Post on 10-May-2023
Vocabulary Learning Strategies of Chinese International
Students in Japan
Yifan ZangTokyo University of Foreign Studiescalvinzang8907@gmail.com
Abstract
With an increasing number of Chinese international
students coming to Japan for further study, English
education for them becomes a crucial problem because they
have to learn Japanese and English at the same time.
According to research, vocabulary is a key and fundamental
component in language learning. This paper provides a
picture of vocabulary learning strategies being used by
Chinese international students in Japan and has
implications the curriculum design of teaching English to
these students. The major finding of the study is that
Chinese international students now use a combination of
1
different strategies, most of the time unconsciously. Among
them learning through English Language Media seems to be
the most popular thanks to the development of the Internet.
Unfortunately, due to the lack of instruction of strategy
use, many say that they are not using strategies
consciously and effectively.
Key words: Chinese international students, English education,
language learning strategies, vocabulary, vocabulary learning strategies
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Background
Nowadays numerous international students are
studying in Japan and among them students from China
consist a large part. According to the report by Japanese
Government Ministry of Justice, international students from
China reach a number of 1,207,435 in 2011. Most of these
students aim at studying in postgraduate program in
universities in Japan. When they are applying for
universities, it is often necessary for them to submit a
score of Standard English Test like TOEFL or TOEIC. If they
are not able to reach a particular score they will be asked
to take the English Test prepared by the school. In fact,
the reason for a lot of Chinese international students
choosing Japan to be the place to study in is that they are
not good at English or dislike English. Thus it is of great
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importance to understand the present situation of these
students.
According to Schmitt (2008), vocabulary is the key
factor in the success of second language acquisition. Also
from previous research it becomes clear that vocabulary
error happens most frequently among all errors. The purpose
of this paper is to discover the vocabulary learning
strategies that are being used by the Chinese international
students to improve their English leaning. Since they are
in a severe situation where they have to put most effort in
the learning of Japanese, it is crucial to grasp the
present situation and to apply the finding to the
educational front site to improve the teaching result.
The Good Learner Studies
From 1974, a series of study focused on the good
language learners made it clear what impact of learning
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strategy could have on language leaners. The studies can be
divided into two types. One is to identify the good
learners first, and then to interview them and to have them
complete questionnaires. The other type is to compare the
distinctions between the good learners and the bad
learners, with a purpose of identifying these distinctions
and thus apply the result to all language learners.
What we learned from these good learner studies is
that good learners are basically different from the bad
learner in five areas:
1. A concern for language form
2. A concern for communication (functional practice)
3. An active task approach
4. An awareness of the learning process
5. A capacity to use strategies flexibly in the
accordance with task requirements
(Ellis 1994)
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Another feature that can be found in the good
learners is that they always lay emphasis on language form
and monitor both their speech and the speech from other
learners. They use that as a key strategy as they learn.
By referring to the reference book, learn target
languages systematically. Also, they monitor their
performance in the target language and when it is necessary
they look for correction and learn from their mistakes and
errors. They see the meaning of the language as the crucial
part and actively search the chances to use the language in
a real communication.
As for the language education, Chamot (1988) points
out good learners are aware of their learning process and
make decisions consciously. They have the ability to choose
and follow the learning styles that are most suitable for
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them. They can also use strategies flexibly and
appropriately.
The good learner studies have led the way of the
research on how learning strategies affect the learning
process of language learners.
Definition of learning strategies
To define learning strategies is not easy, as noted
by Ellis, since the concept of the word ‘strategy’ is kind
of confusing. In fact, many definitions have been given
about language strategies. Oxford (1989) gives the
definition of strategies saying ‘behaviors and actions
which learners use to make language learning more
successful, self-directed and enjoyable. Chamot (1987)
defines learning strategies as ‘ techniques, approaches or
deliberate actions that students take in order to
facilitate the learning’.
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Ellis argues that rather than to simply give a
precious definition, it is better to emphasize the
characteristics of the learning strategies. He has then
listed several characteristics.
1. Strategies refer to both general approaches and
specific actions or techniques used to learn a second
language.
2. Strategies are problem-oriented. Learners deploy a
strategy to overcome some particular learning
problems.
3. Learners are generally aware of the strategies they
use and can identify what they consist of if they are
asked to pay attention to what they are
doing/thinking.
4. Strategies involve linguistic behavior (such
requesting the name of an object) and non-linguistic
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(such as pointing at an object so as to be told its
name).
5. Linguistic strategies can be performed in the L1 or in
the L2.
6. Some strategies are behavioral while others are
mental. Thus some strategies are directly observable,
while others are not.
7. In the main, strategies are contributed indirectly to
learning by providing learners with data about L2 that
they can then process. However, some strategies may
also contribute directly (for example, memorization
strategies directed at specific lexical items or
grammatical rules).
8. Strategies use varies considerably as a result of both
the kind of task the learner is engaged in and
individual learner preferences.
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(Rod Ellis, 1994)
The Taxonomy of Learning Strategies
There are two kinds of taxonomy that is well known.
One is presented by O’Malley & Chamot. They divide the
learning strategies into 3 categories.
1. Cognitive Strategies
2. Metacognitive Strategies
3. Social Strategies
The other taxonomy is proposed by Oxford (1990),
which gained the comment from Rod Ellis as being most
comprehensive. In her taxonomy, she divides all the
strategies into two main groups and then into six sub-
groups.
1. Direct Strategies
Memory Strategies
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Learners make connections between the sound and the
form of the target language, practice the target
language repeatedly.
Cognitive Strategies
Learners memorize the linguistic knowledge by
practicing the target language and analyze and make
speculation about the target language.
Compensation Strategies
Leaners use compensatory ways when their knowledge of
the target language do not qualify them to express them
clearly (e.g. using body language)
2. Indirect Strategies
Metacognitive Strategies
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Learners monitor and control consciously their own
learning process and are able to place themselves in the
appropriate position.
Affective Strategies
Learners control their emotions and attitudes towards
the learning to make language learning successful.
Social Strategies
Learners look for cooperation from teachers and native
speakers to succeed in language learning.
(Summarized from Oxford 1990)
Results from previous research
Up to now many research have been conducted into the
frequency of the use of the learning strategies.
Scarcella’s research (1990) shows that in many Asian
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cultures books are considered the container of all
knowledge and wisdom. To remember the contents of the books
word-by-word is regarded as the best strategy by the
students in those cultures. Chen, in his research conducted
in 1990, reveals that Chinese students have a liking for
learning. However, they have the tendency to refuse to take
risks and dislike to learn through strategies. According to
Chen’s research, Chinese students always hold the belief
that there is only one correct answer. Wen (1995) argues
that besides the learning strategies, there also exists a
system called attitude toward learning strategies. This
consists of the belief that ‘what should be done to learn
the language properly’. This belief affects the actual use
of learning strategies in a considerable way.
Li (2002) conducted a comprehensive research on the present
state of the learning strategies being used by Chinese
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college students. The result shows that Chinese college
students think that social strategy is the most effective
one and the least beneficial one is affective strategy.
Viewed from a perspective of the frequency of use, memory
strategy is being used most frequently and the social
strategy the least. Li also made an effort to connect the
attainment with the frequency, revealing that those who
have got higher scores in the College English Test (a test
designed by Chinese Government to measure the English
ability of college students) use memory, cognitive,
metacognitive, social strategy more frequently.
Vocabulary Learning Strategies
The significance of vocabulary learning
Many research have proved the significance of the
vocabulary learning. Learners consider vocabulary errors as
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the most serious among all the errors (Polizer 1978). Meara
(1984) points out that vocabulary errors occur three times
more than grammatical errors. Also, according to Johansson
(1978), native speakers find vocabulary errors more
confusing then grammatical errors. Gass backed the argument
by noting that communication could succeed despite the
occurrence of grammatical errors. On the other hand,
vocabulary error usually leads to misunderstanding, thus
affect the communication. Levelt (1989) notes that
vocabulary is the propulsion of the production of language
and the lay component in understanding the input.
In a word, vocabulary is the key element in second
language acquisition and plays a vital role in the
understanding and the production of language. Based on the
significance of vocabulary learning, Chen (2001) surveyed
50 college students on the learning situation of
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vocabulary. More than 60% of the surveyed reported that the
poverty in knowledge of vocabulary learning strategy
troubled them most. This shows a fact that it is essential
to improve the knowledge of vocabulary learning strategy
and help learners to establish a systematical vocabulary
learning strategy category.
Taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies
Schmitt (1997) introduced the taxonomy of vocabulary
learning strategies based on Oxford’s taxonomy of language
learning strategies and a survey that targeted at Japanese
English learners. He divides the strategies into 5 groups.
1. Social Strategies
Learners discover the meaning of new words or enhance
the knowledge once they have memorized through the
interaction with teachers, friends or native speakers.
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An example for the first one is that learners ask a
teacher for a synonym or paraphrase of the new word.
As for the latter one, once the new knowledge have
been memorized learner enhance it through practicing
it with friends or native speakers.
2. Memory Strategies
Learners make connections between newly acquired
language knowledge and previous knowledge. Rather than
simply remember the word, this kind of strategies
requires learners to link old and new knowledge
through complicated psychological process. For example
using the key word method or imagine a picture when
memorizing a new word.
3. Cognitive Strategies
Learners memorize the words mechanically with out
finding inner connections like they do in memory
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strategies. The most common strategy is repetition,
verbal or written.
4. Metacognitive Strategies
Learners check and control the process of learning and
assess their learning results regularly.
5. Determination Strategies
This is a group presented by Schmitt originally. When
they encounter news words or phrases, learners
determine the meaning of the new word themselves
instead of asking for help, by interfering the meaning
from the context, checking the meaning from the
dictionary etc.
(Summarized from Schmitt 1997)
Research on vocabulary learning strategies
Gu & Johnson (1996) conducted a survey aimed at 850
Chinese college students who are not majored in English and
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then divided all the students into 3 main groups based on
their scores of College English Test. The purpose of the
survey is to determine the relationship between the use of
vocabulary learning strategies and the attainment of
English. The best group is called Readers. They believe that
vocabularies should be learnt carefully under natural
environment. The most used strategies by them is to read a
lot, to guess the meaning of the word, and to make
contextual encoding. They do not think that memorization is
the way to learn vocabulary. The group following Readers is
called Active Strategy Users. The most remarkable characteristics
about them is that they use more strategies than the Readers
flexibly and learn English consciously even outside the
classroom. Their success contributes a lot to their
seriousness and motivation. The third group is called
Passive Strategy Users. They hold strong belief in memory
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strategies. As a result, they are always neglecting other
strategies. The reason why they have not learnt much from
the seven years’ English education program is that they
lack the clear awareness of what language and learning
strategy are. Besides, the lack of diligence is another
reason.
Over the decade, research that focused on Chinese
students has been carried out. However, an overwhelming
majority of them are focused the investigation and the
analysis of the present state. Studies concerning the
appliance of the results obtained from research, like
training, remain in an extremely small number.
We can also find problems in the balance of the target.
Of all the research, there are nine papers concerning
college students; one paper concerning postgraduate
students and one paper concerning children. Still the
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number of research targeting high school students is zero.
The singularity in the research method is another
defect. The previous research employs only questionnaire as
one and only method for investigating the status. Studies
that employ more comprehensive methods are still in need.
Finally the lack of studies on strategies training cannot
be neglected.
Research Methods
Target Form
Twenty students with a range of age from 18~20 took
part in the survey this time, including eight male students
and 12 female students. The average time of learning
English is 10.35 years. All the students are taking the
pre-undergraduate program in a Japanese Language School.
None of them has the experience of studying in a English
speaking country. The hometowns of the participants differ
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from each other.
Table1 Participants (listed by age)Participants (listed by age)18 years old 4 (20%)19 years old 12 (40%)20 years old 4 (20%)
Table 2 Participants (listed by average time of learning English)
Participants (listed by average time of learning English)10 years 13 (65%)11 years 7 (35%)
Questionnaire Design
The Questionnaire consists of three parts: the
general questions on English Learning, the frequency of
vocabulary strategies use and the attitude toward the
vocabulary strategy. The question items are based on the
Schmitt’s taxonomy of vocabulary learning strategies,
slightly altered according to the features of Chinese
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language. The participants are required to mark their
answers on a five stages scale answer column.
Table 3 5 stages scale answer columnthe frequency of vocabulary strategies use
the attitude toward the vocabulary strategy
1. Never Use2. Rarely Use3. Sometimes Use4. Usually Use5. Always Use
1. Not Useful2. Not Always Useful3. Useful4. Quite Useful5. Very Useful
Results
The General Question
In this part, participants are required to answer
questions about their attitude toward English learning and
vocabulary learning.
Concerning the question asking if they like learning
English or not, four participants (20%) have chosen that
they like learning English very much. Seven participants
(35%) have chosen that they like learning English and the
rest nine (45%) have chosen that they don’t have a
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preference on learning English. None of the participants
has shown that they dislike English learning.
Question No.4 asks if the participants find it
difficult to learn English. Five (25%) participants find it
very difficult; 6 (30%) participants find it a little
difficult; eight (40%) participants find it normal; and one
(5%) participant finds it quite easy.
Only two participants report that they have heard
about the learning strategies before. Twelve (60%)
participants agree that vocabulary is a very important part
in language learning, and the others think it is an
important part in language learning. However, when being
asked among vocabulary, grammar, listening, speaking,
reading and writing, which they would regard the most
important component in learning a language, only two
participant put vocabulary in the first place.
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The frequency of use of vocabulary learning strategies
According to the questionnaire, the most frequently
used strategy is to use English language media. Then least
frequently used strategy is to study and practice meaning
in a group and to use peg method.
Table 4 Frequency of use (listed by strategy)
Name of the strategy Average FrequencyUse English Language MediaUse bilingual dictionaryStudy the spelling of a word...Ask teacher for an L1 translationStudy and practice meaning in a groupPeg Method
4.3334.0004.000...1.5001.3331.333
Table 5 Frequency of use (listed by groups)Group Average FrequencyMETCOGDET
3.3333.1112.963
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MEMSOC
2.7051.854
The attitude toward vocabulary learning strategies
Participants think that to use new word in sentences is
the most effective strategy. The least effective strategy
in their mind is to study and practice meaning in a group.
Table 6 Attitudes toward strategies (listed by strategies)Name of the strategy Average
Use new word in sentencesWritten repetition
Testing oneself with wordtests...
Analyze any available picsor gestures
Discover new meaning bygroup work
Study and practice meaningin a group
4.5004.5004.167...
2.1672.0001.833
Table 7 Attitudes toward strategies (listed by groups)Group AverageMETCOG
4.0403.578
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MEMSOCDET
3.3772.6502.650
Discussion
According the result of the questionnaire, it is
clear that most of the international students from China do
not dislike English anymore, instead, students who likes
English consists of a relatively large part. This provides
a good prerequisite for English education for these
students. However, most of the students lack the knowledge
of language learning strategies and thus only a few
students are using them consciously and effectively. This
may be due to the absence of the education of the
strategies through out the nine-year compulsory education.
The result should sound the alarm for the teachers to
increase the knowledge of language learning strategies.
As for the frequency of use of vocabulary strategy,
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the reason why using English language media reaches the top
of the chart may be the popularity of American culture in
China. Youngers all over the world are fond of American,
especially TV shows, pop music and publications. Thanks to
the impact of that and the Internet, it is very easy for
students to access to those resources. The fact that
metacognitive strategies are being most frequently used
among the five groups is a little surprising because in
previous research this group of strategies is being
underused. One reason to consider is that international
students may have to plan their lives more systematically
then the domestic counterparts. This may also affect the
strategies use. It is of no wonder that social strategy is
in the bottom. Chinese traditional force-feeding teaching
method makes the student not wanting to corporate with
classmates or peers. This fact should also give implication
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to teachers to encourage students to cooperate with other
students more often.
With regard to the attitude towards the strategies,
the ranking basically coordinates with the frequency one
and thus we can presume that by increasing the awareness
and the attitude we can help students to improve the
learning outcomes.
Limitations & Prospects
There are also several limitations with this survey.
The number of the participants is relatively small. It may
be hard to get a complete picture of the present situation
of the language strategies use. Also, the survey lacks the
information about the English level of the participants.
Therefore, it is not possible to make connections between
the learning outcomes and the strategy use. Although the
target is different from the previous research, the method
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is almost the same. It lacks a more comprehensive method in
investigating the status.
From now on, it is necessary to improve the results
of the survey. Adding methods such as interviews and
observation during class time. Further, it can be predicted
that if the teachers could give students instructions and
training about the language learning strategies, students
would definitely benefit from it. In conclusion, the
subject remained is to improve the result of the survey and
to apply this to the front site.
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Reference
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Gu, Y. & Johnson R.K. (1996). Vocabulary Learning Strategies And
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Levelt, W. J.M. (1989). Speaking: From Intention to Articulation.
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Edinburgh: Edinburgh U. P.: 225-239.
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Naiman, N. (1978). The Good Language Learner. Toronto: Ontario
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Appendix
Questionnaire ① 严严(age):② 严严(gender) 严:・女
③ 严严严严严严: (how long have you been learning English?)④ 严严严严严严严严严 严严严严严严严严严严 严→ 严 (do you have any certificate of English?)⑤ 严严严严严严严严 (do you like English?) 严严严严 严严严 严 严严 严严严严严严 严严严//一//
严严:
⑥ 严严严严严严 ? (do you find leaning English is difficult?) 严严 严严 严严严 严 严严 严严严 严严严/一/一//
⑦ 严严严严严严严严严严严严严 ? (do you enjoy learning English?) 严严严 严严 严严严严严严严严严//一//
⑧ 严严严严严严严严严严严 严严严严 ?/
(have you ever heard about learning strategies?) 严严「严严严严严严严严严严」 严严严严→( )⑨
⑨ 严严严严严严严严严严 严严严严严严严严严严严,? (do you think learning strategies would help you learn English? )
33
⑩ 严严严严严严严严严 ? (do think vocabulary is an important aspect of learning English?)严严严 严严严 严 严严 严严严严严 严严严//一//
严严、严严、严严、严严、严严、严严严严严严严严严严严? (Which do you think os the most important: vocabulary, grammar, listening,speaking or writing?)
⑪ 严严严严严严严严严严严严严? (do you think you are good at learning vocabulary?)严严严 严严严 严 严严 严严严严严 严严严//一//
⑫ 严严严严严严严严严严严。 (Have you heard about Vocabulary Learning Strategies?)严→严严严严严严严严严严严? (Yes → Do you use them consciously? )严严→严严严严严严严严严严严严。 (No Do you think they would help you in learning English?→ )
⑬ 严严严严严严严严严严严严严严严严严严严严 严After you came to Japan, did anything about your Englishlearning changed?严严→ 严严严严严(体)
(Yes→ Explain more specifically)严
严严严严严严严严严严严严严严严 ( Likert Scale严严严严严:* 严严○严严
34
5 严严严严 4 严严严严 3 严严严严 2 严严严严 严严严1
(5 always 4 usually 3 sometimes 2 seldom if ever 1never 严
严 严严严严严严严严严严严严严 严严严严严严严严严严,?1. 严严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Analyze part of speech
2. 严严严严严 54 3 2 1Analyze affixes and roots
3. 严严严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Check for L1 cognate
4. 严严严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Analyze any available pics or gestures
5. 严严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Guess from textual content
6. 严严严严严 严严严严严 () 5 4 3 2 1
Bilingual Dictionary7. 严严严严严严严严严严严 5 4 32 1Monolingual Dictionary
8. 严严严严严 54 3 2 1Word Lists
9. 严严严严严严严 5 4
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3 2 1Flash Cards
10. 严严严严严 54 3 2 1Ask teacher for an L1 translation
11. 严严严严严严严严严严严 5 4 32 1Ask teacher for paraphrase or synonym of the new word
12. 严严严严严 严严严严严严严严 一 5 4 3 2 1Ask teacher for a sentence including the new word
13. 严严严严 54 3 2 1Ask classmates for meaning
14. 严严严严严严严严严严严严严严 5 4 3 21
15. 严严Discover new meaning by group work activity
严严严严严严严严严严 严严严严严严严严严,16. 严严严严严严严严严严 5 4 3
2 1Study and practice meaning in a group
17. 严严严严严严严严严严严严严严 5 4 3 21Teacher checks students’ flash cards or word lists foraccuracy
18. 严严严严严严严严严严 5 4 32 1Interact with native speakers
19. 严严严严严 严严严 严严严严(一) 5 4 3 21study word with a pictorial representation of its
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meaning20. 严严严严严 严严严 严严严严(一) 5 4 3 2
1image word’s meaning
21. 严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Connect word to a personal experience
22. 严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Associate the word with its coordinates
23. 严严严严严严严 严严严 一 5 4 3 2 1Connect the word to its synonyms and antonyms
24. 严严严严严严严 严严严严严严严严 ( kitchen-food) 5 4 3 2 1Loci Method
25. 严严严严严严严严严严严严严严 5 4 3 21Use scales for gradable adjectives
26. 严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Group words together to study them
27. 严严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Group words spatially on a page
28. 严严严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Use new word in sentences
29. 严严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Group words together within a story line
30. 严严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Study the spelling of a word
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31. 严严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Study the sound of a word
32. 严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Say new word aloud when studying
33. 严严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Image word form
34. 严严严严严严严严严严 5 4 32 1Underline initial letter if the word
35. 严严严严严 54 3 2 1Configuration
36. 严严严严(ambulance 严严严严严-) 5 4 32 1Use key word method
37. 严严严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Affixes and roots(remembering)
38. 严严严严严严严严严 5 4 32 1Part of the speech
39. 严严严严严严严严严严严 5 4 32 1Paraphrase the word’s meaning
40. 严严严严严 严严 ( sofa) 5 4 32 1Use cognates in study
41. 严严严严严严严严 5 43 2 1
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Learn the words of an idiom together42. 严严严 严严严严 体 5 4 3 2
1Use physical action when learning a word
43. 严严严严 54 3 2 1Verbal repetition
44. 严严严严 54 3 2 1Written repetition
45. 严严严严严 54 3 2 1Word list
46. 严严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Flash card
47. 严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Take notes in class
48. 严 严严严严严严 书 5 4 3 21Use the vocabulary section in your textbook
49. 严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Listen to tape of word list
50. 严严严严严严严严严严严严严 5 4 3 21Put English labels on Physical Objects
51. 严严严严严严严严严严 5 4 32 1Keep a vocabulary notebook
52. 严严严严严体 严严严 严严严严( 、、)书 5 4 3 2 1
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Use English Language Media53. 严严严严严严严严 APP
Use Applications on Smartphone54. 严严严严严严 5 4
3 2 1Testing oneself with word tests
55. 严严严严 54 3 2 1Skip or pass new words
56. 严严严严严严严严 5 43 2 1Continue to study word over time
57.严严严严严严严严严 5 4 3 21 Make an overall plan
严严严严严严严严严,严严严严严。(If you have anything else to complement )
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