Skinner Piaget Rogers Vygotsky

PERSPECTIVES ON HUMAN LEARNING

BEHAVIOURIST (CONDITIONING PARADIGM IN BRIEF) - SKINNER

COGNITIVIST (INFORMATION PROCESSING VIEW) - PIAGET

HUMANIST - ROGERS

SOCIAL-CONSTRUCTIVIST - VYGOTSKY

BEHAVIOURIST(CONDITIONING PARADIGM IN BRIEF)

Behaviorism (also called learning theory) refers to a psychological approach which emphasizes scientific and objective methods of investigation.

The behaviorist movement began in 1913 when John Watson wrote an article entitled 'Psychology as the behaviorist views it', which set out a number of underlying assumptions regarding methodology and behavioral analysis.

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS

All behavior is learnt from the environment

Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable behavior, as opposed to internal events like thinking and emotion

There is little difference between the learning that takes place in humans and that in other animals

BASIC ASSUMPTIONS

Behavior is the result of stimulus – response

SKINNER - OPERANT CONDITIONING

Skinner believed that the best way to understand behavior is to look at the causes of an action and its consequences. He called this approach operant conditioning

Operant Conditioning deals with operant’s - intentional actions that have an effect on the surrounding environment

SKINNER - OPERANT CONDITIONINGSkinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect

given by Thorndike – ‘Reinforcement’. Behavior which is reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e. strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to die out-or be extinguished

SKINNER - OPERANT CONDITIONINGSkinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting

experiments using animals which he placed in a 'Skinner Box’.

SKINNER - OPERANT CONDITIONING

Neutral Operant: Responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated

Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.

Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.

Responses

Neutral Positive Negative

POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT

Skinner showed how positive reinforcement worked by placing a hungry rat in his Skinner box. The box contained a lever on the side and as the rat moved about the box it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it did so a food pellet would drop into a container next to the lever.

The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box. The consequence of receiving food if they pressed the lever ensured that they would repeat the action again and again

POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT

Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an individual finds rewarding.

One will be more likely to repeat this behavior in the future, thus strengthening that behavior.

NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT

The removal of an unpleasant reinforcer can also strengthen behavior. This is known as negative reinforcement because it is the removal of an adverse stimulus which is ‘rewarding’ to the animal or person.

Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior because it stops or removes an unpleasant experience.

NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENTSkinner showed how negative reinforcement worked

by placing a rat in his Skinner box and then subjecting it to an unpleasant electric current which caused it some discomfort.

Escape Learning. As the rat moved about the box it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it did so the electric current would be switched off. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the box.

Avoidance Learning. In fact Skinner even taught the rats to avoid the electric current by turning on a light just before the electric current came on. The rats soon learned to press the lever when the light came on because they knew that this would stop the electric current being switched on

PUNISHMENT

Punishment is defined as the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or eliminate a response rather than increase it. It is an aversive event that decreases the behavior that it follows.

Punishment can work either by directly applying an unpleasant stimulus like a shock after a response or by removing a potentially rewarding stimulus

PUNISHMENT

Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed - behavior returns when punishment is no longer present.

Causes increased aggression - shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems

Creates fear that can generalize to undesirable behaviors, e.g., fear of school

Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior - reinforcement tells you what to do, punishment only tells you what not to do

SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT

Skinner (1957) devised different ways of delivering reinforcement, and found that this had effects on:

The Response Rate - The rate at which the rat pressed the lever (i.e. how hard the rat worked).

The Extinction Rate - The rate at which lever pressing dies out (i.e. how soon the rat gave up)

SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENT

Continuous Reinforcement

An animal/human is positively reinforced every time a specific behaviour occurs, e.g. every time a lever is pressed a pellet is delivered and then food delivery is shut off.

Response rate is SLOWExtinction rate is FAST

Fixed Ratio Reinforcement

Behavior is reinforced only after the behavior occurs a specified number of times. E.g. one reinforcement is given after every so many correct responses.

Response rate is FASTExtinction rate is MEDIUM

SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENTFixed Interval Reinforcement

One reinforcement is given after a fixed time interval providing at least one correct response has been made, for example being paid by the hour. Every 15 minutes a pellet was delivered (providing at least one lever press has been made) then food delivery was shut off

Response rate is MEDIUMExtinction rate is MEDIUM

Variable Ratio Reinforcement

Behavior is reinforced after an unpredictable number of times. For examples gambling or fishing.

Response rate is FASTExtinction rate is SLOW

SCHEDULE OF REINFORCEMENTVariable Interval Reinforcement

Providing one correct response has been made, reinforcement is given after an unpredictable amount of time has passed. An example is a self-employed person being paid at unpredictable times.

Response rate is FASTExtinction rate is SLOW

COGNITIVIST THEORY(INFORMATION PROCESSING VIEW)


This theory is based on the idea that humans process the information they receive, rather than merely responding to stimuli.

According to the standard information-processing model for mental development, the mind’s machinery includes:

Attention mechanisms for bringing information in

Working memory for actively manipulating information

Long-term memory for passively holding information so that it can be used in the future.


Cognitive processes include:PerceptionRecognitionImaginingRememberingThinkingJudgingReasoningProblem solvingConceptualizingPlanning

MODEL OF INFORMATIONPROCESSING LEARNING

INPUT

SENSORY MEMORY

SHORT TERM

MEMORY

LONG TERM

MEMORY

PHYSICAL INPUT

ATTENTION

REHEARSAL &

ENCODING

RETRIEVAL

COGNITIVIST THEORYNATURE V/S NURTURE

This theory views humans as actively inputting, retrieving, processing, and storing information

Individuals innately vary in some cognitive abilities, such a memory span, but human cognitive systems function similarly based on a set of memory stores that store information and control processes determine how information is processed.

The “Nurture” component provides information input (stimuli) that is processed resulting in behavior and learning. Changes in the contents of the long term memory store (knowledge) is learning.

COGNITIVIST THEORYQUALITATIVE V/S QUANTITATIVE

Qualitative development occurs through the emergence of new strategies for information storage and retrieval, developing representational abilities

Increases in the knowledge base is the example of quantitative change.

The qualitative and quantitative components often interact together to develop new and more efficient strategies within the processing system.

COGNITIVIST THEORY[PIAGET]

Piaget (1936) was the first psychologist to make a systematic study of cognitive development. His contributions include a theory of child cognitive development, detailed observational studies of cognition in children, and a series of simple but ingenious tests to reveal different cognitive abilities.

According to Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure (genetically inherited and evolved) on which all subsequent learning and knowledge is based.

PIAGET'S THEORY DIFFERS FROM OTHERS IN SEVERAL WAYS

It is concerned with children, rather than all learners.

It focuses on development, rather than learning per se, so it does not address learning of information or specific behaviors.

It proposes discrete stages of development, marked by qualitative differences, rather than a gradual increase in number and complexity of behaviors, concepts, ideas, etc.

PIAGET'S THEORY : COMPONENTS

Components

Schemas

Adaptation

Equilibrium

Assimilation

Accommodation

Stages of Development

Sensorimotor

Preoperational

Concrete Operational

Formal Operational,


Schema/Scheme: A representation in the mind of a set of ideas or actions which go together

Assimilation: The process of taking in information into our previously existing schemas.

Accommodation: Involves altering existing ideas or schemas as a result of new information or new experiences

Equilibration: A mechanism that assists children in achieving a balance between assimilation and accommodation

HUMANIST THEORY(ROGERS’ VIEW)

HUMANIST THEORY(BACKGROUND)

Humanism claims that people have the ability to shape their own destiny, and this is not driven by biological, instinctive influences.

An approach in study, philosophy, or practice that focuses on human values and concerns.

A system of thought that rejects religious beliefs and centers on humans and their values, capacities, and worth.

The approach assumes that every person is unique and psychology should focus on the subjective feelings, thoughts of the person and freedom.

The focus is on each individual, not whole populations. Learning is student-centered & personal act.

HUMANIST THEORY(BASIC ASSUMPTIONS)

In humanistic psychology it is emphasized people have free will and they play an active role in determining how they behave.

Humanistic psychologists try to see people’s lives as those people would see them. They tend to have an optimistic perspective on human nature.

Accordingly, humanistic psychology focuses on subjective experiences of persons as opposed to forced, definitive factors that determine behaviour.


The humanistic approach states that the self is composed of concepts unique to ourselves. The self-concept includes three components:

Self worth – What we think about ourselves. Rogers believed feelings of self-worth developed in early childhood and were formed from the interaction of the child with the mother and father.

Self-image – How we see ourselves, which is important to good psychological health. Self-image includes the influence of our body image on inner personality.

Ideal self – This is the person who we would like to be. It consists of our goals and ambitions in life, and is dynamic – i.e. forever changing. The ideal self in childhood is not the ideal self in our teens or late twenties etc.


A person with low self-worth A person with high self-worth

He avoids challenges in life, doesn’t accept that life can be painful and unhappy at times, and will be defensive and guarded by other people.

S/he has confidence and positive feelings about him or herself, faces challenges in life, accepts failures and unhappiness at times, and is open with people.

HUMANIST THEORY(PRINCIPLES)

HUMANISMPRINCIPLES

Students will learn best what they want and need to know

Feelings are as important as

facts

Self-evaluation is the only meaningful

evaluation of a student's work

Knowing how to learn is more

important than acquiring a lot of

knowledge

Students learn best in a non-threatening environment

HUMANIST THEORY(ROGERS’ THEORY)

Human beings have a natural potentiality for learning.

They are curious about their world, until and unless this curiosity is blunted by their experience in our educational system.

They are ambivalently eager to develop and learn.

The reason for the ambivalence is that any significant learning involves a certain amount of pain, either pain connected with the learning itself or distress connected with giving up certain previous learning.


Significant learning takes place when the subject matter is perceived by the student as having relevance for his own purpose.

Learning which involves a change in self organisation — in the perception of oneself — is threatening and tends to be resisted.

Those learning which are threatening to the self are more easily perceived and assimilated when external threats are at a minimum.

Much significant learning is acquired through doing.


Learning is facilitated when the student participates responsibly in the learning process.

Self-initiated learning which involves the whole person of the learner—feelings as well as intellect—is the most lasting and pervasive.

Independence, creativity and self-reliance are all facilitated when self-criticism and self-evaluation are basic and evaluation by others is of secondary importance

The most social useful learning in the modern world is the learning of the process of learning , a continuing openness to experience and incorporation into oneself of the process of change.

ROGERS’ PERSON CENTRED PERSPECTIVE

•Being open with your own feelings.•Being transparent and self-disclosing.

Genuineness•Accepting yourself or others completely

regardless of circumstances.

Acceptance

•Listening, sharing, understanding and mirroring feelings and reflecting their meanings.

Empathy

ROGERS’ PERSON CENTRED PERSPECTIVE

Five characteristics of the

fully functioning

person

Open to experience

Existential living

Trust feelingsCreativity

Fulfilled life

SOCIAL-CONSTRUCTIVIST VIEW(VIGOTSKY’S VIEW)

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY(BASIC ASSUMPTIONS)

There is a great deal of overlap between cognitive theory and social constructivist theory.

According to this perspective culture gives the child the cognitive tools needed for development.

The type and quality of those tools determines the pattern and rate of development.

The tools the culture provides a child include cultural history, social context, and language. Today they also include electronic forms of information access.

It argues that students can, with help from adults or children who are more advanced, master concepts and ideas that they cannot understand on their own.

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY(VIGOTSKY’S VIEW)

Vygotsky's theories stress the fundamental role of social interaction in the development of cognition.

He strongly believed that community plays a central role in the process of “making meaning”.

Learning is a necessary and universal aspect of the process of developing culturally organized, specifically human psychological function.

According to him “Social Learning tends to Precede Development” which is contrary to cognitive theory which states that “Children's Development must necessarily Precede their Learning”.

It asserts three major themes regarding Social Interaction, the More Knowledgeable Other, and the Zone of Proximal Development

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY(VIGOTSKY’S VIEW)

• Social interactions:• Play a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. Higher mental processes have their origin in social interactions.

1•The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO):

• Refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner (Teacher-peer, or even a computer). 2

•The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

3

SOCIAL INTERACTIONS

Vygotsky felt social learning anticipates development.

He stated: “Every function in the child’s cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological).”

He believes that young children are curious and actively involved in their own learning and the discovery and development of new understandings.

THE MORE KNOWLEDGEABLE OTHER(MKO)

MKO refers to someone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with respect to a particular task, process, or concept.

For example: Teachers, Other adults, Advanced students, sometimes even computers.

Many times, a child's peers may be the individuals with more knowledge or experience.

THE ZONE OF PROXIMAL DEVELOPMENT(ZPD)

The ZPD is the distance between a student’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer collaboration and the student’s ability solving the problem independently. According to Vygotsky, learning occurred in this zone.

Vygotsky sees the ZPD as the area where the most sensitive instruction or guidance should be given, allowing the child to develop skills they will then use on their own, developing higher mental functions.


An example would be reading a book with a child.

They are reading the words of the book out loud to you as you follow along.

They come across a word that in unfamiliar to them and ask for help.

Instead of directly telling them the word, show them pictures of ask them questions about what they just read.

They will figure the word out on their own and come to understand what the word means on their own.

They will later learn to do it themselves first before asking for help.

Feedbacks are Welcome.Thanks.

Skinner Piaget Rogers Vygotsky

Education

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