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Student Teachers' Perceptions on the Effectiveness of Practicum and Practicum Supervisors
Dr. Amin Abdullah AL-Mekhlafi almeklafi2002@yahoo.com Ajman University of Science and Technology Faculty of Education and Basic Sciences
ABSTRACT The practicum experience of each individual student teacher (ST) is influenced
by a multitude of integrated and interrelated factors. These include, but not limited to, the
host school environment, the duration period of practicum, the university supervisors (USs),
the cooperating teachers (CTs), and the nature of feedback STs receive. To shed some light
on the effectiveness of practicum and practicum supervision on STs' practicum experience,
researchers need to uncover the multi faceted nature of such factors and investigate their
impact on the success or failure of STs' practicum experiences. To this end, the current study
has investigated the perceptions of 158 female undergraduate STs majoring in teaching
English as a foreign language on the effectiveness of practicum and practicum supervision
on shaping STs' practicum experiences. It also investigates whether or not there are any
significant differences in the effectiveness of USs and CTs. The results of the study have
shown that STs had positive perceptions towards most of the factors in question. At the same
time, some significant differences in the STs' perceptions have been found in relation to the
effectiveness of USs and CTs. The findings have further confirmed the importance of
continuously evaluating the effectiveness of practicum factors for the improvement and
development of practicum, practicum supervision, and teacher education programs.
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1. INTRODUCTION
Practicum is a vital stage in the preparation of prospective teachers. It provides them with real
teaching opportunities where they can put into practice the theoretical knowledge they have
acquired during their course of study and interact with the complexities and intricacies of the
school environment (Yost, et al. 2000; Ganser, 2002; Haigh et al. 2006). Consequently, it
ought to have a great impact on STs' learning/teaching experience. For this reason, teacher
preparation programs, as expressed by several researchers such as Darden, et al. (2001),
Woods and Weasmer (2003), Smith and Lev-Ari (2005), and Andrew (2007), devote a
considerable portion of the curriculum to the art of teaching pedagogy. Thus, practicum is
regarded by several researchers (Ganser, 1996; Koskela and Ganser, 1998; Darden, et al.
2001; Haigh et al. 2006; Wilson, 2006) as the capstone in any teacher preparation program.
There is a critical need, especially in the Arab region, for a body of knowledge on the
effectiveness of practicum, the appropriateness of host schools, the adequacy of the duration
period of practicum, the effectiveness of practicum supervisors, and the consistency and
nature of feedback STs receive. Investigating complex issues as such may shed greater
insights into the complex nature of practicum, enable educators to gain better understanding
of it, and help to find various ways to improve the level of practicum effectiveness.
Furthermore, the accumulation of such a body of knowledge would help to restructure and
develop not only the practicum, but also the teacher education programs themselves since
they are the melting-pots where the professional make up of prospective teachers is molded.
To this end, this study has been conducted to investigate the effectiveness of some of the
various practicum factors. A 25 item closed-ended questionnaire was distributed to 158 TEFL
female STs to seek answers to the following research questions:
1. To what extent do the participants believe that they have benefited from practicum and
practicum supervisors?
2. To what extent do the participants believe that the duration period of practicum is adequate?
3. To what extent do the participants believe that the host school environment is appropriate?
4. What are the profiles of the participants' perceptions on the effectiveness of university supervisors?
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5. What are the profiles of the participants' perceptions on the effectiveness of cooperating teachers?
6. To what extent do the participants believe that they have received consistent feedback and guidance from both practicum supervisors?
7. Are there any significant differences in the participants' perceptions on the effectiveness of university supervisors and cooperating teachers?
2. PRACTICUM AT THE COLLEGE OF EDUCATION Practicum is the culmination stage of a four-year course of study in the TEFL program at
Ajman University of Science and Technology (AUST). AUST, through the Training Unit,
ensures that STs are provided with school environment where they can put into practice what
they have learned throughout their course of study. The College of Education at AUST adopts
an approach to practicum in which STs join schools for a full semester (16 weeks). Practicum
unfolds into a five-stage project. The first stage is an orientation stage that lasts for two weeks
spent at the campus. During this stage, STs are familiarized with the practicum program: its
objectives, the supervisors' roles and responsibilities, STs' rights and duties, host schools, the
curriculum, and the evaluation process. STs are also engaged during this stage in micro-
teaching and/or watching and evaluating actual teaching lessons using video episodes. The
orientation stage is followed by an observation stage which also lasts for two weeks. STs,
herein, join the host schools for the first time where they are acquainted with the school
environment, textbooks, policies, and facilities. Each ST, at this stage, is assigned to a
particular cooperating teacher. STs are expected to attend classes in their specialization with
their US and then join in for discussion and feedback sessions. The third stage, the partial
teaching stage, starts at the 5th week and lasts for two weeks, too. STs are expected to
gradually get into partial teaching, analyze particular lesson contents, prepare daily lesson
plans, and teach certain parts of particular lessons. The full-lesson teaching stage begins at the
eighth week and extends over eight weeks. During this time, STs are supposed to assume full
responsibilities just like other regular teachers. They are expected to takeover full-period
teachings, attend meetings, and participate in most school activities. During this stage, the
USs and CTs are required to make a number of observation visits to oversee the STs' teaching
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performance and hold periodical feedback sessions to discuss the strengths and pitfalls of their
performance. Then, each supervisor is required to make at least two evaluation visits during
which s/he evaluates the ST's performance. The final week of practicum comprises the
feedback stage in which STs together with the USs get back to the campus. During this week,
a number of feedback sessions are held to discuss: the effectiveness of practicum, the
problems and difficulties STs have faced during practicum, as well as suggestions and
recommendations for development and improvement of future practicum experiences.
3. LITERATURE REVIEW
3.1 School Environment and Practicum Duration
Most teacher preparation programs entail that STs should spend a sufficient period of time in
host schools where they can be provided with opportunities to put into practice what they
have learned at college and consequently attain a greater understanding of the teaching
environment and acquire solid knowledge of the various aspects of teaching. Research has
shown that the nature of the school environment (Edwards and Protheroe, 2003) and the
duration of practicum (McCullick, 2001) play a very significant role in the success or failure
of the STs' practicum experiences. Despite this assertion, some other researchers (see Hickson
et al., 2006) have conjectured that the length of practicum may have nothing to do with its
quality.
3.2 Practicum Supervisors The effectiveness of practicum supervisors depends on the nature of the roles and
responsibilities they play (Adey and Speedy, 1993; Kettle and Sellars, 1996; Hawkey, 1997,
1998; Sandholtz and Shannon, 2000; Baniabdelrahman, 2004). Such roles and responsibilities
have changed in the last few years as stated clearly in the practicum manuals of most teacher
education programs and shown, in practice, by various research studies (e.g., Zeichner, 2002).
Additionally, practicum supervisors, in recent years, are no longer being looked at as testing
forces, but rather as facilitators, promoters, guides, and important sources of emotional
support (Wallace, 1991; Beck and Kosnik, 2000, 2002; Levin and Rock, 2003; Caires and
Almeida, 2007). They are also counted as valuable resources available for STs to refer to
whenever they need. This requires practicum supervisors to adopt a coaching approach in
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which they lead the STs into a productive teaching/learning process throughout the training
period. In this approach, STs are valued and provided with encouraging gestures, constant
emotional and professional support (Smith and Ardle, 1994; Beck and Kosnik, 2000, 2002;
Hamman et al. 2006; Caires and Almeida, 2007). Valuing STs’ contribution to the overall
practicum process may encourage STs to experiment with new pedagogical ideas, as indicate
by Talvitie, et al. (2000).
A number of research studies have examined the participants' perceptions of the ideal
qualities and behaviors of practicum supervisors. In a study done by Allan and Jan (1996), the
researchers have investigated the actual and the ideal professional, procedural, and personal
characteristics of USs. They have concluded that being fair, consistent, approachable, and
supportive are among the most desirable characteristics. Their study has also shown, among
other things, that practicum supervisors should be keen in developing STs' experience,
providing STs with constructive feedback, sharing their experiences with STs, providing them
with constructive advice and effective communication skills, etc. Similar findings have also
been found in Edwards (1987). The study comes up with a list of the most highly valued ten
characteristics. Some of which are: attentive listening, establishing rapport, providing
constructive feedback and support, showing awareness of STs' progress, demonstrating
knowledge of practicum requirements, and encouraging self-evaluation during feedback
discussions.
In an extensive study on 1104 participants done by Enz et al. (1996), the researchers have
generated a comprehensive description of the essential functions USs should play as
perceived by STs, CTs, and USs themselves. The findings have shown that USs are expected
to play three distinctive roles as mentors, professional resources, and interpreters. Among the
USs most important functions are: 1) observing STs while teaching actual lessons; 2)
providing them with feedback; 3) providing them with appropriate moral support and
encouragement; 4) providing them with instructional advice that enhances their teaching
experiences; and 5) helping in solving conflicts that might face STs in their course of training.
STs spend most of the time with CTs more than they do with USs since CTs are available
most of the time at the host school. Thus, CTs, as indicated by several researchers such as
Castillo (1971), Copas (1984), Grimmett and Ratzlaff, (1986), and Hamman et al. (2006), are
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expected to help STs adjust to the host school, allow them access to all teaching resource
materials, discuss with them planning and evaluating various learning experiences, engage
them in conferencing regarding their teaching performance, and evaluate their progress and
development based on regular observation and feedback. Thus, CTs' influence on STs'
performance ought to be paramount and goes beyond classroom pedagogical practices
(Woods and Weasmer, 2003). In other words, STs are expected to learn from the ways CTs
deal with everyday issues at school such as meeting students' parents, dealing with others at
school, and even in self-posting: clothing, language, and conduct (Dobbins, 1996; Haigh and
Ward, 2004).
3.3 Feedback Feedback is considered an essential element in the development of STs' professional,
personal, and procedural skills. The nature and the frequency of feedback have a great impact
on the development of STs' practicum experience. In this sense, consistent feedback is very
significant whereas inconsistent guidance, as indicated by Zeichner (1990), is a sign of
weakness in practicum and its impact is damaging to STs' experience. In addition, other
research studies such as Bourke (2001) have stressed that it is not enough to give STs an oral
feedback since it could be forgotten and in that sense will not bring about the desirable
outcomes. Therefore, practicum supervisors should engage STs in what Bourke (2001) calls
task-based approach in which all participants are engaged in face to face interaction that
focuses on discursive scaffolding rather than right and wrong judgments. In a similar line,
Gaffery and Porter (1990) and Hawkey (1998) constant communication and common frames
of reference amongst practicum supervisors are very critical for consistent feedback which,
consequently, results in stability and assurance for STs and success in practicum.
The above studies have led, at least, to two conclusions. First, they stress that USs and CTs
are key participants in practicum and their effectiveness on practicum plays a great role in the
success or failure of STs' practicum experiences. Second, they have shown the importance of
investigating the effectiveness of practicum not only from the supervisors and/or
administrators' perspectives, but also from the perspectives of the STs themselves since they
are the ones who are immediately positively or negatively influenced by the overall practicum
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experience and could give an accurate account of practicum. Therefore, the current research
study has made this as the sole focal point of investigation.
4. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The overall experience of STs during practicum is a byproduct of the interaction between all
factors directly or indirectly related to practicum such as: the school environment, STs
themselves, practicum supervisors, practicum administrators, the length of practicum period,
etc. These factors individually and/or collectively play a significant role in the success or
failure of STs' practicum experience. Using descriptive statistics, the current study
investigates the effectiveness of certain practicum factors on STs' practicum experiences.
4.1 Questionnaire Development In order to answer the research questions mentioned earlier, a 25 item Likert-type
questionnaire was developed to collect data pertaining to STs' perceptions of those practicum
factors delineated in the research questions. The perception measures were formed in
statements to which the participants were asked to rate their perceptions on a five-point scale
ranging from "strongly agree" to "strongly disagree". The questionnaire was given to three
experts in TEFL and education to check its content and face validity. Based on their
comments and suggestions a second version was created and administered to a group of STs
(N=26) to rectify any difficulties the respondents had and at the same time to re-check face
and content validity. Some minor changes were made and a final version of the instrument
containing 25 items was created. Copies of the final draft were distributed to 158 female
TEFL STs during the last weeks of practicum in the second semester of the academic year
2006-2007. 109 copies were collected constituting a 69% return rate. The reliability of the
questionnaire was measured using Guttman split-half correlation analysis. A 0.83 reliability
estimate was achieved using Unequal-length Spearman Brown Prophecy Correction Formula.
4.2 Participants
The participants were in the fourth and final year of their study in the TEFL undergraduate
program at AUST. They joined practicum since they had already completed 105 or more
credit hours and took the required courses in the art of pedagogy. The university supervisors
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randomly placed the STs into 20 UAE schools in three major educational zones (Sharja,
Ajman, and Fujairah). STs were also assigned to cooperating teachers immediately after they
arrived at the host schools. They were also allowed to register for some courses at the college
in the afternoon period. The USs were supposed to visit STs sporadically (once a week)
whereas CTs' supervision of the STs was almost daily. The STs' final evaluation grade was
divided as follows: 70 % for USs, 20% for CTs, 10% for school principal.
4.3 The Significance Of The Study
Teacher education programs assign great human and material resources for practicum every
year to guarantee its success and effectiveness. Thus, research studies in this area are of great
importance and value for teacher education programs, practicum, practicum supervisors, and
prospective teachers themselves. Such studies help educators and program designers make
sound decisions related to practicum and practicum supervision and base such professional
decisions on solid grounds. Therefore, the need for more research studies on the effectiveness
of practicum and practicum supervision continues to be necessary especially for those studies
that investigate the perceptions of the STs themselves since they are the immediate
beneficiaries of practicum. Consequently, the current study is expected to add to the creation
of a body of knowledge concerning the effectiveness of practicum and practicum supervisors.
It could also be a source for the development of practicum, the re-conceptualization of
practicum supervision, and the further research activities.
4.4 Limitations of the Study
The limitations of this study include, but not limited to, the scope and size of the sample and
the methodology of data collection. All the participants in the current study are of one major
(i.e., TEFL) and the research methodology is limited to the use of closed-ended questionnaire.
Thus, triangulation of the findings is necessary for future studies and this requires the
employment of other research methodologies such as interviews, observation, document
analysis, and the use of open-ended questionnaires.
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5 RESULTS
The data was computed using SPSS analysis and the results are displayed in Tables (1-12)
below. Each table contains numerical summaries of the participants' perceptions of each
specific parameter. These figures facilitate understanding of the range of responses to each
parameter and allow comparing the participants' responses. Means, minimums, maximums,
standard deviations, and sometimes percentages are used to present the results and provide
answers to the research questions outlined earlier. The following section is a presentation of
the results.
5.1 The Overall Benefit from Practicum and Practicum Supervisors
To what extent do the participants believe that they have benefited from practicum and
practicum supervisors? The benefit was measured by the overall benefit STs obtained from
the overall practicum experience, the USs, and the CTs. The means and small standard
deviations shown in Table 1 indicate that the majority of the participants have high and
positive perceptions towards these three factors.
Table 1: The Overall Benefit of Student Teachers from Practicum and Practicum Supervisors
N0. % Min Max M SD Overall Practicum
University Supervisors
Cooperating Teachers
109
108
108
100
94.5
92.6
4.00
2.00
1.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
4.68
4.60
4.44
.47
.64
.74 5.2 The Sufficiency of the Practicum Duration Period
To what extent do the participants believe that the duration period of practicum is adequate?
As illustrated in Table 2, the participants' perception of the adequacy of the practicum
duration period shows a slightly low rating compared to the ratings of the other factors. The
duration period of practicum has received a statistical value of (M=3.63, SD=1.29) which is
still higher than the benchmark average (M=3.0). However, about one quarter of the
participants (22.2%) have indicated a negative perception about the adequacy of the practicum
period and about 10.2% of the respondents were unsure of their perception.
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Table2. The Adequacy of Practicum Duration Period
N0. % Min Max M SD Practicum Duration Period 108 67.6 1.00 5.00 3.63 1.29
5.3 The Appropriateness of Host School Environment
To what extent do the participants believe that the host school environment is appropriate?
General and specific statements about the host school environment: its appropriateness, the
availability of teaching resources, the number of opportunities available for STs to teach, and
the general atmosphere at school as presented by CTs are used to measure the appropriateness
of the host school environment. The statistical figures shown in Table 3 indicate that the
majority of the participants have high and positive perceptions about the appropriateness of
the host school environment.
Table 3: The Appropriateness of the Host School Environment
N0. % Min Max M SD
Appropriateness of School Environment 109 93.1 2.50 5.00 4.39 .52
5.4 University Supervisors' Effectiveness
What are the profiles of the participants' perceptions on the effectiveness of university
supervisors? Nine items have been designed to collect data to answer the fourth question. As
shown in Table 4, the effectiveness of USs obtained a significant statistical value of M=4.5
and SD=.54. These figures indicate that most STs have positive perceptions regarding the
influence of USs on their practicum experience.
Table 4: University Supervisors' Effectiveness on Student Teachers' Practicum Experience
N0. % Min Max M SD
University Supervisors' Effectiveness
109 2.44 5.00 4.5 .54
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5.5 Cooperating Teachers' Effectiveness
What are the profiles of the participants' perceptions on the effectiveness of cooperating
teachers? Table 5 summarizes the overall participants' perceptions of the effectiveness of CTs
on STs' practicum experience. As shown in Table 5, the SPSS analysis has resulted in a
significant statistical value (M=4.24, SD= .63). These statistical values are indications of the
positive perception that most STs have regarding the impact of the CTs on STs' practicum
experience.
Table 5: Cooperating Teachers' Effectiveness on Student Teachers' Practicum Experience
N0. Min Max M SD
Cooperating Teachers' Effectiveness
109 1.67 5.00 4.24 .63
5.6 Practicum Supervisors' Effectiveness on Various Parameters
The participants' perceptions of the effectiveness of the practicum supervisors has been
further analyzed and classified into three main parameters (i.e., professional, personal, and
procedural) as shown in Table 6.
Table 6: Practicum Supervisors' Effectiveness on Various Parameters
N0. % Min Max M SD
Professional
Personal
Procedural
109
109
109
91.70
92.83
90.90
3.00
2.75
2.13
5.00
5.00
5.00
4.43
4.43
4.30
.44
.52
.56
5.6.1 Professional Parameter
The professional parameter refers to the practicum supervisors' guidance and feedback related
to the art of pedagogy and the overall professional concerns. To be specific, the professional
parameter was measured by asking STs to rate their perceptions on: the overall benefit STs
gained from practicum supervisors, the usefulness and clarity of the feedback, and the form of
the feedback STs received. The effectiveness of the practicum supervisors on STs'
professional parameter obtained a high statistical value of M=4.43 and SD=.44 as shown in
Table 6. This indicates that the majority of the STs believe that the supervisors are effective in
their guidance and feedback regarding the art of pedagogy. Table 7 shows the statistics of a
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further item analysis of the professional parameter. This analysis has shown that the
participants have high and positive perceptions of the benefit gained from practicum
supervisors (94.5%), the clarity and usefulness of feedback (90.8%), and the provision of
written feedback (89.9%).
Table 7: Supervisors' Effectiveness on the Professional Parameter
N0. % Min Max M SD Gained Benefits
Usefulness of Feedback
Written Feedback
109
109
109
94.5
90.8
89.9
2.00
1.00
2.50
5.00
5.00
5.00
4.48
4.42
4.35
.55
.65
.58
5.6.2 Personal Parameter
The personal parameter refers to the nature of the relationship and the general atmosphere
created between practicum supervisors and STs. The practicum supervisors' effectiveness on
the STs' personal parameter was measured by asking STs to rate their perceptions on: the
supervisors' emotional support and their role in solving problems STs faced during practicum.
The participants have ascribed a high statistical value (M=4.43, SD=.52) to the effectiveness
of practicum supervisors on this parameter as shown in Table 6. Further item analysis has
been also carried out on the personal parameter as shown in Table 8. It shows that 96.8% of
the participants seem to believe that the practicum supervisors are a source of emotional
support to STs and 88.9% believe that the supervisors are effective in solving problems STs
face during practicum.
Table 8: Supervisors' Effectiveness on the Personal Parameter
N0. % Min Max M SD Emotional Support
Solving Problems 109
109
96.8
88.9
2.50
2.00
5.00
5.00
4.59
4.21
.47
.77
5.6.3 Procedural Parameter
The procedural parameter refers to the steps and routines followed by practicum supervisors
in carrying out the professional and personal assistance and guidance. This parameter was
measured by asking the participants to rate their perceptions of the supervisors' in advance
check of STs' lesson plans, accessibility and availability, and the number of observation and
evaluation visits. The majority of participants (M=4.30, SD=.57) have shown positive
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perceptions towards the effectiveness of practicum supervisors on the procedural parameter
with a marginal difference as shown in Table 6. Further item analysis has also been carried
out on this parameter, as shown in Table 9.
Table 9: Supervisors' Effectiveness on the Personal Parameter
N0. % Min Max M SD Lesson Plan Checks
Supervisor Accessibility
Observation Visits
Evaluation Visits
109
109
108
109
87.40
93.95
93.40
88.85
1.50
1.00
2.00
1.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
5.00
4.20
4.37
4.30
4.36
.75
.71
.70
.83
The analysis shows that the majority of the participants have indicated that the supervisors
checked their lesson plans in advance (87.4%), made themselves accessible for the STs
(93.95%), and observed the number of observation and evaluation visits (93.4% and 88.85%,
respectively).
5.7 Feedback Consistency
To what extent do participants believe that they have received consistent feedback and
guidance from university supervisors and cooperating teachers? Table 10 illustrates the
participants' perceptions on the consistency of the feedback STs have received from practicum
supervisors and whether or not the supervisors share identical views on basic teaching styles.
It is assumed that if the two practicum supervisors have identical views on basic teaching
styles, they will provide STs with consistent guidance. The statistical analysis illustrated in
Table 10 shows that STs have moderate perceptions on supervisors' feedback consistency (M
= 3.73, SD = 1.31) and identical teaching styles (M = 3.89, SD = 1.06).
Table 10: The Practicum Supervisors' Feedback Consistency
N0. % Min Max M SD
Feedback Consistency
Basic Teaching Styles
109
109
74.5
70.6
1
1
5.00
5.00
3.73
3.89
1.31
1.06
5.8 Perception Differences on Practicum Supervisors' Effectiveness
Are there any significant differences between the participants' perceptions on the effectiveness
of university supervisors and cooperating teachers? One way ANOVA has been used to
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answer this question. The analysis shows that there is a significant difference in favor of USs
(p = .05 and df = 17), as shown in Table 11.
Table 11: Perceptions Differences on Practicum Supervisors' Effectiveness
Sum of Square df Mean
Square F Sig
Between Groups
Within Groups Total
10.34
32.18
42.52
17
91
108
.61
.35
1.72 .05
Further analysis using Pearson Chi-Square Tests has been carried out to identify the areas
where the presumed differences exactly exist. Based on the statistics illustrated in Table 12,
statistically significant differences have been found in the following areas: the clarity and
usefulness of the feedback (Value = 19.19, p = .001), the written feedback (Value =12.16, p =
.016), solving Problems STs faced (Value = 13.70, p = .008) checking lesson plans in advance
(Value = 25.55, p = .00), and number of evaluation visits (Value = 10.06, p = .04).
Table 12: STs' Perceptions of Differences on Practicum Supervisors' Effectiveness
Items
University Supervisors Cooperating Teachers Pearson Chi-Square Tests
Count Agreement rate %
Count Agreement rate %
Value df Sig (2-sided)
Prof
essio
nal
Para
met
er Overall Benefit
103
95.4
101
93.5 4.09 4 .39
Clear/useful feedback
99 91.7 97
89.8 19.19 4 .001 *
Written Feedback
101 92.6 95 87.2 12.16 4 .016 *
Pers
onal
Pa
ram
eter
Friendliness and Support
104
96.3
106
97.3 4.48 3 .21
Help to Solve Problems
97 89.1 94 88.7 13.70 4 .008 *
Proc
edur
al
Para
met
er
In Advance Lesson Plan 103 95.4 85 79.4 25.55 4 .00 *
Accessibility
102 93.6 99 94.3 3.522 4 .48
No. of Observation Visits
98 91.6 100 95.2 3.54 4 .47
No. of Evaluation Visits
97 89.0 95 88.7 10.06 4 .04 *
* The statistic calculated values is found to be 9.49 and p = 0.05.
6 DISCUSSION The purpose of this study was to examine the participants' perceptions of the effectiveness of
practicum, in general, and the effectiveness of practicum supervisors, in particular, on STs'
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practicum experience. The results have indicated that the effectiveness of the practicum and
the practicum supervisors on the STs' practicum experience was positive as perceived by the
majority of the participants. The statistical figures shown in Table 1 indicate that all
participants (100%) benefited from practicum. Similarly, the majority of the participants
(93.5%) have pointed out that they benefited from practicum supervisors. These findings are
in line with what has been revealed in several other research studies (e.g Guyton and
McIntyre, 1990; Ovens, 2003; Smith & Lev-Ari, 2005; Anderson, 2007; Haigh et al. 2006) in
which the researchers have asserted the importance of practicum for STs to acquire various
teaching skills in planning, executing, and creating effective learning activities and evaluating
students' performance.
The time-factor in the current study obtained the lowest rate (M = 3.63, SD = 1.29) amongst
the rest of the practicum factors as shown in Table 2. These figures indicate that a good
number of the respondents believe that the practicum duration period (i.e., 16 weeks) was
moderately adequate. In subsequent formal and informal follow up discussions, some USs,
CTs, and STs expressed that they preferred if the period of practicum would be broken into
two or three stages each taking place at separate period of time. This view was also bluntly
expressed by some TEFL graduates and school teachers and representatives during the visit of
the academic accreditation committee to the TEFL program at AUST College of Education in
2008. Such voices did not question the length of the period which is necessary to understand
the intricacies of the school environment and students of various ages and grade levels
(McCullick, 2001)
The STs' perception of the appropriateness of host school environment was measured by three
main factors: the availability of teaching resources, the number of teaching opportunities
available for STs every week, and the general atmosphere at school measured by the STs'
relationship with the CTs. The findings have revealed positive perceptions and satisfaction
towards the host school environment (M = 4.33, SD = .51), as shown in Table 3. This is
supported by other research findings found in Cameron and Wilson (1993), Edwards and
Protheroe (2003), Ovens (2003), and Haigh et al. (2006) in which these researchers have
indicated that the school environment represented by the staff room and resource availability
is an effective enabler or hinderer of practicum to many STs. Other researchers such as Haigh
et al. (2006) have shown that the host school environment goes far beyond the immediate
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school and classroom walls to include the broader political, cultural, and social elements that
could have a great impact on the STs' practicum experience.
The study also focuses on the effectiveness of USs and CTs on STs' practicum experience.
The findings have indicated that the majority of the participants revealed positive perceptions
regarding the effectiveness of USs and CTs on STs' practicum experience, as shown in Tables
4 and 5. Other research findings found in Edward (1987), Allan and Jan (1996), and Enz et al.
(1996) have confirmed that STs attribute the success of practicum and the pedagogical
knowledge they gain to the powerful influences of USs and CTs.
As mentioned earlier, the effectiveness of practicum supervisors is classified into
professional, personal, and procedural parameters, each of which focuses on a number of
issues pertaining to the overall composition of that parameter. Professionalism constitutes the
backbone of the teaching process. This justifies the attention given by the practicum
supervisors to the professional parameter, as shown by the statistics in Tables 6 and 7. The
majority of the participants agreed that the practicum supervisors were effective at the
professional level. They seem to lay a special emphasis on the nature and frequency of the
feedback and they not only provided STs with clear and useful feedback, but they also
provided them with written feedback to refer to at any time. Similarly, the majority of the
participants as illustrated in table 6 and 8 indicated that the practicum supervisors were
effective in the personal parameter: they were a source of emotional support (96.8%) and they
helped in solving problems STs faced during practicum (88.9%). Furthermore, most of the
STs expressed positive perceptions towards the practicum supervisors' effectiveness on the
procedural parameter, as shown in Tables 6 and 9. The practicum supervisors appear to
adhere to their roles as prescribed in the practicum manual. They constantly checked the STs'
lesson plans in advance (87.4%), were accessible for the STs (93.95%), and observed the
number of the required observation and evaluation visits (93.4% and 88.85%, respectively).
Such findings are supported by evidence revealed in various other research studies mentioned
in the literature review in which USs and CTs are looked as effective sources of professional
information related to planning lessons, designing and executing teaching activities,
evaluating students' performance, tackling discipline problems (Cameron and Wilson, 1993;
Enz et al., 1996; Haigh et al., 2006; Wilson, 2006; and Caires and Almeida, 2007), and a
source of emotional support (Wallace, 1991; Smith and Ardle, 1994; Beck and Kosnik, 2000).
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23
On the other hand, other researchers have stressed that carrying out practicum within an
atmosphere of friendship and trust boosts STs' confidence and encourages them to experiment
with new innovative teaching techniques (Talvitie et al. 2000).
The data analysis has shown that a reasonable number of the STs (74.5%) believed that the
USs and CTs provided them with consistent feedback and guidance and a slightly smaller
number of STs (70.6%) indicated that the practicum supervisors shared similar views on basic
teaching styles. The figures presented in Table10 show that STs seemed to appreciate the
practicum supervisors' feedback. In spite of this, still a considerable number of the
participants (25.5%, in the first case and 29.4%, in the second one) indicated negative
perceptions or, at least, they were not sure of their perceptions towards these two issues.
These findings show the critical need for further research work on the nature of feedback STs
receive during practicum and the necessity for creating proper and effective communication
channels between practicum supervisors.
Despite the fact that the majority of STs seem to have high perceptions of the practicum
supervisors' effectiveness on their practicum experience, one way ANOVA analysis of
variance has shown some statistically significant differences in the effectiveness of USs and
CTs in favor of USs, as shown in Table 11. Furthermore, a paired-item analysis using Pearson
Chi-Square Tests has shown the areas of these perceived differences, as illustrated in Table
12. The majority of the participants seem to perceive USs as being more effective in various
areas such as feedback clarity and usefulness (P=.001), in advance check of STs' lesson plan
(P=.00), problem-solving (P=.008), and the number of evaluation visits (P=.04). These
differences need not be taken for granted but they ought to be read and interpreted with
caution since they might not reflect actual differences. These findings are in contrast with
research findings revealed by studies such as Anderson (2007), Hickson et al. (2006), Talvitie
et al. (2000), Wilson (2006), and Hamman et al. (2009) in which the researchers have stressed
the CTs' vital role in the professional development of STs. Moreover, Anderson (2007) has
confirmed that STs have found their interactions with CTs more fruitful than with USs and
some other researchers such as Guillaume and Rudney (1993) and Talvitie et al. (2000) have
revealed that CTs seem to invest more time with STs than USs. Such discrepancy among
research findings can be explained from various angles. First, they could be partially due to
the fact that most CTs might not be fully aware of their exact role and responsibilities during
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24
practicum or they perceive their role as peripheral especially since they do not have a strong
voice in the STs' final pass/fail evaluation grade. This might have an impact on the way STs
perceive and receive CTs' role compared to USs' role. Second, probably the host school
environment and practicum policies might justify such contradictory research findings. In
some environments, for instance, STs reside in host schools and completely cut off from their
colleges for the whole period of training except some occasional visits done by university
supervisors, as highlighted by Anderson (2007). In some other environments such as the one
of the current study, STs have the advantage to contact the university supervisors almost daily
either at the host school or at college. In addition, the role of USs appears to be greater than
that of the CTs. They are assigned a high percentage in the final evaluation of STs (70%) as
specified in the practicum manual. Moreover, they administer almost all STs' academic and
non-academic activities during practicum including their interactions with CTs.
7 RECOMMENDATIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
The findings of the current study are relevant to practicum, practicum supervision, and teacher
education programs. Taking into consideration the limitations of the study, teacher educators
need to reconsider the role of CTs. CTs need to be fully involved in the practicum process and
take a greater role in the final evaluation of STs (Willson, 2006). More cooperation,
collaboration, and communication amongst USs and CTs are essential to increase the level of
feedback consistency and ensure the absence of non-contradictory feedback. Further research
activities on the various practicum factors and further exploration of the unheard voices (i.e.,
student teachers) would shed more light on the effectiveness of practicum. In addition,
effective and proper communication channels need to be established and maintained between
all practicum participants taking into account the full involvement of CTs in the supervision
and evaluation process. Another factor worthy to consider is the duration period of practicum.
It might be more effective and fruitful if the period is broken into two or three main stages
each done at a separate period of time. Further research activities using large and diverse
sample including STs of various majors, USs, CTs, and school and practicum administrators
employing various research methodologies such structured and unstructured interviews, open
and closed-ended questionnaires, observations, and document analysis are essential to
uncover the intricacies and elements of practicum and the impact of all of this on the
professional and personal development of prospective teachers. Similarly, it is worth to
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investigate and compare the effectiveness of university supervisors and cooperating teachers
and investigate the underlying reasons behind any differences if found to shed more light on
practicum.
8 CONCLUSION
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of practicum and practicum
supervisors on the practicum experiences of STs. The findings of the current study have
shown that the majority of the participants agreed that most of the practicum factors seem to
be effective. However, certain research evidence has shown the need to revise certain
practicum elements such as the duration period of practicum and the involvement of
cooperating teachers to guarantee their full participation and effectiveness in practicum.
Further research activities of a wide scope employing various research methods are essential,
especially in the Arab region, to create a comprehensive picture and global understanding of
practicum.
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