Journal of Teaching and Education,

CD-ROM. ISSN: 2165-6266 :: 2(1):145–156 (2013)

WORK ADJUSTMENT OF PRACTITIONER-TURN-ACADEMICS AT

MALAYSIAN RESEARCH UNIVERSITIES

Rouzil Armiza Shamsir

Institute of Teacher Education Malaysia: Technical Education Campus, Malaysia

Maimunah Ismail

Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

At present the academia is looking at experienced practitioners as the new academics. Some have

experience working in industries while others shifted to the public IHLs for their second career. They

are known as practitioners-turned-academics (PTAs). These newcomers need personal and work

adjustment during the transition years. This article explores the relationship between the individual-

related factors, job-related factors and organizational-related factors, and work adjustment of the PTAs.

The need to study their work adjustment stems from the fact that academia itself is experiencing

changes in terms of vision and mission one of which is becoming a research university. Based on the

Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA), this article reports the findings of the study.

Keywords: Work adjustment, Academics, Newcomers, Research university.

Introduction

Practitioners-turn-academics (PTAs) are academics with experience working in industries or in non

institutions of higher learning (IHLs) and they made the shift to teach in public IHLs for their second

career. Nowadays, the academia is keen in to recruit these experienced practitioners as potential

academics. According to Martin (2004), academics with experience in the industry make the shift to

academia to get the privileges or ownership of the research although it means that they will receive lower

remunerations. This is supported by Zhou and Volkwein (2004) who commented that although the

industry can be more rewarding it does not provide the intrinsic satisfaction. This has made them feel as if

they have not contributed anything to the betterment of the society in terms of knowledge creation. It is

common knowledge that in the industry, a research does not belong to a single individual and is shared by

a group of colleagues. Although some are very skilled and senior in the previous work place in the

industry their work adjustment is not as straightforward as it may seem to be. Hamin, Marcucci and

Wenning (2000) discovered that with limited teaching experience, in the first three years, teaching

continues to consume a great deal of their time. A lot of skills are required as they are a still a greenhorn

in the academia. While battling a great urgency to become a competent, efficient and comfortable

educator in their beginning years, they are also struggling in course preparation, brushing their delivery

skills and administering test and assessment.

145

146 Rouzil Armiza Shamsir and Maimunah Ismail

There are a lot of studies done on the PTAs. For example, Simendinger, Puia, Kraft and Jasperson

(2000) have studied the career transition of practitioners to academics in the United States and discovered

that the success depends on task, social interaction and cultural awareness. LaRocco and Bruns (2006)

have identified the significance of past working experience specifically in the field of education among

PTAs in research universities located in the Northeast, South, and Midwest of the United States. Sohail,

Rajadurai and Rahman (2003) have disclosed the disappointment of new academics’ with their

incapability to handle their job workload namely in teaching and administrative work.

There are also studies on work adjustment within the Malaysian context, however they did not focus

on the academics. For instance, Aida Hafitah and Maimunah (2007) have reported that the cross-cultural

work adjustment among the expatriates in Malaysia is significant and imperative. Other than that,

Lawrence, Aminah, Maimunah and Jamilah (2011) have also conducted a study among public and private

university academics on career advancement.

The discussion in this paper shall continue with the description of the three factors related to work

adjustment of PTAs which are individual-related factors, job-related factors and organizational-related

factors. These factors are derived from The Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA) developed by Dawis and

Lofquist (1984). It is then followed by another section on methodology which shall discuss the sample,

instrument, data analyses, and findings and discussions. The section on conclusion and implications for

Human Resource Development and future research will conclude the chapter.

Work Adjustments and the Related Factors

There are three factors related to work adjustment of PTAs which are individual-related factors, job-

related factors and organizational-related factors. These factors, as indicated earlier are derived from The

Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA) developed by Dawis and Lofquist (1984). Although there are other

work adjustment theories such as the Hershenson’s Theory of Work Adjustment (1981), they do not fit

with the correlates and sample of this study. This is because, it is particularly applicable to the

rehabilitation of people with acquired disabilities. Example of people with acquired disabilities is an

individual who has Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI). Therefore, The Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA) is

chosen as the underlying theory for this study.

In this study, the first factor which is individual-related factor is governed by five dimensions

namely proactive personality, values, personality traits, locus of control and attitude. The second factor

which is job-related factor has three dimensions which are intensity for feedback, rewards and

recognition. The third factor which is organizational-related factor has three dimensions: organizational

socialization, mentoring and self-efficacy.

Individual-Related Factors

There are five dimensions under the individual-related factors: they are proactive personality, values,

personality traits, locus of control and attitude. These dimensions are related to individual's inner beliefs.

1. Proactive Personality

Kim, Tae-Yeol, Hon, and Crant (2009) revealed that newcomers who took an active approach in their

new work role experience smoother adjustment period and more positive personal outcomes. In another

word, they experienced greater task mastery, role clarity and social integration. Proactive personality is

positively associated with employees' creativity level. This refers largely to their ability to create valuable

new products, services, procedures, processes as well as ideas. They act in line with the goal of achieving

their targets. Newcomers with proactive personality can adapt and understand their new environment

expectations quickly, resulting in the development of perceived feelings as insiders in their own

organization.

Work Adjustment of Practitioner-Turn-Academics at Malaysian Research Universities 147

Crant (2000) stated that nowadays careers have developed into more decentralized, and thus

proactive behavior and individual’s initiative have become even more critical determinants of

organizational success. Proactive behavior can also be a high-leverage concept and can result in increased

organizational effectiveness. Proactive behavior at work has received considerable scholarly research

attention over the decades. Greguras and Diefendorff (2010) indicated that proactive personality relates to

favorable individual and organizational outcomes which include performance, career success and

promotions. Proactive personality also refers to as an individual’s dispositional tendency to initiate

change in a variety of situation.

2. Values

Values is the enduring perspectives that individuals hold throughout different stages in their lifetime and

it is reflected by how strongly a person cares about the work place and their preferences toward their work

security and level of salary van Quaquebeke, Zenker and Eckloff (2009). According to Brawer (1971) and

Saunders (2001), by knowing a person’s individual value system, we will know a considerable amount of

related information about and individual and his work performance because values can be associated to a

person's desire to be something. Values are also seen as the concept they hold in life.

3. Personality Traits

According to Beaumont (2009) personality traits are intrinsic differences that remain stable throughout

most of our life. They are the constant aspects of our individuality. Ghiselli (1963) reported several

personality traits associated with leader effectiveness. Through his research the found that the ability to

initiate action independently was related to the respondent’s level in the organization. The higher the

person went within the organization, the more important this trait became.

4. Locus of Control

Forte (2005) defines locus of control as causes to which individuals attribute their successes and failures.

Research has indicated that an individual's internal or external locus of control impacts their behavior in

an organization. Research also has shown that when people perceive the locus of control to reside within

themselves, they will be more creative and productive and at the same time believe that their unique

potential is being utilized. Consequently, this will lead to a greater achievement. Knight and Trowler

(1999) reported that newcomers with internal locus of control are more contented due to their strong sense

of personal control. On the other hand, those with external locus of control will find themselves weak and

discontented.

5. Attitudes

Study.com defines attitudes as an affective feeling of liking or disliking toward an object that has an

influence on behavior. It is not a feeling or a form of behavior. An employee’s attitude may affect his or

her performance at the work place and the relationship with the management. Negative attitude may affect

job productivity in a negative way. If the workers attitude is a negative one so is their ability to produce

positive results. A negative attitude can be destructive and hinder growth and development. A positive

attitude is a philosophy of approaching life with optimism and confidence. Developing a positive attitude

requires replacing negative thinking with positive ones in an effort to create a successful outlook on life

and experiences. No literature evidence?

Based on the above arguments, we predict:

H1: Individual-related factors (proactive personality, values, personality traits, locus of control and

attitude) have significant relationships with work adjustment of PTAs.

148 Rouzil Armiza Shamsir and Maimunah Ismail

Job-Related Factors

There are three dimensions chosen to be under the job-related factors which are intensity for feedback,

rewards and recognition. These dimensions are related to the work of the PTAs particularly during their

first few years of appointment.

1. Intensity for Feedback

Intensity for feedback relates to the questioning of an individual's performance as a newcomer. The time

line is being grounded in this pattern varied for individuals. Most will demonstrate it during their first

year of teaching; however, it was also common to see second-year educators fully grounded in this pattern

(Anderson, 2009). Research has shown that under conditions of uncertainty, employees actively seek out

feedback on their performance rather than waiting for others to provide this information. This is a very

valuable trait for a newcomer as it helps them to evaluate their capabilities, understand the demands of

their environment, and adjust their performance strategies according to the organizational needs

(Morrison, Chen & Salgado, 2004).

2. Rewards

Hessler and Ritchie (2006) disclose that rewards do not always have to take a monetary form. It can come

in other forms such as compliments on achievements, attendance at yearly conferences, increased

responsibilities, improvements in technical or presentation equipment, and nominations for awards. The

success of students and achievement of academics’ own goals add to the satisfaction of the faculty

members. In a research done by Hassink and Koning (2009) at a Dutch firm, the findings showed that

monthly lottery system will be rewarded to workers who had taken no sick leave in the previous three

months. This shows the effectiveness of a lottery-based bonus reward system in reducing employee

absenteeism.

3. Recognition

Recognition is so easy to do and inexpensive that there is no reason for not doing it. Stajkovic and

Luthans (1997) reported that recognition had a big impact on employees performance. a few years later

in 1999, a research done by Luthans and Stajkovic, reported that there is an increase of 15% of

performance among workers. Furthermore, when it is combined with other form of feedback, the

improvement on performance increased to 41%. Clearly, recognition can help to increase an employee’s

performance and it is economical for an organization to carry out.

Based on the above reviews, we therefore predict:

H2: Job-related factors (intensity for feedback, rewards and recognition) have significant

relationships with career adjustment of PTAs.

Organizational-Related Factors

There are also three dimensions chosen under the organizational-related factors namely, organizational

socialization, mentoring and self-efficacy. These dimensions are related to the style of interaction at the

new work place of the PTAs.

Work Adjustment of Practitioner-Turn-Academics at Malaysian Research Universities 149

1. Organizational Socialization

Miller (2006) defines organizational socialization as a process where an individual is taught and at the

same time learns a specific knowledge and skills of certain organizational rule in a particular work

setting. The process of organizational socialization is indeed very broad and could appear in a variety of

forms while at the same time achieved through a variety of tactics. This is a never ending process and has

a vast impact on the new experiences of the newcomers. Thus, the socialization process of PTAs can be

an apt sample whereby it will influence them at work.

Bauer, Bodner, Erdogan, Truxillo and Tucker (2007) define organizational socialization as the

process by which newcomers make the transition from being organizational outsiders to being insiders. It

is crucial to adapt themselves and make socialization as quickly as possible as it may be the indicator of

newcomers’ satisfaction which may lead to their longevity in the organization. They further elaborate that

newcomers who are given formal socialization will be more interested and become more committed to the

organization.

2. Mentoring

Mentoring can be defined generally as relationships between junior and senior colleagues, or between

peers, that provide a variety of developmental functions (Kram, 1985). Megginson and Clutterbuck

(1995) defined mentoring as an off-line help by one person to another in making significant transition in

knowledge, work or thinking. They proposed that a mentor is usually more senior or experienced but in

cases of peer mentoring, the successful rate proved to be very high. They furthermore noted that apart

from being someone who is helping another person, a mentor should also play the role of helping the

other person grasp a wider significance of whatever is happening in their new work place. Based on a vast

amount of articles found on mentoring from the 1980s up to the early 2000, Kirchmeyer (2005) labeled it

as being a highly developed field. This not only shows that it is popular but also an attractive feature for

employees.

Other research studies for new academics reported that, like older ones, learning occurs “throughout

the job” rather than “on the job” and supplemented by technical books and attendance at short seminar or

presentations on specified topics (Knight, 2002). Hunt and Weintraub (2002) reported that individuals

who have been the recipients of effective mentoring felt satisfied and this often leads to better

performance. Not only did these people feel that they became more skillful but they also became more

confident, more certain of their direction and able to understand the perspectives of others.

3. Self Efficacy

According to Bandura (1997), self-efficacy is defined as “beliefs in one’s capabilities to organize and

execute the courses of action required to produce given attainments”. He furthermore argued that an

extremely low level of self-efficacy could be a stressor which can harm an individual’s motivation to

develop skills. He further suggested that although extremely low self-efficacy could hurt the learners’

motivation to learn and develop skills, having moderately low self-efficacy is beneficial during

preparatory situations. For Lent et al. (2008), self-efficacy is defined as an estimate of one’s ability to

successfully perform tasks in a particular domain, whereas outcome expectations refer to positive or

negative career-related experiences anticipated to occur in the future in that domain. For Ford, Quinones,

Sego & Sorra (1992) , in general, employees with higher level of self-efficacy usually are able to achieve

a greater degree of training transfer. Trainees with high self-efficacy are more likely to attempt more

difficult and complex task on the job. Due to their very nature, the impact of organizational variables on

staff particularly new academics is significant and pervasive, we therefore propose:

150 Rouzil Armiza Shamsir and Maimunah Ismail

H3. Organizational-related factors (organizational socialization, mentoring and self-efficacy) have

significant relationships with work adjustment of PTAs.

Conceptual Framework

The Theory of Work Adjustments (TWA) developed by Dawis and Lofquist (1984) is used as a basis to

develop this study framework by showing the relationships between three selected independent variables

that contributed toward work adjustment of practitioners-turn-academics.

There are two indicators of work adjustment as proposed in this framework, namely, job satisfaction

and job performance. This means that if a newcomer is well-adjusted to the job demands he or she will be

satisfied in the job, better-off in terms of performance and would stay longer to serve the institutions and

may not suffer with unfavorable work outcomes such as stress, feeling temporary setback, and hinders

team performance. Myers (1980) defined satisfaction as the willingness to remain in the organization

despite a variety of inducement to leave. Her study shows that job dissatisfaction leads to less

productivity and lack of cooperation toward the organizational goal. On the other hand, Christen, Iyer and

Soberman (2006) defined job performance as a construct that includes effort, skills and also outcomes of

an individual which is seen as important to an organization.

INDEPENDENT VARIABLES

DEPENDENT VARIABLE

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework showing Relationship of Factors with Work Adjustment of PTAs.

Methodology

Sample

The sample population in this study consisted of PTAs working in five research universities located in the

Klang Valley. Profiles of the PTAs were obtained from the Registrar of the respective universities.

Sampling strategy combined both purposeful and convenience sampling. Out of 178 PTAs who took part in

JOB-RELATED FACTORS

Intensity for feedback

Rewards

Recognition

ORGANIZATIONAL-RELATED

FACTORS

Organizational socialization

Mentoring

Self-Efficacy

INDIVIDUAL-RELATED FACTORS

Proactive Personality

Values

Personality Traits

Locus of Control

Attitude

WORK ADJUSTMENTS

Job Satisfaction

Job Performance

Work Adjustment of Practitioner-Turn-Academics at Malaysian Research Universities 151

this study, 88 are males and 90 are females. A large majority of the respondents (79.8%) are married. A

majority of 97.3% hold a PhD degree while another 2.8% hold a professional qualification. A three quarter

(71.3%) are Malay, 13.5% Chinese, 9% Indian and 6.2% are foreigners. Most of the respondents are senior

lecturers and lecturers with only 11% hold the rank of an Associate Professor. A majority of 76.9% have an

average working hours of 10 hours per day while the remaining 23.1% works for more than ten hours per

day. Their average teaching hours per week also varies numerously as only 6.7% has more than five

teaching hours while a vast majority of 93.3% teach for about five hours per week. Other than that, it is

interesting to observe that 7.3% of the PTAs never bring office work to their home. However, a majority of

them reported that they sometime or always bring their work home at 44.4% and 48.3% respectively.

Finally, 83.1% of the PTAs have a past working experience of between one to four years while the

remaining 16.9% reported of having more than five years of experience in the industry. The profile of the

respondents is presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Background variables of respondents (n = 178).

Frequency Percent

Gender

Male 88 49.4

Female 90 50.6

Married 142 79.8

Race

Malay 127 71.3

Chinese 24 13.5

Indian 16 9

Others 11 6.2

Rank

Associate Professor 2 11

Senior Lecturer 172 96.6

Lecturer 4 22

Education background

PhD 173 97.3

Others 5 2.8

Average working hours

Less than 10 hours 137 76.9

More than 10 hours 41 23.1

Average teaching hours

Less than 5 hours 166 93.3

More than 5 hours 12 6.7

Office work on weekends

Never 13 7.3

Sometimes 79 44.4

Always 86 48.3

Past working experience

Between 1 to 4 years 148 83.1

More than 5 years 30 16.9

Instrument

This study used questionnaires as its tool in data collection as it is most relevant in a survey (Babbie,

2005). Other than that, it is the most common method used due to its ability to cover a wider scope and

152 Rouzil Armiza Shamsir and Maimunah Ismail

areas of population. Salkind (2003) revealed that it is cheaper to use a self-administered questionnaire as

opposed to using a face-to-face interview. This is particularly true if the survey is done in a broad

geographical area.

The questionnaire was designed to gather data to examine the relationships between the selected

independent variables and work adjustment. In this study, job performance and job satisfaction are the

indicators or components of work adjustment. The questionnaire contained 117 items and distributed to

420 PTAs in five research universities in the Klang Valley. As the PTAs come from various faculties,

questionnaires were delivered personally to the academics and telephone calls made to remind the

respondents. Although most responses were received through mail and personal contacts there were also

responses received through emails. Participation was voluntary and not compensated. To assure

confidentiality, code numbers were assigned to each participant and written on the return envelope. This

is done to the knowledge of the respondents. Response rate calculated against the original sample were

42.3%, yielding a final sample of 178 PTAs.

Data Analysis

Several data analysis techniques were used in this study in accordance with the three hypotheses

formulated earlier. Other than Chronbach’s alpha for the reliability test, descriptive statistics were used to

provide the basic information about the variables and Pearson correlation to look at the correlations

between the variables. A statistical program IBM SPSS Version 19 was used in the statistical analyses.

Findings and Discussion

A Chronbach alpha test was utilized to determine the reliability of the questionnaires used in the study.

Cronbach’s " indicates the extent of internal consistency for a set of items were at 0.70 or higher can

satisfy a conservative minimum level of reliability (Hair, Anderson, Tatham, & Black, 1998). The "

values of the subscales of the instrument ranged from .703 to .883 as shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Instrument Reliability (n = 178).

Variable Number of items Cronbach Alpha ( )

Proactive Personality 10 .740

Values 9 .703

Personality Traits 15 .848

Locus of Control 7 .752

Attitude 12 .835

Intensity for Feedback 4 .751

Rewards 10 .809

Recognition 4 .755

Org Socialization 12 .755

Mentoring 12 .883

Self Efficacy 8 .784

Job Satisfaction 10 .748

Job Performance 5 .784

To examine if there is a relationship between work adjustment of PTAs and the individual-related

factor, job-related factor and organizational-related factor a correlation analysis was utilized. As been

depicted from Table 3, it is observed that attitude (r = .528, p < .01) , rewards (r = .594, p < .01),

Work Adjustment of Practitioner-Turn-Academics at Malaysian Research Universities 153

proactive personality (r = .608, p < .01) and organizatinal socialization ( r = .636, p < .01) were

moderately correlated with Job Satisfaction. However, intensity for feedback ( r = .390, p < .01) has a

weak correlation with Job Satisfaction.

The table also reveals that intensity for feedback ( r = .284, p < .01), personality traits ( r = .399, p <

.01), and self efficacy ( r = .218, p < .01) have weak correlations with Job Performance. Interestingly,

rewards ( r = .402, p < .01), organizational socialization ( r = .452, p < .01), locus of control ( r = .465, p <

.01), mentoring ( r = .538, p < .01) and attitude ( r = .580, p < .01), were moderately correlated with Job

Performance.

Table 3. Descriptive statistics and correlation coefficients of the variables.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Variable (r) (r) (r) (r) (r) (r) (r) (r) (r) (r) (r) (r) (r)

1 Proactive personality

2 Values .160*

3 Personality traits .662** .301**

4 Locus of control .516* .156* .514**

5 Attitude .704** .170* .729** .495**

6 Intensity for feedback .429** .303** .515** .415** .478**

7 Rewards .539** .137* .382** .433** .515** .416**

8 Recognition .001 .120 -.025 -.054 -.058 .038 .108

9 Organizational

socialization .623** .168* .675** .492** .642** .399** .522** .003

10 Mentoring .508** .022 .416* .727** .510 .429* .393** -.046 .534**

11 Self-efficacy .325** -.024 .350** .275** .322** .265** .145* .030 .263** .295**

12 Job-satisfaction .608** .166* .501* .547 .528** .390** .594** .019 .636** .637* .162*

13 Job-performance .454* .087 .399** .465** .580** .284** .402** .114 .452** .538** .218** .361**

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (1-tailed).

*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (1-tailed).

Conclusion, Implications for Human Resource Development and Future Research

Human resource development is one of the important components in order for our nation to achieve vision

2020. Investment in education and training in its various forms to human resources or employees will

produce a competent workforce and better productivity in the long run. Human resources are one of the

most valuable assets for an organization and a nation to stimulate its economic growth. Without human

resources, a nation will not prosper and in the long run becomes weaker. At present, there is not enough

literature and little attention is given to work adjustment and its impact on career growth of employees

particularly the PTAs.

In this study, work adjustment is measured through job satisfaction and job performance. This is in

line with the key principle of work adjustment theory where satisfactory adjustment requires a

correspondence between a worker's performance and job satisfaction. Two variables from job-related

factor and organizational-related factor showed significant relationships toward work adjustment.

As a conclusion, there is a relationship between attitudes , rewards, proactive personality and

organizational socialization with Job Satisfaction. However, intensity for feedback has a weak

relationship with Job Satisfaction. All the variables under the Organizational-related factors such as

organizational socialization, mentoring and self efficacy were correlated with job performance.

154 Rouzil Armiza Shamsir and Maimunah Ismail

Next, intensity for feedback , personality traits , and self efficacy have weak correlations with Job

Performance. Notably, rewards , organizational socialization , locus of control, mentoring and attitude ,

have a moderate relationship with Job Performance. Correlates that were not correlated with job

performance are proactive personality, values, recognition. Meanwhile, correlates that were not correlated

with job satisfaction are values, personality traits, locus of control, recognition, mentoring and self

efficacy. This shows that the variables in this study have predictive potential in the work adjustment of

the PTAs.

This study is essential to all the Malaysian research universities. Firstly, human capital is a valuable

plus point to the academia as will help to lift them to a more prominence stature. This is especially

significant in order to enhance the quality of tertiary education as to achieve the standard of global

competitiveness. Secondly, university administrators will be beneficial with the outcome of this study as

it provides them with the information of variable which have predictive potential to the work adjustment

of PTAs. Finally, universities should be more aware of their academics’ family situations such as their

marital status and number of children. Other than that, it is also important to look at their past working

experience especially in terms of years that they spent in the industry. It is hoped that the data gained

from this study will be helpful to enhance the job performance and job satisfaction of the PTAs as these

two variables signify their work adjustment.

This study has certain limitations that provide venues for future research. First, individual-related

factors, job-related factors and organizational-related factors are not the only criteria for work adjustment

of the PTAs. Other criteria such as field of study, effort, compensation and Multiple Intelligence could

also be included. Next, future research should include assessment from multiple sources including

spouses, peers, subordinates, and superiors. Other than that, future research should also consider

longitudinal study. It should be noted that due to the small number of respondents, it is still premature to

arrive at a conclusive statement on the relationships between the independent variables and the work

adjustment. But therein indication of the potential relationships between the chosen variables as the study

continues to increase the number of respondents. Had it done on a bigger population it will produce a

different set of results. Finally, since this study uses the perceptual measures, conducting a future study

may provide different insights on the phenomenon studied.

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