Post on 26-Feb-2023
Visual Framing of the Boko Haram Conflict in the Nigerian Press:A Content Analysis of Leadership and This Day Newspapers
Maude Rabiu GwadabeDepartment of Mass Communication, Bayero University Kano
mrgwadabe@gmail.com
Most research on Media Framing of conflicts has concentrated on textual analysis. Little
research has investigated how pictures are used to visually frame conflicts especially by
African media. Thus, this research examines the use of pictures in reporting the Boko
Haram conflict by two leading Nigerian newspapers, Leadership and This Day. A
content analysis of 401 pictures published between August and November 2014 was
carried out. Findings show a disparity in the amount of pictures used by the
newspapers. Most of the pictures were long shots of victims and protesters as well as
close-ups of politicians and military leaders. Majority of the pictures were not published
on the cover pages but dominated the pages in which they are published. However,
most of the pictures were used in a way that based on past scholarship, would fail to
emotionally connect readers with the ongoing conflict.
Key words; Media and Conflict, War Reporting, Visual Framing, Boko Haram,
Nigeria
Introduction
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During times of crises or conflicts such as wars, the audience
receives most of its information from the media. Research
suggests that the pictures accompanying conflict stories have the
capacity to emotionally engage the audience and even sway public
perception of the conflict (Parry, 2011; Neumann & Fahmy, 2012;
Huang & Fahmy, 2013; Bleiker, et al., 2013; Dahmen, 2012;
Brantner, et al., 2011). Therefore news photographs deserve more
than a cursory attention when studying the reporting of war.
However, with the notable exception of Zeng & Akinro (2013),
little empirical evidence exists about how the media in Africa
employs visual framing. Their research focused on the visual
framing of the Jos crisis in the online editions of three leading
Nigerian newspapers. This study examines the visual presentation
of the ongoing Boko Haram conflict by the Nigerian press. It
intends to provide insight into how the print editions of
Nigerian newspapers use photographs in the reporting of an
insurgency from August to October 2014.
The Boko Haram conflict has led to the death of more than 13,000
persons from 2009 to 2014 and displaced more than three million
people. Starting from Maiduguri and spreading domestically to
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various parts of Northern Nigeria including the capital city
Abuja, and internationally to Cameroon, Chad and Niger, the
conflict has attracted a lot of press attention over the years.
Visual Framing
The two most cited definitions of media framing are those
provided by Entman and Gitlin (Parry, 2010). Entman (1993)
defines frames as giving salience to some selected aspects of
reality in such a way as to “promote a particular problem
definition, causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and/or
treatment recommendation” (p. 52). However Gitlin (1980) defines
frames as “persistent patterns of cognition, interpretation, and
presentation, of selection, emphasis, and exclusion, by which
symbol-handlers routinely organize discourse, whether verbal or
visual” ( p. 7). Gitlin’s definition therefore considers visual
framing at least on a par with textual framing.Visual Framing is
both contingent on and quite different from framing with text
(Fahmy, 2010).
While many researchers have studied media framing through textual
narration of news stories not much attention has been devoted to
the study of visual frames. A research on media framing studies
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in leading academic journals from 1990 to 2005 found that only 5%
directly coded visuals with 3% as the main discourse unit. 83%
completely neglected visuals while 12% referred to visuals in
their interpretation of frames. Even in studies that analyzed TV
framing 72% ignored visuals (Matthes, 2009). However, the gulf
war led to a plethora of studies on visual framing. See for
example (Fahmy, 2007; Schwalbe, Silcock, & Keith 2008; Silcock,
2008; Parry 2011).
Nevertheless, visual framing should not be underestimated as it
has advantages in influencing public opinion and perception.
Visual information captures more attention than text, is easily
recalled and has more credibility (Brantner, et al., 2011;
Greenwood & Jenkins, 2013).
Framing is more effective when readers are not aware of it. This
makes visual framing more critical than textual framing as people
usually realize that journalists select words and angles when
reporting news stories but fail to realize that pictures could
also be framed (Greenwood & Jenkins, 2013).
Visual Framing Analysis
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Several researches have employed different means in the analysis
of picture framing. Visual framing is achieved through the form
and content of the pictures i.e. frequency, selection or
exclusion of subjects/objects, the way persons are presented and
accompanying texts (Huang & Fahmy, 2013). The most frequently
studied aspects of visual framing are picture subjects or
objects, picture salience, amount of emotion evoked and shot
types.
Picture subjects or objects are probably the first things that
readers notice in a photograph. Different researches have studied
various categories of picture subjects/objects depending on the
dictates of their research design.
Picture salience is noted by its placement and position as well
as its repetition. The human brain tends to identify with
repeated images.
The use of graphic pictures is one of the longest running debates
in visual journalism (Dahmen, 2014). Social responsibility theory
suggests that media has to run graphic images in order to fulfill
its watchdog functions and inform citizens. On the other side,
ethics of journalism practice caution against exploitation of
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other people’s tragedy. Visual framing literature suggests that
Graphic pictures elicit stronger emotional responses (Brantner,
et al., 2011; Potter & Smith, 2000). However McKinley & Fahmy
(2011) found no significant differences in regard to level of
graphicness on perceived graveness of an issue or support for
engagement to resolve the given conflict.
Another important aspect of visual framing is the type of shot
used in taking the picture. Experimental analyses by Petersen
(2005) show that variations in picture shots, angle or cropping
can change audience interpretation of news reports.
Despite several studies about the visual framing of conflicts,
war and terror attacks in the US, Europe, Middle East and China,
there has been a shortage of researches of visual framing of
African conflicts by African media. This research therefore
intends to study the visual framing of the Boko Haram conflict in
the Nigerian Press.
Boko Haram Conflict
Boko Haram (Trans. Western education is forbidden) is the popular
name of a group calling itself Jama’atu Ahlis Sunnah lid Da’awati wal Jihad
(People committed to the propagation of the Prophet’s teachings
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and jihad). Founded in 2002 by an Islamic scholar in Maiduguri,
Borno state as group advocating the total implementation of
Shari’ah in Nigeria, it turned violent in 2009 after its members
were killed by the police over resistance to a motorcycle helmet
law (Sergie & Johnson, 2014).
The group has attacked police and military, politicians,
religious institutions, schools, public institutions, media
organizations as well as civilians with increasing regularity
since 2009 after the Nigerian Police killed its founder, Muhammad
Yusuf. The Nigerian government estimates that by September 2014
the group has killed more than 13,000 people (Wakili, 2014) and
displaced over three million others (iDMC, 2014).
In 2013, the US Department of State declared Boko Haram a foreign
terrorist organization and the Nigerian government has declared a
state of Emergency in three north-eastern states of Borno, Yobe
and Adamawa that are regarded as the center of Boko Haram
activities.
So far, the Nigerian army has claimed to have killed its putative
leader Abubakar Shekau at least three times, yet videos of the
leader threatening his enemies, congratulating his Jihadi friends
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in Iraq and Syria, and declaring an Islamic state continue to
emerge.
The conflict has attracted the attention of both the
international and Nigerian media. In their study of the framing
of the Boko Haram Conflict in Nigeria Okoro & Odoemelam (2013)
found that Nigerian newspapers predominantly used a policy
response frame in their reportage of the conflict and to a lesser
extent the ethnic and religious frames. However, Alao & Uwom
(2012) and Yusha'u, (2013) suggest that Nigerian newspapers show
regional bias in the framing of Boko Haram conflict.
This study focused on a three month period between August to
October 2014 and analyzed two leading national papers; Leadership
from the North and This Day from the South.
The newspapers
Leadership is considered as one of the leading national
newspapers based in Northern Nigeria. It was established in 2004
by Sam Nda-Isaiah and based in Abuja, the capital of Nigeria
(Leadership Newspaper, 2014). It is perceived as an opposition
paper as its owner a presidential aspirant under the platform of
the opposition All Progressives Congress (Gbadebo, 2014).
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This Day is one of the leading newspapers based in Lagos,
southwest Nigeria. It was established in 1995 by Nduka Obaigbena.
In 1997 it became the first Nigerian newspaper to print in full
color. It has won several awards including newspaper of the year
for three consecutive years (This Day Newspaper, 2014).
Politically, it is considered a pro-government newspaper as its
publisher is a close ally of the ruling People’s Democratic Party
(Gambrell, 2013).
Research Questions
This research aims to find out how Leadership and This Day
newspapers use pictures in reporting the Boko Haram conflict.
RQ1: What are the dominant picture subjects used by both
newspapers?
RQ2: What Salience is given to the pictures?
RQ3: How graphic are the picture subjects?
RQ4: What type of shots were used by the newspapers?
Methodology
Sampling
This research investigates the visual framing of the Boko Haram
conflict in two leading Nigerian newspapers. Abuja based
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Leadership from the northern part of the country and Lagos based
This Day from the southern part of the country. A census of 91
editions of each paper from August to October 2014 yielded 401
photographs about the Boko Haram conflict. This purposive
sampling method was adopted because of the meagre amount of
photos generated by a random sample of the newspapers over a
three year period.
Coding
The research adopted the coding frame of Zeng & Akinro (2013)
with certain modifications for the measurement of picture
placement and relative size. This is because their work studied
online versions of newspapers while this work studies print
versions.
The pictures are therefore coded in five aspects; picture
subjects, prominence, dominance, graphic portrayal and type of
shots. The unit of analysis is the individual picture.
Picture Subjects; These include Boko Haram leader, Boko Haram
fighters, politicians, military/police/militia on duty, victims,
religious/traditional rulers, military leaders, sympathizers,
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suspects, protesters, weaponry and material destruction. Images
that do not fall under these categories are coded as ‘Other’.
Prominence; Pictures that appear on the cover pages either front
page or back page are coded as prominent while pictures that
appear on the inside pages are coded as not prominent.
Dominance; A picture is coded as dominant when it is the largest
or the only picture on the page. A picture is coded not dominant
when it is not the largest picture on the page.
Graphic Portrayal; Pictures are coded as graphic when they show
images of death, blood or human suffering. Bomb blast scenes
showing material destruction are also coded as graphic. Pictures
that do not show any of these are coded as not graphic.
Shot Type; Shots were categorized into close-up, medium-shot and
long-shot. A close-up shot focuses on a particular part of a
subject (e.g. face and shoulders). A medium shot is wider than a
close-up (e.g. from below the waist to above the head). A long-
shot has a wider focus and shows the background of a subject
(e.g. a person standing in front of an armored vehicle).
Inter-coder Reliability
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Though the researcher was the sole coder, a graduate student
independently coded 10% of the selected sample and the result was
computed using the Recal2 web service. The picture subject
variable has 97.5% agreement, and a score of 0.969 in Scott’s Pi,
Cohen’s Kappa and Krippendorff’s alpha. Picture prominence showed
100% agreement, and a score of 1 in Scott’s Pi, Cohen’s Kappa and
Krippendorff’s alpha. Picture dominance produced 97.5% agreement,
a sore of 0.948 in Sott’s Pi and Cohen’s Kappa, and 0.949 in
Krippendorff’s alpha. Graphic portrayal showed 97.5% agreement,
and scored 0.654 in Scott’s Pi, 0.655 in Cohen’s Kappa and 0.658
in Krippendorff’s alpha. Type of Shots produced 92.5% agreement
and 0.881 in Scott’s Pi, 0.882 in Cohen’s Kappa and 0.883 in
Krippendorff’s alpha. A score of 0.61 to 0.80 in Cohen’s Kappa is
considered substantial while 0.81 to 1.00 is almost perfect
(Stemler, 2001). Therefore the inter-coder reliability for this
study ranges from substantial to almost perfect.
Findings
This study analyzed how two Nigerian newspapers Leadership and
This Day used pictures in their reportage of the Boko Haram
conflict for a period of three months from August to October
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2014. 91 issues of both papers were analyzed resulting in 401
pictures. Leadership yielded 330 pictures while This Day
published 71 Boko Haram related pictures within the period under
study.
Picture Subjects
Research Question I asked about the most dominant subjects used
by both newspapers. As shown in Table 1, victims make up the
highest category of subjects (30.2%) followed by Protesters
(28.4%). Politicians and Military Leaders make up 16.0% each.
An analysis of the two papers separately shows that the most
dominant subjects in Leadership are protesters (34.6%), victims
(33.6%), military leaders (17.27%) and politicians (10.91%). This
Day in contrast leads with politicians (39.4%), victims (14.1%)
and protesters as well as military leaders at 9.9% each.
Table 1: Picture Subject
Count
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Name of Newspaper Total
This Day LeadershipBoko Haram Leader 5 1 6Boko Haram Fighters 2 0 2Politicians 28 36 64Military/Security/Militia on duty
6 7 13
Victims 10 111 121Religious/TraditionalLeaders
0 2 2
Military Leaders 7 57 64Sympathizers 0 1 1Suspects 2 3 5Protesters 7 107 114Weaponry 0 3 3Material Destruction 1 1 2Others 3 1 4
Total 71 330 401
However, both newspapers used repeatedly published similar
pictures to accompany different stories. Leadership for instance
has a daily column on its front page counting days since the
abduction of over 200 Chibok school girls, which is accompanied
by either a close-up of one of the abducted girls or a long shot
of a group of the girls. Similarly, its second page throughout
the period was dedicated to the #BringBackOurGirls campaign. It
features at least a picture of protesters daily. Also, two
pictures of Nigeria’s Chief of Defense Staff and Chief of Army
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Staff were published interchangeably in 57 articles. On the other
hand, This Day published a picture of president Goodluck Jonathan
19 times and a picture of Borno state governor 8 times.
Salience
Research Question II asked about the salience given to the
pictures by both newspapers. This has been analyzed in terms of
Prominence and Dominance. Only 28.4% of pictures used by both
newspapers appear on the front pages while 51.1% of the pictures
were found to be dominant in the pages they were published.
Analysis of the individual newspapers suggested a difference in
the prominence given to pictures. While 43.5% of the pictures in
Leadership are prominent only 19.7% of the pictures in This Day
are prominent. Leadership displays pictures of the abducted
Chibok girls on the front page daily while This Day does not.
However, there is similarity in the dominance giving to pictures
accompanying Boko Haram stories in both newspapers.
Graphic Portrayal
Research Question III asked about the graphic portrayal of the
picture images in both newspapers. As shown in Table 2, most of
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the photographs (96.5%) used by both papers were not graphic.
Only 3.5% of the pictures were graphic.
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Table 2: Graphic Portrayal
Picture Subject:
This Day LeadershipGraphic
NotGraphic
Graphic
NotGraphic
Boko Haram Leader 2 3 0 1Boko Haram Fighters 0 2 0 0Politicians 0 28 0 36Military/Security/Militiaon Duty 0 6 0 7Victims 4 6 5 106Religious/Traditional Leaders 0 0 0 2Military Leaders 0 7 0 57Sympathizers 0 0 0 1Suspects 0 2 0 3Protestors 0 7 1 106Weaponry 0 0 0 3Material Destruction 0 1 0 1Others 0 3 0 1
The graphic pictures include victims of a bomb attack in Kano,
parents of abducted Chibok girls, the purported corpse of Boko
Haram leader Abubakar Shekau as well as material destruction by
the Boko Haram.
Shot Types
Research Question IV asked about the type of shots used by the
newspapers. As shown in Table 3, almost half of the pictures
(48.4%) were long shot. Close-ups make up 39.7%. Only 12.0% were
medium shot.
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Table 3: Shot Type
Name of Newspaper Total
This Day LeadershipClose-Up 15 144 159Medium Shot 12 36 48Long Shot 44 150 194
Total 71 330 401
Analysis of the individual newspapers suggest a similarity in the
pattern of shots used. Most of the long shot pictures show images
of protesters or victims while majority of the close-ups show
images of politicians such as President Jonathan and Governor
Shettima of Borno as well as military leaders such as Chief of
Defense Staff and Chief of Army Staff.
Discussion
The findings suggest that the two newspapers are not heavy users
of photographs. In a three month period that witnessed the
killings of more than 1,000 people and displaced more than 50,000
photographs of the ongoing conflict would have been a strong
addition to the reporting of the crisis. Unlike what was
suggested in previous literature in the West and the Middle East
(Entman, 1991; Fahmy & Kim, 2008) news photographs did not play
an important role in the coverage of the Boko Haram conflict by
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these two newspapers. One has to read the text to understand the
intensity of the conflict. In a nation with an illiteracy rate of
around 40%, this suggests that the newspapers do not provide
enough information to a considerable number of the population.
This discrepancy may be due to the challenges of securing
pictures related to the Boko Haram conflict. Both newspapers have
offices far away from the main are of Boko Haram operations.
Whereas news reports could be generated through long distance
interviews, somebody has to be at the conflict location to snap
photographs. As the Boko Haram group is known to target civilians
indiscriminately, perhaps fear of the safety of photo journalists
may have resulted in over reliance on stock photographs.
However, as Dahmen (2014) noted, the mere absence or presence of
pictures is an important aspect of visual framing. Consistent
with Alao & Uwom (2012) and Yusha'u (2013) the difference in the
amount of pictures published by Leadership and This Day with a
ratio of 3.5:1 suggests a regional bias in the coverage of the
conflict.
In terms of picture subjects, majority of the news photographs
did not depict the ongoing conflict. Leadership newspaper placed
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a special emphasis on the abduction of over 200 school girls in
Chibok and the ongoing #BringBackOurGirls campaign in a manner
that shows the failure of the Nigerian government to protect its
citizens. As Entman (1993) explains, repetitions of particular
images express salience. The paper however failed to show
pictures of the individual girls or their parents and relatives.
Apart from the Chibok abduction both newspapers use pictures of
politicians and military leaders in settings that are far removed
from the location of conflict. This is consistent with the
findings of Zeng & Akinro (2013) where politicians were found to
be the dominant pictures accompanying the coverage of Jos crisis.
Additionally, in terms of placement of the photographs both
papers published a tiny percentage of the pictures on their front
pages except for the daily picture of abducted Chibok girls
published by Leadership. This suggests a lack of salience given
to the pictures by both papers.
Furthermore, consistent with Zeng & Akinro (2013) and Fahmy
(2010) majority of the pictures used by both papers were not
graphic. Additionally majority of the pictures where long shot.
Unlike Fahmy (2010) who found that close-up photographs tend to
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show facial expressions and feelings, and therefore evoke more
empathy among the readers, the close-ups in this study serve to
detach the readers from the crisis.
Although the two papers in this study showed a marked difference
in the amount of pictures they used, they exhibit similar
tendencies in the use of non-graphic pictures. Therefore, both
papers failed to emotionally connect with their readers most of
the time.
Limitations and Recommendations for Future Research
This study is one of the first attempts at investigating the
visual framing of conflicts in an African country. It provides
some insight into how the print editions of Nigerian newspapers
use pictures in the reporting of conflict. The results suggest
that visual framing is an area that needs more research attention
especially in African media systems.
Several limitations however, should be considered when
interpreting the findings of this comparative analysis. First,
this study looked only at the print editions of two Nigerian
newspapers. Findings cannot be generalized to the overall press
in Nigeria, as a growing number of readers get their news from
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online versions of newspapers. The use of pictures in the
websites of these papers may differ from the print editions due
to page limitations. Therefore, future studies may profit by
making comparative analysis of the print and online editions of
the papers.
Another limitation is that the sample size is small. Future
research should use a larger and more representative sample to
have a more comprehensive view of the visual framing trend in
Nigerian newspapers. Furthermore, additional research may look at
more visual intensive media such as news magazines and
television.
Moreover, future research may therefore benefit by incorporating
interviews with picture editors of Nigerian newspapers to shed
more light on the reasons behind the choice of visual frames in
the papers.
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