Post on 27-Apr-2023
Journal of Teaching and Education,
CD-ROM. ISSN: 2165-6266 :: 2(1):145–156 (2013)
WORK ADJUSTMENT OF PRACTITIONER-TURN-ACADEMICS AT
MALAYSIAN RESEARCH UNIVERSITIES
Rouzil Armiza Shamsir
Institute of Teacher Education Malaysia: Technical Education Campus, Malaysia
Maimunah Ismail
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia
At present the academia is looking at experienced practitioners as the new academics. Some have
experience working in industries while others shifted to the public IHLs for their second career. They
are known as practitioners-turned-academics (PTAs). These newcomers need personal and work
adjustment during the transition years. This article explores the relationship between the individual-
related factors, job-related factors and organizational-related factors, and work adjustment of the PTAs.
The need to study their work adjustment stems from the fact that academia itself is experiencing
changes in terms of vision and mission one of which is becoming a research university. Based on the
Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA), this article reports the findings of the study.
Keywords: Work adjustment, Academics, Newcomers, Research university.
Introduction
Practitioners-turn-academics (PTAs) are academics with experience working in industries or in non
institutions of higher learning (IHLs) and they made the shift to teach in public IHLs for their second
career. Nowadays, the academia is keen in to recruit these experienced practitioners as potential
academics. According to Martin (2004), academics with experience in the industry make the shift to
academia to get the privileges or ownership of the research although it means that they will receive lower
remunerations. This is supported by Zhou and Volkwein (2004) who commented that although the
industry can be more rewarding it does not provide the intrinsic satisfaction. This has made them feel as if
they have not contributed anything to the betterment of the society in terms of knowledge creation. It is
common knowledge that in the industry, a research does not belong to a single individual and is shared by
a group of colleagues. Although some are very skilled and senior in the previous work place in the
industry their work adjustment is not as straightforward as it may seem to be. Hamin, Marcucci and
Wenning (2000) discovered that with limited teaching experience, in the first three years, teaching
continues to consume a great deal of their time. A lot of skills are required as they are a still a greenhorn
in the academia. While battling a great urgency to become a competent, efficient and comfortable
educator in their beginning years, they are also struggling in course preparation, brushing their delivery
skills and administering test and assessment.
145
146 Rouzil Armiza Shamsir and Maimunah Ismail
There are a lot of studies done on the PTAs. For example, Simendinger, Puia, Kraft and Jasperson
(2000) have studied the career transition of practitioners to academics in the United States and discovered
that the success depends on task, social interaction and cultural awareness. LaRocco and Bruns (2006)
have identified the significance of past working experience specifically in the field of education among
PTAs in research universities located in the Northeast, South, and Midwest of the United States. Sohail,
Rajadurai and Rahman (2003) have disclosed the disappointment of new academics’ with their
incapability to handle their job workload namely in teaching and administrative work.
There are also studies on work adjustment within the Malaysian context, however they did not focus
on the academics. For instance, Aida Hafitah and Maimunah (2007) have reported that the cross-cultural
work adjustment among the expatriates in Malaysia is significant and imperative. Other than that,
Lawrence, Aminah, Maimunah and Jamilah (2011) have also conducted a study among public and private
university academics on career advancement.
The discussion in this paper shall continue with the description of the three factors related to work
adjustment of PTAs which are individual-related factors, job-related factors and organizational-related
factors. These factors are derived from The Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA) developed by Dawis and
Lofquist (1984). It is then followed by another section on methodology which shall discuss the sample,
instrument, data analyses, and findings and discussions. The section on conclusion and implications for
Human Resource Development and future research will conclude the chapter.
Work Adjustments and the Related Factors
There are three factors related to work adjustment of PTAs which are individual-related factors, job-
related factors and organizational-related factors. These factors, as indicated earlier are derived from The
Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA) developed by Dawis and Lofquist (1984). Although there are other
work adjustment theories such as the Hershenson’s Theory of Work Adjustment (1981), they do not fit
with the correlates and sample of this study. This is because, it is particularly applicable to the
rehabilitation of people with acquired disabilities. Example of people with acquired disabilities is an
individual who has Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI). Therefore, The Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA) is
chosen as the underlying theory for this study.
In this study, the first factor which is individual-related factor is governed by five dimensions
namely proactive personality, values, personality traits, locus of control and attitude. The second factor
which is job-related factor has three dimensions which are intensity for feedback, rewards and
recognition. The third factor which is organizational-related factor has three dimensions: organizational
socialization, mentoring and self-efficacy.
Individual-Related Factors
There are five dimensions under the individual-related factors: they are proactive personality, values,
personality traits, locus of control and attitude. These dimensions are related to individual's inner beliefs.
1. Proactive Personality
Kim, Tae-Yeol, Hon, and Crant (2009) revealed that newcomers who took an active approach in their
new work role experience smoother adjustment period and more positive personal outcomes. In another
word, they experienced greater task mastery, role clarity and social integration. Proactive personality is
positively associated with employees' creativity level. This refers largely to their ability to create valuable
new products, services, procedures, processes as well as ideas. They act in line with the goal of achieving
their targets. Newcomers with proactive personality can adapt and understand their new environment
expectations quickly, resulting in the development of perceived feelings as insiders in their own
organization.
Work Adjustment of Practitioner-Turn-Academics at Malaysian Research Universities 147
Crant (2000) stated that nowadays careers have developed into more decentralized, and thus
proactive behavior and individual’s initiative have become even more critical determinants of
organizational success. Proactive behavior can also be a high-leverage concept and can result in increased
organizational effectiveness. Proactive behavior at work has received considerable scholarly research
attention over the decades. Greguras and Diefendorff (2010) indicated that proactive personality relates to
favorable individual and organizational outcomes which include performance, career success and
promotions. Proactive personality also refers to as an individual’s dispositional tendency to initiate
change in a variety of situation.
2. Values
Values is the enduring perspectives that individuals hold throughout different stages in their lifetime and
it is reflected by how strongly a person cares about the work place and their preferences toward their work
security and level of salary van Quaquebeke, Zenker and Eckloff (2009). According to Brawer (1971) and
Saunders (2001), by knowing a person’s individual value system, we will know a considerable amount of
related information about and individual and his work performance because values can be associated to a
person's desire to be something. Values are also seen as the concept they hold in life.
3. Personality Traits
According to Beaumont (2009) personality traits are intrinsic differences that remain stable throughout
most of our life. They are the constant aspects of our individuality. Ghiselli (1963) reported several
personality traits associated with leader effectiveness. Through his research the found that the ability to
initiate action independently was related to the respondent’s level in the organization. The higher the
person went within the organization, the more important this trait became.
4. Locus of Control
Forte (2005) defines locus of control as causes to which individuals attribute their successes and failures.
Research has indicated that an individual's internal or external locus of control impacts their behavior in
an organization. Research also has shown that when people perceive the locus of control to reside within
themselves, they will be more creative and productive and at the same time believe that their unique
potential is being utilized. Consequently, this will lead to a greater achievement. Knight and Trowler
(1999) reported that newcomers with internal locus of control are more contented due to their strong sense
of personal control. On the other hand, those with external locus of control will find themselves weak and
discontented.
5. Attitudes
Study.com defines attitudes as an affective feeling of liking or disliking toward an object that has an
influence on behavior. It is not a feeling or a form of behavior. An employee’s attitude may affect his or
her performance at the work place and the relationship with the management. Negative attitude may affect
job productivity in a negative way. If the workers attitude is a negative one so is their ability to produce
positive results. A negative attitude can be destructive and hinder growth and development. A positive
attitude is a philosophy of approaching life with optimism and confidence. Developing a positive attitude
requires replacing negative thinking with positive ones in an effort to create a successful outlook on life
and experiences. No literature evidence?
Based on the above arguments, we predict:
H1: Individual-related factors (proactive personality, values, personality traits, locus of control and
attitude) have significant relationships with work adjustment of PTAs.
148 Rouzil Armiza Shamsir and Maimunah Ismail
Job-Related Factors
There are three dimensions chosen to be under the job-related factors which are intensity for feedback,
rewards and recognition. These dimensions are related to the work of the PTAs particularly during their
first few years of appointment.
1. Intensity for Feedback
Intensity for feedback relates to the questioning of an individual's performance as a newcomer. The time
line is being grounded in this pattern varied for individuals. Most will demonstrate it during their first
year of teaching; however, it was also common to see second-year educators fully grounded in this pattern
(Anderson, 2009). Research has shown that under conditions of uncertainty, employees actively seek out
feedback on their performance rather than waiting for others to provide this information. This is a very
valuable trait for a newcomer as it helps them to evaluate their capabilities, understand the demands of
their environment, and adjust their performance strategies according to the organizational needs
(Morrison, Chen & Salgado, 2004).
2. Rewards
Hessler and Ritchie (2006) disclose that rewards do not always have to take a monetary form. It can come
in other forms such as compliments on achievements, attendance at yearly conferences, increased
responsibilities, improvements in technical or presentation equipment, and nominations for awards. The
success of students and achievement of academics’ own goals add to the satisfaction of the faculty
members. In a research done by Hassink and Koning (2009) at a Dutch firm, the findings showed that
monthly lottery system will be rewarded to workers who had taken no sick leave in the previous three
months. This shows the effectiveness of a lottery-based bonus reward system in reducing employee
absenteeism.
3. Recognition
Recognition is so easy to do and inexpensive that there is no reason for not doing it. Stajkovic and
Luthans (1997) reported that recognition had a big impact on employees performance. a few years later
in 1999, a research done by Luthans and Stajkovic, reported that there is an increase of 15% of
performance among workers. Furthermore, when it is combined with other form of feedback, the
improvement on performance increased to 41%. Clearly, recognition can help to increase an employee’s
performance and it is economical for an organization to carry out.
Based on the above reviews, we therefore predict:
H2: Job-related factors (intensity for feedback, rewards and recognition) have significant
relationships with career adjustment of PTAs.
Organizational-Related Factors
There are also three dimensions chosen under the organizational-related factors namely, organizational
socialization, mentoring and self-efficacy. These dimensions are related to the style of interaction at the
new work place of the PTAs.
Work Adjustment of Practitioner-Turn-Academics at Malaysian Research Universities 149
1. Organizational Socialization
Miller (2006) defines organizational socialization as a process where an individual is taught and at the
same time learns a specific knowledge and skills of certain organizational rule in a particular work
setting. The process of organizational socialization is indeed very broad and could appear in a variety of
forms while at the same time achieved through a variety of tactics. This is a never ending process and has
a vast impact on the new experiences of the newcomers. Thus, the socialization process of PTAs can be
an apt sample whereby it will influence them at work.
Bauer, Bodner, Erdogan, Truxillo and Tucker (2007) define organizational socialization as the
process by which newcomers make the transition from being organizational outsiders to being insiders. It
is crucial to adapt themselves and make socialization as quickly as possible as it may be the indicator of
newcomers’ satisfaction which may lead to their longevity in the organization. They further elaborate that
newcomers who are given formal socialization will be more interested and become more committed to the
organization.
2. Mentoring
Mentoring can be defined generally as relationships between junior and senior colleagues, or between
peers, that provide a variety of developmental functions (Kram, 1985). Megginson and Clutterbuck
(1995) defined mentoring as an off-line help by one person to another in making significant transition in
knowledge, work or thinking. They proposed that a mentor is usually more senior or experienced but in
cases of peer mentoring, the successful rate proved to be very high. They furthermore noted that apart
from being someone who is helping another person, a mentor should also play the role of helping the
other person grasp a wider significance of whatever is happening in their new work place. Based on a vast
amount of articles found on mentoring from the 1980s up to the early 2000, Kirchmeyer (2005) labeled it
as being a highly developed field. This not only shows that it is popular but also an attractive feature for
employees.
Other research studies for new academics reported that, like older ones, learning occurs “throughout
the job” rather than “on the job” and supplemented by technical books and attendance at short seminar or
presentations on specified topics (Knight, 2002). Hunt and Weintraub (2002) reported that individuals
who have been the recipients of effective mentoring felt satisfied and this often leads to better
performance. Not only did these people feel that they became more skillful but they also became more
confident, more certain of their direction and able to understand the perspectives of others.
3. Self Efficacy
According to Bandura (1997), self-efficacy is defined as “beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and
execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments”. He furthermore argued that an
extremely low level of self-efficacy could be a stressor which can harm an individual’s motivation to
develop skills. He further suggested that although extremely low self-efficacy could hurt the learners’
motivation to learn and develop skills, having moderately low self-efficacy is beneficial during
preparatory situations. For Lent et al. (2008), self-efficacy is defined as an estimate of one’s ability to
successfully perform tasks in a particular domain, whereas outcome expectations refer to positive or
negative career-related experiences anticipated to occur in the future in that domain. For Ford, Quinones,
Sego & Sorra (1992) , in general, employees with higher level of self-efficacy usually are able to achieve
a greater degree of training transfer. Trainees with high self-efficacy are more likely to attempt more
difficult and complex task on the job. Due to their very nature, the impact of organizational variables on
staff particularly new academics is significant and pervasive, we therefore propose:
150 Rouzil Armiza Shamsir and Maimunah Ismail
H3. Organizational-related factors (organizational socialization, mentoring and self-efficacy) have
significant relationships with work adjustment of PTAs.
Conceptual Framework
The Theory of Work Adjustments (TWA) developed by Dawis and Lofquist (1984) is used as a basis to
develop this study framework by showing the relationships between three selected independent variables
that contributed toward work adjustment of practitioners-turn-academics.
There are two indicators of work adjustment as proposed in this framework, namely, job satisfaction
and job performance. This means that if a newcomer is well-adjusted to the job demands he or she will be
satisfied in the job, better-off in terms of performance and would stay longer to serve the institutions and
may not suffer with unfavorable work outcomes such as stress, feeling temporary setback, and hinders
team performance. Myers (1980) defined satisfaction as the willingness to remain in the organization
despite a variety of inducement to leave. Her study shows that job dissatisfaction leads to less
productivity and lack of cooperation toward the organizational goal. On the other hand, Christen, Iyer and
Soberman (2006) defined job performance as a construct that includes effort, skills and also outcomes of
an individual which is seen as important to an organization.
INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
DEPENDENT VARIABLE
Figure 1. Conceptual Framework showing Relationship of Factors with Work Adjustment of PTAs.
Methodology
Sample
The sample population in this study consisted of PTAs working in five research universities located in the
Klang Valley. Profiles of the PTAs were obtained from the Registrar of the respective universities.
Sampling strategy combined both purposeful and convenience sampling. Out of 178 PTAs who took part in
JOB-RELATED FACTORS
Intensity for feedback
Rewards
Recognition
ORGANIZATIONAL-RELATED
FACTORS
Organizational socialization
Mentoring
Self-Efficacy
INDIVIDUAL-RELATED FACTORS
Proactive Personality
Values
Personality Traits
Locus of Control
Attitude
WORK ADJUSTMENTS
Job Satisfaction
Job Performance
Work Adjustment of Practitioner-Turn-Academics at Malaysian Research Universities 151
this study, 88 are males and 90 are females. A large majority of the respondents (79.8%) are married. A
majority of 97.3% hold a PhD degree while another 2.8% hold a professional qualification. A three quarter
(71.3%) are Malay, 13.5% Chinese, 9% Indian and 6.2% are foreigners. Most of the respondents are senior
lecturers and lecturers with only 11% hold the rank of an Associate Professor. A majority of 76.9% have an
average working hours of 10 hours per day while the remaining 23.1% works for more than ten hours per
day. Their average teaching hours per week also varies numerously as only 6.7% has more than five
teaching hours while a vast majority of 93.3% teach for about five hours per week. Other than that, it is
interesting to observe that 7.3% of the PTAs never bring office work to their home. However, a majority of
them reported that they sometime or always bring their work home at 44.4% and 48.3% respectively.
Finally, 83.1% of the PTAs have a past working experience of between one to four years while the
remaining 16.9% reported of having more than five years of experience in the industry. The profile of the
respondents is presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Background variables of respondents (n = 178).
Frequency Percent
Gender
Male 88 49.4
Female 90 50.6
Married 142 79.8
Race
Malay 127 71.3
Chinese 24 13.5
Indian 16 9
Others 11 6.2
Rank
Associate Professor 2 11
Senior Lecturer 172 96.6
Lecturer 4 22
Education background
PhD 173 97.3
Others 5 2.8
Average working hours
Less than 10 hours 137 76.9
More than 10 hours 41 23.1
Average teaching hours
Less than 5 hours 166 93.3
More than 5 hours 12 6.7
Office work on weekends
Never 13 7.3
Sometimes 79 44.4
Always 86 48.3
Past working experience
Between 1 to 4 years 148 83.1
More than 5 years 30 16.9
Instrument
This study used questionnaires as its tool in data collection as it is most relevant in a survey (Babbie,
2005). Other than that, it is the most common method used due to its ability to cover a wider scope and
152 Rouzil Armiza Shamsir and Maimunah Ismail
areas of population. Salkind (2003) revealed that it is cheaper to use a self-administered questionnaire as
opposed to using a face-to-face interview. This is particularly true if the survey is done in a broad
geographical area.
The questionnaire was designed to gather data to examine the relationships between the selected
independent variables and work adjustment. In this study, job performance and job satisfaction are the
indicators or components of work adjustment. The questionnaire contained 117 items and distributed to
420 PTAs in five research universities in the Klang Valley. As the PTAs come from various faculties,
questionnaires were delivered personally to the academics and telephone calls made to remind the
respondents. Although most responses were received through mail and personal contacts there were also
responses received through emails. Participation was voluntary and not compensated. To assure
confidentiality, code numbers were assigned to each participant and written on the return envelope. This
is done to the knowledge of the respondents. Response rate calculated against the original sample were
42.3%, yielding a final sample of 178 PTAs.
Data Analysis
Several data analysis techniques were used in this study in accordance with the three hypotheses
formulated earlier. Other than Chronbach’s alpha for the reliability test, descriptive statistics were used to
provide the basic information about the variables and Pearson correlation to look at the correlations
between the variables. A statistical program IBM SPSS Version 19 was used in the statistical analyses.
Findings and Discussion
A Chronbach alpha test was utilized to determine the reliability of the questionnaires used in the study.
Cronbach’s " indicates the extent of internal consistency for a set of items were at 0.70 or higher can
satisfy a conservative minimum level of reliability (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1998). The "
values of the subscales of the instrument ranged from .703 to .883 as shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Instrument Reliability (n = 178).
Variable Number of items Cronbach Alpha ( )
Proactive Personality 10 .740
Values 9 .703
Personality Traits 15 .848
Locus of Control 7 .752
Attitude 12 .835
Intensity for Feedback 4 .751
Rewards 10 .809
Recognition 4 .755
Org Socialization 12 .755
Mentoring 12 .883
Self Efficacy 8 .784
Job Satisfaction 10 .748
Job Performance 5 .784
To examine if there is a relationship between work adjustment of PTAs and the individual-related
factor, job-related factor and organizational-related factor a correlation analysis was utilized. As been
depicted from Table 3, it is observed that attitude (r = .528, p < .01) , rewards (r = .594, p < .01),
Work Adjustment of Practitioner-Turn-Academics at Malaysian Research Universities 153
proactive personality (r = .608, p < .01) and organizatinal socialization ( r = .636, p < .01) were
moderately correlated with Job Satisfaction. However, intensity for feedback ( r = .390, p < .01) has a
weak correlation with Job Satisfaction.
The table also reveals that intensity for feedback ( r = .284, p < .01), personality traits ( r = .399, p <
.01), and self efficacy ( r = .218, p < .01) have weak correlations with Job Performance. Interestingly,
rewards ( r = .402, p < .01), organizational socialization ( r = .452, p < .01), locus of control ( r = .465, p <
.01), mentoring ( r = .538, p < .01) and attitude ( r = .580, p < .01), were moderately correlated with Job
Performance.
Table 3. Descriptive statistics and correlation coefficients of the variables.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Variable (r) (r) (r) (r) (r) (r) (r) (r) (r) (r) (r) (r) (r)
1 Proactive personality
2 Values .160*
3 Personality traits .662** .301**
4 Locus of control .516* .156* .514**
5 Attitude .704** .170* .729** .495**
6 Intensity for feedback .429** .303** .515** .415** .478**
7 Rewards .539** .137* .382** .433** .515** .416**
8 Recognition .001 .120 -.025 -.054 -.058 .038 .108
9 Organizational
socialization .623** .168* .675** .492** .642** .399** .522** .003
10 Mentoring .508** .022 .416* .727** .510 .429* .393** -.046 .534**
11 Self-efficacy .325** -.024 .350** .275** .322** .265** .145* .030 .263** .295**
12 Job-satisfaction .608** .166* .501* .547 .528** .390** .594** .019 .636** .637* .162*
13 Job-performance .454* .087 .399** .465** .580** .284** .402** .114 .452** .538** .218** .361**
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed).
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (1-tailed).
Conclusion, Implications for Human Resource Development and Future Research
Human resource development is one of the important components in order for our nation to achieve vision
2020. Investment in education and training in its various forms to human resources or employees will
produce a competent workforce and better productivity in the long run. Human resources are one of the
most valuable assets for an organization and a nation to stimulate its economic growth. Without human
resources, a nation will not prosper and in the long run becomes weaker. At present, there is not enough
literature and little attention is given to work adjustment and its impact on career growth of employees
particularly the PTAs.
In this study, work adjustment is measured through job satisfaction and job performance. This is in
line with the key principle of work adjustment theory where satisfactory adjustment requires a
correspondence between a worker's performance and job satisfaction. Two variables from job-related
factor and organizational-related factor showed significant relationships toward work adjustment.
As a conclusion, there is a relationship between attitudes , rewards, proactive personality and
organizational socialization with Job Satisfaction. However, intensity for feedback has a weak
relationship with Job Satisfaction. All the variables under the Organizational-related factors such as
organizational socialization, mentoring and self efficacy were correlated with job performance.
154 Rouzil Armiza Shamsir and Maimunah Ismail
Next, intensity for feedback , personality traits , and self efficacy have weak correlations with Job
Performance. Notably, rewards , organizational socialization , locus of control, mentoring and attitude ,
have a moderate relationship with Job Performance. Correlates that were not correlated with job
performance are proactive personality, values, recognition. Meanwhile, correlates that were not correlated
with job satisfaction are values, personality traits, locus of control, recognition, mentoring and self
efficacy. This shows that the variables in this study have predictive potential in the work adjustment of
the PTAs.
This study is essential to all the Malaysian research universities. Firstly, human capital is a valuable
plus point to the academia as will help to lift them to a more prominence stature. This is especially
significant in order to enhance the quality of tertiary education as to achieve the standard of global
competitiveness. Secondly, university administrators will be beneficial with the outcome of this study as
it provides them with the information of variable which have predictive potential to the work adjustment
of PTAs. Finally, universities should be more aware of their academics’ family situations such as their
marital status and number of children. Other than that, it is also important to look at their past working
experience especially in terms of years that they spent in the industry. It is hoped that the data gained
from this study will be helpful to enhance the job performance and job satisfaction of the PTAs as these
two variables signify their work adjustment.
This study has certain limitations that provide venues for future research. First, individual-related
factors, job-related factors and organizational-related factors are not the only criteria for work adjustment
of the PTAs. Other criteria such as field of study, effort, compensation and Multiple Intelligence could
also be included. Next, future research should include assessment from multiple sources including
spouses, peers, subordinates, and superiors. Other than that, future research should also consider
longitudinal study. It should be noted that due to the small number of respondents, it is still premature to
arrive at a conclusive statement on the relationships between the independent variables and the work
adjustment. But therein indication of the potential relationships between the chosen variables as the study
continues to increase the number of respondents. Had it done on a bigger population it will produce a
different set of results. Finally, since this study uses the perceptual measures, conducting a future study
may provide different insights on the phenomenon studied.
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