it desirable. – Ваша присутність є необов’язковою та навіть небажаною.Though it was pretty late, the bar was full of people. – Навіть у таку пізню годину у барі було повно людей. (Навіть у таку пізню годину - adverbial modifier)

30. COMPLEX TRANSLATION TRANSFORMATIONS

Complex translation transformations involve a number of changes of both lexical and grammatical nature. This group includes:1. Descriptive translation 2. Antonymic translation 3. Compensation – is a deliberate introduction of some elements in order

to compensate/ make up for the loss of similar elements at the same or an earlier stage of translation. I’m nothing to you – not so much as them slippers. – Those slippers.- Я для вас ніщо, гірше за оці тапочки. – Капці!

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