DISKRIMINASI PASAR TENAGA KERJA

DISKRIMINASIPASAR TENAGA KERJA

Labor Economics Series

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Tokoh Pejuang Wanita Indonesia

Raden Adjeng Kartini21 April 1879 – 17 September 1904

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Pemikiran Raden Adjeng Kartini

Dunia wanita hanya sebatas tembok rumah.

Tidak bebas mendapatkan akses pendidikan.

Dipingit dan dinikahkan dengan pria yang tidak dikenal.

Adanya keinginan untuk memperbaiki kondisi kaum wanita yang disebabkan kungkungan adat, antara lain :

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Fakta di Indonesia

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Penduduk yang Bekerja (Februari 2012)

Sumber : http://pusdatinaker.balitfo.depnakertrans.go.id

Tena

ga Pr

ofesio

nal

Kepe

mimpin

an

Tata

Usaha

TU Pe

njuala

n

TU Ja

sa

TU Pe

rtania

n

Produ

ksi

Lainn

ya 0

5,000,000

10,000,000

15,000,000

20,000,000

25,000,000

30,000,000

35,000,000

40,000,000

45,000,000

3,473,057 934,988 3,541,7499,755,566

3,108,946

25,116,020 22,938,665

610,650

3,983,193

184,1252,518,306

11,003,698

3,295,852

15,441,120

6,876,405

20,465

Pria Wanita

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Penduduk yang Bekerja (Februari 2012)

Jenis Pekerjaan Utama

JENIS KELAMIN Jumlah

Pria WanitaTenaga Profesional 3.473.057 3.983.193 7.456.250Kepemimpinan 934.988 184.125 1.119.113Tata Usaha 3.541.749 2.518.306 6.060.055

TU Penjualan 9.755.566 11.003.698 20.759.264

TU Jasa 3.108.946 3.295.852 6.404.798

TU Pertanian 25.116.02

015.441.12

0 40.557.140

Produksi 22.938.66

5 6.876.405 29.815.070Lainnya 610.65 20.465 631.115

Jumlah 69.479.64

143.323.16

4112.802.80

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Sumber : http://pusdatinaker.balitfo.depnakertrans.go.id

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Rata-rata Upah (2006)

0

400,000

800,000

1,200,000

1,600,000

Pertanian

Pertambangan

Industri

ListrikBangunan

Perdagangan

Angkutan

Keuangan

JasaWan

ita Pria

Wanita Pria

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Rata-rata Upah (2006)SEKTOR LAPANGAN PEKERJAAN PRIA WANITA

1 Pertanian, Kehutanan, Perburuan, Perikanan (Agriculture,Forestry,Hunting,Fishery) 438.149 234.586

2 Pertambangan, Penggalian (Mining and Quarrying) 1.541.241 771.415

3 Industri Pengolahan (Manufacturing Industries) 826.257 583.768

4 Listrik, gas dan air (Electricity, Gaz and Water) 1.176.160 1.338.737

5 Bangunan (Construction) 734.070 1.073.573

6 Perdagangan Besar, Rumah Makan & Hotel (Wholesale Trade,Restaurant & Hotel) 806.110 621.248

7 Angkutan, Pergudangan dan Komunikasi (Transportation,Storage & Communication) 934.761 944.419

8 Keuangan, Asuransi,Jasa Perusahaan (Financing,Insurance,Business Services) 1.422.252 1.461.926

9 Jasa Kemasyarakatan (Public Services) 1.126.559 789.557

Rata-rata 827.101 612.131

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Penduduk yang Bekerja Berdasarkan Jam Kerja (Februari 2012)

0 1-9 10-14 15-24 25-34 35-44 45-59 ≥ 600

5,000,000

10,000,000

15,000,000

20,000,000

25,000,000

30,000,000

35,000,000

40,000,000

1,379,487 1,039,073 1,590,396

5,718,802

8,668,913

17,927,986

24,757,499

8,397,485

794,465 1,658,2182,567,256

6,952,926

7,354,950

10,293,078

8,874,959

4,827,312

Pria Wanita

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Konsep Diskriminasi

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Konsep Diskriminasi

Differences in EARNINGS and EMPLOYMENT OPPORTUNITIES among equally skilled workers employed in the same job simply because of the worker’s race, gender, national origin, sexual orientation, or other seemingly irrelevant characteristics.

George Borjas :

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Konsep Diskriminasi

Discrimination means treating people differently and less favourably because of characteristics that are not related to their merit or the requirements of the job.

These include race, colour, sex, religion, political opinion, national extraction and social origin.

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The Discrimination

Coefficient

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The Discrimination Coefficient

The Economics of Discrimination (1957)

Lauched for the first time by Gary S. Becker

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Basic Concept : Taste Discrimination

Assumption Two types of workers :

White workers : wage wW Black workers : wage wB

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If the employer is prejudiced againts black, employer gets disutility from hiring black workers.

Disutility : employer will act as if costs for black worker wB (1 + d), where d is positive number and is called :The Discrimination Coefficient

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Suppose that wB = $10, and that d =0,5 ; the employer will then act as if hiring a black worker costs $ 15

The greater the prejudiced, the greater is the disutility from hiring black workers, and the greater is the discrimination coefficient d.

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If these black employers prefer to hire black workers, they will act as if hiring a black worker is cheaper than it actually is.

Nepotism Coefficient wB (1 – n )

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Labor Market Discrimination Analysis

FIRM

Non DiscriminatoryFirm

W = VMP

DiscriminatoryFirm

White Firmagaints Black

Black Firmagaints Black

DiscriminationCoefficientis very High

DiscriminationCoefficient

is relatively Low

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1. Employer Discrimination

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Skill and Labor Market Outcomes (2001)

WHITE BLACK HISPANICMale Female Male Female Male Female

Highschool Graduate or more (Percent) 84.3 85.2 78.5 78.9 56.1 57.9

Bachelor’s degree or more (Percent) 29.1 25.4 16.4 17.5 11.0 11.2

Labor Force Participation Rate (Percent) 79.9 59.9 72.1 65.2 83.8 59.3

Unemployment Rate (Percent) 4.7 3.6 8.0 7.0 5.2 6.6

Annual Earnings (in $1,000) 49.8 29.6 33.5 26.0 30.8 22.3

Annual Earnings(Full Time) 55.4 37.1 38.5 30.8 34.3 28.0

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Fact :

White Wage > Black Wage

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1. Employer Discrimination Assumption : White Workers and Black Workers

are Perfect Subtitutes in Production.

Firms’s output depends on the total number of workers hired, regardless of their race have the same Marginal Product of Labor ( MPE )

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Employer Discrimination

Production function:

q = f ( EW + EB )

q firm’s output

EW number of white workers hired

EB number of black workers hired

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Employment in a non Discriminatory Firm

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Employment in a non Discriminatory Firm

Both groups of workers have the same Value of Marginal Product, a non discriminatory firms will hire whichever group is Cheaper

Suppose that wW > wB , a firms that doesn’t discriminate will hire black workers up to the point where

wB = VMPE

*BE

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The Employment Decision of a Firm That Does Not Discriminate

Bw

*BE

Dollar

Employment

Black workers wage is less than white

wage How many workerwill be hired..??

?VMPE

wB = VMPE

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Employment in a

Discriminatory Firm

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Employment in a Discriminatory Firm

The employer act as if black wage is not wB , but instead equal to wB (1 + d). Where d is discrimination coefficient.

The employer’s hiring decision based on a comparison wW and wB (1 + d)

Hire only blacks if wB (1 + d) < wW

Hire only white if wB (1 + d) > wW

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As long as black and white workers are perfect subtitutes, firms have a segregated workforce.

Employer’s who have little prejudice and hence have small discrimination coefficient, will hire only BLACKS (called “Black Firm”).

Employer’s who are very prejudice and have very large discrimination coefficient, will hire only WHITES (called “White Firm”).

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The white firm hires workers up to the point where : wW = VMPE

Assumption : wW > WB

The white firm is paying an excessively high price for its workers and hires relatively few workers ( )

WHITE FIRM

*WE

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The Employment Decision of a Prejudiced Firm

Ww

*WE

Dollar

Employment

VMPE

White Firm

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Non discriminatory firms : wB = VMPE

If discrimination coefficient d0 :Price of Black Labor wB ( 1 +

d0 )

Amount of Labor hired : wB ( 1 + d0 ) = VMPE

BLACK FIRM

*BE

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BLACK FIRM

The number of black workers hired, therefore, is smaller for firms that have larger discrimination coefficient.

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The Employment Decision of a Prejudiced Firm

Bw

*BE

1BE

0BE

Dollar

Employment

VMPE

Black Firm 01 dwB

11 dwB

Discrimination Coefficient

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Discrimination and

Profits

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Discrimination and ProfitsFirms that discriminate lose on two counts :

The prejudiced employer could have hired the same number of black worker at lower wage. Because black and white workers are perfect subtitutes.

Discriminatory black firms are hiring too few workers ( or ) they are giving up profits in order to minimize contact with black workers.

0BE

1BE

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Profit and Discrimination Coefficient

Dollar

DiscriminationCoefficient

BlackFirm

max

w

dw0

White Firm

Max Profit

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Discrimination and Profits

The Most Profitable Firm

Zero Discrimination

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2. Employee Discrimination

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Employee Discrimination

Diskriminasi dilakukan oleh “Fellow Worker”

Misal : White worker yang bekerja pada Black Firm dengan upah wW akan merasa mendapat upah wW (1- d).

Tidak berpengaruh terhadap “Profitability of Firms” karena white worker dan black worker adalah perfect subtitutes sehingga firm membayar jumlah upah yang sama.

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3. CustomerDiscrimination

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Customer Discrimination

Dikemukakan oleh Harry J. Holzer dan Keith R. Ihlanfeldt (1998) research di Atlanta, Boston, Detroit dan Los Angeles.

Keputusan membeli tidak ditentukan oleh Actual Price ( p ) tapi oleh The Utility-Adjusted Price p (1 + d).

Employer dapat mengatur tenaga penjualan sesuai kondisi.

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Customer Discrimination

TYPE FIRM

More than 50 %Of the firm’s

customers are Black

More than 75 %Of the firm’s

customers are White

PERBEDAAN

Customer & worker bertemu 58,0 % 9,0 % 49,0 %

Customer & worker tidak bertemu 46,6 % 12,2 % 34,4 %

Perbedaan - - 14,6 %

Relation between customer discrimination and percent of newly hired worked who are Black

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Customer Discrimination and NBA

Lawrence Kahn and Peter Sherer 1998) :

A study of attenance records indicates that replacing a black player with an

eqqually talented white player bring in about 9,000 additional fans per year.

At $50 a head (a very conservative estimate of ticket prices and concession revenues), the racial switch would increase annual team revenues by roughly $450,000

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Measuring Discrimination

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___

MW___

FW

_________

FM WWW

Diskriminasi : selisih average wage, yaitu :

Asumsi : Tenaga kerja terdiri dari• Male, dengan average wage

• Female, dengan average wage

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Measuring DiscriminationPengembangan model : Schooling mempengaruhi pendapatan

Earning Function :• Male :

• Female :

MMMM Sw

FFFF Sw

M menyatakan pendapatan pria meningkat bila mendapatkan tambahan 1 tahun pendidikan.

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Model Regresi :

FFFMMMFM ssWWW _________

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Measuring The Impact of Discrimination on the Wage

M

F

___

FW

___

MW

Dollars

Schooling

Women’s Earning Function*

Fw

__

Fs__

Ms

Men’s Earning Function

Women’s Schooling

Women’s Earning

Men’s Schooling

Men’s Earning

Measure Discrimination :*Fw

___

FWWoman’s Earning

Men’s Earning

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Global Gender Gap 2012

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Global Gender Gap 2012 : Indonesia - Rank

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

6881

93 92 87 90 97

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Global Gender Gap 2012 : Indonesia - Score

2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 20120.64

0.645

0.65

0.655

0.66

0.665

0.6541 0.655

0.6473

0.658

0.66150.6594 0.6591

Global Gender Gap Index 2012

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Global Gender Gap 2012 : Indonesia

58Terima kasih…

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