Bil. 14, DIS. *93 PERBADANAN PRODUKTTVTn NEGARA ISSN 0127-8223

DOES A MORE RECENT VINTAGE NECESSARILY LEADS TO INCREASINGLABOUR PRODUCTIVITY IN THE MALAYSIAN FORESTRY SECTOR?

ByDr. Mohd Shahwahid Haji Othman

andDr. Zakariah Abdul Rashid

(Page 5)

DEVELOPING A CONCEPTUALMODEL FOR SERVICE QUALITY

ByShams-ur Rahman

(University of Dhaka)(Page 15)

SIMULATION AS A TRAINING TECHNIQUEITS CONCEPT AND APPLICATIONS

ByIbrahim Mamat,

Ph.D(Page 27)

"TOWARDS MANAGING THE CUSTOMER SERVICE FUNCTION"By

Ishak Ismail(Page 35)

PERSEPSI PEKERJA KERANI PELABUHAN TERHADAP KEPUASAN KERJA:PERBANDINGAN ANTARA SEKTOR AWAM DAN SWASTA

OlehAb. Wahab Saad

(Page 55)

0000053842Jumal Produktiviti - [Journal].

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Tesis: Memerlukan Prihatin Para Mtor

Banyak kajian dan penyclidikan yang telah dilakukan untulc tujuanakadcmik tcrsimpan begitu saja tanpa discbarkan kepada umum. Antarascbabnya ialah kcrana kckurangan wadah yang bersedia menyiarkan hasil-hasil kajian itu. Selain dari itu terdapat juga tesis-tcsis yang terlalu panjangyang jika disiarkan di dalam juraal akan mcmakan halaman yang panjangdi mana jarak kekerapannya terlalu lama schingga pembaca hilang puncauntuk mengikuti siri-siri yang berikutnya.

Bagi tujuan memanfaatkan ilmu untuk kepentingan sumber manusia,Jurnal Produktiviti telah mcngambil langkah menyiarkan beberapa tesisyang kami anggap sesuai dan bolch dilaksanakan di dalam sistempengurusan yang kian berkembang. Rcncana "Pcrscpsi Pekerja KcraniPelabuhan Tcrhadap Kepuasan Kerja: Perbandingan Antara Sektor A warndan Swasta" oleh saudara Ab. Wahab Saad adalah merupakan salah satutesis yang dilakukan oleh seorang Pegawai Perunding Kanan NPC. Sebelumini kami juga telah menyiarkan beberapa sin rencana dari tesis yang telahditulis oleh saudara Guok Eng Chai seorang pcgawai NPC yang membuatkajian untuk memenuhi keperluan akademiknya.

Untuk menyiarkan semua tesis yang tersimpan di setiap institusi ilmudi negara ini memerlukan perbelanjaan yang besar terutamanya belanjamencetak dan mengagih-agihkan. Bagaimanapun di dalam usaha-usahapenyebaran ilmu ini memerlukan kerjasam dari institusi-institusi pengajiantinggi untuk memajukannya kepada penerbit-penerbit, sementara pihakpenerbitan pula memerlukan prihatin para editor yang sabar menanganikerenah akademik yang kadang-kadang membosankan tetapi tidak bolehdibedah begitu saja tanpa memikirkan aspek-aspek akademiknya!

- editor

BiodataDr. Mohd Shahwahid Hj. Othman is a lecturer at Department of NaturalResource Economics, Faculty of Economics and Management, UPM. Heobtained his doctorate degree from SUNY university in the field ofResource Management and Policy in 1989. He has written several articles inthis area which was published in various publications.

Dr. Zakariah Abdul Rashid, lecturer Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, has anextensive experience in teaching economics at universities as well as othertraining institutes. He has particularly related to input-output analysis,industrialization, and technological change and obsolescence. Apart fromteaching and research, he was a consultant to a few national andinternational agencies. He obtained his Ph. D in economics from UniversityCollege of Wales, Abersytwyth, Unived Kingdom in 1989.

Does A More Recent Vintage Necessarily LeadsTo Increasing Labour Productivity In

The Malaysia Forestry Sector?Dr. Mohd Shahwahid ffaji Othman*

andDr. Zakariah Abdul Rashid*

Faculty of Economics and ManagementUniversiti Pertanian Malaysia

Serdang, Selangor

Abstract

The present paper compares the labour productivity of 1978 and 1983vintage technologies in the Malaysian forestry sector. By taking into accountthe inter-industry transactions within an input-output framework, the numberof labour required for each vintage were determined. The result sets out thatwith the exception of logging, labour requirements for the new vintage is lessthan those of the older one, supporting the vintage hypothesis. In fogging,labour requirements actually increase with the younger vintage. Discussionsand suggestions are given to improve the Malaysian forestry industry.

Introduction

Production technique that gives the highest surplus returns in com-parison to the others is often adopted by profit maximising producers. Theuse of this production technique, formerly called the best-practice techniqueby Saltcr (I960), can increase productivity through saving in the cost ofproduction (Zakariah, 1989 and 1991). This production technique is notnecessarily the latest technique, although the younger technique normallygives lower production cost than the older ones. In a developing country likeMalaysia where the forestry sector represents a major portion of thecountry's economic activities, valuable timber materials can significantly besaved and productivity can satisfactorily be enhanced if the latest techniqueis being used. This paper attempts to look into the labour productivitydifferential in the foresty sector due to presumed occurence of technicalchange between two different periods. Technical change in an economy isdefined here as the changing from one best-practice technique to another.

*Key to author's names: M. Shahwahid H. O. and Zakariah A. R.

Hypotheses

To introduce new techniques in the forestry sectors such as serialproduction in the wood moulding and furniture milk requires stock capitaladjustments which may be associated to certain amount of labourrequirements. The current best-practice technique is associated to the onewith the lowest labour requirements, conversely the outmoded techniqueswould used more labour. This implies that the period-to-period changes inbest-practice techniques should allow an absolute saving of labour.

In a given period of time, new plants are constructed and outmodedplants are discarded. The process of constructing modem plants andscrapping outmoded plants is a continuous one. The extent of co-existencebetween old and new techniques depends upon the earlier technique's abilityto absorb increasing relative factor prices. Competition between the old andnew plants used in production would continue until a production techniqueno longer becomes profitable.

It is the contention of this paper that with technical change, aspresumed when production technique from two different periods arecompared, factor input productivity, in particular labour productivity, ishypothesised to increase in the forestry sector. Included in the forestrysector analysed are logging, wood-working mills, furniture and fixtures millsand paper mills.

Methodology

The comparison of labour requirements of each of the four forestrysectors during the two periods are being used as a yardstick to measurechanges on their productivity or efficiency. It is contended that when a morerecent vintage adopted by a forestry sector is capable of producing a givenoutput with less labour than an older vintage, or is capable of deliveringgreater output with a given labour, then the newer vintage may be judgedtechnologically superior to the older one.

To this end the input-output model can be used to evaluate theamount of primary factors required, particularly labour, to deliver theoutput from these four sectors. Input-output analysis is a method ofstudying quantitative interdependence between individual sectors. Anillustrative three sector input-output model of an economy is shown inFigure 1. The entries in the table are all in money value terms.

Along each row of a supplying sector i, its gross output is the sum ofthe demand for its output by all purchasing sectors and final demand. Thelatter component comprises private and government consumptions, grosscapital formation and exports. Whereas along each column of a purchasingsector j, its gross outlay is the sum of input purchases made from various

Purchasing sector (j)1 2 3

1 Xn Xj2 Xi3

Supplying 2 x2i xjj x^

sectors(0 3 X3i Xjj X33

Value added Vi V2 V3

Gross outlay Xi Xj Xs

Finaldemand

fi

fa

f3V

F

Grossoutput

x,Xj

X3

Figure 1. A three-sector input-output model

supplying sectors and value added (wage and non-wage). If these individualpurchases by each sector] are divided by its gross outlay we will get what aretermed the direct input coefficients. These coefficients show the direct inputrequirements from each supplying sector i per unit of output of thepurchasing sector].

The relationship between final demand and total output may beexpressed as:

(I-A)X = F (1)

where X and F are column vectors of gross output and final demandrespectively, I is an identity matrix and A is the matrix of direct inputcoefficients. Under the condition that matrix (I-A) has an inverse, the lattermatrix may in turn be employed to express gross output as a function offinal demand in the following manner:

X=(I-A)- !F (2)

Each element in the matrix of Leontief inverse, (I — A)~ , representsdirect and indirect requirement of intermediate inputs for one unit increasein final demand.

Labour coefficient may be defined as the quantity of labour needed toproduce one unit of output and is calculated by dividing the aggregatedsalary and wages due to labour by its total output. Thus this coefficientshows how much should be contributed directly to labour for each MR ofoutput. It is the most widely used index of labour productivity.

An increase in output of an industry will increase the demand forlabour directly and other industries demand for labour indirectly. The rowvector of labour coefficients by all sectors in the economy is pre-multipliedby the Leontief inverse matrix to obtain the direct and indirect labour

requirements per unit of output (lt) using vintage technology t.

it = lt (I-A)"1

(1 — Ay)"1 : element in the Leontief inverse matrix which mea-sures the direct and indirect increase in output ofsector i for each increase in final output of sector j.

lt : an i* order labour coefficient vector of vintage t. Thisvector contains coefficients for the four forestrysectors only leaving the others as zeros.

li(I-ASij)"1 : direct and indirect labour to produce one unit offorestry sector] output.

These direct and indirect labour requirements per unit of outputproduced would provide a comprehensive picture of labour productivityand efficiency of labour utilisation by one forestry sector over that ofanother in the economy.

Now, we can distinguish two concepts of labour productivity. First,direct labour, lt, measures labour inputs required per unit of output of asector using the technology of year t. Secondly, given a complete structuraldescription of the economy, we can derive the total (direct and indirect)labour requirements of the four forestry sectors (l t).

Changes in 1 measure changes in the overall labour requirements ofeach of the four forestry sectors in delivering their final outputs. Suchchanges are the net result of changes in direct and indirect labour coefficientof many sectors and of shifting division of labour among sectors in theeconomy. This analysis of changes in direct and in total direct and indirectlabour requirements for each of the four forestry sectors gives some notionsof the importance of shifting industrial specialisation in the changingproductivity picture.

Data Collection

The Leontief Inverse Matrices for 1978 and 1983 input-output tablespublished by the Department of Statistics were used in this study. The lattertable is the latest input-output table published. The aggregated salary andwages and output for the above four forestry sectors were available for theIndustrial Surveys of Manufacturing Industries, also published by the samedepartment.

Results and Discussions

Table 1 shows the direct and total labour requirements per unit of

output for each of the 1978 and 1983 technology. Column (1) and column(2) of the table compare the direct and indirect labour coefficients for 1978and 1983 average technologies or vintages. Except for logging, the coeffi-cients of 1983 technology were generally smaller than those of 1978 averagetechnology. As labour coefficient is the reciprocal of the index of labourproductivity, the difference in the row paired coefficients indicates anincrease in labour productivity over the period. Similarly, comparingcolumn (3) with column (4) it is found that with the exception of logging, thedirect and indirect requirements of labour per RM million of 1989 outputwhen using 1978 average technology are larger than that when using 1983average technology. Also as indicated by the ratios of column (4) to that ofcolumn (3), in order to satisfy the production of the forestry sectors theeconomy uses less amount of labour if more current technology is used.However again the logging sector is an exception.

It appears that of the four forestry sectors, logging actuallyexperienced a decline in labour productivity while woodworks just barelyimproved. Logging is a highly labour intensive operation especially duringharvesting, skidding and loading at the forest landings. During loggingoperations, the cutting of trees and, subsequent debranching and cross-cutting using mechanical saws are labour intensive. Loading of logs ontolorries using the self-loading system, which do not require a specialisedmechanical loader, would consume high labour man-hours. Whenmechanical loaders are used this aspect is minimised. Further increase inlabour usage occurred with increasing forest exploitation in less accessibleand topographically more difficult areas in the later part of the seventies andearly eighties (Abdul Raof, 1983). Thus for many logging companies labourintake expanded towards the later part of the study period. The number ofemployment per hectare of forest opened grew at an average rate of 16.7%per annum during 1974-82 period (Mohd. Shahwahid, 1988).

The increasing labour intensity was happening while the state oflogging system appeared to remain unchanged. Owing to lack of data, it isnot possible to directly link declining labour productivity to lack ofmechanisation. But evidence of present logging practices does not allow usto reject the influence entirely. The state of the art now is still mainly relyingon track tractors for skidding of logs and winch lorries for hauling(Doraisingham, 1983). Improvements in harvesting system are very slow.Past observations have shown that logging contractors have attempted tomodify the winch lorries insteads of adopting more modern equipments.The winch lorry has been continually modified by increasing power throughstrengthening of drive shafts and body frames, and together withimprovements on the self-loading techniques have resulted in its continuedusage for log hauling activity (Anon., 1974). The refusal for contractors tochange to modern equipment is understandable as the winch lorry haulingsystem has the advantages of low capital cost, mobility and the ability offorwarding logs to considerable distances over low grade roads. Further-

Table 1: Total Labour Requirement per RM Million of 1989 Total Output

Direct and indirect requirement perRM million of 1989 total output

Direct and indirectlabour coefficients

1978(1)

Logging 0.023397

Woodworking 0.159923

1983(2)

0.053095

0.157376

1989 total outputusing technology

1978(3)

1917.6

665.2

1983(4)

4351.6

654.6

Ratio ofdirect labourrequirementsbetween 1983and 1978technologies

(4) -(3)

2.27

0.98mills

Furniture & 0.232397 0.197523Fixtures

Paper &Printing

0.202442 0.174644

91.3

484.3

77.6

417.8

0.85

0.86

Note: Column (3) - I978(I - A1978)-' Q1988

Column (4) = 1983(I - A1983)'1 Q1989

Q is a diagonal matrix with the output of the four forestry sectors in thediagonals and zero in all other cells of the matrix. For logging, the outputfigure is for Malaysia while for the other three sectors the output figures arefor Peninsular Malaysia only.

more it is observed that in many cases the winch lorry is being used for morethan ten years owing to versatility in replacement of worn moving parts andease of maintenance. Such a low capital set-up is very suitable to therequirements of short-termed logging licences as practised in Malay si anforests where the tasks of replenishing the forest is left to the government(Ellis, 1976).

As for the lack of improvement is labour productivity (and thus highlabour intake) in woodworking mills, particularly sawmills and plywoodmills the underlying reasonings are due to the lack of technological changebrought about by uncertainties of acquiring sufficient quality log intakesand excess capacity problems (Mohd Shahwahid, 1985 and 1986). Decliningquality and size of log over the years occurred as a consequence of higherutilisations of the timber resources including smaller diameter and lowerquality logs. Processing of increasingly smaller and irregular shaped logswould reduce productivity owing to higher time consumption and higher

10

wastage factor. The deteriorating quality of timber intake into domesticprocessing mills was caused by the export flow of logs in East Malaysia andsmaller annual coupe in West Malaysia.

Suggestions for productivity improvement

The study has highlighted the performance of the Malaysian forestrysectors. In logging since its activities are labour intensive, productionthrough greater utilisation of under-utilised timber species must be increasedto improve labour productivity. It is suggested that to increase output moremechanisation in harvesting operations is necessary to cope up with thegrowing future demand for logs under dwindling annual forest opening.Among the operations that need looking into are road construction andmaintenance, preparation of skid trails and landings, and log skidding andhandling.

With regard to the woodworking mills, particularly in sawn limber andplywood industries there are evidence of inadequate growth in factor inpututilisation. Both these industries can be modernised and upgraded in termsof production efficiency and high quality industrial outturns. The strategywould be consolidation of existing inefficient mills and diversification oflarge individual mills. Experiences from developed countries that hadundergone rationalisation as a result of continuing rise in labour wage andlog cost, together with declining log sizes and concentration, can bebeneficial (Kaiser, 1974). The sawn timber industry in Malaysia is facingsimilar problems above and should consolidate into fewer mills. Economicforces will cause less efficient mills to close down but a few diehard mills willsurvive with modernisation. Consolidation can lead to improvements inplant layouts and increased mechanisation to reduce the impact of steadilyrising wage rates. Extensive handling can be reduced by specialising in anarrower product mix leading to smooth production flows.

In the sawmill layout the continuing dominant roles of the handsawswill continue but with support of precision sawing equipments such asmulti-edgers, pony rigs and suitable conveying system. Resawing can beimproved by the introduction of line-bars and infeed apparatus. To speedthe production flow the present contract system of production where eachresaw unit is used as a self-contained production unit, should be replaced byproperly controlled and supervised integrated flow operations. Theemphasis on incentives for quality production can provide similarinducements as the contract system. A narrower product mix specialisingin standard sizes tailored to re manufacturing requirements of secondaryindustries can ensure more efficient use of factor inputs as well as obtainready markets. In order to achieve this, sawmilling operations should berationalised towards sawing to stock rather than to order.

Diversification of sawmilling operation into secondary processing such

11

as wood seasoning, moulding and furniture-making can improve raw mate-rial utilisation. Greater automation is possible as product mix is narrowedto requirements of secondary processing instead of variable order sizes.

Productivity improvement in the plywood industry can be achieved byhigher production recoveries of present mills. Adoption of more laboursaving devices such as hot presses with automatic charging and unloadingequipment, and a variety of veneer and panel handling equipments can helpto increase output. Other measures that can lead to higher recovery andproduction are proper supervision and training for employee, pre-processingof logs or cants through steaming or boiling, microsharpening of latheknives using newer and higher recovery lathe machines and better control ofveneer flow into dryers and glueing operations. Quality control of plywoodpanels is essential by ensuring proper control of veneer thickness variationand laying of core veneers, good joints and display of wood grains, and finesurface furnishing.

The problem of insufficient log flows to meet the requirements of allsawntimber and plywood mills in West Malaysia is serious and establish-ments of new mills are not encouraged. Encouragement of importation oflogs from East Malaysia is important. The abolition on import duties andsurcharge is a step in the right direction. Despite this the government shouldprovide millers with credit facilities for the importation of logs to enablethem to operate their plants at optimal capacity throughout the year.Alternatively, funds from the export levies of sawntimber could be used tosubsidise importation of logs from the East Malaysia states.

With the above suggestions of modernization together with diversi-fication of mill layouts, it is felt that logging, and woodworking sectors, atleast for sawntimber and plywood, would be able to accept the challenge ofbetter productivity results. It is an unavoidable fact that to obtain efficiencywill require more mechanisation and automation. Past experiences withautomated technology in integrated timber complexes had failed because themachinery and production system are not adapted to local conditions. Butwith proper planning and evaluation on choice of machinery and plantlayout together with sound management, better performance is expected.

Conclusions

The paper compares the labour productivity of 1978 and 1983production technologies in the Malaysian forestry sectors. Since it usesinput-output analysis as its basic framework, the study takes into accountthe inter-industry transaction in calculating the amount of labour required'for each 1978 and 1983 production technology. The result sets out that withthe exception of logging, labour requirements has declined with theoccurence technical changes. In logging, labour requirement actuallyincreases in 1983 production technology.

12

REFERENCES

ABDUL RAOF. 1983. Employment in the Primary Wood-Based Industries ofPeninsular Malaysia. The Malaysian Forester 46 (1): 20-25.

ANONYMOUS. 1984. Development Strategy for the Forest Sector of PeninsularMalaysia. The Forestry and Industries Development Project of the F.A.O of theUnited Nations. Rome.

DEPARTMENT OF STATISTICS, MALAYSIA, 1978-83, Annual IndustrialSurveys.

DEPARTMENT OF STATISTICS, MALAYSIA, 1983 and 1988. Input-outputTables for 1978 and 1983.

DORAJSINGHAM. 1988. Logging Operation ofSyarikat Jengka Sdn. Bhd. A fieldReport. Unpublished Report. Faculty of Forestry, Universiti PertanianMalaysia, Serdang. Selangor.

ELLIS, W. 1976. An Overview of Logging Methods in Malaysia. Paper presented atthe National Timber Congress. Kuala Lumpur.

KAISER, H.F. 1971. Productivity Gains in Forest Products Industries. For. Prod. 21(5): 14-16.

KAISER, H.F., 1974. Forest Product Industries Show Advances in LabourProductivity. For. Ind. 101(11): 32-34.

MOHD. SHAHWAHID H.O., 1985. Production and Input-use Efficiency in theSawntimber Manufacturing Industry of Peninsular Malaysia. PERTANIKA 8(2):203-214.

MOHD SHAHWAHID H.O., 1986. Production and Input-use Efficiency in thePlywood Manufacturing Industry of Peninsular Malaysia. 3. Productivity, 1(1):41-50.

MOHD SHAHWAHID H.O., 1988. Productivity Growth in Forest Harvesting and inSelected Wood Using Industries of Peninsular Malaysia, 1971 to 1982. Paperpresented at the Fifth Annual Northeast Graduate Student Conference 4-6February 1983, State University of New York, Syracuse.

SALTER, W., 1980. Productivity and Technical Change, Lond: Cambridge UniversityPress.

ZAKARIA A.R., 1989, Price Structure, Technological Obsolescence and LabourProductivity - A Vintage Approach, The Singapore Economic Review, Vol.XXXIV No. 1 (April): 50-67

ZAKARIAH, A.R., 1991, Costs of Production and Labour Productivity: 1978 and1983 Malaysian Vintage Technology, Jumal Elconomi Malaysia, 23 (Disember);73-90.

13

BiodataShams-ur Rahman is an Assistant Professor at the Institute of BusinessAdministration, University of Dhaka, Bangladesh. Currently he is at theDepartment of Mathematical Statistics & Ope ration an s Research, Uni-versity of Exater, UK. His research interest include location modeling,inventory control and ergoeconomics aspect of productivity.

14

DEVELOPING A CONCEPTUALMODEL FOR SERVICE QUALITY

ByShams-ur Rakman

(University ofDhaka)

INTRODUCTION

The study of quality and quality control has enjoyed a long and richhistory in management literature. The field has enjoyed a revival with stronginterest in Japanese management concept. See for instance Quchi (1981),Juran (1982) and Ishikawa (1985). However, most published works havebeen devoted to managing the quality of manufacturing products. Only overthe last decade, has there been a growing interest in the development ofknowledge about the control and management of service systems, likebanking and finance, hotel and catering, tourism and leisure, insurancecompanies, retail activities, advertising, and education. Chase (1981) seestwo reasons for such interest, namely;

1. The rapid growth of services relative to manufacturing in the lastdecade.

2. The pressure on service operations to become cost efficient in theirproduction proccesses.

A number of ideas have been proposed in the various studies onservice quality. These ideas can be categorized into three approaches:

Approach I:

Focus has been on adaptation of manufacturing techniques for servicesector to encourage efficient use of resources for increase in productivity.Writes advocating this idea tend to model service systems by drawingstructural analogies with manufacturing systems; e.g., intermittent,continuous and project flow in Buffa (1975); and input, transformationand output in Wild (1977). This idea has been more subjectively addressedby Levin (1972, 1976). He proposed the "production-line" approach andsuggested that the same rational system of division of labour andspecialization coulde be followed to produce speed, quality, cleanlinessand low prices. As example, fast food restaurants such as McDonalds andBurger King were cited. Chase (1987) introduced the concept of separatinghigh and low contact operations and running the no-contact or back-office

15

operation along similar lines of production plant. Dierdonck & 38; Brandt(1988) advocated the "focused-factory" concept for service organization.The basic idea behind the concept of "focused-factory" is that it is better tohave different plants, each focused on 'one set of internally consistent non-compromised criteria for success'. All these views attempt to restructureservice systems to make them more like manufacturing processes; nonerequires much consumer involvement.

Approach II:

Participation of customers in the production process of the servicesystems and thereby achieving productivity gains. Some of the writersadvocating this idea are Fit7simmons (1985), Zeleny (1978) and Lovelock &Young (1979). Considering the fact that, unlike manufacturing, in servicesystems consumers are frequently present when the service is performed, ineffect witnessing its production. Fitzsimmons (1985) views consumer as an"untapped productive resource". He points out that by shifting some of theservice activities onto the customer, productivity gains could be achieved,

Approach ITT:

De-industrialization fo services. Writers proposing this idea givegreater importance to the "interface". Teboul (1988) for example, arguesthat when service is industrialized the centre of interest is less on the serviceitself than the product delivered with the service. He believes that for longterm positioning of the service company, strategies like maintenance andenhancement of the interface is a must.

DEFINITION OF SERVICE, QUALITY AND SERVICE QUALITY:

According to Kotler (1980, p.624)" a service is any activity or benefitthat one party can offer to another that is essentially intangible and does notresult in the ownership of anything ..... it may or may not be tied to aphysical product". And delivering a service is dealing directly with thecustomers and transforming them from an initial state of non-satisfaction orneed into one of contentment.

A service is made up of two systems; an interface and a support(Teboul, 1988); a front office and a back office; the dining room in arestaurant and the kitchen (see figure 1).

Quality means different things to different people. Garvin (1984)outlined five viewpoints of quality, namely:

1. Transcend = Beauty2. Product = Content

16

Service

Customer11

Interface ————— )f ————— Support

Source: Adapted from Teboul (1988)

Service DefinitionFigure 1

3. User = Fitness4. Value - Cost5. Manufacturing = Variability

Maister (1984) and Teboul (1988) consider user-based viewpoint. (TheJuran Concept of "fitness for use" addresses this viewpoint (Juran, 1980,p.l)) of quality for service operations, i.e. quality is the customer'sperception of the service offer. And perception is experiential state ofmind (Haywood-Farmer, 1988, p. 19), rather than necessarily being real.Hence, a service is not only 'what' is delivered but also includes 'how' it isdelivered. And the 'how* is the interactions of the customer with thepremises, with the equipment, with the employees and even with the othercustomers (see figure 2). With regard to the gradual disappearance of movietheatres in the USA, Canby's (1982) findings justify this opinion. He pointsout 13 complaints including insensitive and undisciplined employees,underlit and out-of-focus projection, car-splitting sound, cumbersomerefund procedure in the case of power failure. None of these have anthingto do with the quality of films being shown.

According to Gronroos (1982) service quality can be defined in termsof 'technical quality* and 'functional quality'. Technical aspects relate to'what is delivered', e.g., meals in a restaurant and bedrooms in hotels.Functional aspects of service relate to 'how it is delivered', i.e. attitudes andbehaviour of employees, inter-relationship of customers and servers,appearance and personality and service-mindedness of service personnel,their accessibility and approachability. He believes that the 'how* of servicedelivery is critical to perceptions of service quality. Lehtinen (1983) viewsservice quality in terms of 'process quality* and 'output quality*. Processquality is judged by the customer during the service. Output quality isjudged by the customer after the service is performed. The barber's

17

1 nleractJoncustomer

Interaction\ equipment /

Interactionprocess

Customer needs

/ Interaction \employees

Service Offer

Quality = preceived customer satisfaction

Quality as Perceived user SatisfactionFigure 2

conversation and apparent skill during the haicut involves process quality,the appearance of the hair after the haircut involves output quality.

WHAT CAUSES SERVICE QUALITY PROBLEMS?

The most frequently mentioned sources of quality problem with themanufacturing products are related to workmanship, materials and parts,control systems, product design and maintenance of process equipment(Leonard & Sasser, 1983). The primary couses of the service qualityproblems are quite different and more difficult than in the manufacturingsector because of the following special nature of service.

Intangibility:

Sometime it is very difficult to distinguish between products andservices. As Shostack (1982) rightly points out, there are very few 'pure*

18

products and services. For instance, a car is a physical product and anairline is a service, but transport is common to both and each has productand service elements. She suggested that products and services could bedistinguished with regard to their tangible elements. Services are intangiblein the sense that we consume but do not prossess them or connot store theme.g., legal services, hairdressing; often cannot see the result of use, e.g.medical treatment, education; and seldom can we test a service in advance-thus making it difficult to judge quality in advance of purchase.

Inseparabilty:

Usually goods are produced, then sold and then consumed. But manyservices are sold first, then produced and consumed with production andconsumption possibly being simultaneous (see figure 3). In the class room,the teaching and the learning process go together. The passenger has to be inthe plane in order to be transported. If he misses his plane, the service is lost.

Services

Goods

ProductionProduction

Traditional

Marketing

Consumption

Buyer sellerinteraction

Source: Adapted from Rathmel (1974)

Consumer-Server InterfacesFigures

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Customer Involvement in Service Production:

The customer by being physically present at the interface, is able toparticipate not only in the design of the service but in production or inquality control or even in the diffusion of the service. For their activeinvolvement in the production process of the service, Berry (1984) termscustomers as 'production workers* over whom management has little or nodirect control,

Heterogenety:

Goods can often be described and evaluated by a few well understoodattributes that remain relatively constant over time. Most services, however,are typified by variability or lack of standardization, in production as afunction of both consumers' need and also of who is providing the service.Although some organizations try to standardize services, e.g., banks,variability is the norm with an emphasis on 'people-based service delivery'and with quality of service delivering from the performance of service basedpersonnel.

THE CONCEPTUAL MODEL:

The service qualtiy model by Haywood-Farmed (1988) has threefeatures:

1. Physical and process components2. Behavioural elements3. Elements of Professional Judgement

In this model the 'interface' has been included as a component of thephysical process along with the support like, production and deliveryfacilities. By doing so the author has oversimplified the importance ofinterface in a service organisation. After all it is the interface that makes aservice. Moreover, the third feature of the - professional judgement - whichincludes characteristics like, advice, diagnostic ability, motivation to serve -has limited scope without substantial size of the interface. For example, infast food restaurants, the staff has no scope whatsoever to advise or suggestthe customers in designing their food. Here, showing warmth andfriendliness (behavioural elements) on the part of the servers will serve thepurpose. Whereas, in a Japanese Benihana restaurant (where the size of thekitchen is reduced and that of the dining area is enlarged), there is sufficientscope for the staff to advise and mutually design the service. It is therefore,more justified to have professional judgement, when interface is also adistinct component of a service quality model. The proposed model (figure4) is an extention of Hay wood-Farmer's (1988) model.

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Professionaljudgement(P)

Supportsystem (S)

Interface(P)

Behaviouralelement (B)

A Model of Service QualityFigure 4

High

Degree of Contactand interaction

Degree oflabourintensity

Low

High

Low

S^ c/ i o/ \

2 i2 '5

,'\ 3

4

7

7Low High

Degree of service customisation

A Three-Dimensional Classification SchemeFignreS

It consists of the following features:

1. Interface2. Support system3. Behavioural elements4. Elements of Professional judgement

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The service organisations are highly diverse. Hence, a particular com-bination of the components of the model will suit a particular organisation.It is the responsibility of the service managers to choose that appropriatecombination by asking themselves three questions with respect to theirorganization; what exactly is their service? Who are their target group? Andwhat is the expectation of the target group?

The proposed model can be explained with the help of a three-dimensional classification scheme proposed by Haywood-Farmer (1988)(see fig. 5).

There are two extreme octants in figure 5 - octant 1 and octant 8.Octant 1 represents the services which are low in all three dimensions. Insuch services, there exits no contact or low contact between the customersand servers; therefore the server's personal behaviour and the interface arerelatively unimportant. The focus for quality control should therefore beemphasised on work processes and procedures, i.e. near the lower left handcorner of PSB in figure 4. Quality in such organization is relatively easy tomeasure and often may be inspected before the service, is delivered to thecustomer. An example of such services could be the back room operations ata bank. On the other hand, octant 8 represents the services which are high inall three dimensions. In such organisations interface, support, behaviouralelements, professional judgement are all important. The proper servicequality balance would therefore be at the centre of the pyramid PSBI infigure 4,

As one moves towards octants 5 - 8 , the contact and interactionbetween the customer and the service producing system increases. In serviceslow both in labour intensity an service customisation (octant 5), supportsystem is important. Special care must be taken to make sure equipment isreliable and easy for the customer to use. A 'cash-point system* of a financialhouse is an example of such service. As high contact and interaction servicesincrease in labour intensity (octant 6,8), more attention must be paid to thebehaviour of the staff. A service with high contact, high labour intensity andlow service customisation (octant 6), will be a combination of support andbehavioural elements and therefore proper quality balance will be betweenthe lower two corners of A ISB in figure 4. A take-away food restaurant is agood example of such service. In the case of a fast food restaurant, likeMcDonalds, interface is also important.

Octant 2 is high in labour intensity but low both in contact and degreeof service customisation. Here personal behaviour, professional judgementand interface will remain quite unimportant. Delivery service of postaldepartment is an example of such kind of services.

As one moves towards octants 3,4,7, and 8 of figure 5, degree ofcustomisation increases. In this case the product must be designed to fit he

22

customer's need and therefore the service producer must advise thecustomer, decide what the customer wants and decide how best to producethe service. These functions require professional judgement on the part ofthe server. In labour intensive organisations, the server's personal behaviourand interface is important. The emphasis in quality control should thereforebe focused on the FBI. Repair and maintenance services, dentist's chamberand benihana restaurants are some examples of such services. In less labourintensive services, such as one related to computer, professional judgementand support systems of the organisations are important.

The service quality model described above is a conceptual one. It iseasy to understand but perhaps deserves further development.

SUMMARY

This article presents insights into some basic concepts of service andservice quality. A number of ideas proposed in different studies on servicequality has been categorized into three approaches. Since serviceorganisations are highly diverse, no one approach is suitable for all serviceactivities. Rather, combination of some quality attributes will suit aparticular organisation. In this respect, a service quality model comprisingfour qualify attributes such as interface, support, behaviour of the servicepersonnel and professional judgement, has been proposed. Managers mustcarefully choose and balance the appropriate mix of these quality attributesin order to achieve good service quality.

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REFERENCE

1. Berry, L.L. (1984), "Service Marketing is Different", in Lovelock, C.H. (ed.),Services Marketing, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J.. pp. 29 - 36.

2. Berry, L.L; V.A. Zeithaml; A. Parasuraman 91985), "Quality Counts in Services,Too", Business Horizons, May-June, pp. 44 - 52.

3. Bufla, F. (1975), "Operation Management", John Wiley & Sons, London.

4. Canby, v (1982), "When Movie Theatres and Patrons are Obnoxious", New YorkTimes, February 7, pp. D19, D24.

5. Chase, R.B. (1978), "Where Does the Customer Fit in a Service Operation".Harvard Business Review, Nov.,/Dec., pp. 137 - 142.

6. Chase, R.B. (1981), "The Customer Contact Approach to Services; Theoretical-Bases and Practical Extensions", Operations Research, Vol. 29, no. 4, pp. 694 -706.

7. Dierdonck, R.V.; G. Brandt (1988), "The Focused Factory in Service Industry",in Strategy, Quality and Resource Management in the Service Sector, R.,Johnston (ed.), International Journal of Operations and Production Manage-ment, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 31 - 38.

8. Fitzmmoins, J.A. (1985), "Consumer Participation and Productivity in ServiceOperations", Interfaces, May/June, pp. 60 - 67.

9. Garvin, D.A. (1984), "What Does Product Quality Really Meanr SloanManagement Review, Vol. 26, No. 1, pp. 25 - 43.

10. Haywood-Farmer, J. (1988), "A Conceptual Model of Service Quality",International Journal of Operations and Production Management, Vol. 8,No. 6, pp. 19-29.

11. Ishikawa, K. (1985), What is Total Quality Control? The Japanese Way,Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood, Cliffs, N.J.

12. Juran, J.M. (1982), Upper Management and Quality, Juran Institute, New York.

13. Juran, J.M. (1980), Quality Planning and Analysis, 2nd. edition, Prentice-Hall,Inc., Englewood, Cliffs, N.J.

14. Kotler, P (1980), Principles of Marketing, Prentice-Hall, Englewood, Cliffs, N.J.

15. Leonard, F.S.: W.E. Sasser (1982), "The incline of Quality", arvard BusinessReview, Sept./Oct., pp. 163 - 171.

16. Levitt, T (1972), "The Production-line Approach to Service", Harvard BusinessReview, Sept./Oct., pp. 41 - 52.

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17. LevittgT (1976), "The Industrialization of Services", Harvard Business Review,Sept/Oct., pp. 63 - 74.

18. Lovelock, G.H.: R.F. Young (1979), "Look to Customers to IncreaseProductivity", Harvard Business Review, may/June, pp. 168 - 178.

19. Maister, D.H. (1984), "Quality Work Does Not Mean Quality Service", TheAmerican Lawyer, April], pp. 6-8.

20. Quchi, W.G. (1981), Theory Z: How American Business Can Meet The JapaneseChallenge, Addision-Wesley Publishing Co. Reading, MA.

21. Rathmell, J. (1974), Marketing in the Service Sector, Winthrop Publishers,Cambridge.

22. Shostack, G.L. (1982), "How to Design a Service", European Journal ofMarketing, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 49 - 63.

23. Teboul, J. (1988), "De-Industrialise Service for Quality", in Strategy, Qualityand Resource Management in the service Sector, R. Johnston (ed.)>International Journal of Operations and Production Management, Vol. 8,No. 3, pp. 39 - 45.

24. Wild. R. (1977), Concept of Operation Management, John Wiley and Sons,London.

25. Zeleny, M. (1978). Towards Self-Service Society, Columbia University Press.

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BiodataIbrahim bin Mam at earned his B.S degree from the University of Californiaat Davis in 1976, his M.S from Michigan State University in 1978, and hisPh.D. in Education and Industrial Labour Relations from CornellUniversity in 1982. From the time of his graduation to August 1992 hehas taught at the Center for Extension and Continuing Education,Universiti Pertanian Malaysia. At present he is an Associate Professor ofHuman Resource Development at Universiti Malaysia Sarawak.

Dr. Ibrahim bin Mamat is an active researcher and is the author andeditor of 3 books on extension strategies, 5 training modules on trainingmanagement and 30 seminar papers. He has consulted with a wide variety oforganizations in both the public, private, regional and international agencieson human resource matters.

Dr. Ibrahim Mamat stays active as a trainer in self-management andhuman resource strategies. His experience includes World Bank assignmentsin RISDA, SEAMEO in ASEAN Countries, C1DA in Thailand and in-service training in various development agencies in Malaysia. He also servesas a chairman of the graduate program for 19 graduate students.

26

SIMULATION AS A TRAINING TECHNIQUEITS CONCEPT AND APPLICATIONS

byIbrahim Mamat, Ph.D

Introduction

The focus of this paper is on an organizational simulation, one of theimportant training techniques to accomplish certain training objectives.Simulations, also known as structured experiences,, provide trainees withsignificant opportunities to experience learning. The learning comes aboutby actually undergoing the experience. Although the structured event of thesimulation activity itself is not reality, the learning from it, coming as it doesfrom one's experience, is very real indeed.

The objectives of this paper are to review the various trainingtechniques, explores the meaning of simulations and gives a number ofexamples of simulations training, explains the pros and cons of simulationtechnique, outlines the steps involved in designing and conducting them,and discussion on how simulation technique can be made useful to promotelearning.

Different Types of Training Methodologies

There are nearly two dozen distinctly different training methods (andliterally hundreds of combinations of them) which have become popular andused by training agencies. Although some studies have reported thefrequency of use of various methods, the training literature has failed toproduce a clear answer to the questions, "Which training method is mosteffective?" The question, of course, has no simple answer for all trainingpersonnel. Unfortunately, some training personnel act as though they knewthe answer and they continue to utilize their "favorite" technique in most oftheir programs regardless of its true relevance or adequacy for the objectiveat hand.

Whenever training techniques are selected on the basis of illogical orirrelevant criteria, one has committed an injustice to his trainees, decreasedthe probability of training program success, and failed to exercise hisresponsibility as a manager charged with the task of human growth anddevelopment. Why have trainers failed to choose the appropriate trainingtechnique? Some possible reasons include the greater cost of alternativemethods, lack of knowledge about the comparative effectiveness of various

27

techniques or even the perception that the trainees like a certain methodbest.

The popular training techniques that have been widely discussed overa period of several years are found in Bass and Vaughan (1966, p. 131).These are orientation, job-instruction training, apprenticeship.assi slant ship,job-rotation, coaching, vestibule, lecture, special study, role-play, simula-tion, programmed instruction and laboratory training which include the T-Group, or sensitivity training and managerial grid. There are many factorsto be considered in the selection of a training technique, but the most criticalindependent variables include the nature of the training objective, cost ofdeveloping and administering the program, amount of time required,optimum size of the class, the trainee's educational and cultural back-ground, the qualifications of the trainer, and so forth. For this paper, all thecritical independent variables will be simplified and a somewhat arbitrarydichotomy will be used to describe the pros and cons of simulation as atraining technique, and come to some conclusions as to its generalusefulness as a training device.

Simulation Technique

1. What is a Simulation?

A simulation is a problem-solving learning activity that attempts toimitate, or simulate, a real-life situation (Cash, 1977). A form ofdrama, it may involve the acting out of a story, the playing of role, orparticipating in a game. But unlike a short drama, the simulation haslearning objectives, involves many persons playing roles, and hasunpredictable outcomes. The activity is centered around a problem ofconcern to those involved, which becomes clear to them in the courseof their participation.

In short, simulation is a training technique to give the participants anexperience comparable to what they will encounter in real life(Eitington, 1989). Some examples include:

* Hotel workers receive training in how to calm guests in case of afire.

* New fast-food store managers operate a 'mock' restaurant. Themany problems of dealing with young workers, food prepara-tion, and cash control.

* New auditors are given a full range of financial statements toaudit a fictitious company. Interviews with operating officials arealso conducted to ferret out discrepancies in data.

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2. The Characteristics of Simulation

The process of simulation is a step-by-step time paths of variable,starting from a given set of conditions, which may be sharp ordistributed in any of various ways, so that past history as well as thepresent situation enters into the relations. As the human element isintroduced into the simulation, the participant in manipulating thevariables by the rules of play begins the activity of simulation. If it isan organizational decision-making simulation, the participant (e.g.acting as an assistant director) starts forming the model of how topmanagement make decisions about organizational problems confront-ing them. Then as simulaton activities progress, he modifies andenlarges his model of the organizational system and increases hisgeneral understanding of the real system.

What distinguishes simulation from other training techniques, forexample with games, and what are the unique features of simulationmodel? There are subtle differences between simulations and games towhich Raser (1969) refers, "that is the greater the extent to which allthe seemingly salient variables are formally pre-programmed and themore it is believed that the model is a complete and accurate analogueto some "referent" system, the more likely it is that the model will becalled a simulation. On the other hand, the more informal andtentative the model, the more likely it will be called a game. Theactivity of a game governed by rules, entailing a competitive situation,having winners and losers (Eitington, 1989).

The essential properties of organizational simulation used in thecontext of this paper can be summarized as 1) its basic elements areplayers, each striving to achieve his goal, 2) it is limited to a small,fixed set of players, e.g 5 persons, 3) its rules limit the range and definethe nature of legitimate actions of player, 4) it establishes the basicorder, sequence, and structure within which the actions takes place,and S) it is delimited in time as well as extensivity.

3. Designing a Simulation

The purpose of the simulation must be clear. What problem orproblems to be addressed by this learning activity? The nature of theactivity and the learning outcomes expected must be carefully workedout. The best way for the trainer to design a simulation based on theorganization's activites is to work with a group of operating officialson the project. Hindy Schachter (1982) of the New Jersey Institute ofTechnology, Newark, provides ten guidelines to design a meaningfulsimulation, as follows:

1. Determine its purpose, listing each ability you wish to develop.

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2. Design activities that develop the stated abilities; e.g., if thegroup is to learn how to negotiate with an outside group, createsuch a learning situation.

3. Outline the "scenario," deciding on the purpose and name of theorganization involved, nature and number of roles, and so on.

4. Use a plotline and props (e.g., manuals and contracts if a unionnegotiation is involved) that are logical, believable, consistent.

5. Assign participants appropriate roles; realism, in relation toobjectives, is essential, of course.

6. As the simulation develops, ask participants to generatealternatives and to choose a solution or course of action therefrom.

7. Make certain all activities have been assigned enough time fortheir completion.

8. Provide opportunities for the giving of oral feed-back toparticipants with particular emphasis on the giving of praisefor good performance. (Positive strokes will encourage greaterparticipation).

9. Conduct a dry run to "debug" the simulation.

10. Arrange for participants to critique the simulation; use the datato make it more realistic, relevant, and exciting. The feedbackmay also improve the clarity of participants' instructions andeliminate unnecessary detail and dull spots.

In short, details of the simulation activity must be pictured in advance.The designer should write explicit notes for the trainer and for thetrainees. The trainer should know* how to 1) explain the simulationactivity to the learners, 2) organize the activity and 3) facilitate thediscussion session at the end of the simulation. Whereas the traineesshould know 1) the objectives for this activity, 2) the roles to be playedby each participant, 3) materials needed for the activity and 4) timeallocated for each activity.

4. The Pros and Cons as a Training Device

Simulation is viewed as a training device to generate motivation,interest and involvement of the training participants. Stadsklcv (1974,p. 131) states that, "as the players perceive their successess or failuresas well as those of the other, it adds to the individual's ego

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involvement and may serve as additional motivation." Simulationtechnique is sufficiently rich in content to provide several differentlevels of learning simultaneously to students of different abilities (Abt,1970). Learning is active rather than passive, everyone plays(Eitington, 1989). The concern of the superficial insight of a generalsituation that will be resulted on the learner can be minimized byincorporating other types of educational activities into the simulation.

Although the simulation technique is an artificial training device, it isoften the most powerful representation of "reality" next to the realthing. The actions taken by the participants are less threatening thanthey would be in real life yet the participant can judge the real-lifeeffects (Ference, 1977). The simulation enables students to engage in apotentially high-risk activity under low-risk circumstances.

The simulation technique is able to give participants a real feel for "thebig picture" of a firm's operation and better view of how their own jobmeshes with the contributions of other, and vice versa (Ference, 1977).

Simulation technique gives the opportunity to work in groups withtheir team members. The group interaction enables students to learnfrom each other, and they learn best from their peers. The learningsituation provides the opportunity for immediate feedback concerningproper and improper actions or decisions. Thus participants cancorrect their behavior promptly rather than continuing to err, and theycan be rewarded psychologically for proper performance.

The branching characteristics of the program in simulation techniquemake it adaptive to individual differences among students. On theother hand, the simulation alone per se may be limited in giving theamount of learning to students. Therefore, it needs to be linked toother instructional methodologies such as group discussion, so that allstudents are reached by one or more approaches which suit theirindividual learning styles.

Simulation allows participants to put abstract concepts into practice ina problem-solving situation. Ference (1977, p. 82) called it as an"experiential learning impact" and further states that the approachappears to be less easily forgotten than learning through theinformation - discussion technique. According to Stadsklev (1974, p.32), "the reasons may be that the association which embed it inmemory are associations with concrete actions and events to whichaffect was attached, and are not merely associations with abstractsymbols."

The most critical limitations of simulation technique are (Ference,1977): 1) its requires a specialized expertise to develop the model, 2)

31

requires high design and development cost such as time, energy andmoney, and 3) the participants' success depend to a large degree on thefacilitator's expertise in processing individual and group information.A simulation must be carefully constructed to ensure the achievementof the learning outcomes.

The unreality of simulation situations is indeed a limitation. On theother hand, it allows students to make mistakes during manipulationof its component parts, and gradually, by various kinds of organizingstrategies which he and his teammates contrive. The process of makingmistakes is considered necessary in order to avoid costly errors ofjudgement in later real-life situations.

Conclusion

The training profession has, for too long, been a victim ofdisorganization, time pressures and myopic viewpoints with regard to theeffective application of training methodologies. As a result, trainers havechosen instructional techniques and continued their use over considerabletime periods for many inadequate reasons. These problems have severelyhampered the effectiveness of some trainers and tarnished the image of thetraining profession in general.

Given the relatively small amount of limitations as compared to thestrengths of simulation technique, the question arises regarding theusefulness of its usage as a training device. It seem that the simulationtechnique could be applicable and effective under certain conditions such asa small class size, with the help of trained instructor and with incorporationwith other training technique such as group discussion. As for the questionof applicability of simulation technique to the types of subject-matter, thepotential is almost unlimited. The simulation technique can be presented asa simple or a complex training device by trainers that allow them to adapttheir strategy to fit their trainees, situational and curriculum needs.

A simulation attempts to create a situation that trainees may en-counter in real life or on the job. A simulation is a good learning activitywhen the trainer would like a high degree of participation or activity fromthe trainees. It encourages trainees to focus on the problems at hand and is agood means of energizing them and creating interest and enthusiasm for thelearning project. Because there is human interaction during a simulation, itis a good means of getting trainees to relax and to know each other.

The writer's experiences suggest that the pay-off in terms of the effectgained from simulation class, especially the gain in usable skills immediatelyupon the completion of training would appear to be well worth the resourcesspent.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Abt, dark C. (1970), ''Serious Games," New York, The Viking Press.

Bass, Bernard M. and James A. Vaughan, (1966) "Training in Industry, theManagement of Learning" Wadsworth.

Cash, Kathleen, (1977), "Designing and Using Simulations for Training," TechnicalNote No. 20, Center for International Education, University of Massachusetts,Amherst, 37 pages.

Eitington, Julius E (1989), The Winning Trainer: Second Edition, Gulf PublishingCompany; Houston.

Ference, Eugene Andrew, (1977) "A Gaming - Simulation Model For TeachingInterpersonal Hunan Relations Decision-Making Skills In the Hotel Industry"Ph.D. Thesis, Cornell University, Unpublished.

Raser, John R., (1969), "Simulation and Society-An exploration of ScientificGaming" AUyn and Bacon, Inc. Boston.

Schachter, H.L, (1982) "Role Plays: 10 Rules for Development? Training andDevelopment Journal, pp 9-10.

Stadsldev, Ron, (1974), "Handbook of Simulation Gaming in Social Education"Institute of Higher Education Research and Services, The University ofAlabama.

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BiodataIshak Ismail began his career as an Administrative cum Marketing Officer,at Development Authority of Pahang Tenggara in June, 1978. In October,1983, he joined the School of Management as a Marketing lecturer.Beginning December, 1984 till November, 1986, he was seconded to theMARA Institute of Technology. He was a visiting scholar at the Universityof Technology, Sydney, Australia from March, 1987 • May, 1987 under theauspices of the Australian Government's International DevelopmentProgramme. He has taught courses in Entcrpreneurship, ConsumerBehaviour, Business Policy, Sales Management and Product Planning. Hehas written a module on Statistics and Production (USM, 1988) and co-authored a book on the Principles and Practice of Management (DBF,1992). He has also written articles in newspaper (Bcrita Harian/UtusanMalaysia) Usahawan Malaysia, Perantara USM and the MalaysianManagement Review. Apart from the above activities, Ishak Ismail is alsoactively involved in the Executive Development Programme and USM's in-house training activities. His research interest is in the field of CustomerService, Entreprcneurship.

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"TOWARDS MANAGING THE CUSTOMER SERVICEFUNCTION"By Ishak Ismail

The recent upsurge of interest in corporate "excellence" hasheightened management's consciousness and awareness of the importanceof customer service as a tool for differentiation. We have come to recognisethat a crucial source of competitive advantage can be achieved throughsuperior marketplace services. Delivering high quality service has beenrelated to success in many business (Radie and Wansley 1985; Thompson,DeSouza and Gale 1985). Delivering superior service quality appears to be aprerequisite for success, if not survival* of businesses in the 1990s andbeyond.

The service given to customers has always been important. Easyinterpersonal relationship, convenient and rapid delivery, and sympathetichandling of complaints, for example, have consistently given a competitiveedge to suppliers whose goods were no different from those of theircompetitors. But there are reasons to believe today, customer service is notonly more important than ever before, but may become the principal agentof success or cause of failure for many organizations.

Despite its importance, "customer service" is not an after-thoughtmatter. It is rarely specified as objectives in corporate plans of companies.Still more rarely does top management acknowledge and communicate thenecessity for everyone in the operation to appreciate how they personallycontribute to customer satisfaction. It is therefore, necessary for topmanagement to set policy on customer service, create appropriateorganizational structure for improvement of customer service. It is alsopertinent for top management involvement, particularly so in customerservice research to promote long term customer service plan which includesbasic behavior and attitudes.

2.0 The meaning of customer service

There is no generally accepted definition of customer service. Theconcept is often defined by describing the activities which areconsidered most important in the interfaces between a company andits customers. Therefore the definitions tend to be highly sUuational.Even within a specific company the perceptions can vary from oneperson to another. La Londe and Zinszer (1976) found a range of

35

views relating to the definition of customer service. These include:

* All activities required to accept, process, deliver, and buildcustomer orders and to follow up on any activity that erred.

* Timeliness and reliability of getting materials to customers inaccordance with customer's expectation.

A complex of activities involving areas of business which combine todeliver and invoice the company's products in a fashion that isperceived as satifactory by the customers and which advances ourcompany's objectives.

* Total order entry, all communication with customers, allshipping, all freight, all invoicing, and total control of repairof products.

* Timely and accurate delivery of products ordered by customerswith accurate follow up and enquiry response including timelydelivery of invoice.

The concept of customer service is often associated with a number ofelements. After an extensive study of meaning and measurement ofcustomer service, La Londe and Zinszer categorised the elements ofcustomer service into three groups:-

1. Pre-transaction elements2. Transaction elements3. Post-transaction elements (LaLonde and Zinszer, 1976)

The pre-transaction elements of customer service relate to corporatepolicies or programmes, e.g. written statements of service policy,adequacy of organizational structure and system flexibility.

The transaction elements are those customer service variables directlyinvolved in performing the physical distribution function. The mostcommonly quoted elements within this group are:

1. Product availability2. Order Cycle - average and consistency3. Order status information4. Order preparation5. Order size and order frequency

The post-transaction elements of customer service are generallysupportive of the product while in use. For instance, productwarranty, parts and repair service, procedures for complaints, and

36

product replacements.

The different elements of customer service differ from each other intheir importance. In addition, they also vary from situation tosituation. Some are easily measurable (e.g Order cycle time, stock- outlevel), while others (e.g organizational structure) are very difficult tomeasure. Some elements (e.g written statement of policy, organiza-tional structure, etc) are not even visible to the customer.

2.2 The Dimension of Customer Service

Customer service has often been conceptualized as a multi-dimen-sional phenomenon. Several researchers have tried to model thedimensionality of the concept of customer service using empiricalmethods.

Senary (1970) has identified the dimensions of physical distribution asspace and time. Later, this was adapted to the customer serviceconcept by identifying the two dimensions of the concept as productavailability and order cycle time (Senary, 1980). Wagner (1976-77) hasidentified two components of customer service: (a) customer serviceaction (providing desired services), and (b) customer service reaction(handling the absence of, or inadequacy in services). Levy (1978) hasidentified seven function-oriented dimensions of customer service byfactor analysis: (1) general financial aspects of physical distributionmanagement, (2) sales person's responsibilities, (3) promotion, (4)general information, (5) package identification, (6) inventory manage-ment; and (7) general physical distribution management.

The above review suggests that the different conceptualization ofcustomer service have not been very consistent with each other. Inspite of the efforts of some researchers, the nature of thedimensionality of customer service remains unclear.

2.3 Importance of Customer Service to Marketing Strategy

Customer service represents a major portion of the "place" componentof the marketing mix. However, its influence on consumer buyingbehavior is not very obvious. Farley (1964) has noted that productavailability is one of the major criteria which influence buyers of retailorganizations in making their selections. Since product availability isone of the most important aspects of customer service, it can beconcluded that customer service is potentially a very important factorin determining the final market success of a product.

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Some empirical research information regarding customer and supplierperceptions of the relative importance of customer service in themarketing mix is available in the literature. A survey of industrialpurchasing officers conducted by Perreault and Russ (1976) found thatthe distribution service was considered in importance only to productquality as a deciding criterion for vendor selection. More over, morethan one-third of those purchasing officers indicated that they wouldcancel their orders if products were not available for shipment whenordered.

The findings of a study conducted by Cunningham and Roberts (1974)further reinforced these results. Delivery reliability (which is a majorelement of customer service) was found to be the most importantelement, in the opinion of purchasers, for influencing choice ofsupplier. It was found to be even more important than technicaladvice.

LaLonde and Zinszer (1976) surveyed the opinions of supplyingmanufacturers on the relative importance of customer service in themarketing mix. It was found that customer service was ranked third inimportance behind the marketing elements of product and price.

The results of the above empirical studies indicate that buyersapparently take the quality of customer service more seriously thando suppliers. Christopher, Senary, and Skjott-Larsen (1979) concludethat customer service is a very important strategic weapon in thestruggle to attain and maintain market position, but that it has oftenbeen neglected by suppliers.

2.4 Factors Contributing to the Growing Importance of Careful Planning ofCustomer Service.

A number of factors, both internally and externally generated,contribute to the growing importance of careful planning of customerservice (Michael J. Thomas and W.G. Donaldson 1989).

2.4.1 As organizations increase in size there is a problem of a lack ofunderstanding of customers* needs and wants and the realbenefits offered by an organization's product/service capability.

2.4.2 As economies are achieved by standardization and increasedscale of production, it becomes difficult to meet individualcustomer needs at a reasonable cost.

2.4.3 Where personal contact is important there is variable quality.

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2.4.4 Communications from sales people or advertising can lead todifferences in expectations of what was expected and can bedelivered. Pressures on sales and profits exacerbate theseproblems.

2.4.5 Externally generated reasons for careful planning of customermay be even more compelling. Increasingly consumers seekhigher order benefits; Maslow's self-actualization needs beginto predominate as lower needs are satisfied. Consumers aremore demanding and more sophisticated.

2.5 Why Customer Service Fail:

Clearly, superior service can be a competitive weapon but this does notmean that every attempt to provide superior service can generate acompetitive advantage. Efforts to improve service often fail to producesuch results, for a number of reasons. First and foremost manymanagers simply think incorrectly about service issues. They approachservice issues in "warm, fuzzy'* terms, rather than a set of hardbusiness decisions. They believe superior service is the key tocompetitive advantage, but consider it unnecessary to prove whetherthis is so in their particular situation, or to define exactly what ismeant by "superior service".

However, even when managers focus their efforts and investment,service initiatives often fail, because:

2.5.1 The investment may fail to produce the desired service levels.Much money has been spent in attempts to raise levels withoutthe change actually being achieved,

2.5.2 The effort may improve service in ways the customer docs notcare about. Probably the most common mistake is incorrectlyassuming that improvements in a particular aspect of servicewill necessarily affect customers' overall perception of service.

2.5.3 The efforts to improve service may be made at the expense ofother, more important items. Particularly in business with thinmargins, managers face tradeoffs between investment in serviceand investment in upgrading products, extending distributions,adding promotions and so on. Companies cannot affordeverything - they must make tradeoffs. Customers do notalways place better service among their needs.

2.5.4 The service innovation may be copied quickly.

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2.5.5 The margin in the business may not support the cost ofadditional service. Service costs are insidious. The full cost ofan increase in service due to additional effort per transaction,for example, is often difficult to detect in advance. Manycompanies have initiated new services only to find marginsfalling to unacceptable levels. Others have had to droptraditional services as margins fell.

Can these problems be avoided? Certainly so, but companies shouldaccept the premise that superior service may provide an importantadvantage. They must see service as resource allocations, just asproduct decisions and distribution decisions are. Many problems canbe avoided by approaching service investments with the same rigorused for investment in products. Service investments should beexpected to produce a value cost of investments and a demonstrablechange in consumer behavior. To achieve this result, companies mustfirst understand how customers perceive service.

3.0 Customer Service As A Perceived Variable

Customer perception of customer service has been recognised as animportant variable mediating the influence of customer servicepackage on customer response. Ballou (1973) defines customer serviceas "a complex collection of demand related factors under the controlof the firm, but whose importance in determining supplier patronage isultimately evaluated by the customer receiving the service." Accord-ingly Zeithaml, Parasuraman and Berry (1990) noted that judgmentsof high and low service performance depend on how customersperceive the actual service performance in the context of what theyexpected. Therefore, service quality, as perceived by customers, can bedefined as the extent of discrepancy between customers* expectation ordesires and their perceptions.

Senary (1980) has treated customer service as a perceived variable inwhich T. Hirotaka and John Q.A (1983) has written it is contingentupon the following influencing factors:-

(i) Before Purchase - Company's Brand Name/Image- Experience- Opinion of friends- Store Reputation- Published Test Results

(ii) At The Point - Performance Specificationof Purchase - Comments of Salespeople

- Warrantly Provisions

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- Service and Repair Policies- Support Programs-• Quoted Price Performance

(iii) After Purchase - Ease of Installations & Use- Handling of repairs, claims and

warrantly- Spare parts availability- Service Effectiveness- Reliability- Comparative Performance

The factors enlisted above is subjected to customer's observation (orperception) before the customer response occur. Therefore, thevariables above is an intervening variable between the company'scustomer service stimuli and the customer's response.

3.1 Factors Influencing Expectation

From a focus group study by Parasuraman, Zeithaml & Berry (1990)common themes have emerged, suggesting several key factors thatmight shape customers' expectations. First, what customers hear fromother customers - word-of-mouth cummunication - is a potentialdeterminant of expectations.

Second, expectations varied somewhat depending on the individualcharacteristics and circumstances, suggesting thereby that personalneeds of customers might moderate their expectations to a certaindegree.

Third, the extent of past experience with using a service could alsoinfluence customers* expectation levels.

Fourth, external communication from service providers play a key rolein shaping customers' expectations. Under external communicationone factor whose influence on expectations is subsumed under thegeneral influence of external communication is price. This factor playsan important role in shaping expectations, particularly those ofprospective customers of a service.

3.2 Dimensions of Service Quality

Lehtinen and Lehtinen's (1982) basic premise is that service quality isproduced in the interaction between a customer and elements in theservice organization. The provision of quality customer service

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involves understanding what the customer buys and determining howadditional value can be added to the product or service being offered.Clearly, this linkage is valued; quality is essential to customersatisfaction.

Interest in the measurement of service quality is thus understandablyhigh and delivery of higher levels of service quality is the strategy thatis increasingly being offered as a key to service providers to providersefforts to position themselves more effectively in the marketplace(Brown and Swartz, 1989; Parasuraman, Zeithmal and Berry 1988;Rudie and Wansley 1985; Thompson, De Souza and Gale 1985).Research has also demonstrated the strategic benefits of qualitycustomer service in contributing to market share and returns oninvestment (Aderson and Zeithmal 1984; Philip, Chang and Buzzel1983) as well as in lowering of the manufacturing costs and improvingproductivity (Garvin 1983).

Though some observers have suggested that this trend is "fashionable"(Cooyne 1989), theoretical and empirical evidence shows that firmsthat provide higher service levels reap higher profits than those that donot (Jacobson and Aaaker 1987; Philip, Chang and Buzzel 1983;Rogerson 1983; Shapiro 1983).

In recent years, companies have become convinced of the strategicbenefits of quality. As a result many large companies have createdquality measurement programs that attempt to relate product andservice attributes to customer evaluation of quality (Hauser andClausing 1988; Zeithmal, Parasuraman and Berry 1990). In manyservice industries, companies have created programs that includesurveys to elicit customer's assessment of service quality.

From the focus group interviews by Berry, Zeithaml and Parasuraman(1985), ten determinants of service quality were identified. Althoughthe relative importance of the categories would vary from one industryto the next, the determinants of service quality in most consumerservice industries are as follows:-

* Reliability involves consistency of performance and depend-ability. It means that the firm performs service right the firsttime. It also means that the firm honors its promises.Specifically, it involves:

- accuracy in billing- keeping records correctly- performing the service at designated time.

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Rcsponsivcness concerns the willingness or readiness of employ-ees to provide service. It involves timeliness of service.

- mailing the transaction slip immediately- calling the customer back quickly- giving prompt service

Competence means possession of the required skills andknowledge to perform the services. It involves:-

- knowledge and skills of the contact personnel- knowledge and skill of operational support personnel- research capability of the organization

Access involves approachability and ease of contact. It means:-

- the service is easily accessible by telephone- waiting time to receive service is not extensive- hours of operation are convenient- location of service facility is convenient

Courtesy involves politeness, respect, consideration, and friend-liness of contact personnel (including receptionists, telephoneoperators, and so forth). It includes:-

- consideration for the consumer's property- clean and neat appearance of public contact personnel

Communication means keeping customers informed in languagethey can understand. It also means listening to customers. It maymean that the company has to adjust its language for differentconsumers - increasingly the level of sophistication with a well-educated customer and speaking simply and plainly with anovice. It involves:

- explaining the service itself- explaining how much the service will cost- assuring the consumer that a problem will be handled.

Credibility involves trustworthiness, believability, honesty. Itinvolves having the customer's best interest at heart. Contribut-ing to credibility are:-

- company name- company reputation- personal characteristics of the contact personnel

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- the degree of hard sell involved in interactions with thecustomer.

Security is the freedom from danger, risk or doubt It involves:-

- physical safely (will I get mugged at the automatic teller- machine?)- financial security (does the company know where my stock

certificate is?)- confidentiality (are my dealings with the company private?)

Understanding the customer involves making effort to under-stand the customer's needs. It involves:

- learning the customer's specific requirements.- providing individualized attention- recognizing the regular customer

Tangibles include the physical evidence of the service

- physical facilities- appearance of personnel- tools or equipment used to provide the service- physical representations of the service, such as a plastic credit

card or a bank statement.- other customers in the service facility

3.3 Service -Quality Gaps

Executives striving to achieve a distinctive position and a sustainableadvantage in today's increasing competitive business realize theimportance of delivering superior quality service by meeting orexceeding customers' expectations. However, simply believing in theimportance of providing excellent service quality is not enough,executives need also to identify the causes of service - qualityshortfalls. Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry (1985) indicated thatconsumers' quality perceptions are influenced by a series of fourdistinct gaps occuring in the organizations. Gaps on the serviceprovider's side, which can impede delivery of services that consumersperceive to be of high quality are:-

Gap 1: Differences between consumer expectations and managementperceptions of consumer expectations.

Service firm executives may not always understand what featuresconnote high quality to consumers, what attribute a service must have

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in order to meet consumer needs, and what levels of performance onthose features are necessary to deliver high quality service (Langeardet al. 1981; Parasuraman and TeUhnml 1983). Because there are fewclearly defined tangible cues for services, the gap between whatconsumers expect and what managers think they expect may beconsiderably larger than it is in firms that produce tangible goods(Gronroo 1982; Zcithaml 1981).

There are three conceptual factors that contribute to Gap 1. Thesefactors are (1) lack of marketing research orientation - Extent towhich managers make an effort to understand customers* needs andexpectations through formal and informal information - gatheringactivities, (2) inadequate upward communication from contactpersonnel to management - extent to which to management seeks,stimulates, and facilitates the flow of information from employees atlower levels, (3) too many levels of management separating contactpersonnel from top management - number of managerial levelsbetween the top most and bottom most positions.

Gap 2: Management's Perception-Service-Qualtty Specifications Gap

Managers of service firms often experience difficulty in attempting tomatch or exceed customer expectations. A variety of factors - resourceconstraints, short-term profit orientation, market conditions andmanagement indifference - may account for the discrepancy betweenmanagers* perception of consumer expectations and the actualspecifications established by management for a service. The magni-tude of gap 2 is much linked to four major reasons (1) Inadequatecommitment to service quality - Extent to which management viewservice quality as a key strategic goal (2) lack of perception offeasibility - Extent to which managers believe that customerexpectations can be met. (3) inadequate task standardization - Extentto which hard and soft technology are used to standardize servicetasks, and (4) absence of goal setting - extent to which service qualitygoals are based on customer standards and expectations rather thancompany standards.

Gap 3: The difference Between Service Quality Specification andActual Service Delivered - Service Performance Gap

The service performance gap in actuality is the extent to which serviceproviders do not perform at the level expected by management Theservice performance gap occurs when employees are unable and/orunwilling to perform the service at the desired level. Willingness toperform may be described as discretionary effort. Employees whobegin a new job giving 100 percent discretionary effort may be givingfar less within weeks or months. This can happen because they had to

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deal with too many long lines, too many unreasonable customers, toomany rules and regulations, and too few pats on the back. It can alsohappen when they observe that a few of their associates are giving theirjobs at all.

Parasuraman, Zeithaml and Berry (1990) have indicated seven keyconceptual factors that contribute to Gap 3, the service performancegap. These factors are (1) role ambiguity (2) role conflict (3) pooremployee - job fit (4) poor technology - job fit (5) Inappropriatesupervisory control systems (6) lack of perceived control and (6) lackof teamwork.

Gap 4: Difference Between Service Delivery and External Commu-nications.

Appropriate and accurate communication about services is theresponsibility of both marketing and operations: marketing mustaccurately reflect what happens in actual service encounters;operations, in turn, must deliver what is promised in communica-tions. If advertising, personal selling, or any other external commu-nication sets unrealistic expectations for customers, actual encounterswill disappoint them. This in turn can affect consumers perceptions ofservice quality. There are two key conceptual factors that contribute toGap 4. These factors are:-

33.1 Inadequate Horizontal Communication

- inadequate communication between advertising and opera-tions.

- inadequate communication between salespeople andoperations.

- inadequate communication between human resources,marketing and operations.

- Differences in policies and procedures across branches anddepartments.

3.3.2 Propensity to overprombe In commanicjitionfl

- Extent to which a company's external communications donot accurately reflect what customers receive in the serviceencounter.

4.0 Managing Customer Service

4.1 Conducting a Customer-Service Audit

To determine the appropriate nature and scope of its customer-service

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function, each organization should conduct a customer-service auditto determine the current situation. Christopher H.Lovelock (1985) hasoutlined the basic format for such an audit:-

* Identify customer-contact task, for cxamplc:-

Information, reservationsService delivery tasksBilling and customer-recordtransmittalProblem solving, complain handling

* Review standard procedure for each task

Written standards for each taskOral/written instructionsAvailability (hours/days/locations)Interactions with other personnel

* Identify performance goals by task

Specific qualitative goalsQualitative goalsContribution to related activitiesContribution to long-term success of System

* Identify measures of performance by task

Dollar basedTime basedManagement/supervisor evaluationsCustomer evaluations.

* Review and evaluate personnel elements

Recruiting/selection criteria and practicesNature, content of trainingJob definition, career pathInteractions with other employeesNature of supervision, quality controlEvaluation proceduresCorrective actions availableEmployee attitudes, motivationHours, extent of paid/unpaid overtime

* Identify and evaluate support systems

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Instruction manuals, brochures, form lettersOffice facilities, furnishings, layoutOffice equipmentVehicles and equipment for repair/maintenanceRadio communicationRecord-keeping materials

The audit begins by identifying all customer-contact tasks and thestandard procedures prescribed for each. It then considers perfor-mance goals for each task and current measure of performance. Nextcomes a detailed review and evaluation of all personnel elements, andfinally identification and evaluation of support system available tocustomer-contact personnel. To determine the current utilization ofcustomer-service personnel, it is useful to maintain a log of all calls tocustomer service. The format for a simple customer-service log shouldinclude space for information on the date and time of the call,information on the caller, the reason for the call, and the disposition ofthat call.

The findings of the audit will establish the current situation andprovide a basis for planning the future scope and quality of thecustomer-service function. Since customer service is potentially animportant tool in competitive differentiation, and appraisal shouldalso be made of competitors* customer-service efforts.

4.2 The Process of Managing Customer Service

The management of the customer service function within anorganization requires consideration across the three dimensions:strategy, systems and people. Customer service programmes requireeffective management and therefore a planned approach is advocated.MJ. Thomas and W.G Donaldson (1989) has outlined the following:

4.2.1 The strategy of customer service

In today's environment the customer service concept is typified bywhat is called "new culture companies" (Normann, 1984). Characte-ristics of such organizations are:

(a) An orientation towards quality and excellence(b) Customer orientation(c) Investment in people orientation(d) Small is beautiful on a large scale(e) Strong focus but broad perspective

Customer service is a policy. Great attention need to be paid to this

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aspect since overstating the level of customer service may lead todissatisfaction at unfilled expectations, while under - statement clearlymisses a selling feature.

4.2.2 Assessment of the customer's purchase decision and definitionof the specific elements of customer service.

4.2.3 Design, cost and implement the customer service package

4.2.4 Promotion the package

4.2.5 Performance Evaluation

43 Implementing Customer Service

Once the customer-service program has been designed, it must beimplemented effectively. Careful considerations should be given toeach of the following tasks (Takeuchi and Quelch 1983):

4.3.1 Recruit the Right Employees

Individuals whose jobs require them to interact with customers mustpossess both the right technical skills and aptitudes and alsoappropriate personal characteristics. Depending on the job, the lattermay include appearance, mannerisms, voice, personality, and so forth.

4.3.2 Train Employees Properly

First, the training must develop the necessary level of technicalproficiency to perform specific tasks properly. Second, employeesmust be instructed in personal appearance, and/or telephone manner,behavior toward customers, and use of correct language. Finally, skillsin handling anticipated situations must be developed, particularly asthese relate to personal interactions under difficult or stressfulsituations. The use of role-playing exercises is often very helpful.

4.3.3 Educate the Customers

They should know how to use and how not to use the service. It ishelpful to offer customers information in printed from; good signing isvery important at service delivery sites and self-service equipment. Inlarge service facilities, customer-service desks or booths should beavailable to help customers with queries or problems.

4.3.4 Educate All Employees

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They should view customers with problems as a source of usefulinformation for the firm rather than a source of annoyance. Internalmarketing programs may be needed to change negative employeeattitudes and to communicate procedures for effective interactionswith customers who have experienced difficulties.

4.3.5 Be Efficient First, Nice Second

The ultimate objective of customer-service program is to resolve theproblem, not to provide cheerful sympathy. While basic courtesy isimportant to convey a caring attitude and to mitigate consumerconfusion or anger, too much friendliness can be inefficient. At busytimes, especially, when other clients may be waiting in line or on hold,the primary responsibility of a customer-service representative is toresolve the problem quickly.

4.3.6 Standardize Service Response Systems

Use of a standard form for handling inquiries and complaints.Facilitate entry of data into a computer system. This not onlyexpedites follow through, but also facilitates monitoring of changes inthe mix and level of customer initiated contact. Effective response alsorequires rapid forwarding to specialist personnel of sophisticatedproblems.

4.3.7 Develop a Pricing Policy

Quality customer service does not necessarily mean free service;consideration should be given to charging certain categories of servicethat have traditionally been offered free of charge. This is especiallynecessary if delivering the service in question costs the companymoney or if customers abuse the service relationship.

4.3.8 Evaluate Customer Service

Quantitative performance standards must set for each element ofcustomer-service package. Actual performance should be measurableagainst those standards and reasons for any variance determined. Inaddition, efforts should be made to solicit customers* opinions oncustomer-service elements at regular intervals. This may be done bydistributing comment forms to all customers and relying on those whoexperience above-average service or below-average service to respondwith compliments or complaints; this is the strategy adopted by mosthotels, which leave guest comment cards in each room. It can also beused quite inexpensively by firms that have an ongoing relationshipwith their customers e.g. by enclosing a short survey questionnairetogether with their monthly statement. Alternatively, a service firm

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may choose periodiocally to survey a representative cross section ofcustomers to solicit their appraisals and suggestions.

4.3.9 Affirm Good Work

Superior performance by customer-contact employees should berecognised. Initiative should be rewarded. Employee feedback andsuggestions should be encouraged. Many service managers are quiteremoved from their customers and fail to recognize the insights thatemployees may develop from their day-to-day contact with customers.

4.3.10 Take Corrective Action To Improve Defective CustomerService

Such actions may include retraining employees, reassigning employeeswho are not suited to perform customer-contact tasks but are otherwise motivated and proficient, and terminating incorrigibles. It mayalso be necessary to revamp support systems, restructure the workenvironment, and reassign responsibilities within the customer servicegroup to improve efficiency. Finally, in order to catch problems beforethey become too serious, it may help to develop improvedperformance monitors.

N

5.0 Assessing the Customer Service Climate

The external dimension of service - customer perceptions have animportant bearing upon customer service. But the internal dimensionsi.e. how our own people, managers and workforce view service is alsosignificant. What is their attitude towards customers? Do they sharethe same concept and definition of service as our customers?

It would be a truism to suggest that ultimately a company'sperformance is limited more by the vision and the quality of itspeople than by market factors or competitive forces. Corporateculture; their shared values that are needed throughout the organiza-tion can provide a powerful driving force and focus for all its actions.The lack of shared values can impact the company in many ways andparticularly its approach to customer service.

One viable way to assess the customer service climate within the firm isto take the temperature by means of an employee survey. What oftenemerges from these internal surveys is that employees hold quitedifferent views as to what constitute customer service. Similarly, theymay often rate the company's actual performance compared withcustomers1 own ratings.

Making such a comparison between customer's perception and the

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employee's perceptions can provide a powerful means of identifyingcustomer service problems and their sources.

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REFERENCES

Kevin Coyne. "Beyond Service Fads • Meaningful Strategies For the Real World"(1989 - Summer), Sloan Management Review, pp 69 - 77.

Micheal J. Thomas and W.G Donaldson, "Customer Service/customer care" (1989)Marketing Handbook, Third Edition, Gower Publishing Company Ltd.England pp 732 - 753.

Nonnann, R (1984) "Service Management: Strategy and Leadership in ServiceBusiness" Wiley, Chicester

Takeuchi, Hirotaka, and John A. Quetch (1983), "Quality Is More than Making aGood Product" Harvard Business Review 61 (July - August) pp. 139 - 145.

Rammohan Pisharodi (1985), "A Behavioral Process Model of Customer Service: AnEvaluation Based On Supplier • Customer Deferences In Perception" Pbd.Dissertation, The University of Tennessee, Knoxville.

Valarie A. Zeithaml, Leonard L. Berry and A. Parasuraman, (1988) "Communicationand Control Processes in the Delivery of Service Quality*1 Journal of Marketing.pp35-48.

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BiodataAb. Wahab bin Saad dilahirkan di Kuala Pilah, Ncgeri Sembilah pada 5hb,Feb. 1958. Beliau mcndapat pendidikan sekolah rcndah di SekolahKebangsaan Senaling dan mencngah di Sekolah Menengah Zaba, KualaPilah sehingga tingkatan lima. Seterusnya beliau melanjutkan pclajaran kctingkatan cnam di Kuala Lumpur.

Pada tahun 1979 beliau melanjutkan pclajaran di UniversitiKebangsaan dan Kemanusiaan. Beliau tamat pcngajian pada bulan Apriltahun 1983 dengan memperolehi Ijazah Sarjana Muda Sastcra (SmSa)Kepujian Kelas Dua Atas dalam bidang Komunikasi.

Pada bulan Julai 1983 beliau mula bertugas di Pusat DayaPengeluaran Ncgara (PDPN) scbagai Pegawai Latihan dan Penyiasatan.Setelah bertugas selama lima tahun, beliau berpeluang melanjutkanpelajaran ke UPM di peringkat Master dan sekarang beliau bertugassebagai Perunding Kanan di Perbadanan Produlrtiviti Ncgara (NPC).Antara tugas utama yang dijalankan di NPC ialah mengendalikan latihandalam bidang Kemajuan Pengurusan, menjalankan Pcnyclidikan danmenjalankan kerja-kerja Pcrundingan dan Khidmat Nasihat kepadaorganisasi-organisasi sektor awam dan swasta.

Antara penyelidikan yang telah beliau jalankan di NPC ialah bertajukKepuasan Kcrja Kerani Syarikat Kontena Nasiona) Sdn. Bhd. (Julai 1990)dan Kajian Persepsi Pengguna Terhadap Perkhidmatan Kelang ContainerTerminal Sdn. Bhd. (Nov 1991).

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Persepsi Pekerja Kerani Pelabuhan Terhadap KepuasanKerja: Perbandingan antara Sektor Awam dan Swasta

Oleh : Ab. Wahab Saad

ABSTRAK

Kajian yang dijalankan bertujuan untuk menentukan sama adaterdapat perbezaan antara kerani sektor awam dengan swasta daripadascgi kepuasan mereka tcrhadap dimcnsi-dimensi kerja. Di samping itukajian juga adalah untuk menentukan perkaitan antara persepsi terhadapbeban kerja dan kemahiran kerja, sifat personaliti kerani kedua-dua sektordengan kepuasan mereka terhadap dimensi kerja. Akhirnya kajian iniadalah bertujuan untuk menentukan angkubah utama dari angkubah-angkubah yang dipilih dalam kajian yang mcmpengaruhi kepuasan pekerjakerani terhadap dimensi kerja pekerja kerani kedua-dua sektor.

Seramai 180 orang pekerja kerani dipilih sebagai sampel kajian yangterdiri daripada 100 orang kerani Lembaga Pelabuhan Kelang dan 80 orangkerani Syarikat Kelang Container Terminal Sdn. Bhd. Pemilihan sampeladalah berdasarkan kaedah persampelan strata melalui senarai namapopulasi dari kedua-dua organisasi.

Data yang telah dikumpulkan dianalisis dengan menggunakan SistemPakej Statistik untuk Sains Social (SPSS PC +). Ujian "t" digunakan untukmenentukan sama ada terdapat perbezaan kepuasan responden terhadapdimensi kerja bagi kerani sektor manakala "Pearson Product-MomentCorrelation" digunakan untuk menentukan perkaitan antara angkubah-angkubah bebas dengan angkubah sandar.

Ujian Analisis Regresi Berganda (Multiple Regression) pula diguna-kan untuk menentukan angkubah utama yang dianggap penting dariangkubah-angkubah yang dipilih dalam kajian yang mcmpengaruhikepuasan responden terhadap dimensi kerja.

Kajian ini mendapati terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan antarakedua-dua sektor daripada segi kepuasan pekerja kerani terhadap empatdimensi kerja iaitu gaji, pangkat, ciri kerja dan rakan sekerja. Sebagaiperbandingan didapati kerani sektor swasta lebih puas terhadap pangkat,gaji dan ciri kerja, sementara kerani sektor awam lebih puas terhadap rakansekerja dan penyeliaan.

Secara keseluruhannya didapati angkubah-angkubah aktiviti mem-bantu pada organisasi, kekemasan struktur organisasi dan persepsi

55

terhadap beban kerja mempunyai perkaitan yang positif dengan kepuasanpekerja kerani kedua-dua sektor terhadap hampir semua dimcnsi kerja.

Aktiviti membantu pada organisasi dianggap angkubah utama yangmempengaruhi kepuasan kerja kerani sektor awam, diikuti oleh angkubahtaraf jawatan dan situasi tempat kerja. Kerani sketor swasta menganggapangkubah kekemasan struktur organisasi adalah faktor utama mem-pengaruhi kepuasan mcreka terhadap dimcnsi kerja diikuti oleh faktoraktiviti membantu pada organisasi. Hasil Kajian ini mencadangkan supayaorganisasi-organisasi sektor awam harus mcngambil perhatian yang lebihterhadap ciri-ciri aktiviti membantu yang terdapat pada organisasi itusendiri semcntara organisasi sektor swasta pula haruslah memperkemaskanstruktur organisasi mcreka di samping mengambilkira aktiviti membantuyang terdapat pada organisasi.

PENGENALAN

Kepuasan kerja merupakan satu isu yang sangat sensitif dan senb'asamenjadi punca pertikaian antara pihak majikan dengan pekerja dewasa ini.Kajian-kajian mengenainya menjadi semakin diminati di kalangan pelajar-pelajar Universiti dan juga pakar-pakar penyelidilc sosial bagi menyum-bangkan strategi yang sesuai untuk mengurangkan konflik antara keduapihak. Menurut Vroom (1964) dan Steers (1988), kepuasan kerja merupa-kan salah satu daripada faktor utama yang boleh mempengaruhi prestasipekerja dan keberkesanan prestasi organisasi keseluruhannya. Oleh sebabitulah kita dapati berbagai-bagai kemudahan atau keistimewaan ditawar-kan oleh majikan kepada pekerja-pekerjanya semata-mata supaya merekaberpuas hati dan dapat memberikan komitmcn yang diharapkan bagimenghasilkan produktiviti yang tinggi.

Pareek (1976) pernah menjelaskan hubungan antara organisasidengan individu iaitu peranan kedua-duanya adalah merupakan hasildaripada interaksi dan integrasi di antara struktur dan matlamat organisasidengan personal^ dan motivasi individu. Dengan perkataan lain, orga-nisasi perlu mempunyai struktur yang kemas dan berkesan serta matlamatyang jelas bagi mendorong kepuasan dan pihak pekerja. Pekerja yangberpuas hati terhadap kerjanya akan bennotivasi tinggi untuk mencapaiobjektif organisasi.

Sejak beberapa tahun kebclakangan ini didapati minat untuk melaku-kan kajian perbandingan kepuasan kerja antara sektor swasta dengansektor awam yang bertujuan untuk peningkatan produktiviti di sektorawam semakin bertambah (Solomon, 1986). Walaupun banyak topik dandimensi kepuasan kerja yang boleh dibandingkan antara kedua sektor,tclapi kajian-kajian terhadapnya agak tcrhad dilaporkan, lebih-lebih lagi diMalaysia.

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Akhir-akhir ini banyak rungutan ditimbttlkan mengenai kclembapandan rendahnya prestasi pckcrja agcnsi awam di Malaysia dalam menyedia-kan perkhidmatannya dan juga cara-cara pcngurusan yang diamalkan.Pihak Berkuasa Kemajuan Pckebun Kecil Perosahaan Getah (RISDA)misalnya tclah mengalami kerugian sebanyak 10 juta ringgit sejak limatahun yang lalu kerana kecuaian dan penyelewengan kakitangannya.

Mcnurut Ketua Pengarah Badan Penccgah Rasuah (BPR), antaratcmpoh 1985 hingga 1990, BPR telah menerima sebanyak 282 makhimatdan aduan mengenai kakitangan RISDA dan telah membuka 60 kertassiasatan yang mcmbabitkan 60 orang pcgawai (Utusan Malaysia, 20hb. Jun,1990).

Sebagai langkah untuk mcmpcrtingkatkan keberkesanan dan kcce-kapan pekerja samada di sektor awam mahupun swasta, PerbadananProduktiviti Ncgara (NPC) sebagai salah sebuah institusi latihan kerajaandipertanggungjawabkan untuk mcnghcbah dan memberi kesedaran men-genai produktiviti dan kualiti dalam kehidupan harian. Dengan kata lainpcgawai-pegawainya adalah bcrpcranan sebagai mangkin, pcmbantuproses, penyelesai masalah dan pcnghubung sumber kepada scmua pihakuntuk meningkatkan produktiviti diri dan organisasi. Pcgawai-pcgawaiNPC haruslah mempunyai pengalaman yang luas dan produktiviti diri yangtinggi bagi memenuhi kehendak pihak kerajaan.

Berbagai usaha yang telah, sedang dan akan dilaksanakan oleh NPCsebagai agcnsi pengembangan latihan, antaranya tennasuklah memberikankesedaran kepada scmua peringkat masyarakat tentang produktiviti,mcnggalakkan penglibatan aktif dari scmua pihak untuk meningkatkanproduktiviti, memberi atau melengkapkan kemahiran dan kecekapangolongan pekerja, meningkatkan motivasi pekerja, mendapatkan maklum-balas daripada pihak pekerja, mcnycbarkan inovasi-inovasi dan menyam-paikan fikiran dan arahan untuk tujuan yang sama.

Walaupun demikian, di dalam kempcn-kcmpen yang dilaung-laung-kan tidak pernah disebut mengenai kepuasan kerja pada pekerja secara jelasdan khusus. Sebaliknya ia disembunyikan secara tidak langsung, misalnyadalam cogankata "Anda Produktif Anda Makmur" yang mengatakan ba-hawa hasil produktiviti yang tinggi akan memberikan kemakmuran kepadakita. Sepatutnya cara-cara mencapai kepuasan kerja hendaklah diberiperhatian yang wajar oleh semua pihak di mana organisasi dan majikanhams memikirkan bersama demi mencapai cita-cita organisasi khasnya dankerajaan amnya.

Dari pemerhatian pengkaji sendiri (yang terlibat dalam memberikanlatihan bidang pcngurusan di sektor awam dan swasta) antara alasan-alasanyang menyebabkan pekerja tidak menunjukkan sikap bersaing ataumenunjukkan dorongan yang tinggi terhadap tugas mereka ialah ketidak-

57

puasan hati terhadap bcberapa dimcnsi kerja seperti tahap gaji yangditcrima, peluang kenaikan pangkat yang tcrhad, tekanan rakan sebaya,cara penyeliaan, ciri-ciri kerja yang dijalankan dan suasana organisasi yangtidak menggalakkan wujudnya semangat kerja berpasukan.

Masalah kepuasan kerja bagi sektor awam di negara Malaysia selaludikaitkan dengan tahap tangga gaji dan peluang kenaikan pangkat yangterhad. Kesatuan-kesatuan sekerja mengancam untuk mengadakan piketsekiranya tidak ditunaikan tuntutan kenaikan gaji. Pihak kerajaan barusahaja menambahkan claun khidmat awam kepada pckcrja sektor awambagi kategori A, B, C dan D. Ini terpaksa dilakukan walaupun kerajaanmempunyai beban hutang yang banyak bagi mengelakkan keadaan yangtidak diingini berlaku. Kerajaan tidak dapat memenuhi tuntutan dan ke-hendak semua kategori pekerja sekaligus kerana terlalu ramai bilangannya.

Pertikaian mengenai tahap gaji dan claim antara kerajaan denganpekerja-pekerja kategori C di lima buah pelabuhan di Malaysia masihbelum selesai lagi sejak tahun 1984. Pekerja kerani merupakan golongankategori yang tcrbcsar bilangannya yang bertugas di pelabuhan-pelabuhandi Malaysia. Baru-baru ini kerajaan telah menyata-kan persetujuan untukmengkaji scmula tuntutan tersebut. Pada awal tahun 1988, KesatuanSekerja Pelabuhan Kelang (PASU) yang dianggotai se-bahagian besarnyaoleh pekerja kumpulan pcrkeranian dan teknikal telah mengadakan piketkerana tidak puas hati dengan kadar pemilikan saham.

Di sektor swasta pula didapati sejak dua tahun kebelakangan iniindustri pembuatan menghadapi masalah kadar berhenti kerja yang agaktinggi iaitu kira-kira 40% (New Sunday Times, 21hb. Jun, 1992) dankesukaran untuk mendapatkan tenaga kerja di bahagian pengeluaran. Inidapat dilihat dan iklan-iklan di akhbar-akhbar harian dan pada kain-kainrentang di kawasan perkilangan yang menawarkan jawatan-jawatan kosongterutama di bahagian pengeluaran.

Ramai bilangan pekerja mahir telah "lari" ke syarikat lain keranamereka tidak berpuas hati dengan kadar gaji yang diterima. MenurutMenteri Besar Johor sebab-sebab mereka "berpindah" ke syarikat lainadalah kerana menerima tawaran gaji yang lebih baik (New Sunday Times,21hb. Jun 1992). Malahan pernah dilaporkan di Johor Bahru tcrdapatnyasyarikat yang "mencuri" pekerja dan syarikat lain dengan menawarkanberbagai kelebihan untuk mengjsi kekurangan tenaga kerja di syarikatnya(Utusan Malaysia, 26hb. Jun 1992).

Salah satu dasar kerajaan untuk meningkatkan produktiviti agensiawam dan menggalakkan persaingan di kalangan pekerja sektor awam ialahmelahii projek penswastaan. Syarikat yang mengambilaHh sebahagianpengangkutan kontena Lcmbaga Pelabuhan Kelang, Kelang ContainerTerminal Sdn. Bhd. yang merupakan projek pertama dalam penswastaan

58

telah memmjukkan prcstasi di mar dugaan sejak bcropcrasi. Prcstasipengendalian kontena telah meningkat dari tahun ke tahun, misalnya padatahun 1989 pengendalian telah bertambah scbanyak 23.3% bcrbandingdengan tahun 1988.

Menurut pengerusi syarikat tcrscbut faktor utama yang telah mem-bawa kepada perkembangan yang pesat ini ialah perlaksanaan danprosedur opcrasi yang Icbih berkesan seperti penyusunan kotak kontenayang Icbih sistematik, penjagaan jentera yang lebih tcliti, stratcgi pemasaranyang berkesan, perancangan yang rapi dan yang terpenting sekali ialahmotivasi pekerja yang tinggj (Portrait KCT, 1989).

Walau bagaimanapun dari pemerhatian dan tinjauan pengkaji diSyarikat Kelang Container Terminal Sdn. Bhd. mengenai tahap kepuasankerja di kalangan kerani mendapati faktor-faktor kemahiran kerja, carapenyeliaan dan struktur organisasi adalah faktor-faktor yang sering me-nimbulkan konflik. Misalnya kekeliruan jenis tugas-tugas yang patut di-laksanajcan antara kerani dengan pembantu kerani. Keadaan ini berlarutansehingga menyebabkan ada pekerja melahirkan rasa tidak puas hati.

Kejayaan projek penswastaan yang pertama ini telah membuktikanbahawa pengurusan secara swasta lebih produktif daripada segi opcrasiberbanding dengan sektor awam dan ini telah merangsangkan kcrajaanuntuk menswastakan lebih banyak lagi agensi-agensinya. MenurutTimbalan Menteri di Jabatan Pcrdana Mentcri, Dato' Dr. Siti ZaharahSulaiman dalam sidang Dewan Rakyat 20hb. Jun, 1990 yang lain, scbanyak246 lagi agensi kerajaan telah dikcnalpasti boleh diswastakan (UtusanMalaysia 20hb. Jun, 1990). Persoalan yang mungkin timbul adalah samaada peningkatan prcstasi tersebut adalah dipengaruhi oleh kepuasan kerjapekerja-pekerjanya seperti dakwaan Steers (1988).

Walaupun fungsi-fungsi pengurusan sama ada di sektor awam mahu-pun swasta pada asasnya adalah sama, tetapi cara orientasi dan pcrlak-sanaannya adalah berbeza. Ini memungkinkan perbezaan persepsi darikalangan pekerja terutama daripada kepuasan kerja. Mcngikut Soloman(1986), keberkesanan pengurusan adalah bergantung kepada penyesuaianstruktur dalaman organisasi dengan permintaan-permintaan persekitaran.

Keberkesanan fungsi organisasi kedua-dua sektor bergantung ke-pada kriteria yang berbeza sebab sctiap sektor mesti menyesuaikanpersekitaran yang berlainan. Misalnya perbezaan daripada segi sumbcr-sumber tabungan, pcmilikan, perundangan dan persekitaran politikal yangmemberi kesan langsung kepada struktur dan amalan kedua-dua jenisorganisasi tersebut. Kedua-dua keadaan ini akan melahirkan budaya kerjayang berlainan seterusnya memberi kepuasan yang berbeza bagi pekerja-pekerja.

59

Kebanyakan kajian tcrhadap kejayaan projck penswastaan yangpernah dijalankan terhadap syarikat KCT nampaknya Icbih menumpukanuntuk mengctahui hasil daripada segi pulangan kewangan sahaja,sedangkan kajian mengenai faktor-faktor kcmanusiaan yang membawakepada keuntungan tersebut kurang diambil pcrhatian. Misalnya kajianmengenai kepuasan kerja, tahap penglibatan pekerja, kesan kerja kumpulandan lain-lain lagi.

PENYATAAN MASALAH

Scjak akhir-akhir ini kerajaan Malaysia telah banyak memperkenal-kan dasar-dasar baru bagi mempertingkatkan kccekapan dan keberkesananpekerja sektor awam. Antaranya ialah konsq> Bersih, Cekap dan Amanah,Sistcm Perakam Waktu, Persyarikatan Malaysia, Dasar Pandang ke Timurdan yang agak sukar proscsnya ialah Projck Pengswastaan. Keadaan iniscolah-olah menggambarkan kepada kite bahawa pihak kerajaan menye-dari ada sebilangan kakitangannya mempunyai tahap prestasi yang kurangmemuaskan.

Bcbcrapa anggapan umum telah diberikan mengenai kemerosotanprestasi pekerja sektor awam, tetapi belum banyak kajian dilaporkanmisalnya mereka adalah kurang cckap, tidak kompetitif, kurang kreatif,komitmen yang rendah, kerja sambil lewa dan lain-lain lagi. Pihak kerajaanmcndapati salah satu cara untuk meningkatkan prestasi organisasi awamyang dianggap kurang berkesan ialah dengan menswastakannya.

Sementara di sektor swasta masalah berhcnti kerja dan kekurangantenaga kerja telah dilaporkan berlaku sejak kebelakangan ini. Masalahberhenti kerja dikatakan kerana tidak puas terhadap gaji yang ditcrima danmelompat ke syarikat lain yang menawarkan gaji yang lebih baik.

Bagaimanapun dari pemerhatian pengkaji mendapati dakwaan yangstring dikemukakan oleh pihak pekerja kedua-dua sektor ialah maw labketidakpuasan terhadap beberapa dimensi kerja termasuklah tahap gajiyang rendah dan kemudahan-kemudahan sampingan yang ditawarkan.Benarkah dcmikian? Mengctahui tahap kepuasan kerja, faktor-faktorutama yang menentukannya,persepsi, personaliti dan membandingkantahap kepuasan kerja pekcrja sektor awam dengan swasta boleh mcmbantupembentukan stratcgi kempen-kempen produktiviti yang dijalankan.Antara persoalan yang pcrhi dijawab ialah:

1) Apakah tahap kepuasan kerja pekerja kerani di sektor awamdan swasta?

2) Apakah persepsi pekerja kerani kedua sektor terhadap fungsi-fungsi organisasi, beban kerja dan kemahiran kerja mereka?

60

3) Apakah perkaitan di antara faktor-faktor latar belakang pe-kerja, fungsi organisasi dan personaliti pekerja dengan dimcnsikepuasan kerja di kalangan pekerja kerani di kedua-dua scktoftdan

4) Apakah faktor-faktor utama yang mcmpcngaruhi kepuasankerja pekerja kerani kedua sektcr?

METODOLOGI

Kajian ini cuba untuk mencapai objcktif-objcktif berikut;

Objektif Umum

Objektif umum kajian ini ialah untuk niembandingkan tahapkepuasan kerja pekerja kerani sektor swasta (Kelang Container TerminalSdn. Bhd.) dengan kerani sektor awam (Lembaga Pelabuhan Kelang).

Objektif Khusus

Disamping objcktif umum, kajian ini mempunyai objektif-objektifknusus seperti berikut:

1. Untuk mengukur tahap kepuasan pekerja kerani SyarikatKelang Container Terminal Sdn. Bhd. (swasta) dan LembagaPelabuhan Kelang (awam) terhadap dimcnsi-dimensi kerja.

2. Untuk mengukur pcrsepsi pekerja kerani kedua-dua sektorterhadap beban kerja. kemahiran kerja dan faktor organisasi.

3. Untuk menentukan si fat personaliti pekerja kerani kedua-duasektor iaitu sifat terbuka dan tegas diri.

4. Untuk menentukan perkaitan di antara angkubah-angkubahsituasi tempat kerja, pcrsepsi dan personaliti pekerja keranidengan kepuasan mereka terhadap dimcnsi kerja di kedua-duaorganisasi.

5. Untuk mengenalpasti angkubah-angkubah utama dan angku-bah yang dipilih dalam kajian ini untuk meningkatkan kepuasankerja pekerja kerani dari kedua-dua sektor.

PROSEDUR KAJIAN

Kajian ini dilakukan ke atas dua buah organisasi yang sama-sama

61

Jadual 1Taburan Sampel Menglkut Sektor

Sektor

A warn

Swasta

Populasi

829

209

Sampel

100

80

%

12%

38%

JaduaJ2Taburan Responden Menglkut Taraf Jawatan

Taraf Jawatan

Kerani Tertinggi(Penyelia/Ketua)

Kerani Tingkatan Kanan

Kerani Tingkatan Biasa

JUMLAH

Sektor Awam(P) (S)

8

133

688

829

2

15

83

100

Sektor(P)

14

21

174

209

Swasta(S)

5

9

66

80

(P) Populasi (S) Sampel

Jadual 3Taburan Responden Menglkut Taraf Jawatan dan

Sltuasl Tempat Kerja

SektorAwam

SektorSwasta

Jumlah

TingkatanTertinggi

11

32

7

TingkatanKanan

78

72

24

TingkatanBiasa

4241

3036

149

Situasikerja

PentadbiranOperasi

PentadbiranOperasi

mengendalikan perkhidmatan kontena di Pclabuhan Kelang tetapimempunyai sistem pengurusan yang berlainan, iaitu secara swasta dankerajaan. Populasi kajian adalah terdiri dari 100 orang pekcrja kcraniLembaga Pelabuhan Kelang dan 80 prang kerani Kelang ContainerTerminal Sdn. Bhd. sementara cara pemilihan sampel adalah jenis per-sampelan strata.

62

PENGUMPULAN DATA

Pengumpulan data tclah dijalankan dalam bulan Duember 1990bcrmula dari 6hb. Disember hingga 29hb. Disember 1990 dengan bantuanenam pcmbantu. Scorang darinya adalah merupakan kakitangan setiaporganisasi berkenaan yang bukan merupakan responden kajian danpemilihan tersebut adalah kerana mereka sangat arif tcntang lokari danstruktur organisasi mereka. Mereka juga telah diberikan penerangan ring-kas mengenai soalselidik bagi memudahkan pengedaran dan pemungutansoalselidik tersebut.

ANALISA DATA

Data yang dipungut dari responden kemudiannya dipindahkan kedalam kertas skor (scoring sheets) untuk memudahkan proses mempro-gramkan ke dalam sistem "Statistical Package for Social Sciences" (SPSSPC + ). Metod statistik yang telah digunakan semasa mcnganaliris dataadalah sepcrti berikut:

1. Statistik deskriptif yang menerangkan taburan ulangan, peratusandan jumlah skor oleh responden. la juga digunakan untuk meng-analisis dan mempersembahkan ciri-ciri latarbelakang responden.

2. "Crosstabulation" digunakan untuk membandingkan tahap kepuasanterhadap lima dimcnsi kerja bagi angkubah scktor dan situasi tempatbekerja. la juga diguna untuk melihat perbandingan skor persepriantara kedua-dua scktor.

3. Ujian V digunakan untuk menentukan sama ada tcrdapat perbezaanyang signifikan antara kedua-dua sektor daripada segi tahap kepuasanterhadap dimcnsi kerja, persepsi dan sifat pcrsonaliti.

4. Analisis "Pcarson Product-Moment Correlation** digunakan untukmenentukan perkaitan antara faktor-faktor demografi yang terpilih,persepsi dan personaliti dengan tahap lima dimcnsi kepuasan kerja.Aras keertian yang dipilih bagi semua ujian statistik adalah 0.01.

5. Analisis Regresi Berganda kaedah "stepwise" digunakan untuk me-nentukan faktor paling kuat yang mempengaruhi kepuasan respondenlima dimensi kerja.

PERBEVCANGANKepuasan terhadap Ciri Kerja

Responden telah ditanya setakat mana mereka berpuas hati terhadap

63

ciri-ciri kerja (rujuk soalselidik di Lampiran A) perkeranian yang merekalakukan sekarang. Sebanyak 18 sifat-sifat kerja yang umum dikemukakandi dalam soalselidik. Bagi memudahkan pemerihalan jumlah skor dikum-pulkan kepada tiga kategori penilaian, iaitu pada tahap rendah, sederhanadan tinggi. Kajian mendapati secara keseluruhan sebanyak 62% bilanganresponden mempunyai tahap kepuasan yang sederhana terhadap ciri-cirikerja dan sebanyak 19% responden mempunyai tahap kepuasan yangrendah dan tinggi terhadap ciri kerja.

Bagaimanapun bilangan responden dan sektor awam lebih banyak(24%) mempunyai tahap kepuasan yang rendah terhadap ciri kerja, mana-

Jadual9Taburan Kepuasan Responden terhadap

Dimensi Kerja Mengikut Sektor

AngkubahSandar(KepuasanKerja)

SektorAwam(n=100)

SektorSwasta(n=80)

Keseluruhan

(n-180)

Ciri Kerja0-18

19-3637-54

245620

Too"

146719

Too"

196219

Too"Gaji0- 18

19-3637-54

49447

Too"

324523

Too"

424414

Too"Pangkat0- 18

19-3637-54

84133

100

384013

Too"

68257

100

Penyeliaan0-18

19-3637-54

133948

Too"

215425

100

174538

100

Rakan Sekerja0-1819-3637-54

53362

Too"

125434

100

84250

Too"

64

kala sektor swasta hanya 14% sahaja. Bilangan responden yang mempunyaitahap kepuasan yang tinggi tcrhadap ciri-ciri kerja dari kedua-dua organi-sasi adalah hampir sama, iaitu 19% dan 20%. Ini menunjukkan bahawalebih ramai pekerja kerani sektor awam yang tidak puas tcrhadap ciri kerjaberbanding dengan pekerja kerani sektor swasta (Jadual 9).

Kepuasan tcrhadap Gaji

Lebih ramai responden dari sektor swasta yang mempunyai tahapkepuasan yang tinggi terhadap gaji (23%) berbanding dengan bilanganresponden sektor awam (7%). Sementara itu bilangan responden kedua-duasektor yang mempunyai tahap kepuasan sederhana terhadap gaji adalahhampir sama. Bagaimanapun tahap kepuasan yang rendah terhadap gajilebih ramai dimiliki oleh responden sektor awam (49%) berbanding denganresponden sektor swasta (32%).

Kepuasan terhadap Pangkat

Responden diminta memberikan pendapat mereka berkaitan denganpangkat di tempat kerja mereka. Kajian mendapati majoriti responden darisektor awam mempunyai tahap kepuasan yang rendah terhadap pangkat(84%) manakala lebih ramai responden dari sektor swasta yang mempunyaitahap kepuasan yang sederhana (40%) dan tinggi (13%) terhadap pangkatberbanding dengan sektor awam (sederhana 13% dan tinggi 3%). Amatsedikit bilangan responden sektor swasta yang mempunyai tahap kepuasanyang tinggi (3%) dan sederhana (13%) terhadap pangkat.

Kepuasan terhadap Penyeliaan .

Responden diminta memberikan pendapat mereka terhadap gayadan sifat penyeliaan yang dipunyai oleh penyelia atau kctua di organisasimereka. Kajian mendapati lebih ramai responden sektor awam (48%)merasakan tahap kepuasan yang tinggi terhadap penyeliaan berbandingdengan sektor swasta (25%). Sementara itu sebanyak 54% responden sektorswasta mempunyai tahap kepuasan yang sederhana terhadap penyeliaansedangkan responden sektor awam hanya 39% sahaja.

Kepuasan terhadap Rakan Sekerja

Keseluruhannya didapati sebanyak 50% pekerja kerani yang menjadiresponden kajian mempunyai tahap kepuasan yang tinggi terhadap rakansekerja. Bagaimanapun kerani sektor awam lebih ramai yang menganggapdemikian (62%) berbanding dengan kerani sektor swasta iaitu 34% sahaja.Bilangan responden sektor awam yang mempunyai tahap kepuasan ter-hadap rakan yang sederhana pula adalah sebanyak 33% manakala bagipihak swasta agak lebih sedikit iaitu 54%.

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Kepuasan Responden terhadap Keselunihan Dimensi Ketja

Apabila dilihat tahap kepuasan kerani kcdua-dua scktor terhadapkeseluruhan dimensi kerja didapati bilangan mereka yang roerasa puas padatahap sederhana adalah sama banyaknya iaitu 75%. Bagaimanapun ke-puasan mereka pada tahap rendah terhadap keseluruhan dimensi kerja ada-lah lebih ramai dirasakan oleh kerani sektor awam (15%) berbandingdengan kerani sektor swasta (12.5%). Sementara mereka yang merasa puaspada tahap tinggi pula didapati adalah lebih ramai bagi kerani sektorswasta (12.5%) berbanding dengan kerani sektor awam iaitu 10% (Jadual10).

Jadual 10Kepuasan Responden terhadap

Keseluruhan Dimensi Kerja

Kepuasan TerhadapKeseluruhan DimensiKerja

0-9091 - 180181 - 270

SektorAwam

(n-100)%

157510

SektorSwasta(n-80)

%

12.57512.75

PERSEPSI RESPONDENBeban Kerja

Lebih ramai kerani sektor awam yang menganggap tahap beban kerjamereka adalah rendah (56%) berbanding dengan kerani sektor swasta(29%). Manakala kerani sektor swasta lebih ramai menganggap tahapbeban kerja mereka adalah sederhana (62%) berbanding dengan keranisektor awam (41%). Lebih ramai responden sektor swasta menganggaptahap beban kerja yang tinggi (9%) berbanding dengan kerani sektor awam(3%). Secara keseluruhannya didapati scbanyak 51% pekerja keranimenganggap tahap beban kerja mereka adalah sederhana* 44% mengang-gap tahap beban kerja yang rendah dan hanya 5% yang menganggap tahapbeban kerja adalah tinggi (Jadual 11).

Kemahiran Kerja

Majoriti (80%) responden sektor awam menganggap mereka mem-punyai tahap kemahiran kerja yang tinggi dan sebanyak 59% sahaja res-ponden sektor swasta yang menganggap demikian. Manakala sebanyak41% responden sektor swasta pula menganggap mereka mempunyai tahap

66

kemahiran yang sederhana bcrbanding dcngan 20% sahaja bagi rcspondensektor a warn. Tidak ada respondcn dari kedua-dua sektor yang mengang-gap tahap kemahiran kerja mereka adalah rendah (Jadual 11).

Kejelasan Objektif Organisasi

Jadual 11 menunjukkan secara keseluruhannya respondcn kajianmenganggap kejclasan objektif organisasi mereka adalah pada tahap seder-hana (56%) manakala 42% lag! menganggap kejclasan objektif organisasiadalah tinggi dan hanya 2% menganggap pada tahap yang rendah. Walau-pun demikian bilangan responden sektor swasta adalah lebih ramai yangmenganggap kejelasan objektif organisasi pada tahap sederhana berbandingdengan responden sektor awam (53%). Manakala bilangan responden sek-tor awam lebih ramai (45%) yang menganggap kejelasan objektif organisasimereka pada tahap yang tinggi berbanding dengan responden sektorswasta, iaitu 37% sahaja.

Kekemasan Struktur Organisasi

Majoriti responden sektor swasta menganggap organisasi merekatnempunyai tahap kekemasan struktur yang sederhana (81%) berbandingdengan responden sektor awam (77%). Sementara itu seramai 17% res-ponden sektor awam menganggap tahap kekemasan struktur organisasipada tahap rendah adalah sama banyaknya (6%).

Aktiviti Membantu Organisasi

Lebih ramai responden sektor swasta (23%) yang menganggap organi-sasinya mempunyai aktiviti membantu pekerja pada tahap yang tinggiberbanding dengan sektor awam yang menganggap demikian iaitu hanya12% sahaja. Hampir sama banyak bilangan responden kedua-dua sektoryang menganggap tahap aktiviti membantu dipunyai oleh organisasi adalahsederhana (61% bagi sektor swasta dan 59% bagi sektor awam). Didapatilebih ramai (29%) responden sektor awam yang menganggap tahap aktivitimembantu yang dipunyai oleh organisasinya di tahap rendah berbandingdengan anggapan responden sektor swasta iaitu sebanyak 16% (Jadual 11).

PERSONALITI RESPONDENSifat Terbuka

Secara keseluruhan didapati majoriti (80%) responden yang terpilihdalam kajian menganggap mereka mempunyai sifat terbuka pada tahapyang sederhana, manakala 19% menganggap tahap yang rendah dan hanya1% menganggap tahap sifat terbuka mereka rendah. Bagaimanapun bi-langan responden sektor awam lebih ramai (87%) berbanding dengan

67

Jadual 11Taburan Persepsi Responden Mengikut Sektor

PersepsiTerhadap

Beban kerja8-1819-2930-40

Kemahiran kerja8-1819-2930-40

Kejelasan objektiforganisasi7- 1617-2627-35

Kekesanan strukturorganisasi8- 1819-2930-40

Aktiviti membantuoleh organisasi9 - 2 122- 3435-45

SektorAwam(n» 100)%

5641

3

100

2080

100

25345

100

67717

100

295912

100

SektorSwasta(n-80)%

2962

9

100

4159

100

45937

100

68113

100

166123

100

Keseluruhan

(n-180)%

44515

100

02971

100

25642

100

67925

100

246016

100

responden sektor swasta (71%) yang menganggap tahap sifat terbuka ada-lah sederhana. Sebaliknya lebih ramai responden sektor swasta (28%) yangmenganggap sifat terbuka pada tahap yang rend ah berbanding denganresponden sektor awam iaitu sebanyak 12% (Jadual 12).

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Jadual 12Taburan Personaliti Responden Mengikut Sektor

Personaliti Persepsi Sektor Sektor KeseluruhanAwam Swasta(n - 100) (n - 80) (n - 180)

Sifat Terbuka9-21 12 28 1922-34 87 71 8035-45 1 1 1

100 100 100

Sifat Ketegasan8-18 12 12 1219-29 88 84 8630-40 0 4 2

100 100 100

Sifat Tegas Diri

Tidak ada seorang pun respondcn dari sektor awam yang menganggapdiri mereka bersifat tegas pada tahap yang tinggi, tctapi tcrdapat scbanyak4% responden sektor swasta menganggap demikian. Walaupun demikianmajoriti responden kedua-dua sektor menganggap mereka bersifat tegaspada tahap yang sederhana (88% sektor awam dan 84% sektor swasta).Sebanyak 12% responden kedua-dua sektor yang menganggap merekabersifat tegas pada tahap yang rendah (Jadual 12).

Analisls Statistik dan Perbincangan

Ujian *t' tclah digunakan untuk menentukan sama ada tcrdapatperbezaan yang nyata di antara sektor daripada segi tahap kepuasanresponden terhadap dimensi kerja, pcrsepsi mereka terhadap beban kerja,kemahiran bekerja, kejelasan objektif organisasi, kekemasan strukturorganisasi, tahap aktiviti membantu organisasi scrta sifat personaliti parapekerja. Responden sektor awam dan sektor swasta adalah berbeza apabilaperbezaan di antara varian masing-masing diuji secara bererti daripada segistatistik oleh nisbah "F". Hasil ujian t bagi semua angkubah di atas adalahseperti pada Jadual 13.

Jadual 13 menunjukkan wujudnya perbezaan yang nyata antarasektor awam dengan sektor swasta daripada segi kepuasan pekerja kcranimereka terhadap pangkat, gaji, ciri kerja dan rakan sekerja. Dari Jadualtersebut di dapati bahawa kerani sektor swasta lebih puas terhadap pangkat

69

Jadual 13Hasil UJian H' bagi Angkubah Terpilih

Angkubah

Pangkat

Beban kerja

Gaji

Aktiviti Membantu

Ciri Kerja

Rakan sekerja

Kemahiran

Struktur Organisasi

Penyeliaan

Objektif Organisasi

Sifat Terbuka

Sifat tegas diri

Situasi tempat kerja

DarjahKebebasan

178

178

178

178

178

178

178

178

178

178

178

119

178

Nilai t

- 5.73**

- 5.23**

- 3.16*

- 2.37*

- 1.77*

3.42**

3.17**

2.19*

2.14

1.15

.86

-0.24

0.00

* p < 0.05** p < 0.01

berbanding dengan kerani sektor awam (t = 5.73). Organisasi sektor swastamempunyai sistem gaji terbuka di mana sesiapa yang berprestasi tinggiboleh mencapai gaji yang lebih tinggi malahan boleh melebihi gaji penyeliamereka. Ini menyebabkan mereka lebih menumpukan prestasi kerja yangakan membawa kepada pulangan kewangan yang lebih banyak walaupuntidak mempunyai pangkat yang lebih tinggi. Perkara ini tidak dialami olehkerani sektor awam di mana pangkat akan menentukan pertambahankewangan.

Di samping itu kerani sektor swasta menganggap mereka mempunyaibeban kerja yang lebih banyak berbanding dengan kerani sektor awam danjuga aktiviti mem bantu yang dipunyai oleh organisasi mereka dianggapadalah lebih baik daripada yang terdapat di orgnaisasi sektor awam.Manakala kerani sektor awam didapati lebih mahir berbanding dengankerani sektor swasta dan struktur organisasi sektor awam adalah lebih baikberbanding dengan struktur organisasi sektor swasta.

70

Ringkasnya hasil kajian melalui Ujian T mendapati pekerja keranisektor swasta lebih puas tcrhadap pangkat, gaji dan ciri kerja bcrhandingdengan pekerja kerani sektor awam sementara pekerja kerani sektor awampula lebih puas terhadap rakan sekerja dan penyeliaan.

Daripada segi kepuasan terhadap gaji didapati kerani sektor swastalebih puas berbanding dengan kerani sektor awam (t = 3.16). Kerani sektorswasta mempunyai skim gaji yang lebih terbuka jika dibandingkan denganskim gaji kerani sektor awam di mana sekiranya mutu kerja mereka baikmaka mereka akan berpeluang mendapat kenaikan gaji yang lebih banyakatau peluang kenaikan pangkat yang lebih cerah. Pekerja kerani sektorawam terikat kepada kadar kenaikan gaji yang tetap setiap tahun walaupunbekerja dengan lebih rajin. Pekerja kerani sektor swasta juga diberikaninsentif-insentif kewangan lain seperti bonus setiap tahun dan pemilikansaham oleh pihak pengurusan mereka dan perkara ini tidak berlaku kepadakerani sektor awam. Kemungkinan ini merupakan salah satu faktor yangmenyebabkan kerani sektor swasta lebih puas terhadap gaji berbandingdengan kerani sektor awam.

Kerani sektor swasta juga didapati lebih puas terhadap ciri kerjaberbanding dengan pekerja kerani sektor awam (t = 1.97). Pemerhatianringkas pengkaji di tempat kajian mendapati pekerja kerani sektor swastamenjalankan kerja-kerja yang tidak terlalu spesifik iaitu mereka selalubertukar jenis kerja. Keadaan ini mungkin tidak membosankan merekasemasa melakukan kerja. Misalnya pada bila-bila masa sahaja seseorangkerani boleh diarah menjalankan kerja selain dari kerja perkeranianterutama di bahagian operasi. Pengkhususan kerja tidak berlaku sepenuh-nya, semua kerja yang terdapat di dalam satu bahagian hams diketahui olehkerani walaupun kerja itu bukan tanggungjawabnya dan ini mungkin salahsatu faktor yang menyebabkan seseorang pekerja kerani itu tidak me rasaterlalu bosan kerana tidak menjalankan satu jenis kerja yang benilang-ulang. Keadaan ini menyebabkan mereka tidak mudah jemu terhadap ciri-ciri kerja yang dijalankan.

Sebaliknya amalan sistem kerja bagi kerani sektor awam agak berbezaiaitu pekerja kerani menjalankan kerja-kerja yang lebih spesifik. Seseorangkerani tidak melakukan kerja-kerja yang tidak berkaitan dengan tanggung-jawab bahagian di mana ia ditempatkan, misalnya kerani kewangan akanbertanggungjawab kepada hal-hal kewangan sahaja dan ini bolehmengakibatkan mereka merasa bosan sekiranya terlalu lama menjalankankerja tersebut. Temuduga ringkas pengkaji dengan beberapa orang keranisektor awam di kawasan kajian mendapati kebanyakan mereka merasajemu dengan kerja yang berulang-ulang setelah lebih sepuluh tahun bekerjadan merasa gembira sekiranya diberi peluang bekerja di bahagian-bahagianlain pula.

Penemuan kajian juga mendapati kerani sektor awam lebih puas

71

terhadap penyeliaan berbanding dengan kerani sektor swasta (t = 2.14).Perhubungan antara penyelia dengan kerani tingkatan biasa di sektor awambiasanya adalah rapat kerana pada kebiasaannya ketua kerani atau penyeliadi sektor awam adalah individu yang umurnya jauh lebih tua danmempunyai pengalaman kerja yang lebih lama di satu-satu bahagian. Adakalanya perbandingan umur dengan kerani biasa bagaikan bapa dengananak. Ini menyebabkan perhubungan antara ketua kerani atau keranitingkatan kanan dengan kerani biasa selalunya adalah rapat dan keadaanini mungkin juga disebabkan oleh cara arahan yang diberikan oleh ketuamereka yang lebih berdiplomasi.

Semen tar a di sektor swasta amalannya agak lain sedikit di manapenyelia atau ketua kerani adalah dilantik berdasarkan kepada prestasikerja yang sangat baik dan tidak semestinya telah lama bekerja atau usiayang lebih tua. Oleh kerana suasana kerja yang sangat mementingkan masa,pelanggan dan keuntungan, penyelia biasanya lebih tegas terhadap "anakbuah" atau pekerja-pekerja bawahannya dan suasana ini boleh menyebab-kan hubungan yang kurang rapat antara penyelia dengan pekerja.

Pekerja kerani di sektor awam merupakan kumpulan kategori pekerjayang paling ramai bilangannya di kebanyakan jabatan-jabatan kerajaan.Kerja-kerja yang dijalankan oleh mereka adalah lebih seragam danpern bahagian kerja di antara mereka juga lebih khusus. Suasana kerjamereka lebih berorientasikan kepada memberikan perkhidmatan kepadaorang ramai dan biasanya kerja mereka boleh dilakukan oleh rakan sekerjasekiranya mereka bercuti atau semasa kecemasan. Tahap gaji mereka jugatidak banyak berbeza antara rakan sekerja kerana hanya dibezakan olehkekananan atau pangkat. Suasana ini tidak membawa kepada persainganantara mereka tambahan pula bilangan mereka agak ramai di satu-satubahagian menyebabkan jalinan persahabatan yang baik. Keadaan inimemungkinkan kerani sektor awam lebih puas terhadap rakan sekerjaberbanding dengan kerani sektor swasta (t = 3.42).

Keadaan sebaliknya berlaku di sektor swasta kerana suasana kerjayang berorientasikan keuntungan dan mengutamakan masa serta pelang-gan. Persaingan di antara rakan sekerja wujud dengan hebatnya. Persainganyang terlalu kuat boleh merenggangkan persahabatan antara pekerja dankeadaan ini membawa kepada rasa kurang puas had terhadap rakansekerja.

Oleh kerana peluang kenaikan pangkat amat terhad bagi kerani sektorawam tidak hairan didapati bilangan kerani bertaraf tingkatan biasa adalahagak ramai. Keadaan ini menyebabkan majoriti pekerja kerani bertarafkerani tingkatan biasa telah bekerja lebih dari sepuluh tahun: Merekasungguh mahir dalam bidang kerja mereka kerana telah menjalankan kerjayang sama secara berulang-ulang. Oleh kerana itu penemuan kajian inimendapati mereka menganggap bahawa kemahiran kerja adalah tinggi

72

bcrbanding dcngan anggapan kerani sektor swasta (t = 3.17).

Struktur organisasi jabatan atau badan-badan kerajaan biasanyaadalah ditentukan oleh Jabatan Perkhidmatan Awam (JPA) yang lebihmenckankan kepada memberikan perkhidmatan yang scbaik-baiknya.Struktur sesebuah jabatan kerajaan amat mudah difahami di mana pem-bahagian togas dan tanggungjawab adalah jelas, rigid dan tidak bolehdipcrtikaikan. Sctiap pcringkat pckerja mempunyai bidang kuasa tersendiridan seragam walau di bahagian atau jabatan mana mereka bcrtugas.

Scmcntara di sektor swasta struktur organisasi sering bcrubah-ubahmengikut kcpentingan dan kcadaan. Pcmbahagian tugas juga sering ber-ubah dari semasa ke semasa dan kcadaan mi mudah dilaksanakan keranabilangan pckeijanya tidak seramai pekerja sektor awam. Oleh yang dcmi-kian didapati kerani sektor awam menganggap struktur organisasi merekalebih baik berbanding dcngan struktur organisasi sektor swasta.

Dengan membandingkan antara kedua sektor dapatlah dtsimpulkanbahawa pekerja kerani sektor swasta lebih puas terhadap pangkat, gaji danciri kerja berbanding dengan pekerja kerani sektor awam sementara pekerjakerani sektor awam pula lebih puas terhadap rakan sekerja dan penyeliaan.

Analisis Perkaitan

Jadual 14, 15 dan 16 menunjukkan hasil ujian perkaitan antaraangkubah-angkubah bcbas dengan angkubah bersandar berdasarkanmatriks korelasi "zero-order" bagi setiap dimcnsi kepuasan kerja danangkubah-angkubah bcbas yang tcrpilih. Cara menjalankan ujian ini ialahdengan menyenaraikan semua angkubah dan menguji perkaitan antarasetiap angkubah sesama sendiri.

Jadual 14 menunjukkan hasil analisis perkaitan bagi keseluruhansampel. Secara umumnya bagi kedua-dua sektor didapati angkubah aktivitimembantu yang terdapat pada organisasi mempunyai perkaitan dengankepuasan kerani terhadap hampir kesemua dimensi kerja (ciri kerja, pang-kat, penyeliaan dan rakan sekerja). Sementara faktor sektor itu sendirimempunyai perkaitan dengan kepuasan kerani terhadap tiga dimensi kerja(gaji, pangkat dan rakan sekerja).

Bagi sampel sektor awam (Jadual 15) didapati secara umumnyaangkubah aktiviti membantu pada organisasi juga di dapati mempunyaiperkaitan dengan kepuasan kerani terhadap hampir kesemua dimensi kerja(ciri kerja, pangkat, penyeliaan dan rakan sekerja). Manakala taraf jawatanpula mempunyai perkaitan dengan kepuasan kerani terhadap dua dimensikerja (gaji dan pangkat).

Faktor kekemasan struktur organisasi mempunyai perkaitan dengan

73

JADUAL 14MATRIKS KORELASI UNTUK SELURUH SAMPEL (N = 180)

YlY2Y3Y4Y5XIXIX3X4X5X6X7X8X9X10XllX12

KERJAGAJIPANGKATPENYBUARAKANSBKSUMURSEKTORSITUASITRFJWTNBEBANMAHIRBJEKTIPSTRUKTURBANTUTBUKATEGAS

Yl

1.3248".4513".3852".3845"

-.0292-.0521

.1461-.1911-.0516

.0890

.1226

.2290*

.2214*

.3621"

.1261

.0602

Y2

1.4822".1530.0434.0566.1210.2307-

-.0180.0610

-.1099.0064.0557.0976.1699

-.0550-.0964

Y3

1..3234*'.1726

-.0690.0139.4053*".0262.0861.1338

-.0599.1128.1405.3145"

-.0128-.0635

Y4

1.5973**.0323.0472

-.1586-.0150

.0972-.1174-.2204"J323".3706".3978"J150'.0733

Y5

1.-.0213

.0143-.2484".0073.0082

-.1278.1891.2586.2934".3190".0602.0269

XI

1.-.2078*

.1671-.2012*-.0257-.0760-.0824-.0673-.1286

.0650-.0758

.1166

X2

1.-.1583

.1000

.4258"-.0403-.0188-.0085.0379

-.0499-.0705-.0597

X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 X9 10 Xll X12

1..000 1..0582 -.0566 1..3652" -.1053 -.0494 1.

-.2309* .1735 .0809 -.2835" 1.-.0856 .0877 -.0036 -.0423 4156" 1.-.1619 .0538 .0941 -.2643" .4039*' .5020" 1.

.1751 .0052 .0941 -.1131 .3191" .4976" .5470** 1.-.0640 .0137 -.0355 -.1861 .3425" .1849 .2543" .3069" 1.

.0192 -.0113 -.0605 -.0116 .0984 .0607 .1043 .2049* .3707*" 1.

• p < 0.01

"P < 0.001

JADUAL 15MATRIKS KORELASI UNTUK SAMPEL SEKTOR AWAM (n » 100)

YlY2Y3Y4Y5XIX2X4X5X6X7X8X9X10XllX12

KERJAGAJIPANGKATPENYELIARAKANSEKSUMURSTTUASITRF JWTNBEBANMAHIROBJEKTIFSTRUKTURBANTUTBUKATBOAS

Yl

1..3470".3803**.4454**AW.1082

-.0026-.3675**

.0277-.0192

.1284

.2653

.2006

.4891**

.2087

.1077

Y2

1..4668**.1976.1197.1204.2489

-.1112.2683

-.2745".1649.1298.2035.2226.0310.0455

Y3

1..3233**.2232.0054.2203

--J952.3044**

-.0445-.0245

.1229

.1261

.2372*-.0371.0499

Y4

1..5552*.1040

-.0228-.0511.1908

-.0655.2575*.3281**.2868*.3986".2344*.1331

Y5

1..0303

-.1003-.0485-.0605-.0817

.1313

.2898

.2007

.3338"

.0559

.1054

XI

1.-.1437-.1005-.0418-J0714-:0391-.0662-.0158

.0708

.0336

.1947

X2

1.-.0418

.6272**-.1830-.0744-.0562

.0260-.0293-.2599**-.0929

X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 X9 X10 Xll X12

1..0462 1.

-.1514 -.0192 1._2864- .0605 -.3134* 1.0941 .1452 .0929 .4611* 1.0259 .2104 -.2001 .4198** .5664** 1.

-.0780 .0731 -.2001 .3615** .5356** .5681** 1.4267 -.0182 -.0773 .2732* .1587 .1434 .2917* 1.

-.0502 -.0456 -.1386 -.0351 .0002 .0890 .1398 .3058** 1.

* p < 0.01

JADUAL16MATRIKS KORELASI UNTUK SAMPEL SEKTOR SWASTA (n = 80)

Yl

Y2

Y3

Y4Y5XI

X2

X4

X5X6X7X8X9X10Xll

XI2

KERJAGAJIPANGKATPENYELIA

RAKANSEKSUMURS1TUASITRFJWTNBEBANMAHIROBJEKTIFSTRUKTURBANTUTBUKATEGAS

Yl

1..2469.5160".3748".4508"

-.1590-.0591

.0621-.1657

.1096

.2213

.2141J451**.1225.0511.0657

Y2

1..4452*".2030.0912

-.0255.1230.1187

-.1595-.1735-.0759.0549.0840.0443

-.1125-.1809

Y3

1..10%.3951"

-.2159.0022.2373

-.1031.0076.1078.2054.3661".3138".0553

-.2161

Y4

1..6233*".0499.0664.0339.0222

-.0641.0851

-J183".4727"".4942*".1804

-.0131

Y5

1..0200.0362.0778.0163.0070

0.534.1877.3710".4413"".0310

-.0781

XI

1.

-.2079-.2847-.0365-M42-.0601-.0578-.1867

.0266-.1129

-0612

X2 X4 X5 X6 X7 X8 X9 X10 Xll X12

1..0869 1..3195"" -.1852 1..0477 -.0340 -.0067 1.

-.0452 .0210 .1435 -.0927 1..0070 .0802 -.1479 .0899 .3273" 1.

-.0005 .1006 -.0183 -.2637' .3178' .3843" 1.-.0181 .1142 .1120 -.1590 .3980"* .5046*" .6387*" 1..0465 .0000 -.0435 -.2748' .4277** .2074 .3993** .3632" 1.

-.0029 -.0855 -.0077 .0821 .2988" .0042 .1589 .1701 .4611" 1.000

* p < 0.01** p < 0.001

kepuasan kerani sektor swasta terhadap hampir semua dimensi keija (cirikcrja, pangkat, pcnycliaan dan rakan sekeija). Manakala faktor aktivitimem bantu yang ada pada organisasi roeropunyai perkaitan dengankepuasan kerani terhadap tiga dimensi kcrja (pangkat, penyeliaan danrakan sekerja).

Perkaitan Angkubah dengan Kepuasan terhadap Ciri Keija

Jadual 17 menunjukkan hasil ujian perkaitan keseluruhan sampel danperbandingan antara sektor daripada scgi kepuasan responden terhadap cirikcrja. Apabila dilihat hasil perkaitan secara keseluruhan didapati tigaangkubah bcbas mempunyai perkaitan dengan kepuasan terhadap cirikerja, iaitu kejelasan objektif organisasi (positif lemah, r - .2290),kckcmasan struktur (positif lemah, r = .2214) dan aktiviti membantupada organisasi (positif lemah, r = .3621). Dengan kata lain semakin jclasobjcktif organisasi maka semakin tinggi tahap kepuasan pekerja keraniterhadap ciri kerja. Hal yang sama juga berlaku bagi kekemasan strukturdan aktiviti membantu organisasi.

Bagaimanapun penemuan ini hanya boleh digeneralisasikan kepadakerani sektor awam sahaja kerana sektor awam juga mempunyai perkaitanpositif yang lemah dengan kepuasan terhadap ciri kerja (r = .2653).Disamping itu hasil kajian mendapati di sektor awam semakin tinggi tahapaktiviti membantu dipunyai organisasi maka semakin tinggi tahap kepuasanpekerja kerani terhadap ciri kerja dan mercka yang bekerja di dalam pejabat(pentadbiran) lebih puas terhadap ciri kerja berbanding bekerja di luarpejabat (opcrasi). Scmentara itu di sektor swasta pula didapati semakin

Jadual 17Perkaitan antara Angkubah Bebas dengan

Kepuasan terhadap Ctrl Kerja MengUmt Sektor

Angkubah Bebas

UmurJantinaSituasiTaraf JawatanBeban kerjaKemahiranKejelasan ObjektifKekesanan StrukturAktiviti membantuSifat TerbukaSifat Tegas din

* p < 0.01* p < 0.001

Awam(n-100)

r

1082-.0026-.3675**.0277

-.0192.1284.2653*.2006.4891**.2087.1077

Swasta(n-80)

r

-.1590-.0591

.0621-.1657

.1096

.2213

.2141

.3451**

.1255

.0511

.0657

Keseluruhan(n-180)

r

-.0521-.0292-.1911-.0516

.0850

.1226

.2290*

.2214*

.3621**

.1621

.0602

77

kemasnya struktur organisasi maka semakin tinggilah tahap kepuasankeraninya terhadap ciri kerja.

Penemuan ini nampaknya telah menyokong pendapat Steers (1988)yang mengatakan bahawa faktor organisasi seperti polisi, proscdur danstruktur organisasi merupakan salah satu daripada faktor-faktor yangmempengaruhi kepuasan kerja dalam organisasi.

Perkaitan Angkubah dengan Kepuasan terhadap Gaji

Kalau dilihat secara keseluruhan didapati tidak terdapat perkaitanantara angkubah-angkubah bebas yang dipilih dalam kajian dengankepuasan pekerja terhadap gaji. Bagaimanapun bagi sektor awam wujudperkaitan positif yang lemah antara taraf jawatan dengan kepuasan pekerjaterhadap gaji (r = .2683). Penemuan ini menunjukkan taraf jawatan pekerjakerani sektor awam juga boleh membantu kepuasan mereka terhadap gaji.

Di samping itu di sektor awam wujud pula perkaitan ncgatif yanglemah antara beban kerja dengan kepuasan kerani terhadap gaji (r =.2745). Hasil ini memberi makna bahawa beban kerja kerani sektor awamboleh membantu ketidakpuasan mereka terhadap gaji. Penemuan ini pulatelah menyokong hasil kajian Miles dan Perreault (1976) yang mendapatitekanan beban kerja boleh merendahkan tahap kepuasan kerja bagikebanyakan orang (Jadual 18).

Perkaitan Angkubah dengan Kepuasan terhadap Pangkat

Hasil dari ujian matriks korelasi secara keseluruhan sampel (Jadual19) didapati hanya aktiviti membantu pada organisasi sahaja mempunyai

Jadual 18Perkaitan antara Angkubah Bebas denganKepnasan terhadap Gaji Mengikot Sektor

Angkubah Bebas

UmurJantinaSituasiTaraf JawatanBeban kerjaKemahiranKejelasan objektifKekemasan strukturAktiviti membantuSifat terbukaSifat Tegas diri

Awam(n - 100)

r

.1204

.2489-.1112.2683*

-.2745*.1649.1298.2035.2226.0310.0455

Swasta(n-80)

r

-.0255.1230.1187

-.1595-.1735-.0759

.0549

.0840

.0443-.1125-.1809

Keseluruhan(n - 180)

r

.1210

.0566-.0180

.0610-.1099

.0064

.0557

.0976

.1699-.0550-.0964

* p < 0.01

78

Jadual 19Perkaitan antara Angknbah Bebas dengan

Kepuasan terfaadap Pangkat Mengikut Sektor

Angknbah Bebas

UmurJantinaSituasiTaraf JawatanBeban kerjaKemahiranKejelasan objektifKekemasan strukturAktiviti membantuSifat terbukaSifat Tegas din

* p < 0.01** p < 0.001

Awam(n - 100)

r

.0054

.2203-.1952

.3044*-.0445.0245.1229.1261.2372.0371.0499

Swasta(n - 80)

r

-.2159.0022.2373

-.1031.0076.1078.2054.3661**.3108*.0553

-.2161

Keseluruhan(n - 180)

r

.0690

.0139-.0262

.0861

.1338

.0599

.1128

.1405

.3145**-.0128-.0635

perkaitan dengan kepuasan pekerja kerani terhadap pangkat (positif lemah,r = .3145). Ini bermakna tahap aktiviti membantu dipunyai oleh organisasikedua-dua sektor maka bolch membantu kearah kepuasan kerani terhadappangkat dan perkaitan ini boleh di generalisasikan kepada sektor swastakerana kepuasan terhadap pangkat bagi pekerja kerani sektor swasta jugaberkait secara positif lemah (r = .3108) dengan tahap aktiviti membantupada organisasi.

Selain dari itu bagi sektor awam didapati taraf jawatan mempunyaiperkaitan positif yang lemah (r = .3044) dengan kepuasan terhadappangkat di mana semakin tinggi taraf jawatan maka semakra tinggilahtahap kepuasan terhadap pangkat. Sementara bagi sektor swasta didapatikekemasan struktur organisasi boleh membantu tahap kepuasan pekerjakerani terhadap pangkat.

Perkaitan Angkubah dengan Kepuasan terhadap Penyeliaan

Dari Jadual 20, secara keselunihannya didapati lima daripadaangkubah-angkubah terpilih mempunyai perkaitan positif yang lemahdengan kepuasan terhadap penyeliaan. Angkubah-angkubah tersebut ialahkemahiran (r - .2204), kejelasan objektif organisasi (r = .3323), kekesananstruktur organisasi (r - .3706). aktiviti membantu organisasi (r = .3978)dan sifat terbuka terhadap kumpulan (r = .2150). Bagaimanapun pene-muan ini tidak boleh digeneralisasikan kepada kedua-dua sektor keranasifat tersebut tidak mempunyai perkaitan dengan kepuasan terhadappenyeliaan di kedua-dua sektor.

79

Jadual 20Perkaitan antara Angkubah Bebas dengan

Kepuasan terhadap Penyellaan Mengikut Sektor

Angkubah Bebas

UmurJantinaSituasiTaraf JawatanBeban kerjaKemahiranKejetasan objekKekemasan strukturAktiviti membantuSifat terbukaSifat Tegas diri

Awam(n=100)

-1040-.0228-.0511

.1908-.0655

.2575*

.3281**

.2868*

.3986**

.2344*

.1331

Swasta(n=80)

-.0499.0664.0339.0222

-.0641.0851.3183*.4727**,4942**.1804

-.0131

Keseluruhan(o-180)

-.0323,0472

-.1586.0972

-.1174.2204**.3323**.3706**.3978**.2150*.0733

*p<0.01**p< 0.001

Di samping itu hasil kajian juga mendapati tiga penemuan di bawahyang kesemuanya boleh digeneralisasikan kepada kedua-dua sektor iaitu:

a. semakin jelas objektif organisasi semakin tinggi tahap kepuasanpekerja kerani terhadap penyeliaan,

b. semakin kemasnya struktur organisasi maka semakin tinggitahap kepuasan pekerja kerani kedua-dua sektor terhadappenyeliaan,

c. semakin tinggi tahap aktiviti membantu yang ada padaorganisasi maka semakin tinggilah tahap kepuasan pekerjakerani terhadap penyeliaan.

Bagaimanapun penemuan lain hasil kajian mendapati semakin tinggitahap kemahiran kerja pekerja kerani awam maka semakin tinggilah tahapkepuasan mereka terhadap penyeliaan dan hal ini tidak berlaku padapekerja kerani sektor swasta.

Perkaitan Angkubah dengan Kepuasan terhadap Rakan Sekerja

Hasil kajian mendapati secara keseluruhannya sifat tegas diri terhadapkumpulan kerja tidak berk ait dengan tahap kepuasan terhadap rakansekerja (Jadual 21). Bagaimanapun kekesanan struktur dan aktivitimembantu organisasi mempunyai perkaitan dengan tahap kepuasan keraniterhadap rakan sekerja di mana semakin tinggi tahap aktiviti membantuorganisasi kedua-dua sektor maka semakin tinggi tahap kepuasan pekerjakerani kedua-dua sektor terhadap rakan sekerja. Begitu juga didapati

80

Jadual 21Perkaitan Antara Angkubah Bebas dengan

Kepuasan terhadap Rakan SekerjaMenglkut Sektor

Angkubah Bebas

UmurJantinaSituasiTaraf JawatanBeban kerjaKemahiranKejelasan objekKekemasan strukturAktiviti membantuSifat terbukaSifat Tegas diri

*p<0.01**p< 0.001

A warn(n=100)

r

.0305-.1003-.0485-.0605-.0817

.1313

.2898*

.2007

.3338**

.0599

.1054

Swasta(n-80)

r

.0200

.0362

.0778

.1063

.0070

.1534

.1877

.3710**

.4413**

.0310-.0781

Keseluruhan(n-180)

r

.0143-.0213

.0073

.0082-.1278

.1891

.2586

.2586**

.3190**

.0602

.0269

scmakin kemasnya struktur organisasi swasta maka semakin tinggi tahapkepuasan pekerja kcraninya terhadap rakan sekerja. Selain dari itu didapatisemakin jelas objektif organisasi sektor awam maka semakin tinggilahtahap kepuasan pekerja kerani terhadap rakan sekerja.

Anallsis Regresi Berganda

Tujuan menjalankan ujian analisis Regresi Berganda adalah untukmenentukan faktor-faktor utama dari angkubah terpilih yang mempunyaiperkaitan dengan kepuasan terhadap dimensi kerja seperti yang dinyatakandalam objektif kajian di dalam Bab 1. Mula-mulanya pengujian dijalankanmengikut keseluruhan, kemudian dengan mengawal perbezaan daripadasegi sektor. Jadual-jadual 22, 23 dan 24 menerangkan hasil analisis RegresiBerganda bagi seluruh sampel, sampel sektor awam dan sampel sektorswasta.

Jadual 25 menunjukkan ringkasan perbandingan analisis Regresiangkubah peramal mengikut sektor dan secara keseluruhan bagi kepuasanpekerja kerani terhadap lima dimensi kerja. Penemuan hasil kajian adalahseperti berikut:

a) Kepuasan teriiadap Ctrl Kerja

Secara keseluruhannya didapati aktiviti membantu merupakan faktorutama dipilih di dalam kajian ini yang mempengaruhi kepuasan pekerja

81

Jadual 22Analfais Regies! Berganda (Stepwbe) untuk

Reselunihan Sampel (n—180) bagi Angkubah Bebas denganKepuasan terhadap Dunensl Kerja

AngkubahSandar

Ciri kerja

Gaji

Pangkat

Penyeliaan

RakanSekerja

AngkubahPeramalBeertian

Aktivitimembantu

Sektor

AktivitimembantuSektor

Sektor

AktivitimembantuStruktur

SektorAktivitimembantu

RKuasaDua

.1311

.0532

.2254

.1643

.1582

.1917

.1973

.1017

B(Beta)

.4527

5.7425

.4315

10.5525

.6653

.5916

-7.2441.4856

sut.Error

8.8284

12.1019

11.4828

11.8942

11.6230

11.4220

10.360110.9285

Sign.T

5.182

3.163

3.739

5.915

5.784

3.447

-4.5984.491

t

0.0000

0.0018

0.0002

0.0002

0.0000

0.0075

0.00000.0000

Jadual 23Anallsis Regresi Berganda (Stepwlse) untuk

Sektor A warn (n- 100) bagl Angkubah Bebas denganKepuasan terhadap Dunensl Kerja

AngkubahSandar

Ciri kerja

Gaji

Pangkat

Penyeliaan

AngkubahPeramalBeertian

AktivitimembantuSituasikerja

BebankerjaTarafjawatan

TarafjawatanAktiviti

Aktiviti

RKuasaDua

.2392

.3484

.0753

.1280

.0926

.1391

.1589

B(Beta)

.6438

-6.6004

-.5962

6.3607

7.1273

.2898

.6813

Std.Error

8.7739

8.1618

11.5297

11.2543

9.7592

9.5548

11.9769

Sign.T

5.551

-4.031

-2.826

2.420

3.163

2.208

4.303

t

0.0000

0.0001

0.0057

0.0174

0.0021

0.0243

0.0000membantu

82

Jadval 23 (sambungan)

Rakansekerja

AnglcubahSandar

Ciri Kerja

Pangkat

Penyeliaan

RakanSekerja

Angkubah

Ciri kerja

Gaji

Pangkat

Penyeliaan

RakanSekerja

Aktiviti .1114 .4908 10.5965mem bantu

Jadual 24Analisis Regresi Berganda (Stepwfae)

untuk Sektor SwasU (n=80) bag!

Angkubah R B Std.Peramal Kuasa (Beta) ErrorBeertian Dua

Struktur .1191 .3451 8.0301

Struktur . 1 340 1 .2557 12.8595

Aktiviti .2442 .8068 10.3874membantuStruktur .2858 .7868 10.1622

Aktiviti .1947 .6767 10.0709membantu

Jadual 25Perbadanan Analisls Regresi

Angkubah Peramal Mengikut Sektordan Secara Keselunihan (n=180)

Sektor SektorBebas Awam(n-100) (n-80)

% %

Akt. membantu StrukturSituasi

Beban -Taraf jawatan

Taraf jawatan SturkturAkt. membantu

Akt. membantu Akt. membantuStruktur

Akt. membantu Akt. membantu

3.505 0.0007

Sign.T t

3.248 '0.0017

3.248 0.0008

5.020 0.0000

2.120 0.0372

4.343 0.0000

KeselunihanSwasta(n- 180)

%

Akt. membantu

Sektor

Akt. membantuSektor

Akt. membantuStruktur

SektorAkt. membantu

83

kerani terhadap ciri kerja dan penemuan ini boleh digeneralisasikan kepadasektor a warn. Seterusnya situasi tempat kerja juga merupakan faktor keduapentingnya yang sama-sama mempengaruhi kepuasan pekerja kerani ter-hadap ciri kerja di sektor awam. Semen tara itu bagi sektor swasta didapatifaktor struktur organisasi merupakan faktor utama yang mempengaruhikepuasan pekerja kerani terhadap ciri kerja.

b) Kepuasan terhadap Gaji

Secara keseluruhannya didapati faktor sektor memainkan perananutama dalam menentukan kepuasan pekerja kerani terhadap gaji. Hasilkajian mendapati bagi pekerja kerani sektor awam, beban tugas yang di-tanggung merupakan faktor utama yang mempengaruhi kepuasan merekaterhadap gaji dan diikuti oleh faktor taraf jawatan. Sementara bagi pekerjakerani sektor swasta faktor-faktor yang dipilih dalam kajian ini tidaklahmerupkan faktor utama yang mempengaruhi kepuasan terhadap gaji.

c) Kepuasan Terhadap Pangkat

Secara keseluruhan didapati faktor aktiviti membantu dari organisasimerupakan faktor utama yang mempengaruhi kepuasan pekerja per-keranian dan diikuti oleh faktor sektor itu sendiri. Bagaimanapun bagipekerja kerani sektor awam didapati faktor taraf jawatan adalah merupa-kan faktor utama mempengaruhi kepuasan terhadap pangkat. Sementarabagi pekerja kerani sektor swasta, faktor struktur organisasi adalahmerupakan faktor utama yang mempengaruhi kepuasan mereka terhadappangkat.

d) Kepuasan Terhadap Penyeliaan

Secara keseluruhan didapati tiga faktor utama yang mempengaruhikepuasan pekerja kerani terhadap penyeliaan iaitu, aktiviti membantuorganisasi, sifat terbuka pekerja itu sendiri dan diikuti oleh kekesanan ataukekemasan struktur organisasi. Faktor mekanisme membantu organisasiboleh digeneralisasikan kepada kedua-dua sektor. Sementara itu faktorkedua pentingnya bagi pekerja kerani sektor swasta ialah kekemasanstruktur organisasi.

e) Kepuasan Terhadap Rakan Sekerja

Secara keseluruhan didapati tiga faktor yang utama mempengaruhikepuasan pekerja kerani terhadap rakan sekerja iaitu kekemasan strukturorganisasi, faktor sektor dan diikuti oleh faktor aktiviti membantu yang adapada organisasi. Bagaimanapun faktor aktiviti membantu organisasi bolehdigeneralisasikan kepada kedua-dua sektor.

Pengujian Analisis Regresi Berganda di atas telah menghasilkan tiga

84

model mengenai faktor-faktor utama yang mcmpcngaruhi kepuasan pekerjakcrani terhadap dimcnsi kerja. Model-model terscbut adalah seperti bcrikut:

1. Modd Umnm Kepuasan Kerja Pekerja Kcranf

Aktiviti mcmbantu mcrupakan angkubah utama dan terpenting dariangkubah-angkubah yang dipilih dalam kajian untuk mcmpcngaruhikepuasan pekerja kcrani terhadap hampir kesehiruhan dimcnri kcija iaitu,ciri kerja, gaji, penyeliaan dan juga rakan sekerja* EM samping itu angkubahlain seperti kckemasan struktur organisasi juga penting untuk member!kepuasan pekerja kerani terhadap penyeliaan dan rakan sekerja sementera

AngkubahBebas

AngkubahSandar

II AktivitiI mem bantuI organisasiI______

KekemasaanStrukturorganisasi

Sektor

Kepuasan terhadapdimensi kerja:

* ciri kerja

* gaj'

* pangkat

* penyeliaan

rakan sekerja

RajahS

Faktor-Faktor MempengaruU Kepoasan KerjaPekerja Kcrani Secara Umora

85

faktor setter itu sendiri adalah penting mempengaruhi kcpuasan keraniterhadap gaji, pangkat dan rakan sekerja (Rajah 3).

2. Model Kepoasan Kerja Kerani Sektor Awun

Bagi pckcrja kerani sektor awam didapati aktiviti membantu orga-nisasi juga merupakan angkubah utama dari angkubah-angkubah yangdipilih dalam kajian yang mempengaruhi tiga dari lima dimenri kepuasankerja iaitu ciri kcrja, penyeliaan dan rakan sckerja. Sementara bcban kerjadan taraf jawatan adalah angkubah-angkubah utama yang mempengaruhikepuasan kerani terhadap gaji dan taraf jawatan juga adalah angkubah

Angkubah AngkubahBebas Sandar

Kepuasan terhadapdimensi kerja:

Aktiviti J______—————————* * ciri kerjamembantuorganisasi | VX. -»* gaji

* pangkat

* penyeliaan

* rakan sekerja

Rajah 4

Faktor-Faktor MerapengarnU Keponaa KeijaKertni Sektor Awam

86

utama yang mempengaruhi kepuasan kerani terhadap pangkat di sektorawam (Rajah 4).

3. Model Kepa»u Kerja Kcranl Sektor Swasta

Bagi pekerja kerani sektor swasta pula didapati kekemasan strukturorganisasi merupakan faktor utama yang mempengaruhi tiga dimcnsi ke-puasan kerja iaitu ciri kerja, pangkat dan penyeliaan. Sementara aktivitimembantu organisasi adalah angkubah utama yang mempengaruhi ke-puasan kerani teihadap penyeUaan dan rakan sekerja. Di dapati jugabahawa angkubah-angkubah yang dtpiUh dalam kajian tidak merupakan

AngkubahBebas

AngkubahSandar

Kepuasan terhadapdimensi kerja:

| Kckcmasaan| Strukturj organisasi |

Aktivitimembantuorganisasi

* ciri kerja

gaji

* pangkat

* penyeliaan

* rakan sekerja

Rajah 5

Faktor-Faktor McmpcngarnU Kepotsan KojaKerani Sektor Swasta

87

faktor utama yang mempengaruhi kepuasan tcrhadap pangkat bagi pekerjaperkeranian sektor swasta (Rajah 5).

Kesfanpulan

Wujudnya perbezaan yang nyata antara sektor awam dengan sektorswasta daripada segi kepuasan pekerja kerani tcrhadap gaji, pangkat danciri kerja di mana kerani sektor swasta Icbih puas tcrhadap gaji, pangkatdan ciri kerja bcrbanding dengan kerani sektor awam. Sementara itu pe-kerja kerani sektor awam pula lebih puas tcrhadap rakan sekerja bcr-banding dengan kerani sektor swasta.

Aktiviti mcmbantu pada organisasi, taraf jawatan dan beban kerjamerupakan angkubah-angkubah utama dan angkubah yang dipilih dalamkajian mempengaruhi kepuasan pekerja kerani sektor awam terhadap di-mensi kerja. Sementara kekemasan struktur organisasi dan aktiviti mem-bantu pada organisasi mempengaruhi kepuasan kerani sektor swastaterhadap dimensi kerja selain dari gaji. Kepuasan kerani sektor swastaterhadap gaji tidak dipengaruhi oleh angkubah-angkubah yang dipilihdalam kajian ini.

ImpUkasi

1. Adalah dicadangkan satu astern kenaikan gaji mengikut prestasikerja dengan mengambilkira pengalaman bekerja dalam satu-satu jangka-masa tertentu dilaksanakan di sektor awam sckiranya pcluang untukkenaikkan pangkat adalah tidak begitu luas.

2. Sekiranya didapati sesebuah organisasi awam itu mempunyai potensiuntuk menghasilkan output yang lebih baik, maka eloklah diswastakansupaya pekerja-pekerja dapat menikmati tahap gaji yang lebih baik sepertiyang berlaku kepada Jabatan Telekom dan Tenaga National.

3. Aktiviti-aktiviti mcmbantu dari pihak pengurusan di organisasi sek-tor awam hanislah dipertingkatkan lagi misalnya melahirkan lebih banyakide-ide yang berguna kepada pekerja, mengambil berat mengenai latihandan kcmajuan pekerja, sikap bantu-membantu antara bahagian ataujabatan perlu ditingkatkan lagi, mengambil perhatian yang lebih seriustentang kebajikan pekerja, galakan di dalam bidang sukan, pcluangmenyuarakan pendapat mengenai kerja yang lebih luas, lebih mudahmenerima perubahan dalam organisasi untuk tujuan kemajuan pekerja dantatacara disiplin yang adil terhadap pekerja.

4. Kekemasan struktur organisasi haruslah diambil perhatian yangserius dan diutamakan oleh pengurusan organisasi sektor swasta. Antara-nya ialah seperti pern bahagian tugas di bahagian atau jabatan yang lebihsesuai, logik dan scjajar dengan objektif organisasi, pembentukan struktur

yang Icbih bait dan pembahagian kerja yang seimbang dan sama rataantara pekerja terutamanya bagi pekerja yang mcmpunyai kumpulan ahliyang ratnai.

5. Pihak pengurusan organisasi sektor swasta hams membentuk sistemkerja yang boleh mempertingkat dan mengekalkan suasana kerja yangharmoni di kalangan pekerja supaya tidak wujud jurang persahabatanantara pekerja dcngan pekerja bcgitu juga antara pekerja dengan penyelia.

Cadangan-Cad«ngan Untuk Kajlan Akan DaUng

Hasil daripada kajian ini adalah dicadangkan supaya kajian selanjut-nya dilakukan di dalam bidang-bidang berikut:

1. Kajian yang serupa hams dilakukan kepada kategori-katcgori pe-kerja yang lain seperti kumpulan pengurusan atasan, kumpulan teknik dankumpulan pekerja am. Dengan ini kita akan mengetahui gambaran yanglebih menyeluruh sehingga membolehkan satu gcneralisasi dibuat terhadappekerja kedua-dua sektor.

2. Selain dari dimensi-dimensi kerja yang telah dipilih dalam kajian ini,banyak lagi dimensi yang boleh dijadikan sebagai angkubah sandar yangturut mempengaruhi dan menentukan kepuasan pekerja terhadap kerja.Sudah lentil ianya boleh dikaji untuk melengkapkan lagi bidang kepuasankerja.

3. Selain dari angkubah-angkubah bebas yang telah dipilih dalam kaji-an ini, kemunglcinan berbagai-bagai angkubah lagi yang turut mempenga-ruhi kepuasan pekerja terhadap dimensi-dimensi kerja dan seterusnya bolehpula dibandingkan antara kedua sektor.

4. Kajian yang serupa juga boleh diperluaskan lagi kepada organisai-oragnisasi yang menjalankan perkhidmatan atau bidang yang lain pula bagikedua-dua sektor.

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