DTS FTUI

EL KHOBAR M. NAZECH

The car is the wealth and status symbol

Urban Public Transport

Bus: Urban Public Transportation

Pemilikan kendaraan bermotor merupakan lambang kemapanan dan status bagi pemiliknya. Disamping itu pemilikan kendaraan bermotor adalah untuk memudahkan pemindahan orang/barang dari satu tempat ke tempat lain Data menunjukkan adanya peningkatan hingga tiga kali lipat jumlah pemilikan kendaraan bermotor di negara-negara berkembang dalam masa 20 tahun terakhir

Masalah di perkotaan: kualitas udara menurun karena tercemar gas buang, kemacetan lalulintas, meningkatnya pemakaian bahan bakar minyak. Dampak negatif terhadap lingkungan pun timbul secara cepat dan menurunnya derajat kesehatan manusia akibat dari pencemaran udara tersebut.Perubahan iklim???

The road to failure

KESEHATAN MANUSIAKESEHATAN TUMBUHAN>BIAYA PADA INDUSTRIPEMANASAN GLOBALLAIN - LAINGANGGUAN PENGLIHATAN>BIAYA PADA PEMERINTAHKESEHATAN KHEWANKERUSAKANBANGUNANDAMPAK PENCEMARAN UDARA

Air pollution affects the quality of life of a large number of Londoners causing around 1,000 premature deaths and a similar number of hospital admissions every year (2005)

Nitrogen Oksida ( NOx)Zat ini mempunyai dua macam bentuk yang berbeda yaitu gas NO2 dan NO. Gas NO2 mempunyai sifat menyegat, mempunyai warna merah kecoklatan dan berbau tajam sehingga tidak baik untuk pernafasan, sedangkan gas NO tidak berwarna dan tidak berbau. Gas ini dihasilkan dari aktivitas tranportasi (44 %), proses pembakaran bahan bakar (52 %), aktivitas industri (3,1 %), pembakaran limbah padat (0,05 %) dan lain-lain (0,05 %). Gas ini dapat menyebabkan iritasi pada mata yang dapat menyebabkan mata terasa pedih dan berair.

Karbon Monoksida (CO)

Karbon monoksida adalah gas yang tidak berwarna, berasa dan berbau. Gas CO dapat berbentuk cairan pada suhu 1920C. Gas ini berasal dari sisa pembakaran fosil yang berupa gas buangan (12 %). Di kota besar konsentrasi gas CO lebih banyak, karena banyaknya lalu lintas kendaraan yang mengeluarkan gas CO (70 %). Sumber lainnya berasal dari kegiatan industri (7,4 %), pembuangan limbah padat (2,8 %) dan lain-lain (8,2 %). Gas ini sangat berbahaya bagi kesehatan, diantaranya menyebabkan sakit kepala, gangguan pernapasan, menurunnya kemampuan gerak tubuh, gangguan pada sistem radiovaskular, dan serangan jantung hingga kematian.

Gas ini terdiri atas gas SO2 dan SO3 yang mempunyai sifat berbeda. Gas SO2 mempunyai bau yang tajam tetapi tidak mudah terbakar, sedangkan gas SO3 bersifat reaktif dan mudah sekali bereaksi dengan uap air yang berada di udara dan membantu keasaman H2SO4. H2SO4 menimbulkan korosif pada besi dan dapat menyebabkan hujan asam. Gas ini dihasilkan dari pembakaran bahan bakar fosil (81 %), industri (14,6 %), dan transportasi (4,2 %). Gas ini juga menimbulkan gangguan pernafasan, menyerang selaput lendir pada hidung dan tenggorokan.Belerang Oksida ( SOx)

Hidrokarbon (HC)

Hidrokarbon adalah pencemaran udara yang dapat berupa gas, cairan, dan padatan. Zat ini tersusun atas atom karbon dan atom hidrogen yang terikat secara lurus (secara berantai) atau terikat secara ikatan cincin (ikatan tertutup). Zat ini dihasilkan dari transportasi, industri, pembakaran sisa bahan bakar fosil, pembuangan limbah padat, dan lain-lain. Zat ini dapat membahayakan kesehatan manusia. Bersama CO dan Ozon akan membentuk kabut foto kimia yang dapat merusak tanaman.

Partikulat adalah pencemar udara yang dapat berada bersama-sama dengan bahan pencemar lainnya. Sebagai pencemar partikel dapat berbentuk selain dari padatan. Bentuk-bentuk partikel diantaranya adalah aerosol, fog (kabut), smoke (asap), dust (debu), dan mist. Pada umumnya udara yang telah tercemar oleh partikel dapat menimbulkan berbagai macam kanker, penyakit saluran pernafasan atau pneumokoniosis. Partikulat

Peraturan undang-undang atau perangkat fiskal pada area desain kendaraan bermotor umumnya memiliki dua tujuan utama yaitu:a. pengurangan emisi sehingga mengurangi pencemaran udara (catalytic converter)b. pengurangan penggunaan sumber daya dan energi, pengurangan konsumsi bahan bakar dan penerapan daur ulang kendaraan

Ceramic honeycomb catalyst structure

The Reduction CatalystThe reduction catalyst is the first stage of the catalytic converter. When an NO or NO2 molecule contacts the catalyst, the catalyst rips the nitrogen atom out of the molecule and holds on to it, freeing the oxygen in the form of O2. The nitrogen atoms bond with other nitrogen atoms that are also stuck to the catalyst, forming N2. For example: 2NO => N2 + O2 or 2NO2 => N2 + 2O2

The Oxidization CatalystThe oxidation catalyst is the second stage of the catalytic converter. It reduces the unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide by burning (oxidizing) them over a platinum and palladium catalyst. This catalyst aids the reaction of the CO and hydrocarbons with the remaining oxygen in the exhaust gas. For example: 2CO + O2 => 2CO2

Kendaraan bermotor diuji untuk compliance, hal tersebut harus mewakili kondisi tempat kendaraan bermotor akan digunakan. Kesadaran pentingnya standar kualitas emisiSolusi teknis pengelolaan emisi (sertifikasi)Standarisasi pengujian emisi (sertifikasi)

Ekonomi bahan bakar dan desain kendaraan

PilihanPenguranganKonsumsi BBM (%)4-5 tahun7-10 tahunPeningkatan efisiensi mesin5-206-25

Optimisasi transmisi5-157-20

Pengurangan berat dan/atau ukuran4-157-19

Pengurangan hambatan aerodinamis2-102-12

Still a major contributor, despite reductions in new vehicle emissions achieved over the last decadeCONOxLeadVOCsCO2Particulates79%53%13%44%33%25%SO27%Source: EPA

Relative Greenhouse Gases255075100ZeroZero or a CreditZero

Summary of Present SituationThe U.S. Transportation Sector:Is 95% dependent on petroleum;Accounts for 67% of all U.S. petroleum use;Produces a significant share of U.S. pollutant releases;Has major impacts on consumers, the economy, and the national trade balance;Currently has no readily available alternative to petroleum; andHas limited infrastructure to support alternative fuels.

Alternative Transportation FuelsElectricityEthanolHydrogenMethanolNatural GasCompressedLiquefiedPropane100% BiodieselP-Series

Alternative Fuel Vehicles Available NowElectricEthanolNatural GasPropane

Electric VehiclesLow EmissionsQuietAt least 4% of new vehicles sold in California starting in 2003 must be EVsExpensiveLimited RangeToyota RAV4Ford Ranger

Ethanol VehiclesLow GHGsLess ReactiveSubsidy Required to be Cost CompetitiveFew Refueling Stations but Numbers IncreasingFord TaurusChrysler MinivanFord Ranger

Natural Gas VehiclesVery Low EmissionsGood PerformanceLower Cost FuelLimited Range, but Adequate for Most ApplicationsFew Refueling StationsHigher Cost VehicleFord Crown VictoriaFord F-150Honda CivicNew Flyer D40 LF Bus

Propane VehiclesLow EmissionsGood PerformanceCost Similar to GasolineFew Typical Refueling Stations, Many Potential Places to RefuelHigher Vehicle CostFord F-150Ford Club Wagon

Daur ulang kendaraan bermotorPengaturan persentase kendaraaan bekas yang harus digunakan kembali.Pengaturan agar para manufaktur memberikan label daur ulang.Pengaturan agar para manufaktur memastikan bahwa semua kendaraan mereka dapat didaur ulang.

Mendorong produksi dan penggunaan bahan bakar alternatif:

Gas: Gas alam (Natural gas) / LPGHydrogenEthanolMethanolListrikHybrid Engine

Penggunaan Kendaraan Pembatasan penggunaan dan pemeliharaan kendaraan dapat dilakukan dengan peraturan undang-undang dan mekanisme harga Peraturan untuk pengujian kendaraan secara tahunanDenda untuk yang melanggar

Pembatasan Penggunaan Kendaraan Pembuatan peraturan:pelarangan kendaraan pribadi pada area pusat kegiatan tertentupelarangan harianpelarangan kendaraan beratjalur kendaraan high occupancy ketersediaan parkir

Penerapan harga / retribusi:biaya akses (misalnya Singapura)biaya parkirbiaya jarak jauhbiaya bahan bakar

Pemilihan Model TransportasiKebijakan yang diterapkan dapat berupa:subsidi untuk operator transportasi publik dengan cara alokasi tender kompetitif untuk mendukung efisiensi provisi.subsidi atau bantuan untuk konstruksi infrastruktur seperti bahu jalan, stasiun bus, dan lajur bus, dll

Desain Infrastruktur/Perlindungan Masyarakat Penataan tata guna lahan Penerapan AMDALPenghitungan biaya yang diperlukan, biaya mitigasi dan biaya lainnyaKurangi kemacetan dengan peringatan dini dengan eletronik sistemPenerapan desain untuk mengurangi pencemaran udara dan suara saat penggunaan jalan, misalnya dengan:a. Minimalisasi gradienb. Permukaan jalan yang mulus

Peran serta masyarakat

Hindari penggunaan kendaran bermotor untuk jarak pendek.Di bagian perkotaan dibuatkan pedestrian untuk jalan kaki dan lajur sepeda.Dihimbau untuk menanam pohon di halaman rumah, karena tajuk pohon menyerap CO2.

Peran serta masyarakatKendaraan bermotor dalam keadaan tidak berjalan, namun mesinnya hidup, menghabiskan BBM dan keluarkan emisi. Hindari memanaskan mesin berlama-lama.Hindari memacu dan melambatkan kendaraan secara tiba-tiba, karena boros dalam konsumsi BBMHindari memacu kendaraan lebih dari 55 mph karena konsumsi BBM akan bertambah.

Peran serta masyarakatThe average car travels about 12,000 miles per year. If a well-maintained car gets 25 miles to the gallon, a neglected car may only get 20 miles per gallon. The maintained car would use about 120 gallons less fuel. At $1.50 per gallon, the owner of the maintained car saves about $180.00 a year in fuel costs alone. And burning less fuel also means less pollution.

The 1994 Fullerton San Francisco Bay Area Economic Report (Hall, 1995) estimates that $5.3 million in health benefits will result from these smog-reducing controls. The value of successful cleanup of car pollution for this area is attributed with yearly health savings of $604 million

Lead in petrol

Lead is put in petrol to make older designs of car engine work better but if it gets into your body it will have the opposite effect. The lead comes from the exhausts of cars running on leaded petrol and it is poisonous stuff. Babies and young children can be badly affected by lead because it can stop their nervous systems developing properly and it can damage their brains.

Once lead has found its way into your body it is difficult to get it out again, so it is obviously better to keep it out in the first place. Changing from leaded to unleaded petrol has already helped reduce the problems caused by lead poisoning. But one of the problems is that car owners tend to keep their cars for a very long time, so although unleaded petrol is used in all cars less than 10 years old, it will take a while for all the old cars using leaded petrol to vanish from our roads

If the money were spent on public transit, the benefits would double or triple: Less energy consumption. Less pollution. Less time wasted in traffic.

Kompas, 31 Oktober 2012

KesimpulanKeberhasilan penerapan perangkat peraturan bergantung pada kemampuan dan keinginan untuk menegakkan peraturan tersebut.Mekanisme harga terutama dalam bentuk kewajiban kendaraan bermotor dan bahan bakar kemungkinan merupakan peraturan yang paling mudah untuk diaplikasikan.Kombinasi antara mekanisme harga dan peraturan serta kebijakan penggunaan lahan dan transportasi umum akan memberikan hasil yang terbaik.

More than half of the world population lives in urban areas. Cities now account for 75% of energy consumption and 75% of carbon emissions.

DEALING WITH GLOBAL WARMINGClimate change is such a difficult problem to deal with because:The problem is global.The effects will last a long time.The problem is a long-term political issue.The harmful and beneficial impacts of climate change are not spread evenly.Many actions that might reduce the threat are controversial because they can impact economies and lifestyles.

DEALING WITH GLOBAL WARMINGTwo ways to deal with global warming:Mitigation that reduces greenhouse gas emissions.Adaptation, where we recognize that some warming is unavoidable and devise strategies to reduce its harmful effects.

How Would You Vote?To conduct an instant in-class survey using a classroom response system, access JoinIn Clicker Content from the PowerLecture main menu for Living in the Environment.

Should we take serious action now to help slow global warming?a. No. We should not waste money until we can develop strategies based on sound data.b. Yes. The situation is serious and calls for a no-regrets strategy.

Fig. 20-14, p. 481Cut fossil fuel use (especially coal)Shift from coal to natural gasImprove energy efficiencyShift to renewable energy resourcesTransfer energy efficiency and renewable energy technologies to developing countriesReduce deforestationUse more sustainableagriculture and forestryLimit urban sprawlReduce povertySlow population growthRemove CO2 from smoke stack and vehicle emissionsStore (sequester)CO2 by planting treesSequester CO2 deep undergroundSequester CO2 in soil by using no-till cultivation and taking cropland out of productionSequester CO2 in the deep oceanRepair leaky natural gas pipelines and facilitiesUse animal feeds that reduce CH4 emissions by belching cowsSolutionsGlobal WarmingPreventionCleanup

Solutions: Reducing the ThreatWe can improve energy efficiency, rely more on carbon-free renewable energy resources, and find ways to keep much of the CO2 we produce out of the troposphere.

How Would You Vote?To conduct an instant in-class survey using a classroom response system, access JoinIn Clicker Content from the PowerLecture main menu for Living in the Environment.

Should we phase out the use of fossil fuels over the next fifty years?a. No. Fossil fuels are too valuable to our society.b. Yes. Fossil fuels release too much air pollution, including greenhouse gases.

Removing and Storing CO2Methods for removing CO2 from the atmosphere or from smokestacks and storing (sequestering) it.Figure 20-15

Fig. 20-15, p. 482Tree plantationCoal powerplantTanker deliversCO2 from plantto rigOil rigCO2 is pumpeddown from rig for deep ocean disposalSpent oil reservoir isused for CO2 depositAbandonedoil fieldCrop fieldSpent oil reservoir isused for Crop field

Switchgrass= CO2 deposit= CO2 pumpingCO2 deposit CO2 is pumped down to reservoir through abandoned oil field

DEALING WITH GLOBAL WARMINGGovernments can tax greenhouse gas emissions and energy use, increase subsidies and tax breaks for saving energy, and decrease subsidies and tax breaks for fossil fuels.A crash program to slow and adapt to global warming now is very likely to cost less than waiting and having to deal with its harmful effects later.

WHAT IS BEING DONE TO REDUCE GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS?Getting countries to agree on reducing their greenhouse emissions is difficult.A 2006 poll showed that 83% of Americans want more leadership from federal government on dealing with global warming.

International Climate Negotiations: The Kyoto ProtocolTreaty on global warming which first phase went into effect January, 2005 with 189 countries participating.It requires 38 participating developed countries to cut their emissions of CO2, CH4, and N2O to 5.2% below their 1990 levels by 2012.Developing countries were excluded. The U.S. did not sign, but California and Maine are participating.U.S. did not sign because developing countries such as China, India and Brazil were excluded.

How Would You Vote?To conduct an instant in-class survey using a classroom response system, access JoinIn Clicker Content from the PowerLecture main menu for Living in the Environment.

Should the United States participate in the Kyoto Protocol?a. No. Americans spend enough on environmental cleanup and should not take on the burden of this treaty.b. Yes. We should participate, but only if India, China, and all other nations fairly participate.c. Yes. As the leading emitter of greenhouse gases, the U.S. should set an example for other nations.

Moving Beyond the Kyoto ProtocolCountries could work together to develop a new international approach to slowing global warming.The Kyoto Protocol will have little effect on future global warming without support and action by the U.S., China, and India.

Actions by Some Countries, States, and BusinessesIn 2005, the EU proposed a plan to reduce CO2 levels by 1/3rd by 2020.California has adopted a goal of reducing its greenhouse gas emission to 1990 levels by 2020, and 80% below by 2050.Global companies (BP, IBM, Toyota) have established targets to reduce their greenhouse emissions 10-65% to 1990 levels by 2010.

Fig. 20-16, p. 485Reducing CO2 Emissions Drive a fuel-efficient car, walk, bike, carpool, and use mass transit Use energy-efficient windows Use energy-efficient appliances and lights Heavily insulate your house and seal all drafts Reduce garbage by recycling and reuse Insulate your hot water heater Use compact fluorescent bulbs Plant trees to shade your house during summer Set water heater no higher than 49C (120F) Wash laundry in warm or cold water Use low-flow shower head Buy products from companies that are trying to reduce their impact on climate Demand that the government make climate change an urgent priorityWhat Can You Do?

Fig. 20-17, p. 485Move hazardous material storage tanks away from coastConnect wildlifereserves with corridorsDevelop crops thatneed less waterWaste less waterMove people awayfrom low-lyingcoastal areasStockpile 1- to 5-yearsupply of key foodsExpand existingwildlife reservestoward polesProhibit new constructionon low-lying coastal areasor build houses on stilts

OZONE DEPLETION IN THE STRATOSPHERELess ozone in the stratosphere allows for more harmful UV radiation to reach the earths surface.The ozone layer keeps about 95% of the suns harmful UV radiation from reaching the earths surface.Chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs) have lowered the average concentrations of ozone in the stratosphere.In 1988 CFCs were no longer manufactured.

Fig. 20-18, p. 486A free oxygen atom pulls the oxygen atom off the chlorine monoxide molecule to form O2. Ultraviolet light hits a chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) molecule, such as CFCl3, breakingoff a chlorine atom and leaving CFCl2.SunRepeated many timesThe chlorine atom and the oxygen atom join to form a chlorine monoxide molecule (ClO).Summary of ReactionsCCl3F + UV Cl + CCl2FCl + O3 ClO + O2Cl + O Cl + O2UV radiationThe chlorine atom attacksan ozone (O3) molecule, pulling an oxygen atom offit and leaving an oxygen molecule (O2).

Once free, the chlorine atom is off to attack another ozone moleculeand begin the cycle again.

Cl

Once free, the chlorine atom is off to attack another ozone moleculeand begin the cycle again.A free oxygen atom pulls the oxygen atom off the chlorine monoxide molecule to form O2.The chlorine atom and the oxygen atom join to form a chlorine monoxide molecule (ClO).The chlorine atom attacks an ozone (O3) molecule, pulling an oxygen atom off it and leaving an oxygen molecule (O2).Ultraviolet light hits a chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) molecule, such as CFCl3, breaking off a chlorine atom and leaving CFCl2.Fig. 20-18, p. 486Stepped Art

OZONE DEPLETION IN THE STRATOSPHEREDuring four months of each year up to half of the ozone in the stratosphere over Antarctica and a smaller amount over the Artic is depleted.Figure 20-19

OZONE DEPLETION IN THE STRATOSPHERESince 1976, in Antarctica, ozone levels have markedly decreased during October and November.Figure 20-20

OZONE DEPLETION IN THE STRATOSPHEREOzone thinning: caused by CFCs and other ozone depleting chemicals (ODCs).Increased UV radiation reaching the earths surface from ozone depletion in the stratosphere is harmful to human health, crops, forests, animals, and materials such as plastic and paints.

Human HealthWorse sunburnMore eye cataractsMore skin cancersImmune system suppressionFood and ForestsReduced yields for some cropsReduced seafood supplies from reduced phytoplanktonDecreased forest productivity for UV-sensitive tree speciesWildlifeIncreased eye cataracts in some speciesDecreased population of aquatic species sensitive to UV radiationReduced population of surface phytoplanktonDisrupted aquatic food webs from reduced phytoplanktonAir Pollution and MaterialsIncreased acid depositionIncreased photochemical smogDegradation of outdoor paints and plasticsGlobal WarmingAccelerated warming because of decreased ocean uptake of CO2 from atmosphere by phytoplankton and CFCs acting as greenhouse gasesEffects of Ozone DepletionNatural Capital DegradationFig. 20-21, p. 488

Case Study: Skin CancerStructure of the human skin and relationship between radiation and skin cancer. Figure 20-22

Fig. 20-22, p. 489This long-wavelength(low-energy) form of UV radiation causes aging of the skin, tanning, and sometimes sunburn. It penetrates deeply and may contribute to skin cancer.This shorter-wavelength (high-energy) formof UV radiation causes sunburn, prematureaging, and wrinkling. It is largely responsiblefor basal and squamous cell carcinomasand plays a role in malignant melanoma.EpidermisSquamous Cell CarcinomaBasal Cell CarcinomaMelanomaSweatglandDermisSquamous cellsThin layer ofdead cells

Basal layerMelanocyte cellsBloodvesselsUltravioletBUltravioletAHairBasalcell

PROTECTING THE OZONE LAYERTo reduce ozone depletion, we must stop producing all ozone-depleting chemicals.Figure 20-23

Fig. 20-23, p. 490What Can You Do?Stay out of the sun, especially between 10 A.M. and 3 P.M.Do not use tanning parlors or sunlamps.When in the sun, wear protective clothing and sun glasses that protect against UV-A and UV-B radiation.Be aware that overcast skies do not protect you.Do not expose yourself to the sun if you are takingantibiotics or birth control pills.Use a sunscreen with a protection factor of 15 or 30 anytime you are in the sun if you have light skin. Examine your skin and scalp at least once a month for moles or warts that change in size, shape, or color or sores that keep oozing, bleeding, and crusting over. Ifyou observe any of these signs, consult a doctor immediately.Reducing Exposure to UV Radiation

Green citiesCompact, relatively densely populated cities with mixed-use urban form are more resource-efficient than any other settlement pattern with similar levels of economic output. Integrated design strategies and technologies are available to improve urban transport, the construction of buildings, and the development of urban energy, water, and waste systems in such a way that they reduce resource and energy consumption and avoid lock-in effects.

Green citiesThe overall vision is to establish a global circular economy in which material use and waste generation is minimised, any unavoidable waste recycled or remanufactured, and any remaining waste treated in a manner least harmful to the environment and human health or even generating new value such as energy recovered from waste.

1. Redesign systems, especially the transportation system and urban infrastructure down-stream, to utilize less resource-intensive inputs. The first target must be to reduce the need for and use of automotive vehicles requiring liquid fuels in comparison to rail-based mass transportation, bus rapid transit and bicycles. Classic green transport strategies in cities primarily focus on reducing car use or at least slowing its growth. Congestion charge in London, Singapores Electronic Road Pricing and Vehicle Quota System, Bogotas BRT system has been replicated in Istanbul, Lagos, Ahmadabad, Guangzhou, and Johannesburg.

2. Urban green building strategies include more efficient use of all resources such as energy, water and materials. Three principal green building strategies can be differentiated: design, technology, and behaviour related. Housing projects on the coast in Puerto Princesa City, the Philippines, have been designed to reduce energy demand through increased natural light, improved ventilation, the cooling effect of the roofing material, and strategic planting.

3. Cities have the potential to either dissipate the distribution of energy or optimise their efficiency by reducing energy consumption and adopting green energy systems including renewable micro-generation, district heating, and combined heat and energy plants.In Artemovsk it was implemented a comprehensive energy program for energy saving in industrial enterprises and public sector facilities including in providing municipal services.

4. Parks, protected green space and gardens, street trees and landscaping provide vital ecosystem services, acting as green lungs absorbing and filtering air pollution or as acting as filters for waste water. The presence of green landscaped areas helps regulate natural processes, including the mitigation of local temperature extremes.

5. Upgrading and replacement of pipes has contributed to net savings of 20 % of potable water in many industrialised cities. A measure to maximise utility of fresh water is the cascading of water use where the waste water generated by one process can be used in another with a lesser quality requirement. Rain can be harvested and used as drinking and non-drinking water.

6. The food footprint of a city has significant impacts on its green credentials, especially if one takes into account the energy use generated by transporting food from remote locations to urban marketplaces.

7. Cities have demonstrated considerable resilience in finding green solutions that reduce overall waste, increase recycling and pioneering new forms of environmentally friendly treatment of unavoidable waste. In many European cities, recycling levels are 50 %, while Copenhagen only sends 3 % of its waste to landfills. Greening the waste sector includes:the minimisation of waste.

where waste cannot be avoided, recovery of materials and energy from waste as well as remanufacturing and recycling waste into usable products.

Recycling leads to substantial resource savings. For example, for every tone of paper recycled, 17 trees and 50 % of water can be saved. Recycling each tone of aluminum, the following resource savings could be accrued: 1.3 tone of bauxite residues, 15 m3 of cooling water, 0.86 m3 of process water, and 37 barrels of oil.

Greening the cities can create jobs on a number of fronts: urban and peri-urban green agriculture; public transport; renewable energy; waste management and recycling; and green construction.

Green-city solutions will not be realized overnight by classic top-down or bottom-up approaches, but by the actions of a coalition of actors from the national, state and local levels, from civil society and its multiple subdivisions, from the private sector and institutions including universities, not-profit organizations and interest groups which share a commitment to advance the green economy in cities.In poorer cities, it may be prudent to adopt a more pragmatic and minimalist approach, which primarily commits municipal sectors such as water, waste, energy and transport to a limited number of strategic goals.

Selected planning and regulatory instruments: urban growth boundaries; land-use regulation; density regulation and bonus; special planning powers; vehicle and traffic regulation; parking standards; car-free developments. Effective planning and governance across different administrative levels requires high-quality information to raise awareness amongst urban residents to promote behaviour change.

In the Republic of Korea, Extended Producer Responsibility was enforced on packaging (paper, glass, iron, aluminium and plastic) and specific products (battery, tire, lubricating oil and fluorescent lamp) since 2003. The initiative resulted in recycling of 7.7 million tones of waste between 2003 and 2008, an increasing recycling rate by 13.5% and an economic benefit of $1.6 billion.

Brazil has a long tradition of recycling, recovery rates of many materials in this country is in line with developed countries. Approximately 95% of all aluminum cans and 55% of all plastic bottles is recovered. About half of all paper and half of the glass are re-used. The waste can create value by nearly 2 billion $.

Floating Homes

Only when the last tree has been died and the last river has been poisoned and the last fish has been caught will we realize that we cannot eat money..( Crees Indian Saying )

Modified by: EL KHOBAR M. NAZECH

Source: kidport.com; tonyhowell; Passaicriver.org.

Urban Working Air yang diminum bisa dipilih, Udara yang dihirup tidak bisa dipilih

Motivating ConceptsUrban MetabolismCities consume materials and energy (food, fuel, electrical power, water, industrial materials, atmospheric oxygen, etc.)Cities export/excrete materials (industrial goods, sewage, garbage, industrial wastes, gaseous pollutants, and airborne particulates/aerosols)

Urban RespirationUrban respiration (oxygen in/primary and secondary gaseous pollutants and airborne particulates/aerosols/out) represents the direct impacts of urban metabolism on the atmosphereEmitted urban air pollutants have a significant impact on both regional viability (human health, agricultural/ecosystem productivity, visibility), and global change (climate, ozone depletion, oxidative capacity) issues

Urban Respiration Exhalation ProductsGaseousDirect Green House Gases CO2, CH4, N2O, CFCsSmog Precursors/Indirect Greenhouse Gases NO, NO2, CO, VOCsPhotochemical Oxidants O3, NO2, H2O, NO3, H2O2, ROOHSecondary Aerosol Precursors SO2, NH3, HNO3, VOCsParticulates/AerosolsSmoke/SootAshRoad/Construction DustSecondary Aerosols

Megacity StatisticsDemographic and Transportation Indicators of Worlds MegacitiesDecker et al., Ann. Rev. Energy Environ. 25, 685-740 (2000).

Urban Air Chemistry

Primary EmissionsSourcesSecondary PollutantsEffectsSulfur Dioxide (SO2)Power Plants, Vehicles, IndustrySulfuric Acid Vapor, Sulfate ParticlesAcid Rain, Heart/Lung Disease, Haze, Climate ChangeNitrogen Oxides (NOx)Power Plants, Vehicles, Trash Burning, IndustryNitric Acid Vapor, Nitrate ParticlesAcid Rain, Heart/Lung Disease, Smog, Haze, Climate ChangeVolatile Organic Compounds (VOCs)Vehicles, Industry, Painting, Cleaning, CookingOrganic Air Toxics, Organic ParticlesSmog, Heart/Lung Disease, Haze, Climate ChangeAmmonia (NH3)Vehicles, Human and Animal WasteAmmonium Sulfate, Nitrate, ParticlesHaze, Heart/Lung Disease, Climate Change

Urban Air Quality Status

FactorDeveloped WorldDeveloping WorldEmissionsMost Large Sources Identified, Poor to Fair Knowledge of Temporal and Spatial Distributions Emissions Data Often OutdatedSome Sources Identified, Many Unknown, Little Knowledge of Temporal and Spatial Distributions, Emissions Data Suspect, Sources May Change RapidlyAmbient ConcentrationsMonitoring Stations Provide Data at Selected Sites, Indicate TrendsMonitoring Stations are New or Nonexistent, Trends are UnquantifiedManagement StrategiesEstablished, Based on Computer Model Analyses and Emissions ControlEmerging, Modeled on Developed World Strategies with Much Less Data

Aerodyne Mobile LaboratoryComprehensive gas and particleinstrument suiteGas phase measurements:CO2, CO, NO2, HNO3, NH3, O3, NO, NO2, NOy VOCs

Particulate measurements:Composition, mass loadings, size distributions, black carbon, number concentrations, absorption, scattering, surface area, PAH concentration

Meteorological measurements:Wind speed and direction, temperature, pressure, relative humidity

Offline methods: canister sampling filter sampling

Modes of Deployment

ON-ROAD SAMPLING-On-road vehicle emissions quantification by vehicle and operating condition-Aggregate (fleet) motor vehicle pollutant emission ratios-Point and area emission plume source location & dispersion measurement -Ambient pollutant mapping

STATIONARY SAMPLING-Multiple site deployment during intensive study-High time resolution point sampling -Locate at hard to access sites-Co-located sampling with other researchersSpecific source emissionsMCMA basin and regional pollution

Aerodyne Fixed Site Measurement Locations During MCMA 2006

Pico Tres PadresPhotochemical processing of city emissions and secondary aerosol generation

Source-specific wind-advected plumes and particle nucleation and growth

MCMA Air Pollution

Photochemical Processing at Pico Tres Padressun riseBoundary layer risePhotochemistry Measurements above nighttime boundary layer

Oxidation Velocity!We are not modelers yet, but it seems that HCHO may be produced more rapidly than O3 And finally the particle formation kicks in and endures longest

Diurnal profiles of CO, PM number density, and CO2 at T0 and PTP.The T0 morning peaks of CO and PM are well correlated with the CO2 peak since they are primary emissions, whereas the afternoon PM peak at PTP is heavily influenced by secondary aerosol formation CO, PM, and CO2 at PTP and T0

Upper graph: photochemically produced O3 forms in the afternoon at both sites.Nighttime concentrations are near zero at T0 due to nearby NO sources.Middle graph: The observed diurnal profile of HCHO at T0 is a combination of both directly-emitted and photochemically-formed HCHO, evident by the delay of its temporal profile after the T0 CO2 peak. O3, HCHO, and CO2 at T0 and PTP

SO2 Plume With Wind Trajectories From Popocatepetyl

Concentration and composition

Ambient aerosol processing

Soot particle evolution in MCMA atmosphere

MCMA-2003 CENICA PM2.5 Mass LoadingSalcedo, et al (2006)

MCMA-2003 CENICA PM2 CharacteristicsSalcedo, et al. (2006)

MCMA-2003 CENICA Average PM2.5 Mass CompositionSalcedo, et al. (2006)

MCMA-2003 Fine PM Size Distribution Salcedo, et al. (2006)

Mexico City MapMeasurements were obtained at several fixed sites in Mexico City (Xalostoc, Merced, Cenica, Pedregal, and Santa Ana) with differing influences of air pollution sources and meteorology.

Urban Aerosols City Center and Down WindCity center

Light Industrial/ Residential urban

Boundary site

Organics Sulfate Nitrate Ammonium

Aging of Fractal Combustion Particles

SummaryDeveloping World Megacities are a Growing Source of Fine Atmospheric PMReal-Time Fine PM and Gaseous Secondary PM Precursor Instrumentation can Characterize Urban PM Composition and EvolutionMobile Laboratory Real-Time Instrument Deployments can Characterize Spatial and Temporal Distributions of PM and PM PrecursorsDetailed Physical and Chemical Characterization of Ambient Urban PM can Track Evolution of Primary Soot

Two-stroke engines burn an oilgasoline mixture, they emit more smoke, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and particulate matter than the gas-only four-stroke engines found in newer motorcycles The-stroke engines: intake, compression, power, and exhaust

Source:

AERODYNE RESEARCH, INC.

Programme Sustainable Economic Development and Employment Promotion (EEP)

****Figure 20.14Solutions: methods for slowing atmospheric warming during this century. QUESTION: Which five of these mitigation solutions do you think are the most important?****Figure 20.15Solutions: methods for removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere or from smokestacks and storing (sequestering) it in plants, soil, deep underground reservoirs, and the deep ocean. QUESTION: Which two of these mitigation solutions do you think are the most important?*******Figure 20.16Individuals matter: ways to reduce your annual emissions of CO2. QUESTION: Which three of these actions do you think are the most important? What ones do you do?*Figure 20.17Solutions: ways to prepare for the possible long-term effects of climate change. QUESTIONS: Which three of these adaptation solutions do you think are the most important?**Figure 20.18Natural capital degradation: simplified summary of how chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other chlorine-containing compounds can destroy ozone in the stratosphere faster than it is formed. Note that chlorine atoms are continuously regenerated as they react with ozone. Thus, they act as catalysts, chemicals that speed up chemical reactions without being used up by the reaction. Bromine atoms released from bromine-containing compounds that reach the stratosphere also destroy ozone by a similar mechanism.*****Figure 20.21Natural capital degradation: expected effects of decreased levels of ozone in the stratosphere. QUESTION: Which five of these effects do you think are the most important?**Figure 20.22Science: structure of the human skin and the relationships between ultraviolet (UV-A and UV-B) radiation and the three types of skin cancer. (Data and photos from the Skin Cancer Foundation)**Figure 20.23Individuals matter: ways to reduce your exposure to harmful UV radiation. QUESTION: Which three of these actions do you think are the most important? Which ones do you do?****************Need flat MC2003 map showing cityOnly put on Merced, Cenica, Santa AnaMerced centerCENICA residentialSanta Ana edgeAir flow is typically north to south during day.*Dont talk about dynamics, except for air flow

Reorganize to vertical like slide 18*Potentially replace bottom panel with a mixed secondary + minor primary, as observed in Urban. This is rural*