DAFTAR ISI

Kata Pengantar .......................................................................................

Daftar Isi .................................................................................................

Daftar Gambar ........................................................................................

Daftar Tabel ............................................................................................

BAB I. PENGANTAR KIMIA LINGKUNGAN............................... 1

1. Definisi Imu Lingkungan .................................................................. 1

2. Definisi Kimia Lingkungan ............................................................... 2

3. Kimia Berhubungan dengan Proses Pencemaran ............................... 7

4. Pentingnya Kimia Lingkungan ........................................................... 9

BAB II. KIMIA UDARA ..................................................................... 11

A. KARAKTERISTIK ATMOSFER ..................................................... 11

1. Komposisi Atmosfer ..................................................................... 11

2. Stratifikasi Atmosfer ..................................................................... 12

a. Troposfer ................................................................................. 13

b. Stratosfer ................................................................................. 13

c. Mesosfer .................................................................................. 14

d. Thermosfer .............................................................................. 14

B. REAKSI KIMIA DAN FOTOKIMIA DI ATMOSFER .................. 15

1. Proses Fotokimia .......................................................................... 16

2. Radikal Hidroksil dan Hidoperoksil di Atmosfer ......................... 21

2.1 Pembentukan Radikal Hidroksil ........................................... 21

2.2 Reaksi-Reaksi Radikal Hidroksil .......................................... 21

2.3 Radikal Hidroperoksil (HOO*) ............................................. 22

3. Reaksi Asam Basa di Atmosfer .................................................... 23

4. Reaksi Oksigen di Atmosfer ......................................................... 24

5. Reaksi Nitrogen di Atmosfer ........................................................ 33

6. Air di Atmosfer ............................................................................. 38

C. POLUTAN UDARA ......................................................................... 39

1) Jenis-Jenis Polutan di Udara ........................................................ 39

1.1 Partikulat ............................................................................... 39

a. Sifat Fisika dan Kimia Partikulat ...................................... 39

b. Sumber dan Komposisi Partikulat ..................................... 40

c. Proses Kimia Pembentukan Partikulat .............................. 43

d. Dampak Partikulat ............................................................. 44

1.2 Karbon Monoksida ................................................................ 46

a. Sifat Fisika dan Kimia Karbon Monoksida ....................... 46

b. Sumber Karbon Monoksida .............................................. 46

c. Reaksi Karbon Monoksida di Atmosfer ............................ 48

d. Dampak Karbon Monoksida ............................................. 49

1.3 Oksida Belerang .................................................................... 54

a. Sifat Fisika dan Kimia Sulfur Oksida ................................ 55

b. Sumber Sulfur Oksida (SOx) ............................................ 56

c. Pembuatan Sulfur Oksida (SOx) ....................................... 58

(1) Sulfur dioksida (SO2) ................................................. 58

(2) Sulfur trioksida (SO3) ................................................. 59

d. Reaksi SOx di Atmosfer .................................................... 60

e. Dampak Sulfur Oksida ...................................................... 62

1.4 Asam-Asam Okso dari Belerang .......................................... 62

1.5 Oksida Nitrogen .................................................................... 67

a. Sifat Fisika dan Kimia Oksida Nitrogen ........................... 67

(1) Nitrogen Oksida ......................................................... 67

(2) Nitrogen Dioksida ...................................................... 68

b. Sumber NOx di Atmosfer ................................................. 69

c. Reaksi NOx di Atmosfer ................................................... 71

d. Dampak Oksida Nitrogen .................................................. 72

1.6 Hidrokarbon .......................................................................... 73

a. Sifat Fisika dan Kimia ....................................................... 73

b. Sumber Hidrokarbon ......................................................... 74

c. Reaksi Hidrokarbon ........................................................... 75

d. Dampak Polutan Hidrokarbon ........................................... 75

2) Pengendalian Polutan Udara ........................................................ 76

2.1 Pengendalian Polutan Gas ..................................................... 76

1. Pengenceran ...................................................................... 76

2. Kontrol pada sumber pencemar ......................................... 77

2.2 Pengendalian Polutan Partikulat ........................................... 77

1. Settling chamber ................................................................ 77

2. Cyclone .............................................................................. 77

3. Elektrostatik presipitator ................................................... 78

4. Fabric filtration .................................................................. 79

5. Wet Scrubber ..................................................................... 79

BAB III. KIMIA AIR ........................................................................... 81

A. SIFAT FISIKA DAN KIMIA AIR ................................................... 81

B. INTERAKSI KIMIA AIR (PADAT, GAS DAN CAIR) .................. 84

a. Kelarutan padatan ......................................................................... 85

b. Kelarutan gas ................................................................................ 85

C. SUMBER DAN KEGUNAAAN AIR ............................................... 87

D. PENCEMARAN AIR ........................................................................ 89

1. Sumber Polutan Air....................................................................... 89

a. Sumber tertentu (point sources) .............................................. 89

b. Sumber tak tentu (diffuse sources) .......................................... 89

2. Komponen Polutan Air ................................................................. 90

a. Polutan organik ....................................................................... 90

b. Polutan anorganik ................................................................... 91

c. Sedimen ................................................................................... 91

d. Polutan radioaktif .................................................................... 92

e. Polutan termal ......................................................................... 93

E. INDIKATOR KUALITAS AIR ........................................................ 93

1. Derajat Keasaman (pH) ................................................................ 93

2. Kesadahan Air .............................................................................. 94

3. DO (Dissolved Oxygen) ............................................................... 94

4. BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand) .......................................... 96

5. COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) ............................................... 98

6. Zat Padat Total .............................................................................. 99

a. TSS (Total Suspended Solid) ..................................................100

b. TDS (Total Dissolved Solid) ..................................................100

7. Nitrat (NO3-) ..................................................................................101

8. Fosfat (PO43-) ................................................................................102

F. DAMPAK PENCEMARAN AIR ......................................................103

1. Dampak terhadap kehidupan biota air ..........................................103

2. Dampak terhadap kualitas air tanah ..............................................104

3. Dampak terhadap kesehatan .........................................................104

4. Dampak terhadap estetika lingkungan ..........................................105

G. PENANGGULANGAN PENCEMARAN AIR ................................105

BAB IV. KIMIA TANAH ....................................................................109

A. KARAKTERISTIK DAN SIFAT KIMIA TANAH .........................109

1. Karakteristik Tanah ......................................................................109

2. Sifat Kimia Tanah .........................................................................110

a. pH atau Keasaman ...................................................................110

b. Kapasitas Tukar Kation (KTK) ...............................................111

c. Kejenuhan Basa .......................................................................111

B. UNSUR HARA (MAKRONUTRIEN) DI TANAH .........................112

a. Nitrogen ........................................................................................112

b. Fosfor ............................................................................................114

C. PENCEMARAN TANAH .................................................................115

1. Sumber Polutan Tanah ..................................................................115

2. Komponen Polutan Tanah ............................................................117

3. Polutan Logam Berat di Tanah .....................................................118

a. Merkuri ....................................................................................118

b. Arsen .......................................................................................121

4. Polutan Organik di Tanah .............................................................122

a. Pestisida organofosfat .............................................................123

b. Hidrokarbon alisiklik ..............................................................126

5. Dampak Pencemaran tanah ..........................................................127

D. PENANGGULANGAN DAN PENCEGAHAN PENCEMARAN TANAH ............................................................................................129

a. Penanggulangan Pencemaran Tanah ............................................129

b. Pencegahan Pencemaran Tanah ....................................................130

BAB V. AIR ASAM TAMBANG ........................................................133

A. PENDAHULUAN .............................................................................133

B. PEMBENTUKAN AIR ASAM TAMBANG ...................................134

1) Reaksi Pembentukan Air Asam Tambang ...................................136

2) Faktor-Faktor yang Mempengaruhi Pembentukan Air Asam

Tambang .....................................................................................140

C. IDENTIFIKASI POTENSI AIR ASAM TAMBANG ......................141

1) Prediksi Pembentukan Air Asam Tambang .................................141

2) Pengujian Air Asam Tambang .....................................................143

D. DAMPAK AIR ASAM TAMBANG ................................................150

E. PENGELOLAAN AIR ASAM TAMBANG ....................................150

1) Pencegahan (Preventiv) ................................................................151

2) Penanganan (Treatment) ..............................................................158

a) Active Treatment .....................................................................158

b) Passive Tratment ....................................................................159

c) In Situ Treatment ....................................................................160

BAB VI. TEKNIK PENGAMBILAN SAMPEL

LINGKUNGAN ...................................................................161

A. PENDAHULUAN .............................................................................161

B. PERTIMBANGAN UMUM ..............................................................162

1) Lokasi dan titik pengambilan .......................................................162

2) Parameter uji ................................................................................163

3) Ukuran, jumlah, dan volume sampel ............................................164

4) Keseragaman sampel ....................................................................165

5) Jumlah titik pengambilan .............................................................166

6) Waktu pengambilan ......................................................................166

C. PERENCANAAN AWAL ................................................................168

1) Tujuan pengambilan sampel .........................................................169

2) Biaya yang dibutuhkan .................................................................170

3) Administrasi .................................................................................171

4) Petugas pengambil sampel ...........................................................171

5) Bidang uji kualitas lingkungan dan parameter uji ........................171

6) Tipe sampel ..................................................................................174

7) Pengendalian mutu lingkungan ....................................................175

8) Peralatan pengambilan sampel .....................................................176

9) Wadah sampel ..............................................................................177

10) Pengawetan sampel ....................................................................177

11) Batas penyimpanan maksimum ..................................................178

12) Pengamanan sampel di lapangan ................................................178

13) Transportasi sampel ....................................................................179

14) Penyimpanan sampel ..................................................................179

15) Kesehatan dan keselamatan kerja ...............................................179

D. PERSIAPAN PENGAMBILAN .......................................................180

1) Persiapan peralatan pengambilan sampel .....................................180

2) Persiapan peralatan pengukuran di lapangan ...............................180

3) Persiapan peralatan pendukung ....................................................181

4) Persiapan wadah sampel ...............................................................181

5) Persiapan kertas saring .................................................................182

6) Persiapan pengawetan ..................................................................182

7) Persiapan pengendalian mutu lapangan .......................................184

8) Persiapan rekaman lapangan ........................................................184

E. LOKASI DAN TITIK PENGAMBILAN ..........................................185

1) Sampel air limbah .........................................................................185

2) Sampel air permukaan ..................................................................186

3) Sampel air muara dan air laut .......................................................188

4) Sampel air tanah ...........................................................................189

5) Sampel sedimen ............................................................................190

6) Sampel biologi ..............................................................................190

7) Sampel cerobong industri .............................................................191

8) Sampel udara ambien dan roadside ..............................................191

9) Sampel tanah ................................................................................192

F. PENJAMINAN DAN PENGENDALIAN MUTU ............................194

1) Organisasi .....................................................................................195

2) Pelatihan .......................................................................................195

3) Dokumentasi pengambilan sampel lingkungan ............................195

4) Pemeliharaan dan kalibrasi peralatan ...........................................196

5) Pengendalian mutu .......................................................................196

6) Audit pengambil sampel ...............................................................196

7) Penilaian data pengambilan sampel .............................................196

8) Pelaporan hasil pengambilan sampel ...........................................197

DAFTAR PUSTAKA ............................................................................199

INDEKS .................................................................................................203

DAFTAR GAMBAR

Gambar 1.1 Transportasi dan Reaksi Spesies Kimia di Lingkungan ......................................................................... 4

Gambar 1.2 Analisis Sampel Tanah di Lingkungan .............................. 5

Gambar 1.3 Pertukaran spesies kimia lingkungan antara atmosfer, hidrosfer, geosfer, dan biosfer. Kegiatan manusia memiliki pengaruh kuat pada berbagai perencanaan dan proses lingkungan ................................... 7

Gambar 1.4 Kontribusi Aktivitas Manusia terhadap Lingkungan Sekitar, Pemodifikasian Siklus Biogeokimia ....................................................................... 8

Gambar 2.1 Perubahan Vertikal Rata-Rata Suhu Global di Atmosfer ............................................................................. 12

Gambar 2.2 Gambaran Proses Kimia di Atmosfer ................................. 15

Gambar 2.3 (a) Diagram tingkat energi orbital dalam atom atau molekul (b) Diagram transisi elektron ke orbital dengan energi lebih tinggi .................................................. 17

Gambar 2.4 Proses Eksitasi Molekul...................................................... 18

Gambar 2.5 Pertukaran Oksigen antara Atmosfer, Geosfer, Hidrosfer, dan Biosfer ........................................................ 25

Gambar 2.6 Diagram Orbital Molekul O2 pada keadaan dasar .................. 29

Gambar 2.7 Grafik Kelimpahan Nitrogen di Atmosfer .......................... 33

Gambar 2.8 Beberapa Komponen Partikulat Materi Anorganik dan Daerahnya .................................................................... 41

Gambar 2.9 Struktur molekul SO2 .......................................................... 56

Gambar 2.10 Sumber-sumber SO2 .......................................................... 56

Gambar 2.11 Siklus Sulfur di Atmosfer ................................................ 60

Gambar 2.12 Struktur hipervalen untuk H2SO4 ...................................... 65

Gambar 2.13 Skema ikatan pada H2SO4 dimana atom S mematuhi aturan octet......................................................... 65

Gambar 2.14 Reaksi Utama Antara NO, NO2, Dan HNO3 di Atmosfer. Kehadiran ROO. Sebuah Radikal Organik Peroksil, Seperti Radikal Metil Peroksil, CH3OO................................................................................ 72

Gambar 3.1 Model Ikatan Hidrogen Antar Molekul Air........................ 82

Gambar 3.2 Siklus hidrologi .................................................................. 88

Gambar 4.1 Lima Langkah Penting Pergerakan Unsur dari Tanah ke Tanaman..............................................................109

Gambar 4.2 Siklus Nitrogen ...................................................................113

Gambar 4.3 Siklus Fosfor .......................................................................115

Gambar 4.4 Transformasi Biologi dan Kimia Merkuri di Tanah............119

Gambar 4.5 Transformasi Biologi dan Kimia Arsen di Tanah ..............122

Gambar 4.6 Klasifikasi Senyawa Organik Berdasarkan Polaritas dan Muatan Molekul ............................................123

Gambar 4.7 Biodegradasi sikloheksana .................................................127

Gambar 5.1 Tahapan dalam pembentukan air asam tambang ................139

Gambar 5.2 Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi oksidasi sulfida dan perubahan komposisi air penyaliran ............................140

Gambar 5.3 Klasifikasi Geokimia Sampel berdasarkan NAPP dan NAG test ......................................................................147

Gambar 5.4 Humidity Cell Test...............................................................148

Gambar 5.5 Column Leach Test..............................................................149

Gambar 5.6 Air asam tambang pada sungai............................................150

Gambar 5.7 Perbandingan jumlah pilihan dengan biaya penanganan air asam tambang sejalan dengan waktu penambangan............................................................153

Gambar 5.8 Contoh metode encapsulation.............................................154

Gambar 5.9 Flow chat proses pelapisan pada Dry Cover Systems................................................................................155

Gambar 5.10 Beberapa model pelapisan mineral PAF dengan air ........................................................................................157

Gambar 5.11 Proses oksidasi sulfida tailing pada wet sover systems.................................................................................158

Gambar 6.1 Lokasi dan titik pengambilan sampel air limbahIndustri ................................................................................186

Gambar 6.2 Lokasi pengambilan sampel air sungai ..............................187

Gambar 6.3 Lokasi dan titik pengambilan sampel air danau/waduk .................................................................................188

Gambar 6.4 Titik-titik pengambilan sampel tanah secara acakSederhana ...........................................................................193

Gambar 6.5 Titik-titik pengambilan sampel tanah secara acakStratifikasi ..........................................................................194

Gambar 6.6 Titik-titik pengambilan sampel tanah secaraSistematis ............................................................................194

DAFTAR TABEL

Tabel 2.1 Rata-Rata Komposisi Gas di Atmosfer Hingga Ketinggian 25 km .................................................................. 11

Tabel 2.2 Sifat-sifat bentuk allotropik oksigen ...................................... 31

Tabel 2.3 Sumber yang mungkin dari beberapa unsur ........................... 42

Tabel 2.4 Efek keterpaparan gas karbon monoksida yang lain .............. 53

Tabel 2.5 Beberapa sifat SO2 dan SO3 ................................................... 55

Tabel 2.6 Daftar beberapa asam-asam okso dari belerang ..................... 62

Tabel 2.7 Pengaruh Hidrokarbon Aromatik pada Kesehatan Manusia ................................................................................. 76

Tabel 3.1 Konstanta hukum Henry untuk beberapa gas dalam air pada suhu 250C ................................................................. 86

Tabel 4.1 Jenis-Jenis Senyawa Organofosfat ......................................... 124

Tabel 5.1 Mineral Sulfida dalam Pertambangan .................................... 135

Tabel 6.1 Bidang uji kualitas lingkungan dan parameter uji berbagai jenis industri............................................................ 172