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Spring 2020
Leveraging Maternal Rhetoric, Space, and Experience: La Leche Leveraging Maternal Rhetoric, Space, and Experience: La Leche
League's Emergence as a Counterpublic League's Emergence as a Counterpublic
Jenny Lynn Moore Old Dominion University, jmoor090@odu.edu
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Recommended Citation Recommended Citation Moore, Jenny L.. "Leveraging Maternal Rhetoric, Space, and Experience: La Leche League's Emergence as a Counterpublic" (2020). Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Dissertation, English, Old Dominion University, DOI: 10.25777/5wr2-p133 https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/english_etds/104
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LEVERAGINGMATERNALRHETORIC,SPACE,ANDEXPERIENCE:LALECHELEAGUE’S
EMERGENCEASACOUNTERPUBLIC
by
JennyLynnMooreB.A.Dec.2004,NortheasternStateUniversityM.A.Dec.2009,NortheasternStateUniversity
ADissertationSubmittedtotheFacultyof OldDominionUniversityinPartialFulfillmentofthe
RequirementsfortheDegreeof
DOCTOROFPHILOSOPHY
ENGLISH
OLDDOMINIONUNIVERSITYMay2020
Approvedby:
LindalBuchanan(Co-Director)
DavidMetzger(Co-Director)
JuliaRomberger(Member)
CarolynSkinner(Member)
ABSTRACT
LEVERAGINGMATERNALRHETORIC,SPACE,ANDEXPERIENCE:LALECHELEAGUE’SEMERGENCEASACOUNTERPUBLIC
JennyLynnMoore
OldDominionUniversity,2020Co-Directors:Dr.LindalBuchananDr.DavidMetzger
Foroversixdecades,theinternational,mother-to-motherbreastfeedingsupport
organizationLaLecheLeague(LLL)hasbeenhelpingwomenbreastfeedsuccessfully.LLL
wasformedatatimewhenthedominantideologyofscientificmotherhoodframed
mothersasobedientadherentstophysicians’strictguidelines,whichencouragedbottle-
feedinganddiscouragedclosemother-childbonds.LLLhasbeencreditedwithchallenging
scientificmotherhood,transformingmedicaldiscourseandpracticessurroundinginfant
feeding,andpromptingthemedicalprofessionaltoacceptmothers’activeinvolvementin
decision-making;yet,paradoxically,ithasalsoconstrainedmothersbyreducingwomento
theirmaternalbiology,discouragingmothersfromparticipatinginthepublicsphere,and
alienatingeconomicallychallenged,working,minority,andlesbianmothers.Whilescholars
havestudiedtheparadoxicalnatureoftheorganization,therehasbeennoin-depthstudy
oftherhetoricalstrategiesthatLLLemployedinordertogainadispersedaudienceof
dedicatedsupportersandaffectsignificantchange.
ThisdissertationtracestheearlyhistoryofLLL,withafocusontheperiodbetween
1956and1963,toarguethatLLL’smaternalrhetoricwasthekeytoitsdevelopmentintoa
significantcounterpublicthatwouldtransformthemedicalprofession’sviewson
breastfeedingandtheroleofmothers.IarguethatLLLsubversivelyreclaimedthe
domesticspaceofthehometocreateamaternalspacewhichwouldoperateasa“parallel
discursivearena”(Fraser68)inwhichtheorganizationwoulddevelopits
counterdiscourseanditsphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood.IsuggestthatLLL’s
employmentofmaternalrhetorictocraftanorganizationalethosframedmothersasthe
naturalauthoritiesonchildcareandinfantfeeding.Thismaternalrhetoricledtoitssuccess
inbuildingacounterpublicmadeupofanarmyofbreastfeedingmotherswhowereableto
createtheirownmaternalspacesthatwouldallowthemtoeffectivelyresistthestatusquo.
Finally,Iassertthatinofferingarhetoricaleducationtohelpmothersemploy
maternalrhetoricintheirindividualactsofresistance,LLL’scounterpublicunderwenta
projectofcollectiveethosformationthatwouldpromptthemedicalprofessiontore-
evaluateitsunderstandingofinfantfeedinganditsviewoftheroleofmothersindecision-
makingregardinghealthcare.LLLthusincreasedmothers’options,autonomy,and
authority,outcomeswhichIcontendarefeministinnature.
v
ForConnor,whofrequentlyaskswhenI’ll“finallybedonewritingthatbook”.Youmakemelaugheveryday.Thankyou.
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Ioweatremendousamountofgratitudetoanumberofpeoplefortheirsupportand
guidancethroughouttheprocessofwritingthisdissertation.First,IwouldliketothankDr.
LindalBuchanan,whoservedasaco-chaironmydissertationcommittee.Dr.Buchananis
anexceptional,dedicatedscholarwhoseworkintheareaofmaternalrhetoricswas
inspirationaltome.Generouswithhertimeandknowledge,Dr.Buchananprovideda
significantamountofsupportwhileshechallengedmeinwaysthathelpedmegrowasa
scholar.Herenthusiasmfortheprojectandherregardformeasascholarsustainedme
whenIfoundmyselfstruggling.Icountmyselfluckytohavebenefittedfromherguidance
throughouttheprocess.
IamverythankfultoDr.DavidMetzger,whoservedwhoservedasco-chaironmy
committee,forposingintriguingquestionsthatopenedupnewavenuesofexplorationfor
thisproject.IwasconsiderablyhonoredtohaveDr.CarolynSkinnerserveasamemberof
mycommittee.Herscholarshipexploringthewayinwhichwomenrhetorscanharnessthe
affordancesoftheirmarginalizedpositionstodevelopethosandengageincollective
rhetoricalactioninfluencedmythinkingagreatdeal.IamverygratefulforDr.Skinner’s
insightfulquestionsandfeedback,whichhelpedmethinkthroughcomplextheoretical
aspectsoftheproject.IamverygratefultoDr.JuliaRomberger,whoisanastutescholar
andadedicatedteacher.Dr.Romberger’sinstructionprovedvaluableinhelpingme
conductvisualanalysisandthinkthroughthecomplexitiesofsocialnetworks.Iappreciate
Dr.Romberger’sthoughtfulfeedbackandperceptivequestions.
vii
AnumberofothermembersofODU’sfacultymembers,currentandformer,
providedfeedbackonearlypiecesofthisproject,andIamgratefultothemfortheir
supportandguidance.IoffermysincerethankstoMorgenMacIntoshHodgetts,Special
CollectionsInstructionLibrarian/ArchivistatDePaulUniversity’sRichardsonLibrary,and
herstaffinSpecialCollectionsforsupportingmyresearchbyhelpingmemaximizemytime
inthearchives.
MypeersinOldDominionUniversity’sPhDinEnglishprogramprovidedmewitha
greatdealofmoralsupportthroughouttheprogramandthedissertationprocess.Iam
gratefulinparticulartoAprilCobosandSarahMoseley,whoofferedvaluablefeedbackon
multipledraftsthroughouttheprocessofcompletingthedissertation.
TherearesevenwomenwhoIfeelImustrecognizefortheirtenacityand
generousnessofspirit.MarianTompson,MaryWhite,MaryAnnCahill,MaryAnnKerwin,
EdwinaFroehlich,ViolaLennon,andBettyWagnerstartedLaLecheLeaguewiththegoalof
helpingoneanothernavigatemotherhoodinthewaythatmadethemostsensetothem,
andinsodoing,theyempoweredmotherstotakechargeoftheirmaternalexperiences.
Today,LaLecheLeagueInternationalisstillhelpingwomen.Theyareaninspiration.
Finally,Iwouldliketothankmyfamily.Myparents,TommyandSherryStephens,
havebeencheeringmeonandencouragingmetopursuemygoalsallofmylife,andthey
gavemethecouragetoso.Mysister,JessicaStephens,groundedmeandliftedmyspiritsas
onlyasisterwhoalsohappenstobealifelongfriendcoulddo.Myspouseandco-parent,
Charles,hasmyimmensegratitudeforprovidinganinvaluableamountofemotionaland
practicalsupportthroughoutmydoctoralstudies.HehasmadesurethatIhadthetimeand
spacetodevotetomystudies,butthatIalsotaketimetohaveotherkindsoffun.
viii
TABLEOFCONTENTS
Page
LISTOFTABLES........................................................................................................................................................xLISTOFFIGURES.....................................................................................................................................................xiChapterI.INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................................................1
FramingLLLRhetorically.......................................................................................................................7ExaminingLLLThroughaFeministLens.....................................................................................15LLL’sNaturalMotherhood..................................................................................................................23MaternalSpaceandLLL.......................................................................................................................32CreatingTextualOutreach..................................................................................................................36OverviewofChapters............................................................................................................................44TheComplexOutcomesofLLL’sPhilosophyandMaternalRhetoric...............................48
II.ACUSTOM-MADECLUBFORMOTHERS:CREATINGMATERNALSPACESAND
RECLAIMINGMATERNALAUTHORITYANDEXPERIENCE.........................................................52Rhetoric,MaternalSpace,andMotherhoodinthe1950s.......................................................59ChildbirthandMaternalSpace............................................................................................................68EstablishingLLLWithinMaternalSpace........................................................................................78PersuadingMotherstoResistDominantPractices....................................................................86TheGrowthofLLL’sHorizontalNetwork......................................................................................96Conclusion....................................................................................................................................................99III.CRAFTINGA“WOMANLYART”:TRANSLATINGMATERNALSPACEAND
LOCALMOTHER-TO-MOTHERSUPPORTINTOTEXTS.............................................................102TheDevelopmentofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding......................................................106MaternalRhetoricinTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding.....................................................114DevelopingMaternalEthos...............................................................................................................120EstablishingMaternalAuthorityandInspiringSelf-Confidence......................................127MaternalRhetoricandtheDevelopmentofMaternalSpace.............................................138Conclusion................................................................................................................................................147
IV.THEREVOLUTIONARIESWOREPEARLS:RHETORICALEDUCATIONINEARLYLALECHELEAGUETEXTS.......................................................................................................150MaternalRhetoricinLLL’sRhetoricalEducation...................................................................156CollectiveRhetoricalActionandtheBuildingofaCounterpublic...................................176TheImpactofLLLOnDominantPracticesandSocialNormsSurroundingInfantFeedingandMotherhood..................................................................................................................184
ix
ChapterPageV.CONCLUSION:“WECAMEWANTINGTOLEARNTHEARTOFBREASTFEEDING.WEFOUNDAWAYOFLIFE.”.................................................................................................................189WORKSCITED.......................................................................................................................................................204APPENDIX:COPYRIGHTPERMISSION.......................................................................................................213VITA...........................................................................................................................................................................214
x
LISTOFTABLES
Table Page
1.TheWoman/Mothercontinuum.............................................................................................................122
xi
LISTOFFIGURES
Figure Page1.Gownsusedtorestrainwomenduringtwilightsleep.....................................................................712.Compactadvertisement..............................................................................................................................1163.TitlepagefromTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding.........................................................................1244.Copyrightpermission...................................................................................................................................213
1
CHAPTERI
INTRODUCTION
Inthesummerof1956,MarianTompsonandMaryWhite,twoyoungmiddle-class
mothers,wereattendingaChristianFamilyMovementpicnicintheirlocalCatholicparish
inFranklinPark,Illinois.Theywereapproachedbyanumberofotheryoungmotherswho
admiredtheeasewithwhichthetwobreastfeedingmothersfedtheirinfantswithno
formulatomixorwatertoheat.Severalwomensharedthattheyhadtriedtobreastfeed
buthadfailed.ThompsonandWhitehadfirst-handknowledgeofthewayinwhichthe
socialandideologicalclimateofthemid-twentiethcenturycontributedtobreastfeeding
difficulties,andtheyalsounderstoodthevalueofsupportfrommotherswhohadbreastfed
successfully.Thompsonproposedthattheyorganizeabreastfeedingsupportgroupfor
friends,acquaintances,andchurchmemberswhowouldbenefitfromthesupportof
experiencednursingmothers.
InOctoberof1956,sevenmothers—MarianTompson,MaryWhite,MaryAnnCahill,
MaryAnnKerwin,EdwinaFroehlich,ViolaLennon,andBettyWagner—beganamother-to-
motherbreastfeedingsupportgroupinthelivingroomoffoundingmotherMaryWhite
(Lowman,Revolutionaries16).Thoughthegroup,latercalledLaLecheLeague(LLL),
startedasanintimategroupoflike-mindedmothersmeetinginadomesticspace,withina
decade,theorganizationbegantosignificantlyinfluencemedicaldiscourse,medical
practices,andsocietalattitudestowardsmothersandmotherhood.ThefoundingofLLL,at
atimewhenmostphysiciansprescribedformulafeedingandthebreastfeedingratehad
fallento20%(“ABriefHistory”),wasthefirstinaseriesofrhetoricalactionsthatLLLtook
2
thatchallengeddominantnotionsofmotherhoodandtransformedmedicaldiscourse
regardinginfantfeeding.
Thenecessityforsuchanorganizationelucidatesthede-emphasisonexperience-
basedmotheringandthewidespreadlossofunderstandingofthephysiologyof
breastfeedingamongstbothmothersandmedicalprofessionals.Priortothemid-
nineteenthcentury,physicianshadlittletodowithchildcare,andmedicalcarewasgiven
bymothersinthehome(Apple,“PerfectMotherhood”3).Theprofessionalizationof
medicine,comprisedchieflyofmalephysicians,wasincreasinglylucrativeasmedical
professionalstooktheresponsibilityfordecision-makingaboutchildcareandnutrition
awayfrommothers.Asaresult,beginninginthelatenineteenthcentury,therewasan
increasingpushformotherstomakedecisionsbaseduponthechildcareadviceofferedby
medicalexpertswhosedisciplinaryknowledgewasbaseduponscientificobservation.Over
time,thisfocusonevidence-basedcaremorphedintoaheavyrelianceonspecific
directivesofferedbyphysicians.Bytheearlytwentiethcentury,theideologyofscientific
motherhood,whichprivilegedknowledgearisingfromscientificobservationoverfirst-
handmaternalexperienceandpromotedadetachedapproachtomotheringbasedupon
scientificprinciples,positionedAmericanmothersassubservienttoanddependentupon
theadviceofpediatricandimmunologicalprofessionals.Infantfeedingwasincreasingly
viewedasamechanicalprocesswiththesolegoalofmeetingthenutritionalneedsof
children.Thiswasalucrativedevelopmentforartificialformulamanufacturersandthe
pediatricsprofession,asmotherswereexpectedtorelyheavilyonphysician-directed
feedingschedules.
3
Initsinfancy,thesmallgroupofyoungsuburbanmotherswhomadeupLLLmay
haveseemedanunlikelygrouptosuccessfullychallengetheoppressiveinstitutionof
scientificmotherhoodandpromptthemedicalprofessiontochangeitsviewsandpractices,
butwithinadecade,theorganizationhadaninternationalnetworkofmother-to-mother
supportgroupsandrecognizedbymedicalprofessionalsasanauthorityonbreastfeeding.
Whileanumberofscholarsofhistoryandsocialscienceshaveexploredthelong-term
impactsofLLL,therehasnotbeenanexplorationoftherhetoricalmeansemployedbyLLL.
ThisdissertationprojectaimstouncoverhowthefoundersofLLLtransformedthe
organizationfromalocalsupportgrouptoawidespreadcounterpublicmadeupofanarmy
ofbreastfeedingmotherswhoembracedanalternativeideologyofmotherhoodandwere
preparedtorhetoricallyforegroundtraditionalvaluesassociatedwithmotherhoodasthey
engagedwiththedominantpublic,challengedthestatusquo,andprompteda
transformationofthemedicalestablishment.
Scientificmotherhooddidnotrecognizethatthelivedexperienceofmotherhood
wasanongoingexchangeinarelationshipbetweenauniquemotherandchildpair,andit
didnotvaluethemother-childbond;rather,itreducedmotherhoodtoadherencetoa
prescribedsetofguidelinesformaternalbehaviorsandactions.Itframedchildcareasa
mechanical,emotionallydetachedprocess;motherswerediscouragedfromholdingbabies
toofrequentlybecauseitwoulddiscourageindependence.Becauseoftheirheavy
dependenceonexperts,womenoftenlackedtheknowledgeandconfidencetodealwiththe
diverseandrapidlychangingneedsofchildren,andtheywereunabletoconfidently
provideeachotherwithpeer-to-peersupport.
4
In1956,thefoundersofLaLecheLeague,youngsuburbanChicagoCatholicmothers
whobelievedinbreastfeeding’semotionalandnutritionalbenefits,aimedtosolvethe
problemoflackoflocalsupportforbreastfeedingmothers.ThefirstvolumeofLaLeche
LeagueNews,firstpublishedin1958,identifiedthepurposeofthefirstLLLmeetingand
subsequentmeetings:“tohelpthesemothers,notonlytolearnthetechniquesof
breastfeeding,butmoreimportant,tohelpthemenjoytheresultantclosecommunionwith
theirbabiesthru[sic]arealizationoftheimportanceofasatisfyingmother-child
relationship”(1).Thegoalwastosupportmotherswhowishedtohavethekindofclose
emotionalbondwiththeirbabiesthatbreastfeedingcouldfacilitate.AccordingtoLinda
Blum’sAttheBreast:IdeologiesofBreastfeedingandMotherhoodintheContemporary
UnitedStates,LLLhasalwaysemphasizedan“embodied,relationalviewofmotherhood”
thatoffersanalternativeto“themechanistic,cold,andfinally,disembodiedmotheroffered
bymedicalauthorityinthelatetwentiethcentury”(63).ForLLL,itwasimperativethat
mothers’instinctsandfirst-handknowledgebevalued,asmothersareonthefrontlinesof
childcareandbecausethewidespreadmisunderstandinganddenigrationofbreastfeeding
hadpotentiallylife-threateningconsequencesforchildren.
LLL’sfoundersfeltthatwithknowledgegainedfromexperience,motherscould
judgeandrespondtotheirbabies’needs.Intheirview,individualbabies’needsareunique,
andthoseneedsincludeaneedforaclose,physicalbondwiththeirmothers.Theybelieved
thatbreastfeedingwasnotonlytheidealformofnourishment,butithelpedtofacilitatea
wayofmotheringthatledtoastrongmother-childbond.Anearly,strongbondbetween
motherandchildwascriticaltothefoundersofLLLbecausetheybelievedthatitmade
parentingeasierandhelpedthemtoraisewell-adjusted,psychologicallyhealthychildren.
5
Theyfeltthatanemotionalconnectionwiththeirbabieswasdifficulttoachievethrough
thedetachedpracticesofscientificmotherhood.Asanalternative,LLL’sfounders
developedaphilosophyofmotherhoodthatwascharacterizedbyabeliefinmaternal
instinct,positingthateachmotherhadaninnatesenseofhowtocareforandnurturea
childandrespondtohisorheruniqueneeds.Theypromotedthismodelofmotherhood
explicitlyandimplicitlythroughtheofferingofinformationandthemodelingofmother-
childrelationshipsintheirsupportgroupsandintheiroutreachmaterials.
Whilethegroupbeganmeetinginadomesticspace1956asawaytooffersupport
andinformationaboutbreastfeedinganditsroleinmotheringtowomenwithintheirsocial
circle,LLLexperiencedrapidgrowthwhenwordoftheorganizationspread.LLLhadto
holdadditionalmeetingstoaccommodatethewomenwhocametothemforaid.
Eventually,wordspreadoutsideofthelocalarea,andtheorganizationwasinundatedwith
phonecallsandlettersfromgeographicallydispersedwomen.Bylate1957,itwasclear
thatLLLwouldneedtofindawaytooffersupportandinformationtowomenfroma
distance.ByMayof1958,LLLhadassisted150motherslocally,hadprovidedtelephone
consultationtocountlessothers,andhadhostedpubliclecturesgivenbyhealth
professionals(LLLNews,1.1:1).In1958,LLLbegandevelopingoutreachmaterials,
includingLaLecheLeagueNews,andthebreastfeedingself-helpmanual,TheWomanlyArt
ofBreastfeeding,aswellasbuildinganetworkofmother-to-motherlocalsupportgroupsto
meettheneedsoftheirdistributedaudience.LLLcontinuedtogrow,anditofficially
becameaninternationalorganizationin1964.Bytheearly1980s,itwaspartneringwith
organizationssuchastheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO)andtheUnitedNations
Children’sFund(UNICEF).LLLcontinuestopromotebreastfeedingglobally,withbranches
6
inapproximately68countries,anditcontinuestopublishinformationalmaterials.LLL’s
eightheditionofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,whichwasfirstpublishedin1958,
becameanationalbestsellerin2010.
Inthisdissertationproject,IframetheearlydevelopmentofLLL,from1956tothe
mid-1960s,astheemergenceandspreadofacounterpublic.AccordingtoJennifer
EmerlingBone,counterpublicsaregroupsofpeoplewhoworkto“exposeanalternate
understandingtoprivateorpublicissuesandpubliclyresistandreconstructthose
dominantunderstandings”(20).BynarrowingmyfocustoLLL’searlyhistory,Iaimto
showhowamarginalized,disempoweredgroupofindividualscanorganizeandemploy
rhetoricalstrategiestoformasuccessfulcounterpubliccapableofinspiringchangewithin
thedominantpublic.Ratherthandirectlychallengingthemedicalestablishment,LLL’s
foundersemployedtheirmarginalizedstatusasmothersasevidencethattheybrought
somethingnewandimportanttodiscoursearoundinfantfeeding.Thefoundingofthe
organizationpredatedthewomen’shealthmovementofthe1960s,whichtookamore
directapproachtochallengingtheoppressionofwomenbytheinstitutionofmedicine.In
contrast,IarguethatLLLtookamuchmoretemperedapproachtoengagingwithmedical
professionalsandpushingbackagainstthenotionthatmothers’first-handexperiences
werenotavaluablesourceofknowledgewhileforegroundingtraditionalconcepts
associatedwithmotherhood.Inforegroundingthematernal,LLLcraftedamaternal
rhetoricfortheorganizationthatauthorizeditsresistancetothedominantideologyand
drewalargeaudienceofmothers.LLL’smaternalrhetorichelpedittransformitsaudience
intoacounterpublicthatwouldchallengedominantinfantfeedingdiscourseandpractices
andinspirechangeinthemedicalprofession.
7
Inordertoovercometheirmarginalizedpositionwithinsociety,LLL’sfoundersfirst
hadtoreclaimthedomesticspaceasasiteofmaternalauthority.Theenclaved,domestic
spaceofthemother-to-mothersupportgroupofferedasafesiteinwhichtodevelopand
practiceanalternativephilosophyofmotherhood.Thelocalmother-to-mothersupport
groupwassuccessfulinsupportinglocalmothers,butastheorganizationgainedattention,
LLLhadtosolvetheproblemofofferingsupporttogeographicallydispersedmothers.To
doso,itemployedmaternalrhetoric,appealingtotraditionalconceptsassociatedwith
motherhood,inordertoconvincemotherstoadoptandsuccessfullypracticeLLL’s
alternativeparadigmofmothering.InadditiontohelpingmothersadoptLLL’spracticesin
theirownhomes,LLLalsoneededtoofferrhetoricalstrategiestohelpnavigate
interactionswiththedominantpublic,particularlythemedicalprofession.Intheirtextual
outreach,LLLofferedmodelsandscriptsthatinstructedmotherstoforegroundtraditional
valuesandviewsofmotherhoodinordertojustifytheiractsofresistancetodominant
practices.
Incomingpages,Iwillreviewrelevantscholarshiponmotherhood,maternal
rhetoric,counterpublics,andgenderedspace;explainthetheoreticalframeworkguiding
myanalysisofLLL’srhetoricalpracticesanditsdevelopmentasacounterpublic;briefly
reviewtheorganization’sdevelopment;definekeytermsthatwillbeemployedthroughout
thedissertation;andpreviewthecontentoftheremainingchapters.
FRAMINGLLLRHETORICALLY
Inthischapterandthroughoutthedissertationproject,Iarguethattheactof
translatingtheorganization’sassertionsaboutmotheringandbreastfeeding,aswellasthe
8
supportivepracticesoftheirmother-to-mothersupportgroupmeetings,intowritingfora
geographicallydispersedaudiencemarkedtheemergenceofLLLastheleaderofanew
counterpublicthatresistedmainstreammedicaldiscourseregardinginfantfeedingand
childcare.“Counterpublic”isakeytermthatIemployinthisdissertationtocharacterize
thenatureofLLLanditsnetworkofbreastfeedingmothers.Asacounterpublic,the
networkofmotherswhomadeupLLLandembraceditsphilosophyandpractices
developedanalternativeunderstandingofmotherhoodandalternativediscourseon
breastfeedingthateventuallyreshapedthedominantpublic’sviewsontheseissues.
Theorganization’searlydevelopmentinthedomesticspaceofthemother-to-
mothersupportgroupallowedittodevelopasadiscoursecommunityseparatefromthe
discoursesofmedicineandnaturalchildbirth.Theorganization’sideaspercolatedina
privatespaceasmotherssharedtheirexperiences.Thismutualsharingofexperiences
revealedwhatkindofsupportwouldbemostbeneficialtowomenwhoaimedtoresist
mainstreampracticesandsocialpressures.Themother-to-mothersupportgroupbecamea
criticalbuildingblockofitscounterpublicthatNancyFraserdefinesasa“parallel
discursivearena,”orthelocationinwhich“membersofsubordinatedsocialgroupsinvent
andcirculatecounterdiscourses,whichinturnpermitthemtoformulateoppositional
interpretationsoftheiridentities,interests,andneeds”(Fraser67).In1958,thetranslation
ofLLL’sworkintowritinginTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingand“LaLecheLeague
News”markedthebeginningofthecirculationofLLL’scounterdiscourseamongsta
broadersegmentofsociety,whichwouldeventuallyreshapedominantdiscoursesoninfant
feedingandmothering.InexaminingthedevelopmentandcirculationofLLL’srhetoricof
breastfeedingsupport,Ihopetoshedlightontherhetoricalstrategiesthatmarginalized
9
groupscanemployinordertodevelopcounterpublicsthatleadtotherevisionofpowerful
institutionaldiscourses.Inparticular,IutilizeLindalBuchanan’sconceptof“maternal
rhetoric,”akeytermIemployinthisdissertationtodescribethewayinwhichLLL
leveragedtraditionalconceptsassociatedwithmotherhoodtoauthorizeresistanceto
dominantpracticesandideologieswhileframingthemselvesasgoodmothers.Thus,this
dissertationisanefforttocontributetoscholarshipattemptingtounderstandhowthe
construction,circulation,andimpactofmotherhoodenablesrhetorstoresist“dominant
systemsofgender,knowledge,andpower”(Buchanan124).
BytracingthetrajectoryofLLL’scontributiontodiscourseonmotherhoodand
infantfeeding,fromtheexigencethatledtotheorganization’sfoundingtotheimpactthat
LLLhadonprofessionalmedicaldiscourse,thisdissertationprojectservesasacasestudy
thatilluminatesthelifecycleofacounterpublicfromthetimethatthediscursive
communitydevelopsandthediscoursebeginstoemerge,tothetimethatthe
counterdiscoursebeginstobeadoptedintothemainstreamdiscourse.IapplyManuel
Castells’theoryoftheinteractionbetweenhorizontalandverticalnetworksinorderto
visualizehowLLL’scounterdiscoursetransformeddominantpracticesofinfantfeedingand
motherhood.Horizontalnetworksarecharacterizedbyahorizontalfloworsharingof
informationbetweenpeers,andverticalsocialnetworksarecharacterizedbyatop-down
flowofinformationfromanauthoritytoendusers.InRiseoftheNetworkSociety,Castells
positsthatashorizontal,peer-to-peernetworks,likethemother-to-mothernetwork
createdbyLLL,increasinglyinteractwithvertical,orauthoritativetop-downnetworks,
suchasprofessionalmedicaldiscourse,theverticalnetworkistransformedbythenew
informationintroducedbythehorizontalnetwork.TotracethetrajectoryofLLL’s
10
counterpublicanditsimpactonmainstreammedicaldiscourse,thisdissertationwill
examinethehistoricalcontextandexigencethatledtothefoundingofLLL,the
developmentofLLL’sbeliefsandassertionsaboutmotherhoodandinfantfeeding,the
foundingoftheorganizationandLLL’slocalmother-to-mothersupportgroup,the
translationoftheworkofthemother-to-mothersupportgroupintowritingforadispersed
audienceofmothers,therhetoricalforegroundingofmotherhoodandthematernalinLLL’s
activitiesandtextualoutreach,theinteractionsbetweenLLLandmedicalauthorities,and
theimpactofthoseinteractionsonprofessionalmedicaldiscourse.
LLL’srhetoricalforegroundingofmotherhoodandthematernalwasthekeytoits
growthanddevelopmentintoalarge,horizontalnetworkoflike-mindedmothers.LLL
focusedonanaudienceofmothersandpromotedmaternalexperienceasawayof
knowing.Inthisdissertationproject,Itracethewayinwhichtheorganizationemployed
maternalrhetoricsbyforegroundingmothersandtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodintheir
organizationalstructure.ThefoundersofLLLleveragedtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodto
inspiretheiraudiencetotrustandidentifywiththem,andtheyusedthecodetoframe
first-handmaternalexperienceasasourceofknowledge.
IrelyonLindalBuchanan’sRhetoricsofMotherhoodtounderstandtheaffordances
offeredthroughtherhetoricalforegroundingofmotherhood.Buchananexplainsthat
maternalrhetoricsareapowerfulresourcethatimbueswomenrhetorswithauthorityand
credibility,enablingthemtoresistandreshapesocialinstitutionsandgenderedcultural
codes.Maternalrhetoricsleveragethepositionofmothersinsocietytoargueforthe
authoritytospeakonissuesbyforegroundingtheculturalcodeof“mother,”which
“connotesamyriadofpositiveassociations,includingchildren,love,protection,
11
nourishment,altruism,morality,religion,self-sacrifice,strength,thereproductivebody,the
privatesphere,andthenation”(Buchanan9).Byinvokingtheseconceptspositively
associatedwithmothers,LLL’sfoundersconvincedtheiraudiencetotrustthem;however,
inforegroundingthematernalintheirrhetoricalefforts,theyreinforcedthegendered
statusquo,undergirdinggenderedstereotypesthatoftenlimitwomen’sstandinginthe
publicsphere.AsBuchananexplains,maternalrhetoricsareparadoxical,as“boththeir
forceandperilderivefromentrenchmentwithindominantsystemsofgender,knowledge,
andpower”(Buchanan5).Inemphasizingtraditionalvaluesassociatedwiththematernal,
LLLworkedtosubvertthestatusquopracticesofscientificmotherhoodandpromoteits
agendafromwithinthegenderedsystem;however,becauseitforegroundedmotherhood,
LLLriskedhavingitsaccomplishmentsinactivismandrhetoricmaskedbythegroup’s
maternalidentityandalignmentwithtraditionalvalues.Whileforegroundingmotherhood
canofferrhetorsapowerfultooltoassistthemastheyadvocateforchange,italso“hasthe
potentialtodiminishwomen’scomplexity,dimensions,andopportunities”(Buchanan23).
ThisiscertainlythecasewiththematernalrhetoricofLLL.
IarguethatLLL’sfoundingmothersadoptedavarietyofrhetoricalstrategiesthat
foregroundedmothersandestablishedfirst-handmaternalexperienceasasourceof
authority:theycraftedastrongmaternalethosfortheorganization;theyemployedlogical
andpatheticappeals;theychoseothermothersastheirprimaryaudience;theyaddressed
thosemothersasequalswithwhomtheycouldmutuallyshareinformationbasedon
experience;theypreferreddomesticspacesastheappropriatesettingforLLL’smother-to-
mothersupport-group,evenwhentheyhadotheroptions;theyofferedarhetorical
educationtoassisttheiraudienceofmothersinnavigatinginteractionswiththedominant
12
public;theydevelopedpartnershipswithphysicianswhosupportedtheirefforts;they
framedmotheringasanaturalactivitythatbenefittedmorefromfirst-handexperience
thantheinterventionofmedicalprofessionals;theyinvokedtheimageryofBiblical
mothers,suchasEveandtheMadonna,toimbuetheirmessagewiththeauthorityof
natureandreligion;andtheyreliedonvisualimagesofmotherstoestablishrelationships
withtheirdispersedaudience,underscorematernalauthority,andtomakepowerful
argumentsaboutthenatureofthemother-childrelationship.Byemployingmaternal
rhetoric,LLLwasabletoempowermotherstomakemoreinformedandauthoritative
decisionsaboutinfantcare,todevelopacounterpublicthatsuccessfullychallengedthe
dominantideologyofscientificmotherhood,andtoreshapethemedicalcommunity’s
attitudetowardbreastfeeding;thus,itplayedaroleintherevisionofdominantmedical
discourse.
MyunderstandingofLLL’smaternalrhetorichasbeeninformedbyprevious
scholarshipontherhetoricofmotherhood,medicine,andthematernalbody.Some
rhetoricianshavealreadyturnedtheirattentiontoreconstructingrhetoricalhistoriesin
someoftheseareas.ScholarssuchasSusanWells,SarahHallenbeck,andCarolynSkinner
eachstudiedthevariousrhetoricalstrategiesemployedbypostbellumwomenphysicians
andlaypersonactivistswhosuccessfullyenteredintoorshapedmedicaldiscourseby
challengingspatialsegregation,writingforpopularaudiences,andpromotingtheir
femininityanddomesticexperienceasanasset.CarolynSkinner’sWomenPhysiciansand
ProfessionalEthosinNineteenth-CenturyAmericaexplorestherhetoricalstrategiesthat
womenphysiciansusedtogainentranceandacceptanceintheprofessionalpracticeof
medicineinthenineteenthcentury.JudySegal’sHealthandtheRhetoricofMedicine
13
exploresthehistoryofdevelopmentsinmedicalrhetoric,particularlyasitpertainstothe
relationshipandbalanceofpowerinphysician/patientrelations.AmyKoerber’sBreastor
Bottle?:ContemporaryControversiesinInfantFeedingPolicyandPracticetracesthe
developmentofknowledgeofinfantfeedingwithinseveralsub-disciplinesofmedicineas
wellashowthatknowledgewasframedanddisseminatedinefforttoeducate
breastfeedingmothers.SusanWell’sOurBodies,OurselvesandtheWorkofWritingprovides
someinsightintothewayinwhichrhetoricsofthemedicalprofessionconstructed
knowledgeofwomen’shealthcareissuesandthewayinwhichthewomenoftheBoston
Women’sHealthBookCollectivechallengedthemedicalprofessionbyadaptingmedical
genresandlanguageinefforttocraftalayperson’sself-helptext.InTheRhetoricof
Pregnancy,MarikaSeigelexaminestherhetoricofpregnancymanualsineffortto
understandwhatroletheyplayinshapingwomen’sunderstandingsoftheirbodiesand
theirrolesinsocietyaswellastheirexperienceswithpregnancyandbirth.Thesetexts
haveinformedandinfluencedmyownthinkingabouttherhetoricityofmotherhood,
medicine,andthematernalbody,andIhopethatthisprojectwillcontributetothat
conversationinproductiveways.
PublisheddocumentsandarchivalmaterialsfromtheLaLecheLeagueInternational
RecordsatDePaulUniversityinChicagoweretheprimaryobjectsofstudyforthis
dissertation.Thetextualartifactsexaminedinthedissertationincludehighlyvisible
documents,suchasbreastfeedingmanuals,newsletters,journals,andorganizational
histories,aswellastheorganization’smundaneinternaldocuments,includingmeeting
minutesandcorrespondencewithmothersandwithphysicians.Thevalueofstudying
mundane,internaldocumentshasbeenexploredbyNathanielA.RiversandRyanP.Weber
14
in“Ecological,Pedagogical,PublicRhetorics”andbySuzanneBordelonin“MutedRhetors
andtheMundane”.RiversandWeberclaimthatsupporting,mundanedocumentsare
necessarytothedevelopmentofpublicadvocacyandpublicaction(187-188).They
suggestthatratherthanfocusingsolelyonvisiblerhetoric,whenstudyingrhetorical
advocacy,rhetoricalscholarsmust“seepublicadvocacyastheinteractionofseveraltexts”
(RiversandWeber187).“Meetingsandmeetingminutes,”claimRiversandWeber,“areas
influentialastheactionstheyspawn”(197).SuzanneBordelonbuildsonRiversand
Weber’sworkbyusingtheirmethodofexaminingmundane,internaltextstouncoverhow
marginalizedandmutedrhetorsworktochangethestatusquothroughsmall,consistent
efforts(332).Bordelonarguesthatforrhetorswhoarefrequentlyconstrainedwithina
marginalizedposition,amutedmethodmaybemoreeffectivethanahighlyvisible
approachtoactivism(349).InstudyingboththepublictextsofLLLandthemundanetext
thatLLLproduced,Iaimtogainabetterunderstandingoftherhetoricalactionsand
strategiesthatLLLemployedasitdevelopedandcirculateditscounterdiscourse.Ifocus
primarilyontheexaminingarchivaldocumentsandpublicationsfromthefoundingin1956
throughthemid-1960s,asthiswasaperiodofrapidgrowthforLLL,andanexaminationof
discourseoninfantfeedingduringthistimerevealsagrowingrelianceonLLL’sexpertise
bymedicalprofessionals.InadditiontostudyingtextsproducedbyLLL,Isurveyother
publications,suchasmedicaljournals,totracethewayinwhichtheintersectionofLLL’s
counterdiscourse,throughthemothersinvolvedinLLL’snetwork,andthemedical
professionbegantoreshapemedicaldiscourse,andIrelyonsecondaryscholarshipto
contextualizeandsituatemyanalysisofprimarymaterialswithintheareasmotherhood,
infantfeedinghistory,andtheemergenceofsecond-wavefeminism.
15
EXAMININGLLLTHROUGHAFEMINISTLENS
LaLecheLeaguehasahistoryofreceivingbothpraiseandblamefromfeminist
scholars.Inseveraltextsonmotherhood,medicalhistorianRimaD.ApplehascreditedLLL
withchallengingandrenegotiatingtheauthoritarianroleofthemedicalcommunityover
childcareandshiftingtrendsininfantfeeding.Otherfeministscholarshavecontextualized
theorganizationsociallyandhistoricallyandpraisedthewayinwhichLLLempowered
mothersandvalidatedmaternalexperiencewhilepointingoutthewayinwhichLLL’s
mother-centeredmissionservedtoconstrainwomenwithintraditionalgenderroles.
ThoughthesescholarsfoundvalueinLLLdespitethewayinwhichitconstrainedmothers,
stillotherfeministscholarshaveregardedLLLasaninsidious,anti-feminist,conservative
organizationthatreducedwomentotheirbiologyanddiscouragedmothersfromactive
participationinthepublicsphere.
ThiscriticismofLLLisnotwithoutmerit.LLL’sphilosophyofmotherhoodandits
maternalrhetoricarebaseduponclass-basedassumptionsaboutthenatureofmothers
andmothering.Inher2001article,“BoundedLiberation:AFocusedStudyofLaLeche
LeagueInternational,”ChristinaBobelarguesthat“AnydiscussionofLLLIwouldbe
inadequatewithoutaddressingtheclassdimensionsembeddedinLeagueideologyand
practiceandhowtheandclass-basedunderstandingsofgoodmotheringprofferedbythe
Leaguemayimpairtheorganization'sabilitytoappealtoamorediversepopulationof
mothers”(146).Sinceitsfounding,membershipoftheorganizationhasbeenlargelymade
upofwhite,middle-class,marriedwomen.AsBobelpointsout,theleagueleadershiphas
oftenexplaineditslackofdiversitybycitingstatisticsshowingthatwomeninitsprimary
demographicaremorelikelytobreastfeedthanothers(146).Theorganization’sleaders
16
seemedtolackawarenessthatitsownideologyandconstructionofmotherhoodalienated
manywomen.
ScholarssuchasBobelandBerniceHausmanhaveexploredthewayinwhichLLL’s
viewofmotherhoodandgoodmotheringservedtomarginalizeandalienatewomenwho
didnotfititsprimarydemographic.Workingwomen,womenofcolor,single-mothers,
lesbianmothers,feministmothers,andbottle-feedingmothersaremarginalizedbyLLL’s
viewof“goodmothering”whichframesagoodmotherasastay-at-homebreastfeeding
motherwhoepitomizestraditionalnotionsoffemininityandismarriedtoamasculine
breadwinnerwhoprovidesforandprotectsthefamily.Byimplication,womenwhodonot
fitLLL’sconstructionof“goodmothers”cannotbegoodmothers.AsBobelnotes,“Single
mothers,womenreceiving(nowdwindling)federalaid,andothersnotfitthemoldofthe
LLLImothermaywellfindtheorganization'smessageadissonantchord”(146).Forthese
women,theorganization’sexpectationsforgoodmaternalbehaviorwereprohibitiveand
unrealistic.
FeministscholarshiphaslargelyfocusedonthewayinwhichLaLecheLeague
Internationalhasservedtomarginalizewomenevenwhileattemptingtoempowerthem
withinformationandsupport.ScholarssuchasBobelandHausmanhaveexploredthis
aspectoftheorganization’ideologyandexamineditsimpacts,buttherehasnotbeena
closeexaminationoftherhetoricalstrategiesthatLLLemployedearlyinitshistory.
Therefore,whileIacknowledgethewayinwhichwomenhavebeenmarginalizedandby
LLL’spracticesandideologythroughouttheorganization’shistory,thatgroundhasbeen
coveredelsewhere.Myfocusinthisdissertationisexplainingtherhetoricalstrategiesthat
LLLemployedthatempoweredmotherstoresistdominanttrendstoembracean
17
alternativemotheringpracticeandledtoatransformationofmedicalpracticesand
ideologyaroundbreastfeeding.Intheremainderofthissection,Iwillreviewthefeminist
viewsoftheparadoxicalnatureofLLLandexplainhowLLL’smaternalrhetoriccanbe
viewedthroughthelensoffeministrhetoricalscholarship.
TheparadoxicalnatureofLLLisevidentinthevarietyofdescriptiveterms—
empowering,liberatory,traditionalist,maternalist,fanatical,cultish,andanti-woman—that
feministscholarshaveusedtocharacterizetheorganization.Inthisdissertation,Iargue
thattheparadoxicalnatureofLLLcanbeunderstoodasaninevitableresultofthe
organization’semploymentofmaternalrhetoric.Therhetoricaltoposofmotherhood,
Buchananexplains,“producesrichrhetoricalresourcescapableofadvancingwomenand
theircivicagendawhilesimultaneouslyreinforcinglimitingstereotypesandinequitable
genderrelations”(14).ForLLL,maternalrhetoricwasindeedapowerfulresourcethat
enabledmotherstopushbackagainstdominantpracticesofinfantfeedingandmothering
whilepresentingitsmembersasgoodmothers.Byforegroundingtraditionalconcepts
associatedwithmotherhoodasjustificationfortheirdecisionstobreastfeedandmother
differently,motherswereabletocushiontheiractivismsothatitwasmoreeasilyaccepted
bythemainstreamsocietyofthemid-twentiethcentury.Becausetheorganization
tempereditsactivismbyemployingvaluesandconceptstraditionallyassociatedwith
motherhoodtomakeitsarguments,LLLwasabletoestablishacounterpublicthatwould
subtlyadvancethecauseofempoweringmotherstohavesomecontrolandautonomyover
theirmaternalexperiences;yet,itsemploymentofmaternalrhetoricputtheorganization
atoddswithsecond-wavefeminists.
18
Thisdissertationprojectbuildsupontheworkofanumberofscholarsofhistory,
socialsciences,andEnglishstudieswhohavenotedthewayinwhichLLL’smessaging
simultaneouslyempoweredandconstrainedwomen.ScholarssuchasBerniceHausman,
LynnWeiner,LindaBlum,andChristinaBobelunderstandLLLasamaternalist
organizationthat,whileitoperatedwithintheboundariesoftraditionalsocialformations,
wascapableofquiteradicaleffectsduetothe“individualempowermentthatpolitical
organizingcanfacilitate”(Hausman158).Weinerexplainsthat,“Likematernalist
ideologiesofpastcenturies,LaLecheLeaguemotherhoodgavepublicpurposetothe
privateactivitiesofdomesticlife;likeadvocatesofthosepastideologies,too,theleague
urgedthatwomensubsumetheirindividualismforthegreatergoodofthefamilyand
society”(1359).Theresult,claimsWeiner,isthatLLL“simultaneouslypromotedwomen's
autonomyandrestrictedwomen'sroles”(1359).SociologistChristinaBobelviewsthis
paradoxicalnatureofLLLas“boundedliberation”thatvalidatesmotherhoodand
encourageswomentoreclaimtheirmaternalbodies,yetrestrictsmothersfrominteracting
inthepublicsphereandframesgoodmotheringassacrificeofone’sownneedsand
desires.Iagreewiththenotionthat,likeothermaternalists,LLLempoweredmaternal
voicesbyarguingthattheinfluenceofmothersisanassettosocietyastheirinfluence
improvesthehealthandmoralqualityofsocietywhilealsoconstrainingmotherswithin
theirmaternalroles.Ontheotherhand,IdisagreewiththeideathatLLLstrippedwomen
oftheirindividualism.Instead,Iarguethatincontrastwiththestrictideologyofscientific
motherhood,LLLallowedmothersagreaterdegreeofautonomyandauthorityovertheir
maternalexperiences.Additionally,IpushbackagainstthenotionthatLLL’sparadigmof
motheringrequiredsacrificeofone’sownneedsanddesires,astheorganizationresisted
19
the1950semphasisonmaternaldomesticity,whichframedmotherhoodassacrifice,and
insteadattemptedtogivemothersthespaceandauthoritytopracticeaversionof
motherhoodthattheyfoundmorepersonallyfulfilling.Imaketheseclaimswithone
caveat:thatthemotherswhofeltmostempoweredbyLLL’sphilosophyandfoundLLL’s
approachtomotherhoodfreeingandfulfillingweremotherswhofittheLLLmoldofwhite,
middle-class,housewife;werealreadyinclinedtobreastfeed;wantedaclosemother-child
bond;andwhodesiredmoreautonomyoverdecisionsregardingchild-care.
Anotherfactorthatcontributedtotheparadoxicalnatureoftheorganizationwasits
philosophyofnaturalmotherhood,whichLLLdevelopedasanalternativetothestrict
ideologyofscientificmotherhood.LLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood,akeyterm
thatIemploythroughoutthedissertation,encouragedbreastfeedingasameansto
developaclosephysicalbondbetweenmothersandtheirchildren,anditencouraged
motherstoviewthemselvesasthenaturalexpertsonthecareandfeedingoftheirown
children.Whilethiswasliberatoryformotherswhofeltoppressedbytheideologyof
scientificmotherhood,manyfeministscholarshavebeentroubledbythebiological
essentialisminherentinLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodanditssupportof
gendereddivisionsoflabor.Itisevidentthatforsecond-wavefeminists,LLLmade
problematicassertionsaboutthetiebetweenbiologyandthematernalrole.These
assertionsincludetheclaimthatthemother-childbondisstrongestwhenthebabyfeeds
atthebreast,thatwomenhavematernalyearningsthatgounfulfilledinthekindof
detachedmother-childrelationshipthatscientificmotherhoodpromoted,andthatwomen
haveabiologicallyguidedmaternalinstinctthatissharpenedbyclosephysicalcontact
withthebaby.Becauseoftheemphasisonthephysicalrelationshipbetweenmotherand
20
child,LLLencouragedwomentoavoidinvolvementsinthepublicspherethatseparated
babiesfromtheirmothers.Thereactionbysomefeminists,asBerniceHausmanexplains
in“WomanlyArts,”thefifthchapterofMother’sMilk:BreastfeedingControversiesin
AmericanCulture,hasbeentolabelLLLasbackwardandnostalgic,an“antifeminist,
traditionalistcult,”and“anorganizationthatmandatesspecificbehaviorsandideas”
(Hausman160).Somehavevieweditaspotentiallydamagingtoamother’ssenseofself
(Hausman160),andothersclaimthatthefocusongoodmotheringthroughbreastfeeding
castsmotherswhodonotadheretoLLL’smodelofmotherhoodasbadmothers(Hausman
162).
Whilesomesecond-wavefeministsviewedLLLasaproblematicorganizationthat
limitedwomen’soptionsandreducedthemtotheirbiology,LLLvieweditselfasatruly
woman-centeredmovementthatdidnotignorewomen’sbiologybutinsteadcelebrated
women’suniquecapacitytonurture.ThisviewofthedifferencesbetweenLLLandthe
women’smovementwashighlightedina1981reprintofanearlyLLLtext:
LLL’sstrengthwasthatitwastrulyawoman’smovementgroundedontherealities
ofnatureandresponsivetonature’svestedandunimpeachablegoal;namely,that
woman,thenurturant,beherwomanlyself(andman,hismanlyself).Inthissense,
itwasdistinguishedfromthewomen’smovement,amovementitisboundto
outlast,sincenatureisonitsside.(“LLLDialogue”198)
ThispassageshowsclearlythatLLLbelievedthewoman’smovementhadunnecessarily
placedwomeninconflictwiththerealitiesoftheirmaternalbodies,andthatasaresult,the
women’smovementwasnotsustainableasawoman-centeredmovement.LLLsuggested
thatthegoalsofthewomen’smovement,whichadvocatedforbodilyautonomyandequal
21
treatmentunderthelawandintheworkplace,wereunnaturalbecausetheydidnotfully
accountforwomen’sexperienceswithmotherhoodandweregroundedontheargument
thatwomenandmenaresimilarandhavethesamecapabilities.LLLcelebratedgendered
differencesandarguedthatwomencouldwouldfindmorefulfillmentandhappinessin
embracingfemininebiologyratherthantryingtoescapetherealitiesoftheirbiological.
Certainly,suchsentimentsputLLLatoddswiththeidealsofsecond-wavefeminist
thinkers.
Inthisdissertation,IarguethatLLL’semploymentofmaternalrhetoricalloweditto
achievefeministaimsofempoweringwomentoexercisemoreautonomyovertheir
maternalexperiences.LLL’smaternalrhetoricprovidedaconservativecamouflagefor
progressiveactivitiessuchasbreastfeeding,developingaclosemother-childbond,andthe
subversivereclaimingofthehomeasamaternalspaceinwhichmotherswerefreetoreject
thedominantpracticesofscientificmotherhood.MostoftheexistingscholarshiponLLL,
whichgenerallytakesalong-viewofitshistorywithafocusrecenthistoryformthe1980s
onward,exploresitsproblematicandparadoxicalnature.Iaimtoshowthatthis
paradoxicalnatureoftheorganizationwaspartiallyaresultofitsconservativeapproachto
advocatingforwomen’sempowerment.AsCarolMattinglypointsoutinWellTempered
Women:Nineteenth-CenturyTemperanceRhetoric,feministrhetoricalscholarshiphas
frequentlyoverlookedtherhetoricalcontributionsofwomenandwomen’sorganizations
whodonotadoptadirectandaggressiveapproachtoforwardingthecauseofwomen(21-
22).LLLsucceededinchangingthemedicalprofessioninlargepartbecauseitadvocated
forwomeninasubtlewaybyhelpingitscounterpublicofbreastfeedingmothersemploy
22
maternalrhetoricanddevelopmaternalspacethatallowedthemtoresistdominanttrends
inmedicineandadvocateforthemselves.
Inthisdissertationproject,Ihopetocontributetothescholarshipexploringtheway
thatconservativewomen’svoices,suchasthoseofnineteenth-centuryMethodistwomen
(Shaver;TolarCollins),U.S.women’sclubs(RugglesGere),andtheWomen’sChristian
TemperanceUnion(Mattingly)canempowerwomenandeffectivelypromotewomen’s
causeswhenamoreaggressiverhetoricalactivismlikelywouldhavefailed.AsMattingly
claims,thestudyofconservativewomen’sgroupssuchastheWomenChristian
TemperanceUnion(WCTU)canhelpusunderstandthecomplexrhetoricalchoicesthat
womenmake(38).TheWCTUused“asubtle,non-threatening,persuasiveapproach”
(Mattingly21),yet,theywerehighlysuccessfulinadvancingissuesthatimpactedthelives
ofwomenbyharnessingthesociallyprescribedrolesofwomentoasserttheirauthority
(Mattingly40).In“SteppingOutsidetheLadies’Department:Women’sExpanding
RhetoricalBoundaries,”LisaShaverexplainsthatMethodistwomentookasimilar
approachbyundertakingactivismandadvocacyundertheguiseofbenevolentworkwhich
theycharacterizedasan“extensionofwomen’sdomesticandmaternalroles”(63),and
whentheysteppedoutsideoftheirdomesticrolestoengageinpublicadvocacy,they
alignedtheireffortswithscriptureandChristianduty,whichjustifiedtheirmovementinto
areasandissuesthatmightotherwisebedeemedinappropriateforthem(Shaver,
“SteppingOutside”65).Inasimilarway,LLLrhetoricallyharnessedideasandvalues
associatedwithmotherhood,suchaslove,domesticity,nurturance,andself-sacrifice,to
asserttheirauthority.IarguethatitwastheparadoxicalnatureofLLL,whichempowered
mothersbysharingitsessentialistphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodandemploying
23
maternalrhetoric,thatcontributedtoLLL’swidespreadsuccess.Byrhetoricallygrounding
theworkofLLLintraditionalviewsofgenderroles,LLL’sfoundersmadeasophisticated
rhetoricalmovethatappealedtoabroadaudiencedespiteitstransformativemessageand
impact.
LLL’SNATURALMOTHERHOOD
LLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood,whichfeministsfoundhighlyproblematic
duetoitsinherentbiologicalessentialism,wascentraltoLLL’sformulationofmothering
andwasfoundationaltoitsrhetoric,thusitisakeytermthatIusethroughoutthe
dissertation.ThefoundationalassumptionofLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodwas
thatnaturehasprovidedmotherseverythingthattheyneedtoeffectivelygaugeandattend
totheroutinephysicalandpsychologicalneedsofaninfant.LLLarguedthatthematernal
bodyiscapableofmeetingbabies’nutritionalneedsthroughbreastfeedingandtheactof
breastfeedingaidsinthedevelopmentofastrongmother-childbond.LLLbelievedthatthis
strongbondmetbabies’psychologicalneedswhilealsohelpingmothershoneanddevelop
confidenceintheirmaternalinstincts.Whenmothersexperiencethedevelopmentofa
strongphysicalandemotionalbondwiththeirbabies,theirmaternal,first-hand
experiencesprovidethemwithadeep,instinctualunderstandingoftheirbabies’needsand
desires.Thus,first-hand,maternalexperiencewithmotheringmakesmotherstheprimary
authorityonthecareandfeedingoftheirbabies.MaternalexperienceisakeytermthatI
useinthisdissertationasitservedasafoundationuponwhichLLLconstructedan
authoritativematernalethosforLLLanditscounterpublicofbreastfeedingmothers,andit
helpedLLLcarveoutspacetodiscussinfantfeedingwithauthority.
24
LLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodstoodinstarkcontrasttothedominant
ideologyofscientificmotherhood.Scientificmotherhoodframedmothersaspassive,
obedientlearnerswhileitframedphysiciansasknowledgeableauthoritiesandeducators.
Bythe1920s,mothersofallclasseshadbeguntorelymoreheavilyonexpertadvicerather
thanadvicebaseduponthefirst-handexperienceofthosewithintheirsocialnetworks.
Increasingly,theguidelinesforthecareandfeedingofchildrenwerebasedonknowledge
gainedthroughscientificobservationinaclinicalsetting.Theadviceofscientificand
medicalprofessionals“replacedtraditionalsocialnetworks,”andtheresultswasthat“good
mothering,modernmothering,meantfollowingthedirectionsofyourhealthcare
provider”(Apple,PerfectMotherhood106).AccordingtoWendySimonds,thedenigration
oflaywisdomandemotionalityinfavorofarelianceontheauthorityandcontrolofthe
medicalprofessionexacerbatedfeelingsoffearandself-doubtamongpregnantwomenand
youngmothers(125).Theresultisthatyoungmotherswereplacedinanuntenable
situation:“theywereresponsiblefortheirfamiliesandincapableofthatresponsibility”
(Apple,“ConstructingMothers”91).Theweightofthisresponsibilitylikelypromptedmany
motherstoadheretothestrictguidelinesofphysiciansoutofdesperation.
Bythemid-twentiethcentury,medicalprofessionalsroutinelyprescribedbottle-
feedingwithartificialformula.Thisapproachtoinfantfeedingwaslargelyaresultofthe
wayinwhichthemedicalprofessionhaddirecteditsstudiesintoinfantfeeding.Early
twentieth-centurymedicalresearcherswhostudiedinfantfeedingfocusedprimarilyon
understandinghowtoreplicatethenutritionalcontentofhumanbreastmilkinmass-
producedinfantformulas.Thisdisembodiedapproachreflectedthenatureofthepediatrics
discipline,whichwas“builtfromtraditionsthatrelegatedbreasts,lactation,normal
25
birthing,andwell-baby-caretowomen(nursesormidwives)”(Blum,AttheBreast29).Due
toapoorunderstandingoflactation,particularlyofthecaloricandimmunologicalvalueof
colostrumproducedinthefirstfewdaysofnursingandthesupply-and-demandnatureof
lactation,manyphysiciansrecommendedthatallmotherssupplementbreastfeedingwith
formulafeeding(Apple,MothersandMedicine1386).Thus,physicianswhohadlittle
knowledgeofthemechanicsoflactationunderminedmothers’attemptstobreastfeed
successfullybyrecommendingroutineformulasupplementation.
Whilephysicians’lackofknowledgeofteninterferedwithmothers’attemptsto
breastfeed,itcouldalsoleadtotragicconsequences.Ahandwrittennote,postmarked1965
fromAllieneParkerofPennsylvaniaandaddressedtoJudyTorgus,amemberofLLL’s
executiveboard,revealsthetruepotentialcostofthemedicalprofession’signoranceofthe
normalphysiologicalprocessandeffectsofbreastfeeding:
MyDearJudy-
Ababyisdead-because“oneofthefinestpediatriciansinthe
country”thoughtanormalbreast-milkstoolwasdiarrhea-notonce-
threetimes.
TinyDeanneSullivanisdead.
Iwillwriteyouwhentheresultsoftheautopsyarecomplete-and13
weeksoffactsaresiftedover-andIamnotquitesotornup-
26
Alliene
13July(Parker)
ThisnotenowresidesintheLaLecheLeagueInternationalarchivesatDePaulUniversity,
anditisaccompaniedbyahandwrittennoteonJudyTorgus’LLLletterheadidentifyingit
asa“PoignantnotethatshowswhyLLLwassoneeded”(Parker).AsthecaseofDeanne
Sullivanreveals,physicianswerefrequentlyunfamiliarwiththephysiologyofthe
breastfeedingbaby.Inthiscase,thephysicianwasunfamiliarwiththedifferencesbetween
thestoolofabreastfedinfantandthatofaninfantwhohasbeenfedformula.Hisignorance
likelyledhimtomakeunnecessarychangesinthebaby’scare,suchasanunnecessary
switchtoartificialformula.Formulafeedingisnotwithoutrisks,includingtheriskofan
allergicreactiontotheformula’scontentsorinfectioncausedbybacterialcontamination.
LLL’sfounderswereawareoftherisks,andthisnoteoffersastarkreminderofthe
rhetoricalexigencetowhichLLLwasresponding.Thedangerouslackofknowledgeonthe
partofphysiciansleftalacunathatneededtobefilled.
LLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodanditspromotionofthatphilosophyinthe
mother-to-mothersupportgroupwasaresponsetotheproblemsposedbytheintersection
ofthemedicalprofession’spotentiallydangerouslackofknowledgeofbreastfeedingand
thedominantideologyofscientificmotherhood,whichframedphysiciansasexperts.Good
motheringundertheideologyofscientificmotherhoodrequiredmotherstoleavedecisions
aboutchildcareuptotheexpertsandcarefullyfollowtheadviceofphysicians,whichwas
problematicwhenphysicianshadnofirst-handknowledgeofbreastfeeding.Natural
motherhoodframedmothersasthelogicalauthoritiesonroutinechildcare,particularlythe
careofabreastfedbaby,andviewedtheovermedicalizationofroutinecareasan
27
unnecessaryandsometimesproblematicintervention.HadDeanneSullivan’smotherhad
thebenefitofothermothers’first-handmaternalexperiencewithbreastfedbabies,andhad
shebeenconvincedthatmaternalexperiencewasavaluablesourceoftrustworthy
knowledge,itispossiblethattheremayhavebeenadifferentoutcome.Thiscaseservesas
avividillustrationofthevalueofmaternalexperienceasarespectedsourceofauthority,
whichwasacornerstoneofLLL’sphilosophyandmaternalrhetoric.
Thephilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodwasinspiredbythefounders’individual
maternalexperiences.Severalofthefoundershadgivenbirthathomefollowing
unsatisfactoryexperienceswithunmedicatedhospitalbirths.Theyfoundthesehome
birthstobemorepersonallyfulfillingandmother-centeredthanhospitalbirthsthat
framedthephysicianastheprimaryactorcontrollingthesituationandthemother.
Additionally,thefoundersofLLLfounditeasiertoinitiatebreastfeedingwithoutthe
interventionofmedicalpoliciesandproceduresthatseparatedbabiesfrommothersand
frequentlyinvolvedformulasupplementation.Theydiscoveredthattheirpeerswhohad
breastfedwereamoreknowledgeablesourceofinformationandsupportthanphysicians.
Theyalsodiscoveredthatbreastfeedinghelpedthemdevelopstrongbondswiththeir
babiesthatstrengthenedtheirconfidence,sharpenedmaternalinstinct,andhelpedthem
understandtheirbabies’individualneeds.
WhileLLL’sfounderswerepredisposedtowardtheideasthatmadeuptheir
philosophyofnaturalmotherhood,theseideaswerenotpopular.Thenotionthatmothers
developedaninstinctualunderstandingoftheirbabies’needsandtheideathatbabieshave
aphysiologicalandpsychologicalneedtobeclosetotheirmotherscontradictedthe
dominantideologyofscientificmotherhood.Combatingthatideologywasasignificant
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undertaking.OneoftheprimaryargumentsthatLLLneededtomaketopromote
breastfeedingandnaturalmotherhoodwastoreframemotherhoodasthenatural
outgrowthofauniquerelationshipbetweenindividualsratherthanadherencetoasetof
prescribedorpre-determinedbehaviors.Scientificmotherhoodframedmotherhoodasan
ideologicalinstitution,thussuggestingthatithadafoundationofrulestoguidematernal
behavior.Theframingofmotherhoodasaninstitutionhashistoricallybeenapowerfultool
fortheperpetuationofsystemicoppressionofwomen,asAdrienneRichexplainedinOf
WomanBorn,afeministanalysisofmotherhoodpublishedin1976.Motherhood,Rich
claimed,canbeunderstoodintwoways:1)the“potentialrelationshipofanywomantoher
powersofreproductionandtochildren”and2)“theinstitution,whichaimsatensuringthat
thatpotential—andallwomen—shallremainundermalecontrol”(13).Theinstitutionof
Motherhoodhasbeensodeeplyingrainedinculturethatithasbeenusedtoperpetuatethe
socialandpoliticalstatusquo,anditinfluenceshowwomenfeelandbehaveaswellashow
othersbehavetowardwomen.Themid-twentiethcenturyAmericaninstitutionofscientific
motherhoodignoredtheramificationsofthesocial,cultural,andeconomiccontextsin
whichparticularmothersandchildrenexistedandinsteadattemptedtoreduce
motherhoodtoaprescribedsetofactionsandinteractions.Ithadalsostrippedself-
confidencefrommothersbyteachingthemthattheywereincapableofbeinggoodmothers
withoutfollowingthedirectivesofmedicalexpert.
Inordertorelyonnaturalmotherhoodasawaytoauthorizemotherstorejectthe
dominantpracticesofbottle-feedinganddetachedmothering,LLLneededtofirstprovide
evidencetosupportitsassumptionthatmaternalexperienceandinstinctwasamore
effectiveguidethantheadviceofadistantexpert.Toarguethatthisassumptionwas
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accurateandlogical,LLLframedbabiesasuniqueindividualswithcomplexneedsthat
couldonlybeunderstoodthroughthedevelopmentofastrongmother-childbond.
Additionally,LLLpointedtoabygoneerawhenmothersgavebirthandbreastfedwithout
theoversightofmedicalexperts.LLLtoldmothersthattheywerestillcapableofmothering
effectivelyinthisway,butthattheirconfidenceintheirabilitytodosohadbeenlostasthe
resultofheavymedicalinterventionintowhatshouldberoutinechildcarematters.The
waytorestoreconfidence,LLLargued,wastobuildalovingrelationshipwithone’sbaby
thatencouragedthedevelopmentofastrongmaternalinstinct.Theeasiestwayto
accomplishthis,accordingtoLLL,wastobreastfeed,astheresultingemotionaland
physicalbondwouldgivethemotherinsightintotheneedsofherbabyandthusdevelop
herconfidenceinhermaternalinstincts.Tofurtheritsargumentinfavorofthisapproach
tomothering,LLLemployedtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodanditspositiveassociations
(suchaslove,security,comfort,andnurturance).LLL’smaternalrhetoricforegrounded
theseconceptsasfurtherbackingtolegitimizetheassumptionthatbreastfeedingandthe
closebondthatitfacilitatedwereapreferabletothedominantpracticesofscientific
motherhood.
LLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodreflectedtheideologyofnaturalism,which
wasasignificantdeparturefromthefocusonsciencethatwascentraltoscientific
motherhood.Asaresultoftheirmaternalexperiences,thefoundersofLLLdevelopeda
strongaffinityforanaturalapproachtomotherhoodthatreflectedtheideologyof
naturalism.In“ReconstructingMotherhood:TheLaLecheLeagueinPostwarAmerica,”
LynnY.Weinersaysthatwhile“thenineteenth-centuryversionofmiddle-class‘true
womanhood’emphasizedmoralpurityassymbolsassymbolsofnatureandsimplicity,the
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league,inthescientifictwentiethcentury,emphasizednaturalism”(363).Naturalism,
accordingtoElizabethGroszis“aformofessentialisminwhichafixednatureispostulated
forwomen”(48).Thisfixednatureismostcommonlyassociatedwithbiology,butalsomay
beattributedtotheologicalcauses(Grosz48).ForthefoundersofLLL,motherhoodwas
naturalandaproductoffemalebiology;theybelievedthatgivingbirthnaturally,
breastfeeding,anddevelopingstrongmother-childattachmentsensuredamorefulfilling
approachtomotheringbecauseitalignedwithmaternalbiologyandmothers’natural
instincts.Forthefounders,thenaturalnessofmotherhoodandtherespectforthewisdom
offemalebiology,whichtheyviewedasaproductofdivinecreation,wasrootedlargelyin
theirCatholicsensibilities.TheBiblicalcharactersofEveandtheMadonna,whonurtured
ChristatthebreastandwhoissoreveredinCatholicism,inspiredLLL’sfounders.Therole
ofmotherasnurturerandcomforterwassomethingofareligiousvocationforthe
founders.Notonlydidtheyviewmothersasnurturersandcomfortersfortheirchildren
butalsoasabenefittosociety.
Inadditiontoespousingnaturalism,LLLalsoespousedamaternalistviewpoint,
believingthatamotherhoodthatisempoweredanddefinedbyfemalequalitiescould
improvesociety.Thus,LLLencouragedmotherstostayhomewiththeirsmallchildrenand
avoidworkinguntilafterthemother-childbondwaswellestablishedandchildrenwere
weanedsothatthechilddevelopedself-confidence,asenseofsecurity,andpsychological
well-being.LLLevenencouragedmotherstoplacechildren’sneeds,includingtheneedto
beclosetomother,aboveotherdomesticchores.Naturalismandmaternalismoffered
inspirationtothefoundersofLLL.Theywereinspiredbythe“wisdomofnature,”or
creation,andrejectedscientificmotherhood’sfocusonastrictadherencetoscientificand
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medicaladvicethatencouragedformulafeedingandadetached,hands-offapproachto
childcare.OnewaythatLLLemphasizedthewisdomofnatureintheirtextualoutreachwas
byhighlightingbenefitsofbreastfeeding,includingnaturalchildspacing.Theyrecognized
thatthewidespreadpracticesofscientificmotherhoodhadresultedinalackofconfidence
inmaternalinstinctandinthematernalbody’sabilitytonurtureachildthrough
breastfeeding.Astheydevelopedtheirpracticesandtheirphilosophyofmothering,or
“naturalmotherhood,”LLLplacedanemphasisonthenatural,biologicalnatureofthe
practiceofmotherhoodbyhighlightingtheneedoftheinfantformother’smilkandclose
physicalcontactforpsychologicalandemotionalhealth.Thisconcernfortheemotionaland
psychologicalwell-beingofthebabyinstilledLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodwith
amaternalistelement.Iarguethatthematernalistfocusandmessagingoftheorganization
wasacriticalaspectofitsrhetoricalforegroundingoftheculturalcodeofmotherhood,
whichconnoteslove,protection,nurturance,home,andthematernalbody.Byemphasizing
thatanaturalapproachtomotherhoodhelpsmothersembodytheseconnotations,LLL
empoweredmotherstorejectscientificmotherhoodandestablishtheirownauthorityover
decisionsregardingchildcare;yet,inemphasizingmaternalbiologyandassociating
motherhoodwithtraditionalvalues,LLLalsoconstrainedmothers.Thus,itisunsurprising
thatLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodwouldlaterberejectedbyfeministsand
wouldthereforewoulddiscreditLLL’sargumentsandunderminetheiraccomplishmentsin
theeyesofsecond-wavefeminists.
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MATERNALSPACEANDLLL
WhilefeministcritiquesofLLLviewedtheorganization’sstancethatmothersof
infantsshouldremaininthehomeasananti-womanpositionthatoppressedwomen,I
arguethatLLLactuallysubvertedthestatusquobyencouragingwomentoreclaim
authorityoverdomesticspace.Justaswomenhadbeenoppressedbytheideologyof
scientificmotherhood,theyhadalsobeenconstrainedbytheextremeemphasison
domesticityfollowingWorldWarII.Inthe1950s,white,middle-classmothersbecamethe
symbolofthesuccessofAmericancapitalism(Coontz;Odland).Motherswereexpectedto
focustheirtimeandenergyondomesticchoresthatwerelargelyconcernedwith
cleanliness.Undertheideologyofscientificmotherhood,housekeepingwastreatedasa
full-timescientificoccupation(Apple1782).Therewasmuchmorefocusonchores,suchas
cleaningandcooking,andlessfocusontherelationalandpsychologicalaspectsof
motherhood.Withinthehome,motherswereexpectedtoenactthepracticesprescribedto
thembyhousekeepingexpertsinmagazinessuchasGoodHousekeeping,Ladies’Home
Journal,Today’sWoman,andWoman’sHomeCompanion.Justasmedicalexpertsprescribed
strictfeedingandsleepingschedules,women’smagazinesofferedadviceregarding
decorating,cooking,cleaning,andchildcare.Themother’sprimaryrolewastomaintaina
clean,comfortablehome.
LLL’sfoundershadadifferentunderstandingoftheroleofthemotherwithinthe
home.Inspiredinpartbyexperienceswithhomebirth,LLL’sfoundersviewedthehomeas
aspacewithinwhichmotherscouldreclaimagencyandautonomy.Inthemid-twentieth
century,themajorityofwomenweredrugged,andthustheyplayedapassiverolein
childbirth.Laborwardswerenotequippedtodealwiththeneedsofconsciousandalert
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laboringmothers.Afterdisappointingexperienceswithunmedicatedchildbirthinthe
hospital,someofthefoundersofLLLhadoptedtohavephysician-attended,unmedicated
birthsathome;thus,priortothefoundingofLLL,thesemothershadexperiencewith
transformingthehomeintoasiteofactiveresistancetodominantmedicalpractices.When
LLLwasformed,thedomesticspacewithinwhichmeetingswereheldofferedasafespace
todiscussmotheringanddeveloptheorganization’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood.
Thus,thehomebecamea“maternalspace,”akeytermthatIemploythroughthe
dissertationtodescribeaspaceinwhichmothersareabletoexerciseautonomyin
decisionsregardingchildcareandresistdominanttrendsinmotheringsothattheyareable
tohavemorepersonallyfulfillingexperienceswithmotherhood.
ThematernalspaceoftheLLLmother-to-mothermeetingofferedasafespacefor
theorganizationtodevelopitsideologyofnaturalmotherhood.TheseinitialLLLmeetings
withinamaternalspacewerethefirstinaseriesofaffective,symbolic,andmaterialmeans
thatLLLutilizedinordertotransformothermothers’experiencesofmotherhood.By
offeringsupporttomotherswhowantedtobreastfeed,rejectingstrictprescriptionsfor
maternalbehavior,andencouragingthedevelopmentofclosermother-childrelationships,
LLLreclaimedthespaceofthehomeasasitetosharefirst-handknowledgegainedfrom
experienceandempowerothermotherstotakeownershipandassertmaternalagency
overtheirexperienceswithmotherhood.ThedevelopmentofLLL’slocalmother-to-mother
breastfeedingsupportgroupwasthefirststepinestablishingthemother-to-mother
networkthatwouldintersectwiththeverticalnetworkofmedicaldiscourse,challenge
scientificmotherhood,andreshapemedicaldiscourseoninfantfeeding.AsIdetailin
subsequentchapters,thesuccessofLLL’scounterpublicanditscounterdiscoursecameasa
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directresultofitsrhetoricalstrategies,including:thestructureofLLL’smeetingswithina
domesticspace,whichallowedittoprivatelydevelopandstrengthenitsideas;the
foregroundingofconceptstraditionallyassociatedwithmothers—includingdomesticity,
religion,love,nourishment,altruism,self-sacrifice,thematernalbody,andprotection—
temperedtheorganization’scounterdiscourseandhelpeditdrawalargeaudiencemadeup
ofmothers,sothatLLLgrewrapidlyanddidnotalarmphysicians;thecombiningofthe
culturalcodeofmotherhoodwithnaturalmotherhood,whichestablishedmothersas
naturalauthoritiesonchildcareandhelpedLLLcraftastrongmaternalethosforitselfand
itsmembers;andtheofferingofarhetoricaleducationthroughscripts,whichallowed
motherstoassertthemselveswithconfidenceinthefaceofcredulityorskepticism,thus
potentiallyexpandingothers’understandingsoftheorganizationandchallengingtheview
ofscientificmotherhoodthatmotherscouldnotmakeknowledgeabledecisionsabout
childcareontheirown.
TheearlystructureoftheLLLmother-to-mothersupportgroupwascriticalin
allowingtheorganizationtodevelopacounterdiscourseandrhetoricalstrategiesto
challengescientificmotherhoodanddominantpracticesofinfantfeeding.Counterpublics,
accordingtoscholarsNancyFraser,JenniferEmerlingBone,andPhaedraC.Pezzullo,offer
thosewhohavebeenmarginalizedbydominantpublicsawaytovoicetheirconcernsand
combattheirmarginalizedrolewithinsociety.LLL’sfoundingofferedmotherswithan
interestinresistingthestrictpracticesofscientificmotherhoodarelativelyintimate,
privatesettingwithinwhichtodeveloptheirideas.Lowprofilecounterpublics,or
subalterncounterpublics(Bone;Fraser)usuallylackmaterialmeansofparticipationin
dominantpublicdiscourse(Fraser65),andsotheydeveloptheirownalternative
35
discoursesinprivatesettings.ThematernalspaceofLLL’smother-to-mothersupport
groupoffereda“paralleldiscursivearena”(Fraser68),allowingasafespaceinwhichLLL’s
counterdiscoursedeveloped.Theroleofthemother-to-mothersupportgroupmeetingsin
thedevelopmentofLLL’scounterdiscourseissimilartotheroleofconsciousnessraising
groupsthatwouldbecomepopularwithfeministsapproximatelyadecadeafterLLL’s
founding.TheearlyexperienceofLLLasasmall,localsupportgroupallowedthefounders
tohonetheirphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodandunderstand,inanintimateway,what
kindsofsupportivemessagesweremosteffectivewithmotherswholackedself-confidence
andstruggledwiththechallengesposedbybreastfeedingandnavigatingsocialpressures
onmothers.Theknowledgeofthekindofsupportthatmothersneedalsocamefromfirst-
handexperienceintheearlydevelopmentofthesupportgroup.
Encouragingmotherstoembraceanalternativeparadigmofmotheringinvolved
convincingthemtoreclaimauthorityovertheirownchoicesandactivitiesandcreate
maternalspacesintheirownhomes.Inordertoaccomplishthis,LLLleveragedthecultural
codeofmotherhood,particularlyelementssuchasnurturanceandlove,toarguethat
resistancetodominantpracticeswasinthebestinterestoftheirchildren.LLLarguedthat
motherswerenaturalexpertsonchildrearingandthatmaternalauthoritywasbornof
instinctandexperience.Theorganizationencouragedmotherstorestructuredomesticlife
aroundthegoalofdevelopingstrongfamilialrelationships.Inthisdissertation,Iarguethat
LLLinstructedmothersinthedevelopmentofmaternalspace.Idefinematernalspaceas
mother-centeredspaceinwhichmothersareempoweredandregardedasauthority
figures;yet,theyareconstrainedwithinthatspacebythetraditionalvaluesofmotherhood
thatmothersrelyuponinordertoauthorizetheirresistancetodominantpracticeswithin
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thespace.Maternalspaceisamaternalistideainthattheinfluenceandauthoritythata
motherexertswithinthatspaceislegitimizedoutofaconcernforthemaintenanceand
bettermentofsociety.Becausematernalauthorityinamaternalspaceisauthorizedin
ordertoupholdsocialtraditionsandvalues,mothersareconstrainedbylimitationsplaced
uponthembythosetraditionsandvalues.Whilemothersmayresistsomedominanttrends
orpractices,theymustoperatewithinthelimitationsimposeduponthembythe
traditionalvaluesthattheyforegroundinordertoauthorizetheiractsofresistance.
Intheorizingmaternalspace,Ibuilduponfeministrhetoricalscholarshipthat
exploresspatialrhetorics.Mostofthescholarshipthatexplorestherhetoricofgendered
spacesfocusesonthewayinwhichwomenhaveemployedrhetoricalstrategiesto
authorizeentryintomale-dominatedspacessuchasthepulpit(Mountford),theWWIIera
factory(Enoch;Jack),navalsubmarines(Buchanan),andthemedicalprofession(Wells;
Skinner).AccordingtofeministscholarDaphneSpain,genderedinstitutionscanonly
changeafterwomenhaveaccesstoandoccupypowerfulinstitutionalspacesonequal
terms.Inthisdissertation,Iaimtorevealthewayinwhichmarginalizedrhetorscan
harnesstheaffordancesoftheundervaluedspacesthattheyarealreadyauthorizedto
occupyinordertoinspiresocialchange.
CREATINGTEXTUALOUTREACH
Withinayearoftheorganization’sfoundingin1956,LLL’slocalnetworkhadgrown
somuchthatthefounderswerereceivingphonecallsandlettersfromgeographically
dispersedmotherswhohadheardoftheorganizationbywordofmouthorfrommedia
attentionthattheorganizationreceived.Bythefallof1957,thefoundersrealizedthatthey
37
neededtostartdevelopingwrittenmaterialsthatnotonlyofferedhelpfulinformation,but
thatalsoencouragedanaudienceofgeographicallydispersedmotherstogaintheself-
confidencerequiredtoresistdominantpracticesandplacetrustinthematernalauthority
gainedfromfirst-handmaternalexperience
LLL’ssolutiontotheproblemoftranslatingtheworkofthelocalsupportgroupinto
textwastoforegroundtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodinitspublicoutreach.By
employingthecode,LLLwasabletoreassuremothersthattheirresistancetostrictly
prescribedmaternalbehaviorsalignedwithtraditionalvaluesassociatedwithmotherhood.
AccordingtoBuchanan,theculturalcodeofmotherhoodisapowerfulrhetoricalresource
becauseit“providesrhetorswithpersuasivemeansthatnotonlyreflectdominantcultural
andgendercodesbutalsohavethepotentialtoreify,resist,andrevisethem”(22).
Foregroundingconceptsassociatedwiththecodeofmotherhood—particularly
domesticity,protection,love,nourishment,religion,morality,self-sacrifice,altruism,and
thematernalbody—inthedevelopmentoftheLLL’srhetoricwasapracticalsolutionfor
navigatingthecomplexrelationshipbetweenmothers,physicians,andconsumersociety
becausetheculturalcodeofmotherhoodwascomfortingandfamiliar.Byhighlightingtheir
maternalexperiencesandassociatingthemselveswithelementsoftheculturalcodeof
motherhood,thefoundersofLLLsuccessfullypushedbackagainsttheoppressionofthe
institutionofscientificmotherhoodandplacedanewemphasisonthevalueofmaternal
experienceasasourceofknowledge.Challengingdominantideologiesandpracticescanbe
difficult,somothersneededreassurancethatmaternalexperiencewasalegitimatesource
ofinformationandthatideologyandpracticespromotedbyLLLweresound,safe,and
beneficialfortheirbabies.LLLrespondedtothisneedforreassuranceoftheorganization’s
38
authoritybyinvokingelementsoftheculturalcodeofmotherhoodsuchasthe
reproductivebody,protection,religion,andmorality.Theyframedfemalereproductive
functioningandthematernalinstincttonurtureasnaturaloccurrencesthatcanbe
negativelyimpactedbytheinterferenceofprofessionals.Theyalsoinvokedreligiousand
moralsentimenttoimbueexperiencedmotherswithasenseofmoralauthority.
ThefoundersofLLLleveragedtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodtoinspireasenseof
familiarityandcomfortwiththeorganization’sworkandvalues,andthissenseofcomfort
andfamiliaritylikelyhelpedtheorganizationgrowintoalargecounterpublic.Thefirst
editionofLLL’sself-helptext,TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,illustratesthe
combinationofthewisdomofnaturewiththeconceptsofloveandsecuritythatare
inherentintheculturalcodeofmotherhood:“Breastfeedingmeansalittleextratimein
whichtoenjoyandpayspecialattentiontoyourbabybeforethenextonecomesalong.
ThiswouldseemtobeNature’swayofhelpingusrearourlittleone’sinanatmosphereof
loveandsecurity”(WomanlyArt5).Here,thesuggestionthatmothersshouldresist
scientificmotherhood’spreferenceforbottle-feedinginfavorofamorenaturalapproach
toinfantfeedingistemperedbytheconceptsoflove,protection,andthematernalbody,all
elementstraditionallyassociatedwithmotherhood.Altruismisanotherconnotationofthe
culturalcodeofmotherhoodthatisinevidencehere.Ratherthanpromotingnaturalchild
spacingasabenefittothemother,itisconstructedasapsychologicalbenefittothebaby
thatensurestwootherconnotationsoftheculturalcode:loveandsecurity.
LLL’schoicetorhetoricallyforegroundconceptstraditionallyassociatedwith
motherhoodenabledittoattractalarge,geographicallydispersedaudienceofmothers
whofeltcomfortablewithLLL’sfamiliarconstructionofmotherhood.Asmorewomen
39
gravitatedtowardLLL,physiciansincreasinglytooknoticeoftheirpatients’successful
experienceswithbreastfeeding.Becausetheyforegroundedtraditionalvaluesassociated
withmotherhood,encouragedwomentoremaininthehome,andaimedtosupplement
ratherthanreplacemedicaladvice,LLLwasabletocraftasubtle,non-confrontational
rhetoricalstancethatwouldnotalarmthosewhoheldtraditionalvaluesorwere
concernedwithdisciplinarygatekeepinginthemedicalprofession.
ThecombinationoftheculturalcodeofmotherhoodandLLL’sphilosophyofnatural
motherhoodallowedLLLtouseitspositioningonthemarginsofscientificmotherhoodasa
sourceofauthoritytoestablishastrongmaternalethos,groundedinnaturalmotherhood,
thatwouldappealtoalargeaudienceandhelpcrafttheorganizationintoacounterpublic.
Itspositioningonthemargins,itspromotionoftraditionalvalues,anditsconstructionof
motherhoodaslovingandnurturingimbuedLLL’scounterdiscoursewithauthority.
Throughexploringtheethos-buildingeffortsofwomenrhetors,feministrhetorical
scholarshipshedslightonthewaysinwhichmarginalizedrhetorsusetheirpositioningto
arguethattheyhavetheauthoritytospeak.AccordingtoCarolynSkinner,womenrhetors
oftenmustuserhetoricalstrategiestoarguethattheinsightandknowledgegainedfrom
theirpositioningonthemarginsimbuesthemwithauthoritytospeakandactpublicly.As
Skinnershows,nineteenth-centurywomenphysicianssuccessfullyharnessed“marginality
asalocationfromwhichtospeak”which“authorizestheknowledgeandcredibilityof
thosehistoricallylocatedoutsideofthecentersofpower”(Skinner,WomenPhysicians
420).Thislocationofknowledgegainedfromexperienceonthemargins,claimsNedra
Reynolds,isparticularlyfeminine:“Whenaknowerislocatedasafemaleinthisculture,
knowledgeisexperienced,constructed,andrecalledinnonhierarchical,nonlinear,and
40
nonobjectiveforms.Inotherwords,femaleknowersadapttotheirmarginalizedpositions
byseeingdifferently—andlearningdifferentthings”(Reynolds330).LLLwrested
authorityfromscientificmotherhoodandthemedicalprofessionbyarguingthatanatural
maternalexperienceunimpededbyscientificinterventionsisthebestwaytodevelopan
understandingofababy’sneeds.InTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,LLL’sfounders
claimedthatexperiencedbreastfeedingmothersdevelopa“‘spirit’ofnursingthatcomes
fromexperiencingthequick,stronglove-tiessonaturalbetweenamotherandherbaby”
(5).This“spiritofnursing”willhelpamothertodevelopa“sureunderstandingofher
baby’sneedsandherjoyandconfidenceinherselftosatisfythem”(WomanlyArt5).The
implicationhereisthatmotherscannotdevelopanunderstandingoftheirbabies’needs
fromasetofprescribedbehaviors,butthattheycanonlydevelopthatunderstandingand
gainconfidenceintheirmaternalinstinctsthroughauthenticandnaturalexperienceswith
theirbabies.Bydrawingastrongconnectionbetweenknowledgegainedfromexperience
withthewisdomofNatureanditsassociationwiththereligiousconceptofcreation,love,
physicalandpsychologicalnourishment,andprotectioninTheWomanlyArtof
Breastfeeding,LLLcraftedamaternalrhetoricthatpositionedtheorganizationasa
powerfulandcredibleauthorityonmotheringandinfantcare,andbyextension,ithelped
mothersestablishthemselvesasthenaturalauthoritiesontheneedsoftheirownbabies.
AnotherstrategicrhetoricaldecisionthatimpactedtheeffectivenessofLLL’s
counterdiscourseonmotherhoodandinfantfeeding,andwhichwouldeventuallyenable
LLLtobecomeadistinctcounterpublic,wastheorganization’schoiceofaudience.AsI
detaillaterinthedissertation,inboththeirsupportgroupeffortsandtheirtextual
outreach,LLLfocusedtheireffortsonmotherswhoalreadyhadaninterestin
41
breastfeeding.Theydidnotchallengescientificmotherhooddirectlybytargeting
physiciansastheiraudiencebecausetheycouldnotengagedirectlywiththemedical
professionwithauthoritytospeakontheissueofinfantfeeding.Theprofessiondidnot
valueknowledgethatlaypersonsgainthroughfirst-handexperience.LLLalsodidnot
purposefullytargetwomenwhoplannedtobottle-feedinpartbecausethesocialpressures
onthesewomenweresignificant.LLLtargetedmothersinterestedinbreastfeeding
becausetheywouldlikelybeamenabletoLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood.
Thetargetingoflaypersonsasanaudiencecanbeaveryeffectivestrategyfor
developingacounterpublicthatsuccessfullychallengesdominantdiscourses.Sarah
Hallenbeck’sbookClaimingtheBicycle:Women,Rhetoric,andTechnologyinNineteenth-
CenturyAmericaandherarticle“RidingOutofBounds:WomenBicyclists'Embodied
MedicalAuthority”bothshedlightonthewayinwhichnon-medicallytrainedwomenof
thepostbellumerawereabletoshapemedicaldiscoursebycraftingapeer-to-peer
networkoflaypersonswhosharedinformationaboutbicycleridingthroughpopular
media.Astheresultofwomen’spublicconversationsaboutbicycleriding,medical
professionalsmadeagradualshiftintheirowndiscoursetoreflecttheexperience-based
knowledgesharedinpopulararticles(Hallenbeck,“RidingOutofBounds”341).
Hallenbeck’sstudyoftherhetoricalactivitiesofwomenbicyclistsoffersamodelfor
understandingthewayinwhichnon-professionalwomencanharnesstherhetorical
strategiesavailabletothem,shapemedicaldiscourse,andleadtotherevisionof
professionalknowledgeofwomen’sbodies.Inasimilarfashion,LLLharnessedthe
founders’experienceswithbreastfeedingtoreachoutpubliclytoothermotherstoshare
theirknowledgeofbreastfeedingandthepotentialforbreastfeedingtohelpmothers
42
developstrongmother-childbondswiththeirchildren.Intargetingothermothers,LLLwas
abletocraftacounterdiscoursethatwouldgaintheattentionandrespectofthemedical
professionandeventuallybesubsumedintoprofessionalmedicaldiscourse.Medical
professionals,partofverticalnetworkofscientificmotherhood,eventuallynoticedthe
practicalimpactofLLL’scounterdiscourse,andtheprofessionmadechangestoitsown
practices,therebychangingtheprofessionitself.HadLLLattemptedtoengagethetop-
downorverticaldiscourseofthemedicalprofessiondirectly,itsargumentswouldlikely
havebeendismissed.
LLL’ssuccessingrowingitscounterpublicandreshapingmedicaldiscoursewas
largelytheresultoftherhetoricalstrategiesthatLLLofferedtoitsaudienceof
breastfeedingmothers.ThemedicalprofessiontooknoticeoftheeffectivenessofLLL’s
modelofpeer-to-peersupportthroughtheirinteractionswiththemother.LLLoffered
mothersarhetoricaleducationintheformofscriptsthathelpedthemasserttheirabilityto
makeinformed,autonomousdecisionsaboutinfantfeeding.LLL’smethodofoffering
scriptsforinteractionswithaskepticalpublicresembledthescriptsthatFrancesWillard
andotherleadersoftheWomen’sChristianTemperanceUnionofferedtonewmembers
whohadlittleornorhetoricaleducationandwerenervousaboutspeakinginpublicand
conductingpublicmeetings(Mattingly65-67).The1958publicationofTheWomanlyArtof
Breastfeedinghadadvisedmotherstotelltheirphysicians,particularlythosewhowere
inclinedtopromotebottlefeeding,“thatyouaregettingsomehelpfromusandlethim
thinkthatyouassume,naturally,he’dwantyoutobreastfeedyourbaby;inanycaseitis
somethingthatyouasamotherwanttodo”(7).Thetextalsowarnedmothers“Aboveall,
don’tletyourconfidenceinyourselfbeshakenbyanegativeresponsefromyourdoctor”
43
(WomanlyArt7).LLL’swidelydispersedaudienceofmothersseemedtotakethisadviceto
heart.
Armedwiththerhetoricalmeansforengagingwithphysicians,LLL’sarmyof
nursingmotherslaidthefoundationforseismicshiftsinthemedicalprofession’sattitude
andunderstandingofbreastfeeding.Theofficesofphysicianswereaprimarysiteofthe
intersectionofthehorizontalnetworkofLLLandthevertical,top-downnetworkofthe
medicalprofession.AsLLLgrewandmanymorewomenbegantobreastfeedsuccessfully
withLLL’ssupport,physiciansbegantotakenotice.ThefirstpublicationofLLL’s
newsletter,LaLecheLeagueNews,inMayof1958includedlettersfrommedical
professionalsbothpraisingtheworkofLLLandrequestingwrittenmaterialstodistribute
intheiroffices.Inthesecondhalfofthe1960s,adecadefollowingLLL’sfounding,
professionalmedicaljournals,includingTheAmericanJournalofNursingandTheJournalof
Pediatrics,begantociteLLLasasourceofreliableinformationandsupportthatwasnot
onlybeneficialtomothers,butalsoofbenefittomedicalprofessionalsandthemedical
profession.TheseacademicreferencestoLLL—anorganizationwithabodyofknowledge
thatwasdevelopedfromfirst-handmaternalexperiencesharedinapeer-to-peer,
horizontalmanner—provideevidencethatLLLunderminedthebasicassumptionof
scientificmotherhoodthatmothersneededtobemicromanagedbymedicalprofessionals
astheywentaboutday-to-daychildcareactivities.Italsochallengedthenotionthat
valuableknowledgecouldonlycomefromascientificlaboratoryandthatthefirst-hand
experienceoflaypersonscouldnotinformscientificunderstanding.
ThisinteractionbetweenLLLandthemedicalprofession,andtheresultingshiftin
themedicalprofession’sdiscourseoninfantfeeding,isatestamenttothepowerofthe
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horizontal,peer-to-peernetworktocraftacounterdiscoursecapableofchallengingand
transformingdominantideologiesthatarepromotedinvertical,top-downnetworks.
PublicacknowledgementoftheimportanceandvalueofLLL’sworkmarkedonlythe
beginningoftheprocessthroughwhichtheorganization’scounterdiscoursebecamepartof
dominant,mainstreamdiscourseonmotherhoodandinfantfeeding.
OVERVIEWOFCHAPTERS
ThisdissertationexaminesthestagesofLLL’sdevelopmentoutlinedabove,charting
itsformationininitialmeetingsinlivingroomstoitsattemptstomeettheneedsofa
dispersedaudiencethroughtextualoutreach.Intheprocess,theorganizationanditsarmy
ofmaternalrhetorsbecameacounterpublicthattransformedthemainstreamdiscourse
andpracticesofmedicine.Next,Ioutlinethechaptersdetailingthisprocess.
ChapterII,“ACustom-MadeClubforMothers:CreatingMaternalSpacesand
ReclaimingMaternalAuthorityandExperience,”beginsbyexploringtheexigencies,
includingtheriseofbottle-feeding,scientificmotherhood,andtheexperiencesand
strugglesofindividualfounders,whichhelpedinformtheirunderstandingofthewayin
whichmaternalspaceiscreatedandpromptedthemtofoundLLL.Thischapterarguesthat
thefoundingofLLLwasarhetoricalactthroughwhichtheorganizationresistedscientific
motherhoodanddominantdiscoursesofmedicine.Throughtheexaminationofarchival
andpublishedtexts,IexplorethedevelopmentofLLL’smother-to-mothersupportgroup,
whichmetinthematernalspaceofthefounders’homes,astheestablishmentofthe
“paralleldiscursivearena”(Fraser68)inwhichLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood
anditscounterdiscoursewasshapedthroughthemutualsharingofmaternalexperiences.
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TheearlymeetingsoftheLLLsupportgroupshapedthefounders’viewsoftheneedsof
theiraudiencesothattheygainedanunderstandingofthemethodsofsupportand
persuasionthatwouldbestservetheneedsofmothersnewtobreastfeeding.The
conversationsthatoccurredwithinthesemeetingshelpedtoshapethematernalrhetoric
thatLLLemployedwhenitlateraimedtosupportmothersthroughthedevelopmentofa
self-helptextforbreastfeedingmothers.Finally,Iarguethatthemutualsharingof
maternalexperienceswithinthematernalspaceofthesupportgroupmeetingwasLLL’s
firststeptowardthedevelopmentofacounterpublicthatwouldsignificantlyimpact
medicalknowledgeandpractice.
ChapterIII,“Craftinga‘WomanlyArt’:TranslatingMaternalSpaceandLocal
Mother-to-MotherSupportTexts,”examinestherhetoricalstrategiesemployedbythe
organizationasittranslatedtheworkofthelocalsupportgroupintowritingwiththegoal
ofreachingageographicallydispersedaudienceofmotherswhileattemptingtoprovide
thesamespiritofsupportitofferedtolocalmothers.LLL’stextualoutreachinThe
WomanlyArtofBreastfeedingcultivatedanegalitariantoneandforegroundedthecultural
codeofmotherhood—particularlylove,altruism,protection,religion,nourishment,andthe
maternalbody—whilepromotingbreastfeedingandthephilosophyofnaturalmotherhood.
LLLrecognizedthatinorderforitsaudiencetoachievesuccessintheirattemptsto
breastfeedandexperienceamorenaturalapproachtomotherhood,itwouldbenecessary
formotherstotransformtheirhomesintomaternalspaces.Helpingmotherscreate
maternalspacerequiredthatLLLconvincethemtorejectmanyofthedominant
expectationsofwomeninthe1950s—forexample,keepingaspotlesshome—andinstead
prioritizethedevelopmentofstrongfamilialbonds.Inthischapter,Ianalyzethe1958
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editionofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingtouncovertherhetoricalstrategiesthatLLL
usedtoconstructmaternalethosfortheorganization,toframemothersasthenatural
authoritiesonchildcare,toconvincemotherstobreastfeedandembraceanewparadigmof
naturalmotherhood,andtoconvincebothmothersandfatherstorestructurethehome
intoamaternalspacethatwouldhelpmothersbesuccessfulintheireffortstobreastfeed
anddevelopastrongmother-childbond.Finally,IarguethatitwasthroughLLL’s
supportivetextualoutreachthattheorganizationbegantodevelopalarge,geographically
dispersed,horizontalnetworkofmothersintoaneffectivecounterpublicthateventually
challengedscientificmotherhoodandreshapedmedicaldiscourseoninfantfeeding.
ChapterIV,“TheRevolutionariesWorePearls:RhetoricalEducationinEarlyLaLeche
LeagueTexts,”exploresthewayinwhichLLL’searlytextsofferedmothersarhetorical
educationtohelpthemnavigateinteractionswithmembersofthedominantpublic,
particularlymembersofthemedicalprofession.Throughrhetoricalanalysisofthe1958
and1963editionsofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingandissuesofLaLecheLeagueNews
fromtheperiodof1958to1961,IaimtorevealthewayinwhichLLLdevelopedscripts
andmodelstohelpitsburgeoningcounterpublicofbreastfeedingmothersdevelop
maternalethos.Thesescriptsandmodelsfocusedparticularlyonhelpingmothersassert
theirmaternalauthorityininteractionswithmedicalprofessionalswithinthehospital
maternityward.Supportfrommedicalprofessionals,orlackthereof,isasignificantfactor
inthesuccessorfailureofeffortstoinitiatebreastfeeding.LLLinstructedmotherstocreate
maternalethosbyforegroundingtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodintheirargumentsas
theyadvocatedfortheirdecisiontobreastfeedandforgoformulasupplementation.By
actingconfidentanddetermined,buttemperingthatconfidencewithtraditionalvalues
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associatedwithmotherhood,LLL’scounterpublicofbreastfeedingmothersconvinced
medicalprofessionalsthatthedecisiontoresistthestatusquowasmotivatedoutofa
sharedconcernforthebestinterestoftheirbabies.MuchoftherhetoricalworkofLLLwas
achievedthroughone-on-oneinteractionsbetweenthemembersofthemedicalprofession
andLLL’sarmyofbreastfeedingmotherswhohadbeenequippedwiththerhetorical
strategiestoassertmaternalauthorityandadvocateformaternalwaysofknowing.Iargue
thatbyofferingsuchscriptsandmodels,LLLcreatedacounterpublicmadeupofanarmy
maternalrhetorswho,throughtheirindividualrhetoricalactions,engagedinaprojectof
collectivematernalethosformationthatshapedthemedicalprofession’sviewson
breastfeedingandtheroleofmothersinchildcare.Thechapterendswithareviewof
breastfeedingstatistics,contemporaryreferencestoLLLinpopularmedia,andreferences
toLLLanditsworkinmedicalpublicationstotracetheimpactthatLLL’scounterpublic
hadonattitudestowardbreastfeedingandtheroleofthemotherinmakingdecisions
aboutinfantcare.
ChapterV,“Conclusion:‘WeCameWantingtoLearntheArtofBreastfeeding.We
FoundaWayofLife’”arguesthattheparadoxofLLL’ssimultaneousliberationand
constraintofwomenwasaninevitableresultofitsphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodand
itsemploymentofmaternalrhetoricstoauthorizemotherstoexerciseautonomyovertheir
motheringexperiencesandresisttheoppressionofscientificmotherhood.Ireviewthe
stagesofLLL’searlyevolution,fromlocalsupport-groupmeetingtonationallyrecognized
expert,toillustratehowhorizontalcounterpublicscanshapethediscourseandpracticesof
dominantpublicsfromapositiononthemargins.Finally,Iexplorewhatthehistoryof
LLL’sgrowthasacounterpublicrevealsabouttherhetoricalaffordancesinherentin
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marginalizedmaternalspaces.Whilegenderedspatialsegregationhasgenerallybeen
viewedonlyasasourceofwomen’soppression,Iarguethatmarginalizedrhetorscan
leveragetherhetoricalaffordancesofgenderedspacestodevelopethosfroma
marginalizedposition.Iargue,too,thatthereisaneedforfurtherexplorationofthe
rhetoricityofmaternalspaces,whichlikematernalrhetorics,havethecapacitybothto
constrainmothersandtoserveasthelocusoftheirempowerment.
THECOMPLEXOUTCOMESOFLLL’SPHILOSOPHYANDMATERNALRHETORIC
Despiteitsmanysuccesses,LLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodandits
maternalrhetoriccreatedadoublebindfortheorganization.WhileLLLgainedtherespect
ofauthoritiesbythemid-1960s,workingclassmothersandfeministswerealienatedbythe
publicfaceandpracticesoftheorganization.Initsattempttoempowermothers,LLL
reinforcedsomeofthesocialcodesofwomanhoodandmotherhoodthatserveto
marginalizewomenanddiscouragetheirparticipationinthepublicsphere.Forinstance,it
associatedfemalebiologywiththematernalandsuggestedthatmotherhoodiswoman’s
naturalcalling;itpromotedatraditionalfamilystructurewithamale-breadwinner;andit
encouragedmotherstostayathomeduringtheirchildren’searlyyears.Thisparadoxical
aspectoftheorganization’srhetoricwasproblematicforsomeaudiences.Theorganization
verymuchreflectedthevaluesofthetraditionalfamily,particularlythewhite,middle-class
suburbanfamily.Singlemothersandmotherswhoworkedoutsideofthehomeoftenfelt
alienatedbytheassumptionsandrhetoricoftheorganization.Asdescribedearlierinthis
chapter,membersofthesecond-wavefeministmovement,whowerelargelyconcerned
withbringingaboutanendtogender-baseddiscrimination,criticizedtheorganizationfor
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perpetuatingthebiologically-based,systematicoppressionofwomenbyfocusingonthe
maternalbodyandexpectingwomentoremaininthehometocarefortheirchildren.
Theconflictbetweentheideologyofsecond-wavefeministsandLLL’sphilosophyof
naturalmotherhoodandmaternalrhetoricresultedinmisunderstandingsandsometimes
dramaticinteractionsbetweentheorganizationandleadersofthewomen’smovement.
OnesuchsceneinvolvingfeministactivistBettyFriedanwasdescribedbyMarian
Tompson,foundingmotherandformerpresidentofLLL,inPassionateJourney:My
UnexpectedLife.AtameetingoftheMaternalandChildHealthAssociation,Friedan
suggestedthatreceivingapaycheckisanimportantconformationofself-worthforwomen.
WithherinfantchildPhilipinherarms,Tompsonstoodandexplainedthatseeingher
breastfeedingsonhappyandhealthywasenoughjustificationforhertofeelimportantasa
woman(TompsonandVickers804).FriedanrespondedbyclaimingthatTompsonwas
usingherbabytobuildherself-esteem(TompsonandVickers804).Forsecond-wave
feministssuchasFriedan,LLL’seffortsmusthaveseemedtobeanattemptbymothersto
avoidconfrontingtheiroppressionandtoconvincethemselvesthattraditional
womanhoodisnobleandself-affirming.
Obviously,LLLheldvaluesandassumptionsthatconflictedwiththephilosophyof
second-wavefeminism,butIcontendthatthisdifferenceofvalueswasaresultofLLL’s
philosophyofnaturalmotherhood,itsconstructionofamaternalrhetoric,andits
organizationalgoals.LLLcalleduponthecodeofmotherhoodtoestablisha
counterdiscoursethatwouldenableittoresistdominantideologieswhilestillappealingto
themainstream.Thisalienatedsecond-wavefeministsbecauseitvalidatedwhatfeminists
believedtobeproblematicassumptionsaboutwomen,theirroleinsociety,andthe
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physicalspacesthattheyshouldoccupy.Nevertheless,IarguethatLLL’smaternalrhetoric
anditspromotionoftraditionalgenderrolesprovidednecessarycamouflageforits
feministgoalsandachievements.LLLuseditsmaternalethosandphilosophyofnatural
motherhoodtooffersupportandaffectimmediatechangeinthelivesofparticularwomen
andchildrenwithintheirimmediatecontexts,whilealsoworkingtochallengetheideology
ofscientificmotherhoodandgraduallychangetheinstitutionofmotherhoodtoempower
mothersandvalidatetheirexperiencesofmotherhood.Intheprocess,LLLdevelopeda
counterpublicpowerfulenoughtotransformthedominantdiscourseoninfantfeedingand
tounderminescientificmotherhood’slackofrespectformaternalexperienceasawayof
knowing.
ThisprojectrevealsthatLLL,whichhasbeenlargelyassociatedwithbiological
essentialismandanti-feministsentiment,managedtochallengetheoppressiveinstitution
ofscientificmotherhoodandre-framemotherhoodasaunique,responsiverelationship
betweenaparticularmotherandherchildorchildren.IarguethatthefoundersofLLL
werebeginning“tothinkthroughthebody,”toconvertwomen’sphysicalityinto
knowledgeandpower,torepossesswomen’sbodies,andtotreatmotherhoodasfreely
chosenintellectualworkafulltwentyyearsbeforethepublicationofRich’slandmark
feministanalysisofmotherhoodinOfWomanBorn,inwhichshecalledforpreciselythese
actions.LLL’sgoalwastohelpanymotherwhodesiredtobreastfeeddososuccessfully
whiledevelopingastrongmother-childbond.
Therehaveindeedbeenmanywomenwho,becauseoftheirlifestylesorsocial
positioning,feltjustifiablyalienatedormarginalizedbytheorganization,butthenotion
thattheorganizationwasattemptingtoprescribeauniversalapproachtomotherhoodisa
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misrepresentationoftheircoremission.LLLaimedtohelpindividualwomenandtheir
childrenexperienceauniqueandclosemother-childrelationship.Itsmaternalrhetoric,
withtherhetoricalforegroundingoftheculturalcodeofmotherhood,itsfocusonmother-
to-mothersupport,anditsassumptionthatmotherhoodisnatural,framedmothersas
authoritiesonchildcare.Additionally,LLLempoweredmotherstotakeownershipoftheir
experienceswithmotherhoodinwaysthatweremeaningfultothem.WhileLLLwas
largelysuccessfulinachievingthisgoalbecauseittempereditsactivismbyforegrounding
traditionalvaluesandgenderedassumptionsaboutwomenthatwerepopularinthe1950s,
thesestrategiesalsoalienatedmotherswhodidnotfitorganization’smold,including
adoptivemothers,workingmothers,lesbianmothers,andbottlefeedingmothers,andit
madeLLLsuspecttofeminists.Despitethis,LLL’smaternalrhetoricattractedarapidly
growingaudienceinthelate1950s.Thisaudiencebecameastrongcounterpublicthat
wouldchangedominantdiscoursesandpracticesofmotheringandinfantfeeding.Though
itwasaconservativeorganization,LLLachievedfeministendsbyexpandingwomen’s
options,encouragingthemedicalprofessiontore-evaluatethevalueofwomen’slived
experiences,andempoweringwomentoassertagencyandtakeownershipoftheir
experiences.AsHausmanpointsout,LLLopensthedoorforfeministstoconsiderthe
complexityofmaternityandthematernalbodyandencouragesfeministstohavemore
nuancedconversationsaboutwomen’svaryingroles(159).
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CHAPTERII
ACUSTOM-MADECLUBFORMOTHERS:CREATINGMATERNALSPACESAND
RECLAIMINGMATERNALAUTHORITYANDEXPERIENCE
WhenthefirstofficialmeetingofLaLecheLeaguetookplaceinOctoberof1956in
thehomeofMaryWhite,thesevenfounders—MarianTompson,MaryWhite,Edwina
Froehlich,BettyWagner,MaryAnnKerwin,MaryAnnCahill,andViolaLennon—had
alreadyindividuallyengagedinresistancetomainstreammedicalpracticesandattitudes
towardchildbirthandinfantfeeding.Severalofthefoundingmotherswereinspiredbythe
philosophyofthenaturalchildbirthmovementtohaveamorenaturalbirthexperienceand
tobreastfeed.Inthemid-twentiethcentury,thestandardpracticeinobstetricswasto
medicatelaboringmothersinchildbirthwithmedicationssuchasnitrousoxide,ether,local
anestheticsornerveblock,oracombinationofmorphineandscopolaminewhichresulted
inthestateof“twilightsleep”.Thesemethodslimitedwomen’sengagementinor
awarenessofchildbirth.Toasignificantdegree,womenhad“lostcontrolinthebirth
chamber”(Gibson619).Intheearlytwentiethcentury,asmedicatedchildbirthwas
becomingincreasinglyprevalent,scientificmotherhood’sphysician-centeredapproachto
childcaredisplacedmaternalexperienceasasourceofknowledge,andbottle-feeding
replacedbreastfeedingastheprimarymethodofnourishinginfants.Additionally,inthe
post-WWIIera,motherswereconstrainedbythenarrowconceptualizationofthewhite,
middle-classhousewifewhowasexpectedtoprioritizekeepinghouseoverattendingtothe
emotionalandpsychologicalwell-beingofherchildren.Severalofthefoundingmothersof
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LLLresistedthelossofmaternalautonomyandcontroloftheirmaternalexperiencesand
spacesbychoosingtohavehomebirthsandtobreastfeed.
TheexperiencesofthefoundersofLLL—includingdisappointingexperienceswith
unmedicatedbirthinthehospitallaborward,subsequentsatisfyingunmedicatedhome
births,failedattemptsatbreastfeeding,andsubsequentattemptstobreastfeedthatwere
facilitatedbythesupportofknowledgeablepeers—taughtthemthatinordertoexperience
naturalmotherhoodontheirownterms,theyneededtheopportunitytoasserttheir
agencyandlearnfromexperiencedmothers.Creatingthisopportunityforthemselves
involvedtheestablishmentofbothrhetoricalandphysicalspaceinwhichtheywere
regardedasauthorities.Informingthemother-to-motherbreastfeedingsupportgroup,
LLLwouldsubversivelyharnesstheassociationbetweendomesticspaceandthecultural
codeofmotherhoodtoauthorizethedevelopmentofacounterdiscourseoninfantfeeding
andanewparadigmofnaturalmotherhoodthatchallengedscientificmotherhoodandthe
expectationsforthebehavioroftheprototypical1950shousewife.Physicalspaceplayeda
significantroleinthedevelopmentofLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood,inits
rhetoricalstrategies,andinthespreadofLLL’scounterpublic.Because“physicalspaces
havethepowertochangebehaviorandpeople’sviewofthemselves”(Mountford,“On
Gender”50),Iwillcloselyexaminethewaysinwhichthefoundingmothersfelteither
empoweredormarginalizedinthelaborwardandthehomeduringchildbirth.Iwill
explorethestrategiesemployedbyoneLLLmothertotransformthehospitallaborward
andthehomeintomaternalspacethataffordedherautonomyoverherchildbirth
experiences,andIwillteaseoutthewaysinwhichtheseexperiencesshapedthefounding
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mothers’beliefsaboutmotherhood,maternalauthority,andtheliberatorypotentialof
maternalspaces.
Fromthebeginning,thefoundersofLLLconstructedthehomeasamaternalspace
thatwasavaluablesourceofexperience-basedknowledge.Forthisreason,theyconducted
theirmother-to-mothersupportgroupmeetingswithinmembers’homes,suchasthatof
MaryWhite,wherethefirstLLLmeetingswereheld.Thesehomesfunctionedasprivate,
enclavedmaternalspacesinwhichmotherswereallowedthefreedomtoshareideasand
supportoneanotherwithoutinterferencefrommembersofthedominantpublic.
Itheorizematernalspaceasanyspaceoccupiedbywomeninwhichtheirmaternal
rolesareforegroundedandleveragedrhetoricallytogivethemauthorityandagency
withinthatspace.Inthesematernalspaces,mothersareexpectedtobegoodmotherswho
reflecttheculturalcodeofmotherhoodandreinforcesociety’straditionsandvalues,yet
paradoxically,maternalspaceisamother-centeredplacethatallowsmotherstohavesome
agencyandautonomyindecidinghowbesttostructuretheactivitiesthatoccurwithinthat
space.Spacesassociatedwithwomenhavetraditionallybeendisregardedand
marginalized,ashastheknowledgeandactivitiesthattakeplacewithinthosespaces
(Spain235).Whileideologiessuchasscientificmotherhoodplacestrictexpectationson
mothers,theactivitiesthatactuallyoccurwithinindividualdomesticspacesareconsidered
privateandareoftennotcloselyscrutinized.Thisdisregardfortheimportanceofthe
activitiesthatoccurwithinindividualdomesticspacesallowsmotherstheopportunityto
transformthehomeintoasafeprivatematernalspaceinwhichtheycanresistthe
dominantpracticesassociatedwithmotherhoodandredefinemotherhoodforthemselves.
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Whilesuccessfulpracticeofanalternativeparadigmofmotherhoodwoulddepend
uponthecreationofmaternalspacewithinthehome,itwasalsovitalforLLLmothersto
carveoutmaternalspaceinpublicplacesbecausethepublicis“thearenainwhichsocial
relations(i.e.status)areproduced”andthosesocialrelationsarethenreproducedinside
thehome(Spain7).Totrulyoffermothersautonomyovertheirmaternalexperiences,LLL
motherswouldneedtotransformpublicspacesintopublicmaternalspaces.Inorderto
achievethisoutsideofthehome,LLLmothersneededtodeveloprhetoricalstrategiesto
negotiatenewrelationshipswiththosewhoheldauthoritywithinpublicspaces.Often,this
involvedemployingmaternalrhetorictoargueinfavorofalternativepracticesandto
establishmaternalethosbyframingmaternalexperienceasasourceofauthority.
Whilethecreationofpublicmaternalspaceswascriticalforthegrowthandspread
ofLLL’scounterpublicafteritgainedalarge,geographicallydispersedaudience,inits
earlieststages,LLLfocusedlargelyoncraftingprivatematernalspacethroughthe
employmentofmaternalrhetoricandrhetoricallysignificantactivity,suchashomebirth
andthesharingofknowledgegainedfromfirst-handexperience.Itusedthatspaceasasite
todevelopanalternativeparadigmofmotherhoodandre-establishmaternalauthority.
Theuseofaprivatematernalspacetohosttheegalitariansupport-groupconstituteda
subversiverhetoricalresponsethatallowedthefoundersthephysicalandmetaphorical
spacetocraftacounterdiscoursethatchallengedthemarginalizationofmothersbythe
medicalprofession.AsFraserexplains,counterpublicsoftenoriginatein“parallel
discursivearenas”thatofferasafespacetodeveloptheirideasandhonetheirdiscourse
(Fraser67).TheprivatematernalspaceofLLL’smother-to-mothersupportgroup
constitutedaparalleldiscursivearenainwhichmemberswereabletodiscussnatural
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childbirthandmothering,topicsthatwerelargelyignoredordismissedbythemedical
profession;toclaim,withlegitimacy,thatmaternalexperienceisavalidandvaluableform
ofknowledge;toencouragewomentoshareinamutualexchangeofsupportand
knowledgeinordertoencourageandsustainanapproachtomotheringthatdifferedfrom
thedominantparadigm;andtocreateanalternateparadigmofmotheringandinfant
feeding.ThesemeetingsbecamearhetoricaltraininggroundsforLLLandledtothe
developmentofacounterdiscoursethateventuallyallowedtheorganizationtochallenge
dominantdiscourseontheissuesofinfantfeedingandmotherhood,re-establishmaternal
authorityoverinfantcareandfeeding,de-medicalizetheroutinecareofinfants,andcreate
anewmodelofnaturalmotherhoodandchildcare.
Bothprivateandpublicmaternalspacesarerhetoricallycreated,butifprivate
maternalspacesoperatedasrhetoricaltraininggroundsforLLL,publicmaternalspaces
werethefrontlineswhereLLL’sarmyofbreastfeedingmotherswherecalleduponto
employmaternalrhetorictoassertmaternalauthorityinthepublicspaceswherethey
weremarginalized.Scholarshipexaminingthewayinwhichwomenreformersadvocated
fortheirrighttooccupyandspeakinpublicspacesoffersamodelforunderstandingthe
wayinwhichmembersofLLLemployedmaternalrhetoricinordertoassertagencyand
creatematernalspaceinpublicspaces.Forexample,CarolMattingly’sWell-Tempered
Women:NineteenthCenturyTemperanceRhetoricexploresthewayinwhichwomenofthe
Woman’sChristianTemperanceUnion(WCTU)highlightedtheirfemininityandpresented
themselvesasduty-boundandbenevolentinordertoauthorizepublicspeechandtheir
reformactivities.Theyemphasizedthattheywerenotfocusedonadvocatingforwomen’s
rightsbutinsteadwerefocusedonprotectingtheweakandimprovingthedomesticlivesof
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womenandchildrenbyadvocatingfortemperance;thus,theirpublicreformactivities
wereacceptedbecausetheyseemedtobemotivatedbyChristiandutyandwerefocusedon
thedomesticlivesofwomenandchildren.Theyoftenusedthisplatform,however,to
“reachotherwiseinaccessibleaudiencesinordertomaketheircaseforgreaterrightsfor
women”(Mattingly15).Asimilarapproachwasemployedbypostbellumwomenorators.
InGenderandRhetoricalSpaceinAmericanLife,1866-1910,NanJohnsonrevealsthewayin
whichpostbellumwomenoratorswereableto“co-optthepublicspeakingpodiumasa
domesticsiteandportraywomenrhetorsasachievingtheirpublicinfluenceonlyasa
resultofaninspiredextensionoftheirfemininedomain”(16).Similarly,IarguethatLLL
employedmaternalrhetoric—arguingthattheyweremotivatedbymotherlyloveand
concern—toassertmaternalauthorityinpublicspacesandtocraftmaternalspacethat
offeredthefreedomtoresistdominanttrendsandpracticesininfantfeeding;however,I
arguethatinsteadofframingpublicspaceasanextensionofdomesticspace,LLL
developedarhetoricalstrategytocraftanyspaceintomaternalspacebydeveloping
maternalethosandassociatingresistancetothedominantpracticesandactivitiesthattook
placewithinpublicspaceswiththemother’sroleasagood,loving,nurturing,protective
mother.Therefore,whilepostbellumoratorsarguedthatthepodiumwasanextensionof
thedomesticsite,LLLmothersarguedthatpublicspacesmustaccommodatetheactivities
involvedingoodmotheringevenifthoseactivitiesarecontrarytostatusquopractices.
Becausetherewereveryfewwrittenrecordsoftheorganization’sfirsttwoofyears
ofexistence,1956and1957,thischapterreliesheavilyonreadingsoforganizational
historiesandfirst-handaccountsgivenintranscribedinterviewspublishedmorerecently.
Thesetextsrevealthewayinwhichthefounders’experiencesshapedtheirviewson
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motherhood,maternalspace,maternalauthority,andmaternalpractices,anditshowshow
theseviewsshapedthestructureandcontentofthemother-to-mothersupportgroup
meetingsaswellasLLL’scounterdiscourseonmotheringandbreastfeeding.
Myaiminthischapteristocontributetothebodyofscholarshipexploringthe
rhetoricalnatureofspaceandtheroleofspatialrhetoricsingendering.JessicaEnochcalls
fortheinvestigationofspatialrhetoricswhichinvolve“thelanguagethatdesignatesa
space,thematerialsthatconstructandadornit,andtheactivitiesenactedinsideit”in
orderunderstand“howthecompositionofspacecreates,maintains,orrenovatesgendered
differencesandunderstandings”(Enoch,OctologIII,115).Inthischapter,Ibuildonthe
workoffeministrhetoricianssuchasJessicaEnoch,JordynnJack,andRoxanneMountford,
aswellasfeministgeographerDoreenMasseyandurbanplanninganddevelopment
scholarDaphneSpain,tounderstandthegenderingandrhetoricityofspace.Theirwork
shedslightonthewayinwhichthegenderingandregenderingofspaces,physicallyand
symbolically,canmarginalizeorempower.Iapplytheirscholarshiptoreadtheearly
historyofLLLasastoryaboutthesubversiveuseofgenderedspacetoreclaimandrevalue
women’sexperience-based,domesticknowledge.IrelyonLindalBuchanan’sRhetoricsof
Motherhoodtounderstandtheparadoxicalnatureofmaternalrhetorics,whichcan
empowermotherswhilesimultaneouslyconstrainingthem.Additionally,Buchananoffers
insightintohowLLLharnessedtheculturalcodeofmotherhood,particularlycomponents
suchasdomesticity,love,nurturance,andnourishment,toauthorizeanewwayofbeing
andacting,withinamaternalspace,thatempoweredmothers.
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RHETORIC,MATERNALSPACE,ANDMOTHERHOODINTHE1950S
Spacesareunavoidablyrhetorical,asrhetoricisimplicatedinquestionsregarding
whoisauthorizedtooccupyaspace,whoisexcluded,howthosewithinthespaceare
expectedtoconductthemselves,thelayoutofthespace,thematerialsfoundwithinthe
space,andwhatcountsasknowledgeorauthorityinthatspace.Spacesareinescapably
imbuedwithsymbolicmeaningandconveygenderedmessagesthat“bothreflectandaffect
thewaysinwhichgenderisconstructedandunderstood”(Massey179).Whenwomenare
relegatedtoaparticularspace,asthewhite,middle-classhousewiveswhofoundedLLL
wererelegatedtothehome,thisprocessofgenderedspatialsegregationisinstrumentalin
theformationoftheiridentities(Massey179);thus,spaceplaysasignificantroleinthe
constructionofmotherhoodandinthedevelopmentofone’smaternalidentity.
Inthemid-twentiethcentury,middle-classwhitemotherswereexpectedtoremain
athomedespitethefactthatmanywomenhadenteredtheworkforceduringWWII.
Consigningwomentothehomeinthepost-WWIIeramaderoomintheworkforceformen
returningfromwar,butitalsoreinforcedtraditionalvaluesandservedasasymbolof
economicprosperity.The1950swhite,middle-classhousewifewasarepresentationof
classstatusandupwardmobility(Coontz6).AccordingtoCoontz,thepopularmagazine
imagesofthe1950sAmericanhousewifeandhernewhomeapplianceswerean
internationallydistributedsymboloftheprosperityandqualityoflifeofferedbyAmerican
capitalism.Minoritywomen,low-incomewomen,andsinglemotherswerealso
constrainedbytheseexpectations,buteconomicnecessitypushedthemintothe
workforce;thus,thesemothershadtorhetoricallyleveragetheculturalcodeof
motherhooddifferentlytoframetheiractivitiesasgoodmothering.
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Combinedwiththeideologyofscientificmotherhood,whichpromotedahands-off,
scientificapproachtochildrearing,theemphasisondomesticityasasymbolofarising
whitemiddle-classresultedinanattitudetowardthehomethatwasprimarilyconcerned
withthemother’sroleinmaintainingtheimageofasuccessful,well-organizedmiddle-
classfamilywithouttheaidofhousekeepingstaff.Therewaslessemphasisonspending
timewithchildrenanddevelopingcloserelationshipswiththem.Thiswasadeparture
fromthelong-heldunderstandingofthehome,whichaccordingtoMassey,hadlongbeen
associatedwithstability,reliability,andauthenticity;thehomehadpreviouslybeenviewed
asanemotionalsafetynetinwhichthosewhohadleftcouldreturntoreceivecomfortand
affectionfrommothersorwives(Massey180).
Whilethewhite,middle-classhousewifeofthe1950splayedakeyroleinthe
promotionofAmerica’sthrivingcapitalisteconomy,theknowledgethatmothersgained
fromtheirfirst-handexperiencesinthehomewerenotvalued.AsDaphneSpainexplains,
“Domesticinformationconveyedwithinthehomeisdevalued,atleastpartiallybecauseitis
possessedbywomen”(235).Inthe1950s,therealitywasthatadvancementsin
technology,science,andmedicine,aswellasscientificmotherhood’sprescriptiveideology,
strippedmothersoftheirpersonalautonomyandagencybothwithinandoutsideofthe
homebyconsigningthemtothehomeanddictatingtheiractionswithinit.Gendered
institutions,suchastheprofessionsofmedicineandscience,reliedonspatialsegregation
tocontrolknowledgeandresourcesthroughthecontrolofspace(Spain15).Because
motherhoodhadbeenmedicalizedbytheideologyofscientificmotherhoodandmothers
wereexpectedtostayathomeratherthanenterprofessionssuchasmedicine,maternal
knowledgeandexperiencegainedindomesticspaceswasnotrecognizedasauthoritative.
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Spainarguesthattheonlywayforgenderedinstitutions,suchasmedicine,to
changeisforwomenandmentooccupythesameplacesequally(xv),anditisonlyonce
thisspatialbarrierisbreachedthatgenderedstratificationbeginstochange(Spain5).
Muchofthescholarshipdedicatedtospatialrhetoricsfocusesonwomen’suseofrhetorical
strategiestodegendermasculinespaces.Feministrhetoricalscholars(Jack;Enoch;Wells;
Skinner;Buchanan;Mountford;Moseley)havepreviouslyexploredthewayinwhich
womenrhetorshaveemployedrhetoricalstrategiestoauthorizetheirentryintomasculine
genderedspaces,andinsodoing,havetransformedthosespacesandthegendered
relationshipstheyrepresent.ButasscholarssuchasWells,Skinner,andMountfordreveal,
evenwhenwomenenterintomasculinegenderedspacesinaprofessionalcapacity,they
stillmustemployrhetoricalstrategies,suchasthedevelopmentofethos,toassert
authorityandgainrespect.Forexample,studiesoftherhetoricalactivityofnineteenth-
centurywomenphysiciansbySusanWellsandCarolynSkinnerrevealthatoncewomen
haveenteredintoagenderedinstitutionorspace,itwasstillnecessarytoadoptrhetorical
strategiesthatauthorizetheirparticipationandvalidatetheiruniquecontributions.These
studiesrevealthedifficultrhetoricalworkrequiredtodegenderspaces,which,asSpain
explains,requiresthatrhetors“makegenderedspacesandtheirlinkswithknowledge
visible”andthen“toopposetheirpersistence”(Spain239).
Sometimesopposingthepersistenceofgenderedspacesmeantcontendingwith
problematicmaterialarrangements.InTheGenderedPulpit:PreachinginAmerican
ProtestantSpaces,RoxanneMountfordexploredthewaysinwhichonefemaleminister,
PatriciaO’Connor,dealtwiththephysicalrealitiesofthepulpit,whichdwarfedher
diminutivesize.O’Connorrejectedthepulpitandmovedoutintotheaudiencewhengiving
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sermons(Mountford,GenderedPulpit66).Thispracticalsolutionhadsignificantrhetorical
implications,asthepulpitkeptadistancebetweentheministerandthecongregation.In
movingamongstthecongregation,O’Connoralteredtherelationshipbetweenherselfand
thecongregationandtransformedthesanctuaryintoamorefemininespace.
Inadditiontostudyingthewaysthatwomenhaveattemptedtorhetorically
regendermasculinespaces,rhetoricianshaverevealedthewayinwhichthemeaningof
domesticspaceanddomesticityhasbeenexpandedtoencouragewomentoenterinto
masculinespaces.Earlierinthechapter,Iexploredthewayinwhichwomenhave
employeddomesticitytoauthorizetheirreformactivitiesinpublicspaces.Asscholars
JessicaEnochandJordynnJackreveal,domesticityhasalsobeenemployedtoreframe
publicspacestopersuadewomentoleavethehome.In“ActsofInstitution:Embodying
FeministRhetoricalMethodologiesinTimeandSpace,”JordynnJackexploresthewaythat
WWIIerafactorieswererenovatedtoreflectdomesticityandfemininityinorderto
accommodatewomenworkers.Jackarguesthattheassociationofthefactorywith
femininityanddomesticityreshapedlaborpractices,structuredwomen’sschedulesaround
theirmaternalresponsibilities,andpromptedthephysicalreorganizationoftheworkplace
throughsuchinclusionsasachildcarecenterandasaloninthefactory;suchchanges
allowedwomentoaccomplishtheirdomesticdutieswhilefillingamanpowershortage
(Jack294-296).JessicaEnoch’s“There’sNoPlaceLiketheChildcareCenter:AFeminist
Analysisof<Home>intheWorldWarIIEra,”revealsthewayinwhichtherhetorical
constructionoftheWWIIerachildcarecenteras“home”showsthattheexpansionofthe
conceptofdomesticitywasastrongrhetoricaldevicethathelpedtoauthorizewomen’s,
evenmothers’,movementintotheworkplaceandoutofthehomeduringtheWWIIera
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(“There’sNoPlaceLike”).Conversely,thiscontinuedassociationofwomenwiththe
domesticsphereinthewartimeerahelpedtofacilitateamovementtopushwomenoutof
theworkplaceandbackintothehomeinthepost-warera(Enoch,“There’sNoPlaceLike”
434).InDomesticOccupations:SpatialRhetoricsandWomen’sWork,Enochexpandedher
explorationofthewayinwhichtheconceptofhomewasleveragedrhetoricallytoallow
womenentranceintotheteachingprofessionandlaboratorysciences(asdomestic
scientists)inadditiontothewartimefactoryduringWorldWarII.Domesticscientists,for
example,gainedentryintothesciencesbyregendering“thehomefromafemininespaceof
loveandcomforttoamasculinesiteofscientificexperimentation”(Enoch,Domestic
Occupations172).Thesedomesticscientistswereabletoelevatethevalueofdomestic
activitiesandgainaccessintothesciencesbyframingwomen’sunderappreciateddomestic
workasmasculineandworthyofscientificstudy;yetintheprocess,theylikelycontributed
tothedevelopmentofthescientificapproachtomotheringandmotherhoodthatwas
prevalentintheeraofscientificmotherhood.
Scholarlyexplorationsofthewaythatdominantviewsofdomesticityandthehome
canbeusedandtransformedrhetoricallytoauthorizewomen’sentryinto,orforcetheir
exitfrom,professionsandpublicspacesareinstructive.Thesestudiesofferamodelthat
canbeusedtounderstandthewayinwhichtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodandits
associatedconcepts—suchaslove,sacrifice,altruism,andthehome—canbeleveraged
rhetoricallytocreatematernalspaceinwhichmothershavetheauthoritytoadoptnew
maternalrolesandpracticesthatchallengethestatusquounderstandingofmotherhood
andmothering.WhileEnochfocusesonthewayinwhichwomenuseddomesticityto
authorizeentryintoprofessionsoutsideofthehome,hertheoryofspatialrhetoricshelps
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toexplainthewaymembersofLLLemployedmaternalrhetorictotransformthehomeinto
amaternalspaceandauthorizesubversivematernalactivities.Understandinghowarhetor
maytransformthemeaningofspacetoauthorizeherentranceintothatspaceorher
activitieswithinthatspacerequiresanexaminationofspatialrhetorics,or“themultimodal
waysthroughwhichspacesgainmeaning”(Enoch,DomesticOccupations6).Thestudyof
spatialrhetoricsrequiresanexaminationof“whatbodiesdoinspaceandwhatspacesdo
tobodies,distinguishingthewaysthatsitesconfine,constrain,orfreebodiesandtheway
thatbodiesmakeandremakespacesthroughtheirpresenceandactions”(12).Thewomen
whomEnochstudiedwereabletoleveragetheconceptofhometoauthorizetheirentry
intoprofessionsoutsideofthehome.Thesuccessoftheirrhetoricalefforts,which
foregroundedtheconceptofhome,dependedupondominantperceptionsofhomethat
“prescribedwomen’sattachmenttoitandconditionedwomen’sworkoutsideit”(Enoch,
DomesticOccupations13).AsEnochexplains,theconceptofhomedoesnothaveastatic
meaning;itsrhetoricalpowerliesinitsadaptability.Enocharguesthatthemeaningof
home“iscreated,sustained,andreshapedthroughrhetoricaloperationsthatarecraftedin
responsetoparticularconstraintsandthatcapitalizedonspecificopportunities”(Domestic
Occupations5).Womencouldtakeadvantageofthefluidandadaptablenatureofspatial
rhetoricsinordertoauthorizetheirentranceintoprofessionsoutsidethehomebyarguing
thattheirprofessionalworkwasanextensionoftheirdomesticity.LLLmadeasimilar
rhetoricalmovebyarguingthatthesubversivedomesticactivitiesandmaternalbehaviors
thatitpromotedweretheproductofgoodmotheringandalignedwiththeculturalcodeof
motherhood.
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Anunderstandingofthewayinwhichmotherhoodcanbeharnessedtoauthorize
resistancetodominantpracticesofmotheringwithinthedomesticsphererequiresa
carefulexaminationofthedifferencesbetweenmotherhoodanddomesticity.While
domesticitywasrequiredofmothersinthepost-WWIIera,andmotherswereexpectedto
occupythedomesticspaceofthehome,motherhoodanddomesticityareseparate
concepts.SarahBurkeOdlandparsesthetwoconceptsandexplainsthatwhilemotherhood
involvesactivitiesrelatedtothephysicalandemotionalcareofchildren,domesticity
involvesdailychoresotherthanchildcareandhouseholdmanagementinthephysical
locationofthehome(67).Itispossibletobeamotherwithoutbeingdomesticordomestic
withoutbeingamother(Odland67).ExtendingthislineofOdland’sreasoning,Idrawa
distinctionbetweendomesticspaceandmyunderstandingofmaternalspace,whichwas
inspiredbyaccountsofthesubversivedomesticactivitiesofLLLmothers,suchasMarian
Tompson,andtheorganizationasawhole.Idefinedomesticspaceasthephysicallocation
withinwhichapersonorfamilyresides.Iunderstandthedifferencebetweenadomestic
spaceoccupiedbyamotherprovidingcareforherchildrenandaprivatematernalspaceto
bethatthelatterisanenclavedspace,bothphysicalandrhetorical,thatoffersthemother
thefreedomtoorientthecare-takingactivitiesthatoccurwithinthespacearoundherown
understandingoftheuniqueneedsofherindividualchildren;itencourageshertoexercise
personalautonomyandallowshertoresistdominanttrendsandideologiesthatcontradict
herunderstandingofhowshecanbestfulfillhermaternalresponsibilitytocarefor,love,
andnurtureherchildren.Theconceptofamaternal,mother-centeredspaceprioritizesthe
mother’semotionalandpsychologicalfulfillmentsothatsheishappyandhealthyforthe
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sakeofherchildren;therefore,thecreationofprivatematernalspaceencouragesmothers
torelaxandpursueactivitiesthattheyprioritizeandfindpersonallyfulfilling.
Bothprivateandpublicmaternalspaceisrhetoricallyconstructed.AsEnoch
suggests,spatialrhetoricsinvolvethestudyofthelanguage,materials,andactivitiesthat
areinvolvedinthecompositionofspace,andthecompositionofspace“cancreate,
maintain,orrenovategendereddifferencesandunderstandings”(Enoch,OctologIII,115).
Maternalspaces,Iargue,havethecapacitytorhetoricallyrenovateculturalunderstandings
ofmotherhood.Thedevelopmentofmaternalspacereliesontheestablishmentofmaternal
ethosthatisundergirdedbyelementsoftheculturalcodeofmotherhood.Byframingher
styleofmotheringandherresistancetothestatusquothroughthelensofconceptssuchas
love,empathy,altruism,morality,andprotection,amotherisabletojustifyanddefendher
maternalpractices.Sheisbothconstrainedandemboldenedinthespace,asheractions
withinthatspacearemeasuredagainstculturalnormsandvalues,butsheisabletoadopt
andadaptculturalvaluesinordertoresistnormsandpracticesthatcontradictherown
viewsofchildcare.
Asthecreationandmaintenanceofmaternalspacedependsupontherhetorical
foregroundingofelementsoftheculturalcodeofmotherhood,theconceptofmaternal
spaceisparadoxicalinnature.Itconstrainswomenwithintraditionalrolesandspaces
associatedwithmotherhood,yetitcanbeleveragedrhetoricallytoencouragewomento
challengetraditionandleavetraditionaldomesticspacesforthesakeofthefamily.In
RhetoricsofMotherhood,LindalBuchananexplainsthatmaternalrhetorics“doemploy
traditionalassumptionsaboutwomen,”buttappingintotheculturalcodeofmotherhood
“generatesrhetoricalresourcesthatareusefulforforwardingchange,”whilealso
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potentiallyconstrainingwomen(22-23).Thecodeofmotherhoodcanbeusedrhetorically
toencouragewomentoenterthepublicsphereintimesofcrisis,oritcanbeusedto
empowerwomen,suchasmembersoftheWomen’sChristianTemperanceUnioninthe
latenineteenthcentury(Mattingly),topubliclyadvocateoutsideofthehomeforsocietal
andlegalchangesthatwouldimprovethedomesticlivesofwomenandchildren.
Mostscholarsexploringthegenderingofspacehaveunderstoodthehomeasaplace
thatconstrainswomen’sabilitytoparticipateinthepublicsphereormakemeaningful
contributionstopublicknowledge.ScholarssuchasJackandEnochwhohavestudiedthe
wayinwhichconceptssuchasdomesticityandthehomecanbeleveragedrhetoricallyto
authorizewomentoenterintoprofessionaloccupationsandspaces,butmostscholarshave
stillviewedthehomeasasiteofconstraintanddisempowerment.DaphneSpainbelieved
thatgenderedstratificationcanonlychangewhenwomenoccupythesamespacesasmen
andtheircontributionstoknowledge-makingarevaluedequally(xv).IarguethatLLL’s
creationofmaternalspacethroughthesubversionofthematernalrole,itshighlightingof
gendereddifferences,anditsforegroundingofthequalitiestraditionallyassociatedwith
motherhoodprovidedtherhetoricalauthorizationthatLLLneededinordertoconfront
andultimatelyreshapewidespreadpublicattitudestowardmotherhoodandbreastfeeding.
LLL’sfounderswerenotinitiallyregardedasauthoritiesoninfantfeeding,yettheyused
maternalexperiencesandtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodtocreatematernalspaceand
authorizeactivitiesthatwerediscouraged,includinghomebirth,breastfeeding,andthe
developmentofstrongemotionalandphysicalconnectionstotheirchildren.
Bysubversivelylocatingthemselveswithinthematernalspaceofthehomeand
framingtheiractivitiesthroughthelensoftheculturalcodeofmotherhood,LLLwasable
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torhetoricallyappropriatetheculturalcodeofmotherhood“inordertodisruptand
transmutetheoppressivesystemsofgender,knowledge,andpowerthatcomprisethe
master’shouse”(Buchanan23)which,inthecaseofLLL,wasmedicaldiscourseand
dominantmedicalpractices.LLLusedtheprivatematernalspaceofthehometodevelop
newideasaboutmotherhood,particularlyitsphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood,andit
usedthatprivatematernalspacetosharetheseideasandpracticeswithothermothers.As
exploredinsubsequentchapters,LLL’scounterpublicofprimarilywhite,middle-class
motherswould,withrhetoricalacumenandmaternalethos,becapableofcreating
maternalspacewherevertheywere—hospitals,doctor’soffices,andhomespaces.As
mothersemployedrhetoricalstrategiestocreatematernalspacewherevertheyhappened
tobe,theybroughtLLL’sideasandpracticesintopublicviewandultimatelyreshaped
dominantdiscourseontheissuesofinfantfeedingandmotherhood.
CHILDBIRTHANDMATERNALSPACE
ThechildbirthexperiencesofseveralofLLL’sfounders,bothinthehospitalandat
home,shapedLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodanditsunderstandingofthewayin
whichmotherscouldusematernalrhetoricandsubversiveactivitytocarveoutmaternal
spacebothinthehomeandinpubliclocations.Theirindividualexperienceswith
unmedicatedbirthbothinthehospitalandathomeexposedthelimitationsofthemedical
profession’sknowledgeandthewaythatthestructureandpracticesoftheprofession
posedanobstacleformotherswhowishedtoexperienceunmedicatedchildbirth.These
experiencesalsorevealedthatdominantpracticesofchildbirthhinderedthedevelopment
ofanearlyandstrongmother-childbond.Inchoosingtogivebirthathome,severalofLLL’s
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foundersestablishedtheirhomesasmaternalspacesinwhichtheyactedwithagencyto
resistdominantpracticesinordertoensurethehealthandwellbeingoftheirchildren.For
severalfoundingmembersofLLL,choosingtohaveaphysician-assisted,unmedicated
homebirthwastheirfirstactofrhetoricalresistancetodominanttrends.Tojustifythe
decisiontothemselves,theirfamilies,andmedicalprofessionals,theyfounditnecessaryto
rhetoricallyforegroundthewaysinwhichhomebirthalignedwithtraditionalvalues
associatedwithmotherhood,suchaslove,protection,andnurturance.Intheremainderof
thissection,Iwillreviewthedominantpracticesofchildbirthinthe1950sanddiscussthe
wayinwhichtheexperiencesofseveralofLLL’sfounders,particularlyMarianTompson,
informedLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodandpreparedLLLmothersto
rhetoricallyleverageconceptsassociatedwithmotherhoodtocreatematernalspacewithin
whichtoresistdominantpractices.
SeveralofLLL’sfounders,includingMaryWhite,EdwinaFroehlich,Marian
Tompson,ViolaLennon,andMaryAnnKerwin,sharedaninterestinnaturalchildbirthand
desiredtogivebirthnaturallyinaconsciousstatesothattheycouldbeginbondingwith
theirbabiesimmediately.Theyinitiallyassumedthatachievingthisgoalwasasimple
matterofconvincingphysicianstoagreetoletthemgivebirthunmedicatedinthehospital;
however,theyquicklydiscoveredthatsocietalnorms,establishedmedicalpractice,andthe
physicalspaceofthehospitalworkedagainsttheireffortstoachievethisgoal.Bythetime
thefoundersofLLLwerehavingbabiesinthelate1940s,themajorityofbabieswereborn
inhospitals;inthedecadebetween1938and1948,thepercentageofinfantsbornin
hospitalsintheUnitedStatesrosefrom55%to90%(“HealthierMothersandBabies”853).
Forseveralofthefoundingmothers,MarianTompsonandMaryWhiteinparticular,their
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effortstoexperiencenaturalchildbirthrevealedtheimportanceofcreatingamaternal
spaceinwhichmothershadagencyovertheirmaternalexperiences.Theyfeltthatahome
birthofferedthemmoreautonomyandledtoaquicker,morenaturalintegrationofthe
babyintofamilylife.AfterreadingChildbirthWithoutFear,MaryWhiteandherhusband,
physicianDr.GregWhite,hadanunmedicatedhospitalbirthin1947,andin1950theyhad
anunmedicatedhomebirthwiththeirfourthchild(Lowman,Revolutionaries8).ForMary
White,thehomebirthexperiencemadebirthseemmuchmorelikeanaturalpartoflife
(Cahill7-8).
Medicatedhospitalbirthswereoneoftheprimarywaysthatscientificmotherhood
strippedwomenofpersonalagencyandbodilyautonomy.Ironically,women’squestfor
autonomyovertheirbirthingexperiencesplayedasignificantroleintheriseofhospital
births.First-wavefeministscontributedtothemedicalizationofchildbirthbyadvocating
forpain-freelaborandaccesstohospitalsduringchildbirth(Skowronski26).Many
physicianscapitalizedonthismovementinfavorofpain-freebirthingtechniques,and
somepromotedthispracticeaswomanfriendly,asmotherscouldgivebirthwithout
consciousawarenessofpain.Bymakingdemandsforpain-freeapproaches,suchasaccess
totwilightsleep,“womenbegantoasserttheirautonomyindecisionsaboutchildbirth,”
but,paradoxically,theydidsoinsuchawaythatthey“relinquishedconsciousbirthand
acceptedmedicalcontrol”(Skowronski623).Twilightsleep,theunconscious,amnesic,
pain-freeconditionachievedthroughaninjectionofmorphineandscopolamine,required
womentoberestrainedtopreventinjury(Gibson623).Applicationsofetherrequired
closeobservationbynursesbecauseitfrequentlycausedwomentoloseconsciousness
(Gibson624).Figure1below,apagefroma1915textexploringthemethodofusing
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scopolamineandmorphinetoinducetwilightsleep,providesexamplesofrestraintsthat
wereusedintheprocess.Theimageisastartlingvisualrepresentationofthewayinwhich
mothersrelinquishedpersonalagencyandcontrolovertheirbodiesinthelaborward.
Figure1.GownsusedtorestrainwomenduringtwilightsleepfromVanHoosen,
Bertha;Scopolamine-morphineAnaesthesia.AndAPsychologicalStudyof"TwilightSleep"
MadebytheGiessenMethodbyElisabethRossShaw,Chicago,IL:HouseofManz,1915;
Archive.org,https://ia800707.us.archive.org/16/items/scopolaminemorph00vanh/
scopolaminemorph00vanh.pdf.
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Whilemedicatedchildbirthinthehospitalwasthenorm,thenaturalchildbirth
movement,whichwasledprimarilybymalephysicians,wasgainingtractioninthe1950s.
GrantlyDick-Read’s1942bookChildbirthWithoutFear,whichpromotednatural,
unmedicatedchildbirth,wasaninternationalbestseller,andseveralofLLL’sfoundershad
readit.WomensuchasthefoundersofLLLweredrawntonaturalchildbirthbecausethey
cametobelievethattherewasahumanelementmissingfromthedominantmedical
practicesinchildbirth(Litoff229).Advocatesofnaturalchildbirthfeltthatunmedicated
childbirth,keepingtheinfantinthesameroomasthemother,andbreastfeedingwould
createastrongermother-childbondthatwouldfosterindividualhappinessandsocial
stability(Plant138).Thismaternalistargumentbynaturalchildbirthadvocatesoffered
legitimacytounmedicatedbirthsbecauseitalignedthepracticewiththeculturalcodeof
motherhood.ThediscourseofthenaturalchildbirthmovementconvincedseveralofLLL’s
founderstoseekoutanaturalchildbirthandpreparedthemtomakesimilarrhetorical
argumentsinsupportoftheirdecisionstorejectdominantpracticeandtobreastfeed.Yet,
theyquicklydiscoveredthatconvincingaphysiciantoallowunmedicatedbirthwasnot
sufficienttomaketheexperienceapositiveone.Theirchildbirthexperiencesrevealeda
lackofinformationandsupportforwomentohelpthemnavigatethepracticalitiesof
achievingasatisfyingnaturalchildbirthexperienceinanerawhenmothershadlost
controlofthebirthingchamberandmedicatedhospitalbirthswerethenorm.
MarianTompson’saccountofthestruggletoexerciseautonomyoverherchildbirth
experiencesisillustrativeofthechallengesmothersfacedwhenattemptingtocreate
maternalspaceintheeraofscientificmotherhood.Likeseveralofthefounders,Tompson
chosetohaveanunmedicatedbirth.Inthearticle“Custom-MadeDelivery,”Tompson
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comparedherexperienceswithunmedicatedbirthinthehospitalandathome,andin
doingshedrewastarkcontrastbetweentheconstraintandlackofagencythatmothers
experiencedinthegenderedspaceofthelaborwardversustheliberatorypotentialofthe
home.
Tompsonhadneverdesiredahomebirth;shesimplyhadwanteda“natural
childbirth”(Tompson207),andwhenherphysicianagreedwithherrequestforan
unmedicatedbirth,shehadassumedthatthebattletohavethebirthshewantedhadbeen
won;however,herfirstunmedicatedhospitalbirthwasadisappointment.Theattitudesof
thephysicianandthehospitalstaffmadeitclearthatinthelaborward,wherewomen
werealmostalwaysmedicated,thelaboringmother’sneedsanddesireswere
inconsequential.Herbirthattendantswereunexcitedandlackedinterestinthebirth,her
husbandwasnotallowedinthedeliveryroom,andherphysicianunhappilycommented
thatifshewereunconscious,hecouldusetheforcepsanddeliverthebabyquickly
(Tompson207).Whileshedescribedthebirthasseeminglypainlessandoneofthemost
excitingmomentsofherlife,the36-hourlabor,duringwhichshewasconscious,revealed
toher“howunsuitableahospitalistohaveababyandhowinsensitivemanybirth
attendantsaretotheneedsofthewomaninlabor”(Tompson207-208).Whilefirst-wave
feminists,whohadadvocatedforaccesstothetwilightsleepmethod,wantedcontrolover
theirownexperiences,Tompson’shospitalbirthexperiencesunderscoredthelossof
autonomyandidentityofmedicatedmothersintheroutinepracticeofthelaborwardin
themid-twentiethcentury.
Asaresultofherunsatisfactoryexperienceinthelaborwardduringthatfirst
delivery,Tompsonemployedrhetoricalstrategiesandpracticesinanattempttotransform
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thelaborwardintoamaternalspace.Shemadeapointtodelayarrivaltothehospitaluntil
lateintolaborwithhersecondandthirdchildren(Tompson207).Indoingso,shenotonly
avoidedalengthyperiodofconfinement,butshealsoconveyedthemessagethatalaboring
mothercouldnavigatelaborsafelyonherownwithouttheoversightandinterventionof
medicalprofessionals.Sheaskedthatherhusbandbeallowedintheroom,andinsodoing,
sheframedchildbirthasafamily-centeredeventwhichshouldaccommodatetheemotional
needsanddesiresofthelaboringmother.Thoughshehadhopedforherhusband’scomfort
andsupport,butshewastoldbyherphysicianthatitwasnotallowedandthat“anyway,
therewouldn’tberoom”(Tompson209).UnbeknownsttoTompson,asanunmedicated
birthwassorare,anumberofhospitalstaff,includingphysicians,interns,nurses,and
clerks,hadrequestedtobeallowedtoobservewhileshegavebirth.Tompson’sdesireto
includeasupportivefamilymemberinthelaborroomwastreatedassecondarytothe
knowledgethatthemedicalstaffcouldgainfromobservingthebirth.
Tompsonwasnotonlypreventedfromhavinganymeasureofcontroloverthe
environment,butshewasalsoexpectedtoplayapassiveroleinthebirthitself.Her
physicianwasdelayed,andTompsonwastoldtoignoretheurgetopushandwaitforhim
toarrive.Oncehedidarrive,hewastreatedastheprimaryactorinthebirth.Theroomfull
ofobserversgreetedhimincelebratoryfashion,whichTompsoncomparedtoa“triumphal
processionwherethekingentersthecapturedcity”(209).Finallyallowedtopush,
TompsondeliveredherdaughterDeborahwiththreepushes,notearing,andnoscreaming.
Aresidentexcitedlyaskedthephysician,“Doctor,howdidyoudoit?”(210).
ThisdetailedaccountofTompson’sunmedicatedhospitaldeliveriesrevealsthe
constraintsonmaternalagencythatexistedinthelaborroomevenwhenmotherswere
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conscious,unmedicated,andunrestrained.Theaccountalsorevealsmedicalprofessionals’
ignoranceofthenaturalprogressionofchildbirthwithoutinterventions,suchas
medicationandforceps.Italsorevealstheclinicaldetachmentofmedicalprofessionals
whowerenotaccustomedtoconsciouslaboringmothers.Thisexperiencesolidified
Tompson’sviewthatthehospitallaborroomwasaproblematicplacetoseekan
unmedicatedbirth,asitwasorganizedaroundtheassumptionthatchildbirthwas
accomplishedthroughtheactiveworkofaphysician.Themotherwastreatedasthough
shewasnotawareof,norwouldsheremember,thebirth.ThemorethatTompsontriedto
advocateforherselfandtransformthehospitalintoamaternalspace,themoreshe
bumpedupagainstproceduresandpracticesthatunderminedherattemptstogain
autonomy.Becauseshewaitedtoarriveatthehospitaluntiltheendoflabor,andbecause
herphysicianplayedaminorandseeminglyunnecessarypartinthebirth,theexperience
openedTompson’seyestothetruepotentialofthematernalbodyandthewaysthat
dominantmedicaldiscourseandpracticesunderminedit.
Afterthreeunmedicatedhospitaldeliveries,Tompsondecidedtoexerciseher
agencybyavoidingthehospitallaborwardandgivingbirthathomeinstead.She
approachedDr.GregWhite,husbandofLLLfounderMaryWhite,andrequestedthathe
attendherbirthathomewiththeunderstandingthatshewouldgivebirthwithno
medication;shewouldroamfreelyinherhome;shewouldhaveherhusbandintheroom
forsupport;andshewouldhaveherolderchildrencloseathandtogreetthenewaddition
tothefamily.Asitwasherownhome,Tompsonfounditeasiertoassertherauthorityover
herbirthexperiencesandcontrolwhowaspresentforthebirth.Inframingher
expectationsforherbirthinthisway,Tompsonrenegotiatedtherelationshipbetweenthe
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rolesofbirthingmotherandphysician.Herinsistenceongivingbirthathomeconveyed
confidenceinherabilitytogivebirthnaturallywithoutmedicationormedical
interventions.Shewoulddotheactiveworkoflaboringandgivingbirth,whilehewas
presenttooffersupport,observetoensurethatthebirthwasprogressingasitshould,and
interveneifaproblemarose.Thoughherphysician,GregWhite,wasanadvocatefor
unmedicatedbirth,itwaslikelythatTompson’sself-confidenceanddetermination
influencedhisdecisiontoagreetoattendahomebirth.Ininsistinguponherrightto
controlthebirthingenvironmentandconveyingconfidenceinherselfwhilenegotiating
withherphysicianinordertogainhissupport,Tomspontransformedherhomeintoa
maternalspace.
Tompson’sexperiencesgivingbirthtohernextfourchildrenathomewerea
significantdeparturefromtheuncomfortableandunsupportivehospitalenvironment.Her
husbandstayedbyherside,offeringsupportandsharinginthewonderoftheevent.She
wasnolongerconfinedbutwanderedthroughthehouseorintotheyardasshepleased.
Shefeltnoneoftheapprehensioncausedbytheintrusionofstrangers.Tompsonclaimed
thatthosewhohaven’texperiencedahomebirthcannotexpect“tounderstandwhatit
meanstogivebirthtoababyinyourownbed,surroundedbyonlypeoplewholoveand
careaboutyou,andtobeinapositiontotrulycelebrateabirthratherthanjustbravely
endureit”(211).AccordingtoTompson,“theeffectsoftheseunmeasureablesshouldnot
beunderestimated”(211).Shefeltthathomebirths,whichshereferredtoas“custom-
made-deliveries,”bettersuitedherfamilyandintegratedthebabyintofamilylife;her
childrenwereintheroommomentsafterthebirthtovisitthenewsibling,andnoonetook
thebabyaway,whichallowedTompsonandthebabytobondrapidlyandquicklyestablish
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breastfeeding(Tompson210).Byframinghomebirthinthisway,Tompsoninvoked
elementsoftheculturalcodeofmotherhood,includinglove,nurturance,domesticity,
privacy,andprotection.Ininvokingthecode,Tompsonmakesarhetoricalargumentthat
givingbirthinamaternalspaceisinthebestinterestoftheinfantandthefamily.
Tompson’saccountshowsthemyriadofrhetoricalresourcesandpracticesthatshe
employedtocreateamaternalspaceinwhichherwishesandvoicewereheededinthe
hospitalaswellasthehome.Shewasmoresuccessfulinthehome.Throughthese
experiences,Tompsonlearnedhowrhetoricandthesupportofotherparticipants
contributetothecreationofamaternalspace.Multipleattemptstotransformthehospital
laborwardintoamaternalspacethroughtherhetoricalstrategiesavailable,suchas
negotiationwithphysiciansandcontrollingthetimeofherarrival,gaveherinsightintothe
waythatthemedicalprofession’sperceptionofmothersanditsassociatedstructuraland
materialarrangementsservedtoconstrainmothersandobjectifythem.Tompson’s
subsequentattemptstocreatematernalspacewhilegivingbirthathomerevealedtoher
thatthebirthingexperiencewasmuchmoresatisfyingwhenamotherwasableto
successfullyasserthermaternalauthorityinnegotiationswiththeattendingphysicianto
eliminateunnecessaryinterventions,todecidewhowouldbepresent,andtomoveabout
freelyasshedesired.Shealsolearnedthattheestablishmentofmaternalspacehelped
motherandbabyadjustinthepost-partumperiod.Withfull,unimpededaccesstothebaby,
themother-childbonddevelopedmorerapidly,breastfeedingwaseasiertoinitiate,and
thebabywasintegratedseamlesslyintofamilylife.
Tompsonsharedtheknowledgethatshegainedfromgivingbirthinthematernal
spaceofthehomewithherLLLfellowmembers,includingMaryWhite,EdwinaFroehlich,
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ViolaLennon,andMaryAnnKerwin,whohadalsogivenbirthathome.Ratherthantaking
apassiveroleinchildbirth,womensuchasthefoundersofLLLwhochosetoexperiencea
naturalchildbirthpositionedthemselvesasactiveagentsinthebirthingprocess.These
maternalexperienceswithchildbirthandtheknowledgegainedasaresultwere
foundationaltothedevelopmentofLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood.These
experiencesalsoofferedLLLinsightintopracticesandrhetoricalstrategiesthattheycould
employinordertoestablishmaternalspaceandnegotiatewithmembersofdominant
publics,suchasthemedicalprofession.Thoughtheywerelargelyconstrainedfrompublic
lifebytheirsocialrolesaswhite,middle-classhousewivesandmothers,thefounding
mothersofLLLharnessedtheliberatorypotentialofmaternalspacetoempower
themselvestoexperiencemotherhoodontheirowntermsandrejectdominantmedical
practices;insodoing,theyundertookarhetoricalactionthatarguedinfavorofan
alternativeparadigmofwomen’shealthcare,andtheyframedthatactionrhetoricallyasa
decisionmadeinthebestinterestofchildren.
ESTABLISHINGLLLWITHINMATERNALSPACE
FromtheinitialmeetingsofLLL,theorganizationleveragedtheinsightsaboutthe
linkbetweenmaternalauthorityandthehomethatseveralofthefoundersgainedfrom
theirbirthingexperiences.LLL’sfoundersknewthatthematernalspaceofthehomewasa
moreeffectivelocationforexperiencinganaturalchildbirththatfacilitatedaclosebond
betweenmotherandchild,butitwasnotuntilmothersbegantocometothemforadvice
thatthefounderstrulyrealizedthatthepracticesofthemedicalcommunityandthe
dominantpublicplayedasignificantroleinbreastfeedingfailures.Whileholdingmeetings
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withinthehomesofthefounderswasapracticalsolution,thelocationallowedLLL’s
founderstotakeadvantageofthesameaffordancesthatmaternalspaceofferedtobirthing
mothers.ThematernalspaceoftheLLLmeetingpositionedallofthemothersin
attendanceasequalswithsimilarbackgrounds,experiences,andgoals.Whilethemeetings
wereledbyLLLmemberswhohadpreviousexperiencewithbreastfeeding,allmothers
wereallowedtocontributeandsharetheirexperiences.Thematernalspaceofthe
meetingsaffordedprivacy,limitedthepotentialforproblematicinterventionandoversight
bymembersofthemedicalcommunity,andofferedaspaceformotherstowitnessLLL’s
philosophyofnaturalmotherhoodinaction.Thematernalspaceofthemeetingsalso
providedanopportunityforLLL’sfounderstogaininsightintotheobstaclesmothers
encounteredandfurtherdeveloptheirphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood;thus,theLLL
meetingswereasafeparalleldiscursivearenainwhichLLLhoneditscounterdiscourse
priortoreachingouttoalarger,dispersedaudienceofmotherswhowouldformits
counterpublic.Inthefollowingsection,Iwillprovideanoverviewoftheeventsleadingup
tothedevelopmentofthemother-to-motherLLLmeetingsandexplainhowthe
conversationsthattookplacewithintheinitialmeetingshelpedtheorganizationfurther
developtheirphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodandtheircounterdiscourse.
InJulyof1956,MarianTompsonandMaryWhitewerebothnursinginfantsatan
outdoorsChristianFamilyMovementpicnicatWilderParkinElmhurst,Illinois,whena
numberofmothersapproachedthemtoexpressadmirationforthenursingmothersand
sharestoriesofstrugglesthatpreventedthemfrombreastfeedingsuccessfully(Lowman,
Revolutionaries13).ThisexperienceatthepicnicmadeTomsponawareofacompletelack
ofsupportforbreastfeedingmothers:“Thiscameasarevelation,anillumination,tome.Up
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untilthen,Ithoughtthatthewomenwhowerebottle-feedingsimplypreferredtofeedtheir
babiesthatway.Ididn’trealizehowmanywomenwereouttherewhowantedto
breastfeed,butgaveupastheyranintodifficulties”(Cahill23).Tompsonwastroubledby
therealizationthatthereweresomanyothermotherswhowantedtobreastfeedbuthad
notbeensuccessfulduetoalackofsupportandinformation(Cahill23).Atthetime,
Tompsonwasnursingherfourthchild,thefirsttobebornathome.Theextremecontrast
betweenherbirthexperiencesinthehospitallaborwardandathomehadrevealedto
Tompsonthatmanymedicalprofessionalsandinstitutionswereillequippedtoassist
motherswhowishedtochallengedominantmedicalpractices.Forthosemothers,thekey
tosuccesswashavingasafeandsupportivematernalspacetopracticemotheringontheir
ownterms.
Followingtheseinteractionsatthepicnic,TompsonandWhitecontactedseveral
womenintheirsocialnetworkwhohadaninterestinbreastfeeding.LikeTompson,some
ofthosewomenhadchosentohavehomebirthsandwereawareofthewaythatthehome
couldbetransformedintoamaternalspacewhenmothersassertagencyandutilizethat
spacebytakingchargeoftheirownmaternalexperiencesandrestructuringdomestic
activitiesaroundtheirbeliefsandfirst-handknowledge.Theyunderstoodthehometobea
potentialsiteofwomen’sempowerment;thus,itwasalogicaldecisiontosettheir
meetingsinMaryWhite’shome.TheprivatespaceofWhite’shomeallowedthefounding
motherstopurposefullycreatematernalspacebyencouragingeachothertoshare
knowledgetheyhadgainedfromfirst-handexperiencesandregardthatknowledgeas
authoritative.Becausewomen’sdomesticactivitieswereundervaluedandscientific
motherhoodtreatedmothersasobedientadherentstophysicians’advice,thedecisionto
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holdmeetingsinWhite’shomeandstructurethosemeetingsaroundthesharingof
experienceswasasubversiveactivitythattreatedmaternalexperienceasasourceof
authorityovermattersrelatedtoinfantfeedingandchildcare.
TheveryfirstplanningmeetingofLLLaffirmedthevalueofeffortstocreate
maternalspacethatallowedwomentosharetheirexperiencesand,inturn,gaininsight
intothewaysthatdominantpracticesanddiscoursewereobstaclestobreastfeedingas
wellasmothering.Theintimate,comfortablesettingpromptedthemotherstoopen-up
abouttheirpositiveandnegativeexperienceswithchildbirthandbreastfeeding.Theyhad
anoutlettoexpressfeelingsthattheydidnotpreviouslyhavetheconfidenceorthe
opportunitytoexpress.MaryAnnCahilldescribedthemeetingasunstructuredandlively,
andsheclaimedthattheconversationsetthetoneforallfutureLLLmeetings:“Oneofthe
mostnoteworthythingstocomeoutoftheeveningwasthesharingthatwentonamong
thewomenabouttheirownpersonalbirthandbreastfeedingexperiences.”(Cahill29).In
thatinitialmeeting,thefoundersidentifiedobstaclestheyhadfaced,suchasalackof
support,problematichospitalpractices,andlackofinformationthatpreventedmothers
fromhavingsatisfyingbirthandbreastfeedingexperiences.Thisintimatepracticeof
mutualsharinginamaternalspacewouldbecomepartofLLL’scorestructure.
WhiletheconversationsamongstLLL’sfoundingmothersduringtheirplanning
meetingshadbeenrevelatoryforthegroup,thesubsequentmother-to-mothersupport
groupmeetingscontinuedtoshedlightonthechallengesthatmothersfaceddueto
dominantpracticesandsocietalpressures.Thefirstofficialmeetingofsupportgroup,
whichhadnonameatthetimeandwassimplyreferredtoasthe“mother’sclub”(Lowman,
Revolutionaries16),tookplaceoneOctobereveningin1956atMaryWhite’shousein
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FranklinPark,IL(Lowman,LLLove15).Themeetingwasattendedbythesevenfounders
andfiveoftheirpregnantfriends.AccordingtoLowman’saccountinTheLLLoveStory,
therewaslittlestructuretotheeveningotherthanTompsonreadingtheReader’sDigest
article“BreastfedisBestFed”tothegrouptosparkdiscussion(Lowman,LLLove15).The
mutualsharingthatoccurredinthisfirstmeetingrevealedthatexperiencedmotherswere
arichsourceofinformation.Notonlydidmotherssharetheirsuccessesbutalsotheir
disappointmentsandstruggleswithbreastfeeding.Thisconversationunderscoredthefact
thatbreastfeedingdoesnothappeninavacuumandthatfactorssuchasthetypeof
delivery,hospitalpolicies,andthemother’sdietcouldimpactthesuccessofbreastfeeding
(Cahill31).ThefoundersofLLLbegantounderstandthattheirchallengeswith
breastfeedingwerenotuniqueandnotonlydidthedominantmedicaldiscoursefailto
addresstheirconcerns,butinmanycases,themedicalprofessionwastheprimaryobstacle
tobreastfeedingsuccess.Thisnewawarenesscreatedanexigenceforthedevelopmentof
LLL’smaternalrhetoricthatframedmothers’resistancetodominantmedicalpracticesasa
consciouschoicemadeforthesakeofthehealthandpsychologicalwell-beingoftheir
children.
Inadditiontocomingtounderstandthecomplexfactors,suchasmedicalpractices
andsocietalexpectations,thatmadeitdifficultformotherstobreastfeed,thefirstLLL
supportgroupmeetinghelpedthefoundersrealizethatbreastfeedingandtheclose
mother-childbondthattheyhopedtoachievethroughbreastfeedingwasanewparadigm
ofmothering.Inordertobesuccessfulinadoptingthisnewparadigm,motherswouldneed
thekindofmutualsupportofferedinthematernalspaceoftheLLLsupportgroup.Despite
thelackofstructureoftheveryfirstsupportgroupmeeting,thefoundersfeltthatitwasa
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success,as“Theyhaddiscoveredtheimportanceofmutualsupport,thepowerof
camaraderie,andthe‘formula’thatwouldpropelLaLecheLeagueintoitsplacein
history—gatheringaccurateinformationandsharingitmother-to-motherinan
environmentofwarmthandacceptance”(Lowman,Revolutionaries16).Theenvironment
wasinspirationaltothemotherswhocametoLLLforassistancebecausethey“looked
forwardtotalkingtootheradults”and“wantedtotesttheirownideasandsharenew
ones”(Cahill31).LLL’smemberswereembarkingonalifestylethatchallengedsociety’s
viewofthewaythatmothersshouldcarefortheirchildren,nurturemother-child
relationships,andmanagetheirtimeinthehome;itwasbeneficialforLLLmembersto
continuallysharetheirviewsandexperiencesasaformofaffirmationandmutualsupport.
LiketheU.S.women’sclubsthatAnneRugglesGereexploredinIntimatePractices,the
domesticsettingoftheLLLmeetingallowedthewomenofLLLtodevelopintimate
relationshipswithoneanotherthatwerefacilitatedbythesharingofpersonalexperience
withmarriageandmotherhood(40).Whilethesharingofsuchexperienceswithinthe
homemayseemaninnocuousactivity,thehistoryofLLLshowsthatwhenmotherscarve
outphysicalandrhetoricalmaternalspaceforthemselvesthatallowsthemtoframethose
experiencesasasourceofauthority,theoutcomecanbequiterevolutionary.
Thestrategyofsharingtheirpersonalexperiencesanduncoveringthesocialand
institutionalfactorsthatcontributedtotheirstrugglesbearsastrongresemblancetothe
workofthefeministconsciousness-raisinggroupsthatdevelopedadecadeafterLLL’s
founding.Feministconsciousness-raisinggroups,whichwouldbepopularizedbytheNew
YorkRadicalWomeninthelate1960s,encouragedwomentogatherinsmallgroupsand
discusstheirpersonalexperiencesandproblems.RuthRosenexplainsthatthesegroups
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helpedwomenunderstandthattheirpersonalproblemsweresharedbymanyother
womenandwereoftentheresultofinstitutionalizedsystemsandoppressions.Rosen
explainsthatthesegroupshadaneye-openingeffect:“Whathaduntilthatmomentseemed
so‘normal’suddenlyappearedartificial,nottosaycoercive”(Rosen4544-4545).The
“personal,”accordingtoRosen,“nolongerseemedapurelyindividualproblem,butthe
resultofdeepcultural,social,andeconomicforcesandassumptions”(4548-4549).This
wasalsotrueofLLL’smother-to-mothersupportgroupmeetings.Themorethatwomen
sharedtheirexperienceswithbreastfeedingandmotherhoodinthoseearlymeetings,the
moreawaretheybecameofthewayinwhichsocialandinstitutionalforcespresented
obstaclesforwomenwhowishedtobreastfeedandexperienceastrongbondwiththeir
children.MothersinLLLsupportgroupmeetingsbegantoseehowtheirpersonalstruggles
withbreastfeedingandmotheringwerefrequentlycausedbyexternalfactors.
BecauseLLL’sfoundersviewedthematernalspaceofthemeetingasaplacein
whichmotherscouldlearnfromoneanother’sexperiencesandrejectdominantpractices,
theyminimizedtheinvolvementofmedicalprofessionalsinthesupportgroupmeetings
andemphasizedtheauthorityofmothers,themutualsharingofexperiences,and
knowledgebornfromexperienceratherthanpasseddownfrommedicalauthorities.
Thoughtheydidrelyonmedicalinformation,whichtheypresentedintheirmeetings,they
wantedtomaintainaseparationbetweenthemedicalprofessionandtheworkoftheir
meetings.WhilesomemeetingswereheldinMaryandDr.GregWhite’shome,GregWhite
triedtolimithisinteractionswiththewomenduringtheirmeetings,asdidDr.Herbert
Ratnerwhosewife,Dr.DorothyRatner,attendedsomeoftheinitialLLLmeetings.Though
shewasaphysician,shekepthercontributionstomeetingsfocusedonherexperiencesasa
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mother(Cahill36).ThatDorothyRatnerdownplayedhermedicalexpertiseand
participatedinmeetingsbysharinghermaternalexperiencesshowsthattherewasan
awarenessthattheLLLsupportgroupmeetingwasmeanttobeamaternalspaceinwhich
motherswereregardedasequalsandmaternalexperiencewastheprivilegedsourceof
authority.AsEdwinaFroehlichpointedout,whenphysiciansattendedLLLmeetings,the
resultscouldbeproblematic:“Anytimewehadadoctorsittinginonameeting,all
questionsweredirectedtothatdoctor.Thatdoctor,forallintentsandpurposes,tookover
themeeting”(Cahill36).Physiciansassertingtheirprofessionalethoswithinthematernal
spaceoftheLLLmeetingwouldhaveunderminedthematernalauthorityofthemothers
present,andthiscouldhavehadanegativeimpactontheirself-confidence.Limitingthe
involvementofmedicalprofessionalshelpedtoprotecttheuniqueaffordancesoftheofthe
mother-to-mothersupportgroup.ItwasquicklyapparenttoTompsonthat“womentalkto
eachotheraboutthesekindsofthingsdifferentlythantheywouldtalktotheirdoctors”
(Cahill33).Oneofthemostbeneficialresultsofmother-to-mothersupportandthelimiting
ofthegroup’sexposuretomedicalexpertisewasthatwomenwerefreetodiscusstheir
expectationsandstruggles.
ThemutualsharingofexperiencesinLLL’ssupportgroupmeetingsunderscoredthe
notionthatmothersfacedavarietyofobstaclestosuccessfulbreastfeeding,including
misinformationfromdoctorsandsocietalpressures;thus,LLL’smother-to-mothersupport
groupmeetingsfunctionedasaconsciousness-raisinggroupforwomeninterestedin
claimingagencyovertheirexperiencesasmothers.Thecamaraderiethatdeveloped
throughthemutualsharingofexperienceswasnecessarytohelpmothersnavigatethe
challengesofembracinganalternativeparadigmofmotheringthatwasnotwell-supported
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bymedicalexpertsorsocietalexpectations.Thesharingofexperiencesinaprivate
maternalspacealsohelpedLLLrefinethephilosophyofnaturalmotherhood,understand
thevalueofpracticaladviceinhelpingmothersadoptthatphilosophy,anddevelop
rhetoricalstrategiesthatforegroundedtraditionalvaluesassociatedwithmotherhood
whilearguinginfavorofitsalternativeparadigmofmothering.
PERSUADINGMOTHERSTORESISTDOMINANTPRACTICES
WhiletheyfoundedLLLtohelpmothersbreastfeedsuccessfully,theconversations
duringtheplanningmeetingsandthefirstfullmeetinghelpedshapethefounders’beliefs
abouttheroleofthemotherandhowmaternalspacecanbeutilizedinsuchawayasto
empowermotherstobreakfreefromtheconstraintsofdominantpractices.However,it
becameclearearlyonthatLLLneededtoprovidemotherswithbothmoralsupportand
practicaladvicetohelpthemnavigatethechallengesthattheywouldfaceasthey
attemptedtobreastfeedandembraceanewparadigmofmothering.Evenifmothershad
cometoLLLhavingalreadymadethedecisiontobreastfeed,LLLneededtoconvincethem
thatbreastfeedingandembracingamorenaturalapproachtomotherhoodwasworththe
effortthatitwouldtaketoovercomechallengesposedbydominantpracticesand
discourses.LLLhadtoconvincemotherstoacceptitsideologyofnaturalmotherhood,
whichemphasizedastrongandlovingmother-childbondandviewedmotherhoodas
naturalandinstinctual.Theyalsoneededtoofferpracticalstrategiesforpracticingnatural
motherhoodandnavigatingthechallengesposedbydominantapproachestochildcareand
infantfeeding.
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Inordertodothis,LLL’sfoundersdecidedtostructurethesupportgroupasaseries
ofthemedmeetings.Whiletheyvaluedamutualsharingofexperiences,thefounders
decidedthataportionofeachmeetingshouldbededicatedtothepresentationof
informationonaspecifictopicthatwascriticaltohelpingmothersbreastfeedsuccessfully
andputLLL’sideasaboutmotheringintopractice.LLL’sfoundersdevelopedaseriesoffive
meetingsdesignedtoofferinformation,techniques,andsupport.Eachmeetingwould
includeatalkorpresentationbyoneofLLL’sfoundersorotherleaders.Thiswouldbe
followedbyunstructuredtimefordiscussion.Techniquesweredemonstratedasneeded.
Whilethethemeswerefocusedaroundpracticaladviceandbreastfeedingtechniques,each
meetingalsomadearhetoricalargumentinfavorofnaturalmotherhood.Asthereisno
remainingmaterialorcontentfromtheinitialseriesofmeetings,myunderstandingofthe
contentofeachmeetingintheseriescomesfromdescriptionsincludedinthevarious
organizationalhistories.Sometopicsofmeetings,suchasweaning,childbirth,andthe
father’srole,werediscussedmoreextensivelythanothersinthefounders’retrospective
accountsofthedevelopmentofthesupportgroupseries.Tosupplementthefounders’
explanationofthemeetingcontent,IdrawuponmyanalysisofLLL’sself-helpmanual,The
WomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,inordertounderstandthewaythatLLLframedtopics,
particularlythebenefitsofbreastfeeding,commonconcerns,andtechniques.In1958,the
contentofLLL’sseriesofmother-to-mothersupportgroupmeetingswastranslatedinto
textinTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,whichIanalyzeinChapterIIIinordertoreveal
howLLLusedmaternalrhetorictoempowerandoffersupporttoageographically
dispersedaudienceofmothers.
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Therhetoricalmessageunderlyingeachmeetinggavemothersthesupportthatthey
neededtoresistdominantpractices.White,middle-classmotherswereexpectedtofocus
theirenergiesonmaintainingacleanandcomfortablehomeduringthepost-WWIIera.
Therewaslessfocusonattendingtotheemotionalandpsychologicalneedsofchildren,
suchasthechild’sneedforphysicalcontactwithhismother.AsCahillpointsout,therewas
“anincongruousreversalofvalues,thehousehadalmostcometobemoreimportantthan
thelittlepeopleinit”(45).Choosingtobreastfeedababynecessarilychallengedthe
expectedfocusonhouseholdchores.Breastfeedingrequiredaphysicalbondwiththebaby
thatscientificmotherhooddiscouraged,soitnecessarilychangedtheconditionsof
mothering.EdwinaFroehlichexplainedthatthegroup“realizedearlyonthatitwaspretty
hardtosucceedatbreastfeedingunlessyouhadanoverallacceptanceoftheideaofbeing
there,inperson,foryourbaby—whatwecalled‘mothering’thebaby”(Cahill66).Thisidea
thatbreastfeedingwasawayofbeingpresenttomeettheemotionalandpsychological
needsofthebabylaidthefoundationofLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood,which
theyreferredtoas“motheringthroughbreastfeeding”.Italsoreflectedtheculturalcodeof
motherhoodbyfocusingonthecreationofanenvironmentthatwasnurturingandloving.
Depictingresistancetodominantmedicalpracticesasanactoflovethatwasinthebest
interestofthechildgavemothersthecourageandmotivationtofacethechallengesthat
arosefrompracticinganalternativeapproachtochildcareandmothering.
TheinitialLLLmeetingfocusedontheadvantagesofbreastfeedingandthepositive
impactitwouldhaveonthemother,thebaby,andthemother-childbond(Cahill32).
AccordingtoMaryAnnCahill,it“justseemedright”tobeginthisway(Lowman,LLLove16).
Themeetingemphasizedthatbreastfeedingwasnotmerelyaformofnourishingthebaby,
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butthatbreastfeedinghademotionalandpsychologicalbenefitstothemother-childpair
(WomanlyArt3-5).Thecontent,whichwassupportedbyevidencefrommentalhealth
professionals,pushedbackagainstthedominantunderstandingthatinfantfeedingisa
mechanicalprocesswiththesolepurposeofprovidingphysicalnourishmentwhileitalso
counteredthewidelyacceptedhands-offapproachtomotheringinfavorofamore
emotional,physical,andlovingbond.Thatthisargument,ratherthanbasicbreastfeeding
techniques,wasthefocusoftheinitialmeetingshowsthatthefoundersofLLLrealizedthat
mothersneededtoviewbreastfeedingasawaytofacilitategoodmotheringinordertofeel
theinternalmotivationtonavigatethechallengesthatbreastfeedingposed.Invoking
conceptssuchaslove,protection,andnurturancewhendiscussingthebenefitsof
breastfeedinghelpedmothersfeelthattheywerebeinggoodmothersandexhibitingthe
traditionalvaluesassociatedwithmotherhooddespitethefactthattheywereresisting
dominantpractices.WhileLLL’saudiencewasmadeupofwomenwhohadalreadydecided
thattheywantedtobreastfeed,thefounderswerewellawareofthechallengesthatcaused
evenmotherswhoweredeterminedtobreastfeedtobeunsuccessfulintheirefforts.In
additiontogivingthemotherswhocametoLLLapurpose,theinformationprovidedinthis
meetinghelpedtosupportLLL’sargumentthatmothersshouldrefocustheirenergyinthe
homeoncreatinganurturingmaternalspacebybondingwiththeirchildrenratherthan
viewingtheirprimaryfunctionascompletinghouseholdchores.
Thesecondmeetingintheserieswasfocusedontechniquesandmethodsfor
overcomingcommondifficultiesthatbreastfeedingmothersfaced(Cahill32).Asitoffered
solutionsandstrategiesfordealingwithsuchconcernsasbreastinfections,nursingtwins,
handexpressionofmilk,andvariouswaystoholdthebaby(WomanlyArt10-16)it
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presentedbreastfeedingchallengesasroutineproblemstobeworkedthroughand
overcomeratherthanreasonstoceasetheattempttobreastfeed.Thischallengedthe
commonmedicalpracticeofroutinelyrecommendingformulafeedingoraswitchto
formulaatthefirstsignofanissuewithbreastfeeding;additionally,thismeeting
demystifiedbreastfeedingandframeditasawaytosimplifythemother’slifeatthesame
timethatshewasdoingsomethingthatwouldensurethehealthandwell-beingofher
baby.Theprivate,maternalspaceoftheLLLmeetingencouragedthekindofexperience
sharingandtechniquemodelingthatbenefittedbreastfeedingmothers.LLLmembershad
thetimeandspacetopracticethesetechniques;thematernal,mother-centeredspaceof
LLL’smeetingsmadethispossibleinawaythatphysician-centeredspacescouldnot.
Becausemotherswereencouragedtobringtheirbabieswiththemtothemeetings,they
wereabletopracticethetechniques,andmotherswhohadnotyetgivenbirthcouldsee
themmodeled.Inadditiontoaddressingtechniques,thismeetingalsoaddressedoldwives’
talesandothermisinformationaboutbreastfeeding,includingproblemscausedby
erroneousmedicaladvice(Cahill32).Thecontentofthemeetingbuiltonthechallengethat
thefirstmeetingposedtoscientificmotherhood.Evenifphysicianshadtheoretical
knowledgeoflactation,whichfewhad,thisfocusontechniquesandstrategies—howto
recognizewhenthebabyishungry,stylesofholds,andmethodsofhandexpression—made
thecasethatsuchadviceismoreeffectivewhensharedbymotherswhohavepractical
knowledgegainedfrommotheringandpracticingthesetechniquesonadailybasis.
Thethirdmeeting,whichwasfocusedonpromotingnaturalchildbirth,further
developedtheargumentthatmothersshouldnotbethepassiveagentsthatthedominant
medicalpracticeandtheideologyofscientificmotherhoodhadframedthemtobe.This
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particulartopicwasoneofthemorecontroversialaspectsofthemeetingseries(Cahill61;
Lowman,LLLove16)asmanywomenwhowereinterestedinbreastfeedingwerenot
interestedinunmedicatedchildbirthorhomebirths;however,themeetingwasan
opportunitytogivemothersamuchneedededucationonchildbirthwhileexplaininghow
unmedicatedbirthmadebreastfeedingeasier.AccordingtoBettyWagner,“Inthateraa
woman’sbodywasprettymuchunknowntoher.Wehadpregnantwomencomingwho
hadnoideahowtheyweregoingtodeliverthebaby”(Lowman,LLLove16).Clearly,the
informationprovidedinthemeetingfilledacriticalneedforinformationaboutchildbirth.
ThebirthexperiencesofMarianTomspon,MaryWhite,andotherfoundershadplayeda
significantroleintheestablishmentofastrongrelationshipwiththeirbabiesandithelped
theminitiatebreastfeeding.MaryWhiteexplainedthatchildbirth“hastremendousimpact
onthemother-childbondandthesubsequentbreastfeedingrelationship”(Cahill61).Asin
themeetingfocusedonthebenefitsofbreastfeeding,thefocusonthebenefitsofaclose,
physicalmother-childbondinvokedconceptstraditionallyassociatedwithmotherhood,
includingloveandprotection.Motherswhohadbeenconvincedintheprevioustwo
meetingsthatbreastfeedingandestablishingcloserelationshipswiththeirbabieswerein
thebestinterestoftheirbabiesmayhavebeenpersuadedtohaveanatural,unmedicated
childbirth.Severalofthefoundingmotherscouldspeakfromtheirownexperienceswith
strugglingtobreastfeedaninfantdruggedfrombirth,andsuchfirst-handexperiences
werelikelyverypersuasive.Inadditiontomakinganargumentthatnaturalchildbirthwas
inthebestinterestofthebaby,includingthistopicintheseriesofmeetingsmadethe
argumentinfavorofestablishingmaternalauthorityandcreatingmaternalspaces.While
LLL’sleaderswerenotnecessarilyadvocatingforahomebirth,theywereadvocatingfor
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womentohavemoreagencyinthebirthchamber.Inordertoexperienceanatural,
unmedicatedbirth,mothersneededtohavesomecontroloverthespaceinwhichtheygave
birth.Liketheothermeetingsintheseries,thismeetingposedachallengetothewisdom
andvalidityofroutine,widelyacceptedmedicalpractices.
Thefourthmeetingintheseriesfocusedonnutritionandweaning(Cahill32),
anothertopicthatcausedcontroversybecausethefoundersdecidedtopromotebaby-led
weaningratherthanrecommendaspecificageforweaning.Othertopicscoveredinthe
meetingincludedtheproperdietofthebreastfeedingmotherandstartingthebabyon
solidfoods.Theyfeltthatitwasimportanttoaddressthemothers’nutritionbecause“there
weresomanyoldwives’takesassociatedwithwhatanursingmothercouldandcouldnot
eat”(Lowman,LLLove16).Becausethemeetingencouragedbaby-ledweaning,itposeda
rhetoricalchallengetoscientificmotherhood,whichpromoteddetachedmotheringin
ordertofosterindependence.Inpromotingbaby-ledweaning,LLLwasmakingthe
argumentthatbabiesareuniqueindividualswithuniqueneeds(Cahill62).Thisknowledge
wasbornfrommaternalexperience,asthefoundershaddiscoveredthatwhenallowedto
initiateweaningthemselves,babieswouldweanatdifferentages(Cahill62).Thefounders
feltthatbaby-ledweaningallowedbabiestomakeanaturalprogressiontoward
independence.Whenmakingthedecisionaboutwhentowean,MaryWhitesuggestedthat
mothersshouldconsider,“Whatisbestforthischildatthistime?”(Cahill61).Bymaking
thisargument,LLL’sfoundersagaininvokedconceptsassociatedwiththeculturalcodeof
motherhood,includinglove,protection,andnurturance.Thegood,lovingmother,
suggestedLLL,wouldunderstandherbaby’sneedtodevelopathisorherownpaceand
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wouldallowthebabytodecidewhenheorshewasreadytosevertheemotionalbondthat
breastfeedingfacilitated.
Thisargumentinfavorofbaby-ledweaningunderscoredthewayinwhichmaternal
first-handknowledgebornofexperienceprovidedinsightandunderstandingthatthe
medicalprofessionlacked.Baby-leadweaningwasaradicaldeparturefrommedicaladvice,
asmedicaltextbooksatthetimerecommendedweaningnolaterthanninemonths,butthe
reasonsforthesuggestionwerevague(Lowman,LLLove23).Drs.WhiteandRatner,LLL’s
medicaladvisors,couldprovidenoreasonthatbabiesshouldbeweanedataspecifictime,
andaccordingtoFroehlich,thefoundersrealizedthatmedicalprofessionalswerethe
wrongpeopletoconsult(Lowman,LLLove23).“Doctorsweremen,andwhyshouldthey
knowmoreaboutitthanmothers?”sheasked.“Sinceitwasn’tamedicalquestion,their
medicaleducationwasnohelp.Thatwaswhynogoodanswercouldbefoundinmedical
books.Wedecidedthatitwouldbemuchmorelikelytobeawoman,mother,whowould
know”(Lowman,LLLove23).Throughpersonalexperience,LLL’sfoundershaddiscovered
thatbabiesreachedthedevelopmentalstageatwhichtheyarereadytoweanatvarying
ages(Cahill62).LLL’sfoundersarguedthatlettingthebabytaketheleadonwhentowean
wouldofferasenseofsecurityandnurturethemother-childbondthatbreastfeeding
promoteduntilthebabywasdevelopmentallyreadyandindependentenoughtoinitiate
theendofthebreastfeedingbond.ThefoundersofLLLwouldneverhavearrivedatthis
first-handknowledgeofbabies’differingratesofdevelopmentalreadinessforweaningif
theyhadnothadasupportivespaceinwhichtocontinuethenursingrelationshipand
resistthedominantpracticeofinfantfeeding.Thisrealizationthatthefirst-hand
knowledgeofmothersisacriticallyimportantsourceofinformationcontributedtoand
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validatedthefoundingmothers’philosophyofnaturalmotherhoodbyconfirmingtheir
beliefthatmotheringisanaturalprocessthatishinderedbytheinterventionofwell-
meaningbutuninformedphysicians.
Thefifthmeeting,designedforfathersonlyandledbyHerbertRatner,wasdesigned
tohelphusbandsunderstandissuessurroundingbreastfeedingsothattheycouldbe
supportiveoftheirnursingwives(Cahill32).Thefoundersalsofeltthatfathersneeded
supportasthey“weretoooftenneglectedasfarasbabiesareconcerned”(17).The
establishmentofsuchameetingconveyedarhetoricalmessagethatbreastfeedingismore
thansimplyanalternativemethodoffeeding,butthatitisalifestylechoicethatwould
haveanimpactonthewholefamily.AccordingtoBettyWagner,“Thefatherscameaway
fromthesemeetingswithanunderstandingofawife’snewroleasamotherandofher
specialattachmenttothebaby”(Lowman,LLLove17).Thefathers’meetingmadeitclearto
fathersthatthematernalrolethattheirwivestookwhenembracingLLL’spracticesand
approachtomotheringwouldbesignificantlydifferentthantheapproachthatwas
routinelypracticedbymothersandencouragedbymedicalprofessionals.Froehlichclaims
thatwhenthefathers’meetingwasheldatherhome,sheoverheardRatnersaying,“Now
whatisreallyimportantinlife?It’snothavingaspotlesshousesoyourmothercancome
overandinspect.It’syourkidsthatareimportant”(Lowman,LLLove17).Thisalternative
approachtomotheringwouldhavesignificantimplicationsforthestructuringofthehome
environmentandtherelationshipsbeingnurturedwithinit.Thismeetinghelpedto
preparefathersforthenewmaternalrolethatwiveswouldlikelyadoptasaconsequence
oftheirinteractionswithLLL;ithelpedfathersacceptthehomeasasafematernalspacein
whichtheirwivescouldchallengeandrejectsociety’sviewoftheroleofthehousewife.
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Itsoonbecameclearthatmotherswhoattendedthemeetingsweregettingmore
thanknowledgeofbreastfeedingtechniquesfromLLLandthatsomestayedforthe
approachtomothering.Inonecase,amotherwhohadweanedherchildandwasnot
pregnantcontinuedtocometoLLLmeetings.MarianTompsonwasintriguedandasked
herwhyshestillattended.AccordingtoTompson,thewomanrespondedbysaying,
“Marian,youwomenseemtolovebeingmotherssomuch.IamhopingthatifIkeepon
hangingaroundyou,itwillruboffonme”(Cahill34).ThatLLLrepresentedanalternative
approachtomotheringmayhavebeenthekeytothegroup’slongevitybecause,asEdwina
Froehlichclaimed,thefounderswouldhavequicklylostinterestincontinuingthegroupif
itssolefocushadbeenonbreastfeedingtechniques(Cahill67).ItwasFroehlich’sbelief
thatthisdifferentapproachtomotheringalsokeptnewmotherscomingtomeetings:“I
thinkthatiswhythemotherswhoattendedthoseearlymeetingsclungtousthewaythey
did.Theirmaternalinstinctsweretellingthemonething,buttheirdoctorsandthe
prevailingsocietalnormsweretellingthemjusttheopposite”(Cahill66).Thesafe
maternalspaceoftheLLLmeetinggavemothersanopportunitytoexplorethese
conflictinginternalimpulsesandconfirmtheirdesireswithmotherswhoheldsimilar
views.
WhilethefoundingmothersofLLLhadexperiencewithbreastfeedingand
motheringandhadcarefullydevelopedaseriesofinformative,leader-facilitated
discussionsveryearly,theinitialmother-to-mothersupportgroupmeetings,occurring
beforetheorganizationattemptedsignificantpublicoutreach,spurredaperiodof
significantgrowthanddevelopmentinthefounders’understandingsofbreastfeeding,
motherhood,andthekindofsupportthatmothersneeded.Thegroup’sfoundingprinciple
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ofmeetingtheneedsofthebabywasneverinquestion,buttheirunderstandingofthe
needsofbothbabiesandtheirmothersdevelopedrapidlyintheprivatematernalspaceof
LLLmeetings.Thoughwomenhavelongbeenrelegatedtotheprivatesphereandhavehad
toshapetheirrhetoricalactivitiestoandwithinit,thereisaninterestingsideeffecttothis
rhetoricalpractice:issuesdeemedprivateareenclavedfrompublicdiscourseandshielded
fromdebate(Fraser73).Whilealivingroommaynotseemtobethelogicalsettingfora
meetingofagroupthatwouldeventuallyshapepublicopinionaswellasinfluencemedical
practice,thesafematernalspacecreatedbyLLLallowedtheorganizationtogrowand
flourishinanorganicwaythatwouldnothavebeenpossibleifthefoundershadtriedto
immediatelyengagewithpublicdiscourseonmotheringandinfantfeedinginpublicspaces
wheretheyhadnoauthority.AsMarianTompson’sexperiencesshow,attemptsto
transformpublicspaces,suchashospitals,intomaternalspaceswasasignificantchallenge.
Incontrast,thematernalspacecreatedbythefoundersintheirhomesandintheLLL
supportgroupofferedasafe,enclavedspaceformotherstodevelopacounterdiscourse
andrhetoricalstrategiesthatwouldhelpthemassertmaternalauthorityastheyengaged
withmembersofthedominantpublic.
THEGROWTHOFLLL’SHORIZONTALNETWORK
ItquicklybecameobviousthatLLL’smother-to-mothersupportgroupappealedto
mothers.Thefoundingmothershadintendedthegrouptoonlyservefriendsand
acquaintances,anditthereforedidnoadvertising;yet,knowledgeofthegroupspread
quicklybyword-of-mouthinthelocalarea,andstrangerswereshowingupatthemeetings.
Asmanyasthirtytofortywomenwerecrowdingintothehomewherethemeetingswere
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held,soLLLquicklyfounditnecessarytosplitintotwogroups(Lowman,Revolutionaries
16).Afterthefirstseriesofmeetings,LLLbegantwoseriesofmeetingseachmonthin
FranklinParkwiththreeboardmembersleadingeachmeeting,andtheorganizationsent
letterstolocalphysicianstointroducethemtoLLLanditspurposes(LLLNews,1.1:1).LLL
alsodevelopedalocally-distributedpamphletcalled“ForBetterMothers,”which
introducedtheorganizationanditsmission,brieflymadeacaseforbreastfeeding,
providedabriefoverviewofLLL’sseriesofmeetings,andinvitedmotherstoattendalocal
meeting.Withinthefirst18monthsoftheorganization’sfounding,over150womenhad
attendedLLLmeetings,andathirdmonthlymeetingseriesinthewestsideofChicagohad
beenaddedtotheseriesschedule(LLLNews,1.1:5).ThisburgeoninglocalinterestinLLL
providesevidenceofitsexigenceandrhetoricalsuccess.It’sclearthatLLL’smessageabout
breastfeedinganditspromotionoftheauthorityoffirst-handmaternalexperience
resonatedwithmanymothersinthelocalarea,butitsoonbecameclearthatLLL’smessage
wasalsoresonatingwithmothersoutsideofthelocalarea.
LLLwassurprisedbythelargeresponsethattheyreceivedfromoutsidethelocal
area.Withinayearoftheinitialmeetings,newsaboutLLLhadspread,andin1957,the
leaderswereinundatedwithmailandphonecallsfromotherareasofIllinois,neighboring
states,andfromalloverthenation.AccordingtoanarticlepublishedinStorkNewsin1959,
LLLhadreceivedlettersfromover600mothersfromover40statesandinnumerousother
countrieswithin30monthsafteritsfoundingin1956(Lowman,Revolutionaries17).Using
theirexperienceswithbreastfeedingspecificallyandmotheringmoregenerally,theirsocial
consciousness,theirsupportsystems,andtheirconnectionswiththemedicalprofession,
thefoundershadcraftedasuccessfulsystemofsupportforwhite,middle-classhousewives
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whowantedtoreclaimtheirmaternalspacetoexperienceadifferentapproachto
motherhood.By1958,thefoundersdecidedtoorganizemoreformallyintoanon-profit
organizationandcreateoutreachmaterialsformotherswhocouldnotattendlocalLLL
meetings.
Word-of-mouthsharingofinformationaboutLLLwaslargelyresponsibleforthe
growthofitscounterpublic.Ascounterpublicsare“paralleldiscursivearenaswhere
membersofsubordinatedsocialgroupsinventandcirculatecounterdiscourses”(Fraser),
theearlieststagesofLLL’sdevelopmentmarkedLLLasanemergingcounterpublic.Its
meetingsprovidedassafeplacetoinventandrefineitscounterdiscourseasitcirculated
amongstasmallgroupofmothers.ThroughinvolvementwithLLL,thesemothersgained
somesenseofauthorityovertheirownexperiencebytransformingtheirhomesinto
maternalspaces.Theysharedthatexperiencewithothers,introducingthemtoanew
philosophyofmotherhood,whichLLLwouldfurthercultivatewhenwomencametothem
forinformationorassistance.ThisspreadingofthewordaboutLLLwasdescribedby
EdwinaFroehlich:“Therewerewomenwehadhelpedwhohadrelativesinothertowns
whowantedhelp,too.Theywouldpassalongouraddress,andwewouldhearfromthe
relatives.ThensomeofthewomenfromFranklinParkwouldmoveawaytootherstates,
andwordabouttheLeaguegotspreadthatway,too”(Lowman,LLLove23-24).Together,
themotherswhowereinvolvedinLLLsharedandcreatedknowledgeincommunity.This
communalsharing,whichplayedacentralroleintheorganizationalrhetoricofLLL,was
vitaltothetransformativeexperienceofinvolvementwithLLL.Twodecadesbeforethe
publicationofAdrienneRich’sOfWomanBorn,thiswidespreadresponsetoLLL’smessage
aboutthevalueofknowledgebasedonmaternalexperienceindicatesthatwomenwere
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questioningtheestablishedinstitutionofmotherhoodandembracingamoreauthentic
understandingofmotherhood,onethatconstructeditasthesamekindofintellectual
exerciseandchallengeasanyotherformof“difficult,butfreelychosenwork”(Rich280).
LLL’seffortstoembracethephysicalexperiencesofmothers,reclaimthehomeasa
maternalspace,craftanewparadigmofmotherhood,andresistdominantdiscourses
anticipatedRich’sclaim,nearlythreedecadeslater,that“[t]hereisforthefirsttimetodaya
possibilityofconvertingourphysicalityintobothknowledgeandpower”(Rich284).LLL’s
newparadigmofmotheringanditsdevelopmentofmaternalspaceasasiteofmaternal
empowermentencouragedmotherstodojustthat.
CONCLUSION
LLLstartedhiddenawayfrompublicscrutinyinMaryWhite’shome,butit
addressedtheneedsofmotherswhohadbeenmarginalizedfrompublicdiscourseon
motheringandinfantcare;thus,LLLfulfilledaneedofmanywomenwholongedforwhat
seemedtobeamorenaturalexperienceofmotherhoodthantheexperienceofferedbythe
dominantdiscourseofscientificmotherhood.LLL’ssubversiveapproachmaintainedthe
genderedstatusquoofconsigningwhite,middleclassmotherstothedomesticspaceofthe
home,butitallowedthesemotherstosubversivelyestablishmaternalspace.The
establishmentofasafematernalspacewastheinitialstepthatLLLtooktowarddeveloping
acounterpublic.AsFrasersuggestsispossiblewithcounterpublics,theprivate,maternal
spaceofLLL’smother-to-mothersupportgroupmeetingsshieldeditwhileallowingthe
foundingmothersoftheorganizationtocraftanalternativediscoursethatwouldposea
challengetotheideologyofscientificmotherhoodandargueinfavoramorenatural
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approachtomothering.Indevelopingthisargumentanditsphilosophyofnatural
motherhood,LLLwasbeginningtheworkofdevelopingacounterpublic.Unfortunately,
LLL’scounterdiscourseandphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodmarginalizedmothers
whosefamilystructuresandresponsibilitiestotheirfamiliesposedbarrierstostructuring
theirlivesasLLL’sparadigmofnaturalmotherhoodrequired.
DaphneSpainsuggeststhatfullaccessforwomentospaceswherevaluable
knowledgeiscreatedandsharedistheonlysolutiontomarginalizationcausedby
genderedspatialsegregation(Spain5),yetLLLprovidesasuccessfulexampleofa
challengetomarginalizationthroughthesubversivetransformationofdomesticspaceinto
asiteofwomen’sempowerment.Whiletheywerenotyettakingactionsthatdirectly
impactedpublicdiscourseonbreastfeedingandmotherhood,inthefirsttwoyears
followingLLL’sfounding,thefounderswerequietlystrengtheningtheirargumentagainst,
andtheirabilitytoinfluence,thosediscourses.Thoughthesemother-to-mothersupport
groupmeetingsdidnotconstitutewidespreadpublicengagement,theyconvinced
membersoftheauthorityofknowledgestemmingfrommaternalexperience.Thefounders
realizedthatphysicianslackedknowledgeaboutunmedicatedchildbirth,lactation,and
breastfeeding,anditbecamecleartothemthatexperiencedmothershadtheknowledge
andauthoritytomoreeffectivelyaddresstheconcernsofbreastfeedingmothers.LLLtook
advantageoftheempoweringpotentialofmaternalspaceandusedittonurtureother
mothersandsharetheseinsightsaboutmotherhoodwithouttheinterferenceofmembers
ofthedominantpublic.
Throughthesubversiveestablishmentofthemother-to-mothersupportgroup
withinaprivatematernalspace,LLL’sfoundinghelpedtheorganizationtoidentifymanyof
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thecorecomponentsthatitwouldmoveforwardwith,includingaphilosophy,amission,a
placeinwomen’shomes,andabeliefintheauthorityofmaternalexperience.Thefollowing
chapterwillexaminetherhetoricalstrategiesthatLLLusedtoincorporatetheseelements
intotextsaddressedtogeographicallydispersedmotherswrotetoLLLforsupport.In
makingthatmove,LLLtookitsfirstsignificantstepfromthesafe,privatematernalspaceof
thelocalsupport-group,becominganemergingcounterpublicthatemployedmaternal
rhetorictoframematernalexperienceasasourceofauthority.LLL’scounterpublicwould
developtherhetoricalacumentoemploymaternalrhetoricinnegotiationswithmedical
professionalsthatdestabilizedthegenderedspatialinstitutionsofmedicineand
transformedthemintomaternalspacesmorecapableofsupportingbreastfeedingmothers.
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CHAPTERIII
CRAFTINGA“WOMANLYART”:TRANSLATINGMATERNALSPACEANDLOCAL
MOTHER-TO-MOTHERSUPPORTINTOTEXTS
In1958,thefirsteditionofLLL’sbreastfeedingself-helpmanual,TheWomanlyArt
ofBreastfeeding,encouragedmotherstore-evaluatetheirdomesticpriorities.LLL
promotednaturalmotherhood,anapproachtomotheringthatplacedahigherlevelof
importanceonthedevelopmentofthemother-childbondthanondomesticchores,
imploringmotherstofocusontheirchildren’shappiness“nomatterhowmuchtimethis
maydemand”(6).Thisviewofthematernalroleandthemother-childbondconstrained
motherswithinthedomesticsphereandrequiredself-sacrifice,whichwasahallmarkof
post-WWII,mid-twentiethcenturymotherhood(Odland),yetthefoundingmothersfelt
empoweredbytheirexperiencesgivingbirthathomeanddevelopingLLL’sbreastfeeding
supportgroup.Theyhadlearnedthevalueofthehomeasamaternalspacetoassert
authorityandtosubvertdominantdiscourseregardingmotheringandinfantfeeding
practices.
AsIdetailedinthepreviouschapter,LLLdevelopeditsphilosophyofnatural
motherhoodlargelyasanoutgrowthofthefounders’experienceswithnaturalchildbirth
andbreastfeeding.ForindividualLLLmothers,suchasMarianTompson,thehomebecame
asafematernalspacetogivebirthandpracticealternativeapproachestomotheringwhile
resistingthedominantideologyandpracticesofscientificmotherhood.Theirmaternal
experiencespromptedTompsonandtheotherLLLfounderstodeveloptheLLLmother-to-
mothersupportgroupinaprivatematernalspace.Thesupportgroupofferedasafe
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enclaveinwhichtopromoteanalternativeparadigmofmotherhoodthatempowered
motherstoresistdominantpracticesininfantfeedingandchildcare.
Intheageofscientificmotherhood,LLL’smessageaboutmaternalauthorityandthe
importanceofthemother-childbond,aswellasitsapproachtosupportingmothers,
resonatedwithmanywomen,someofwhomlivedoutsideofthelocalarea.Accordingto
EdwinaFroehlich,LLLwasreceivinganaverageoffiftylettersamonthinlate1957,alittle
overayearafteritsfounding(Lowman,LLLove24).Thiswasproblematicforthefounders,
asFroehlichexplains:“Thatwasagreatnumberoflettersforustohandlebecausewewere
allhomewithlittlechildren”(Lowman,LLLove24).Despitethechallenge,thefounders
answeredeachcorrespondentwithapersonalizedletterofferingadviceandsupport.They
quicklyrealizedthatthey“wererepeatingthesameinformationandsuggestionsoverand
overagain”(Lowman,LLLove24).Inresponsetothelargenumberofphonecallsand
lettersreceivedinlate1957andearly1958,LLLdecidedtopublishacourse-by-mailthat
wouldincludethesameinformationcoveredinthelocalseriesofmother-to-mother
supportgroupmeetings.“Wethoughtthatifwecouldgettheinformationwrittendown
andsentout,thatwouldgraduallycutdownonthemail,”Froehlichexplained(Lowman,
LLLove24).Inearly1958,LLLbegandevelopingthecourseasasetof10lessonstobe
mailedseparatelytowomenwhopaidasmallsubscriptionfee.
Inthefallof1958,LLLissuedthecourse-by-mailasonecompleteself-helptext
entitledTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding.Thebook’spublicationmarkedLLL’semergence
fromtheenclaved,privatematernalspaceofthemother-to-mothersupportgroupintothe
publicsphere.ThetextwasthemediumthroughwhichLLLbegananorganizedeffortto
interactwithandoffermother-to-mothersupporttowomenoutsideofthesuburban
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Chicagoarea,thusfurtherdevelopingacounterpublicofbreastfeedingmotherswho
rejectedthedominantparadigmofscientificmotherhood.
Buildingatextualargumenttoconvincewomentochallengedominantcultural
understandingsofthemother’srole,maternalauthority,andthemother-childrelationship
wasasignificantundertaking.TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingneededtoinspiretrustin
theorganization,convincetheaudiencethatthefirst-handexperienceofmotherhoodwas
avalidsourceofknowledgeaboutinfantcare,offeracompellingargumentthatLLL’s
philosophyofnaturalmotherhoodanditsrelatedpracticeswerepreferabletothestatus
quo,andofferpracticaladvicetomotherssothattheycouldsuccessfullyadoptLLL’s
philosophyandpractices.LocalLLLmeetings,whichtookplacewithinamaternalspace
thatallowedforthemutualsharingofexperiences,operatedasavisualconfirmationofthe
validityofLLL’spractices.Intheseriesofface-to-facesupportgroupmeetings,local
motherscouldeasilywatchthebondsformingbetweenthemother-childnursingpairs.
GeographicallydispersedmothersdidnothavethebenefitofseeingLLL’salternative
paradigmofnaturalmotherhoodmodeledbyLLL’ssupportgroupleaders;therefore,in
ordertobuildmaternalconfidenceandadvocatefornaturalmotherhoodamongsttheir
geographicallydispersedaudience,LLLwouldhavetoemployrhetoricalstrategiesto
textuallyrecreatethesafematernalspaceofthemother-to-mothersupportgroup.
Inthischapter,IarguethatinwritingTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,LLL
adopted,adapted,andsubvertedelementsoftheculturalcodeofmotherhoodassociated
withwhite,middle-classmothersofthe1950sinordertoestablishmaternalexperienceas
alegitimatesourceofknowledgeonchildcareandinspiremotherstotrusttheadviceofthe
organization.LLL’smaternalrhetoricemployedthethreepisteisofethos(ethics),logos
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(logic),andpathos(emotion)toconvinceitsaudienceofmotherswhowishedtobreastfeed
topersevereintheireffortstoresistdominantpracticesandembracethemorelovingand
fulfillingalternativeparadigmofnaturalmotherhood.Whilethethreepisteishavebeen
frequentlyregardedasindependentrhetoricalproofsthatcanbeaddedtoanargument,I
alignmyselfwithscholarssuchasLisaEdeandAngelaLundsford,whoarguein“On
DistinctionsbetweenClassicalandModernRhetoric”thatthepisteis“areinseparable
strandsthatlinkpeopleengagedindiscourse”(LunsfordandEde42).Inemployingethos,
logos,andpathosasitforegroundedtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodinTheWomanlyArt
ofBreastfeeding,LLLcraftedanargumentthattherejectionofdominantpracticesinfavor
ofnaturalmotherhoodwasnotonlyarationalchoice,butthatitwasachoicemadeby
good,lovingmotherswhowishedtoensurethephysicalhealthandemotionalwellbeingof
theirbabies.
ThischapterbuildsonChapterIIbyexploringthewayinwhichmaternalrhetoric
canbeusedtorhetoricallyreframethevalueoftheactivitiesthattakeplacewithin
domesticspacesandcanauthorizeashiftinthoseactivitiesinordertocreatematernal
space.Thus,Iaimtoexplorehow“thelanguagethatdesignatesaspace,thematerialsthat
constructandadornit,andtheactivitiesenactedinsideit”(Enoch,OctologIII,115)canbe
shiftedinordertocreatematernalspace.Inparticular,Iarguethatthewidelyaccepted
domesticactivitiesofwhite,middle-classmotherswereproblematizedbythecritiqueof
domesticityandthedominantparadigmofscientificmotherhoodthatwasembedded
withinLLL’s1958text,TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding.Thiscritiqueofdomestic
activitieswasachievedthroughframingthestatusquoascontradictorytotraditional
valuesassociatedwithmotherhood.LLLcraftedamaternalethosandemployedappealsto
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logicandemotiontoarguethatmothersshouldembraceamorenaturalapproachto
motherhoodthatinvolvedbondingwithbabiesandrespondingtotheiruniqueneeds.
Thus,LLLusedtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodtoempowermotherstoresistthe
dominantparadigmofmotherhoodandauthorizethemtochangetheirmaternalbehavior
withinthespaceofthehome.Additionally,thetextmodeledtheuseofmaternalrhetoricto
craftanargumentthatwouldhelpwomengaintheirhusbands’supportfortheireffortsto
breastfeed,adoptthealternativeparadigmofnaturalmotherhood,andtransformtheir
homesintomaternalspace.
TocontextualizemyanalysisofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,thenextsection
ofthechapterwillprovideanoverviewofthedevelopmentandwritingofTheWomanly
ArtofBreastfeeding.Iwillnextreviewthedominantconstructionofmotherhoodinthe
post-WWIIeraandexplainhowtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodcanbeleveragedtoargue
fortheauthorityoffirst-handexperience.Ithenanalyzethevariousrhetoricalstrategies
thatLLLusedtoinspiremotherstotrustthefoundersofLLL,toframemothersasthe
appropriateauthoritiesoninfantfeedingandchildcare,andencouragemotherstoembrace
naturalmotherhood.Finally,Iexploretherhetoricalstrategiesandpracticaladvicethat
LLLutilizedasithelpedmotherstransformtheirhomesintomaternalspacesandgainthe
supportoftheirhusbandssothattheywerefreetopracticeanalternativestyleof
parenting.
THEDEVELOPMENTOFTHEWOMANLYARTOFBREASTFEEDING
ThecontentandtoneofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingwastheresultofa
lengthydiscussionanddebateregardinghowbesttoaddressmothersinawaythatoffered
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friendlysupportandhelpedthemtounderstandLLL’sviewofmotheringandputitinto
practice.Theleadersdidnotwanttomerelysharebreastfeedingtechniques;theyalso
wantedtosharetheirunderstandingofanalternativewayofmothering,facilitatedby
breastfeeding,thatwasrootedinacloseemotionalbondbetweenmotherandchild.Onthe
eveningofMarch27,1958,eightmembersofLLL—MaryAnnCahill,EdwinaFroehlich,
MaryAnnKerwin,MarianTomspon,BettyWagner,MaryWhite,andtwounnamedmothers
whohadrecentlyjoinedtheorganization—mettodiscussstructuringLLLasaformal
organization,clarifytheirmissionandgoals,andplanforthewritingoftheircourse-by-
mail,whichlaterbecameTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding.Themeetingwasalsoattended
byLLL’smedicaladvisors,physiciansGregoryWhite,thehusbandofMaryWhite,and
HerbertRatner,whoservedasmoderatorforthemeeting(“LLLDialogue”199).
AspartofthediscussiononMarch27,1958,theleadersofLLLdecidedhowthey
wouldpositionthemselvesinrelationtoexistingdiscourseandideologiesonmothering
andbreastfeeding.Theyestablishedthattheirprimarygoalwastoencouragemothersto
developaclose,lovingbondwiththeirchildrenthroughbreastfeeding.Thiswasareaction
againstandasignificantdeparturefromtheideologyofscientificmotherhood,which
encouragedstrictsleepingandeatingschedulesanddiscouragedphysicalcontactwiththe
babyinordertofosterindependence.
AsIdetailedinChapterII,thefoundingmothersofLLLviewedthedetached
approachofscientificmotherhoodascontradictorytoamother’sinstinctualdesirefora
strongmother-childbondformedthroughclosephysicalproximitytoone’schild.LLL
offeredanalternativeapproachthroughitsphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood,which
encouragedthedevelopmentofastrongmother-childbondthatwasfacilitatedthrough
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breastfeeding.Insteadoffocusingsolelyonprovidinginformationregardingbreastfeeding
techniques,LLLwantedtohelpmotherslearnaboutalovingapproachtomothering.
Breastfeeding,claimedonemother,“helpsthegrowthofthisrelationshipthatshouldexist
betweenthemotherandthebaby,andithelpsyoutoseehowdependentthebabyisupon
youandhowyoumustfillhisneeds.Allofthis,ofcourse,islove.Imean,ithelpsthewhole
ideaofloving”(“LLLDialogue”209).ClearlyfortheleadersofLLL,breastfeedingwasnot
regardedasanendinitself;rather,theyperceivedittobeafoundationalstepinbuilding
strongmother-childbonds.Thephysicalbondofbreastfeedinghelpedthemotherdevelop
anunderstandingtheinfant’sneeds,thefirstofwhichLLLunderstoodtobetheneedfor
themotherandmother-love.
Asaresultoflengthydiscussion,LLL’sfoundersmadeanumberofrhetorical
decisionsthatwouldhelpthemtranslatetheworkoftheorganizationintowriting.First,
theycommittedthemselvestoanorganizationalethosgroundedinmaternalauthority
resultingfromfirst-handexperiencewithbreastfeedingandmothering.Second,they
committedthemselvestotheideathatacommunalsharingofexperiencehelpsmothers
gainconfidenceandasenseofpersonalautonomy.Third,theydecidedtodirectalloftheir
effortsatpublicoutreachtowardmotherswhoalreadyhadaninterestinbreastfeeding,as
theyfeltthatthesemotherswouldbeinclinedtosharetheirviewsaboutthenatureof
motherhood;thus,theirpeersupportmodelwouldbestservethisaudience.Indirecting
theirrhetoricaleffortstolike-mindedwomenwhowishedtobreastfeed,thefoundersof
LLLencouragedgroupaffiliation,whichtheybelievedmotherscraved.Theybelievedthat
aswomensharedtheirexperiencesandprovidedoneanotherwithsupport,theywould
becomepartofa“mysticalbody”(“LLLDialogue”25).Finally,theydiscussedspecific,
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practicalrhetoricalstrategies,suchasmaintainingafriendlytoneandavoidingtoomuch
relianceonscientificdata,thattheywouldemploywhilewritingthecourse-by-mail.The
decisionslaidthefoundationforthedevelopmentofLLL’smaternalrhetoric,which
combinedethical,logical,andpatheticappealsandinvokedtheculturalcodeof
motherhood.LLL’smaternalrhetorichelpedtocultivateacounterpublicofbreastfeeding
motherswhoembracednaturalmotherhood,activelychallengedthepracticesofscientific
motherhood,andpromptedthemedicalcommunitytoreviseitspracticesaroundinfant
feedinganditsrelationshiptomothers.
Likelyoneofthemostimportantdecisionsthatledtoitsrhetoricalsuccesswasthe
decisiontotargetanaudienceofsoon-to-bemotherswhoalreadywishedtobreastfeed.
Thiswasastrategicchoicetotapintoagrowingdiscontentwiththeconstraintsof
scientificmotherhoodandadissatisfactionwiththeidealof1950swhite,middle-class
domesticity.“Atleastthosewhohaveattemptedtobreastfeedfeelthatthereisaneedfor
motheringorsomethingislackinginourgeneralacceptedpattern,”onemotherpointed
out(“LLLDialogue”205).TheleadersofLLLclearlyfeltthatmothersinterestedin
breastfeedingweremorepreparedtoembracetheirphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodand
wouldbemorepreparedtofacethechallengeofresistingthedominantdiscourseand
practicesofscientificmotherhood.Becausetheleadersviewedbreastfeedingasameansto
anend,theydidnotwanttospendtheirtimeinmeetingsarguingtheprosandconsof
breastfeeding(“LLLDialogue”205).Withareceptiveaudience,theycouldfocuson
providingsupportformothersattemptingtodevelopastrongmother-childbondthrough
breastfeeding.Theypurposefullychosenottotargetmotherswhoplannedtobottle-feed
because“[t]hereasonswhytheyarebottlefeedinginthefirstplacearetoovariedand
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ratherstrongandinasense,it’smorethanwecanhandle”(“LLLDialogue”211).Atthat
time,LLLwasnotpreparedtotacklethemyriadoffactorsthatledwomentobottle-feed.
Instead,theleadershopedthatthespreadoftheorganization’sapproachtomotherhood
anditsmissionofsupportingbreastfeedingmotherswoulddrawmorewomento
breastfeed.
Inefforttomoreeffectivelysupportawidelydispersedaudienceofmothers,
foundersMaryWhite,EdwinaFroehlich,andMaryAnnCahilldevelopedthecourse-by-
mail,whichwaswrittenbetweenthespringandfallof1958andwasdistributedunderthe
titleTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,withmuchofthesameinformationandrhetorical
messagingthatwassharedintheseriesofsupportgroupmeetings.Thefollowingsections
wereincluded:
• BenefitsofBreastfeeding,whichdiscussedthephysical,psychological,and
emotionalbenefitsofbreastfeeding,
• PlanningforBaby,whichcoveredeverythingfromhouseworktopreparingtohave
anaturalchildbirthinthehospital,
• CommonWorries,whichdiscussedissues,suchasinvertednipples,thatmight
discouragewomenfrombreastfeeding,
• How-To:Techniques,whichcoveredsuchtopicsasthetechniquesofbreastfeeding,
howtoholdthebaby,handexpressionofmilk,andcareforsorenipples,
• TheFather’sRole,whichgaveadviceregardingtheroleofthefatherinthe
breastfeedingfamilywiththegoalofencouragingthefathertosupportthe
breastfeedingmother-childpair,
• Nutrition,whichdiscussedeatinghabitsandgoodnutrition,
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• Andasectioncoveringoddsandends,suchasweaningandstartingsolids.
Thiscontentexploredandexpandeduponmanyoftheassumptionsandidealsthatthe
foundersofLLLhaddevelopedthroughtheirindividualexperienceswithchildbirth,
mothering,andbreastfeedingaswellasthroughtheirearlyeffortstocreateamother-to-
motherbreastfeedingsupportgroup.Itconstructedmotherhoodasnaturalandinstinctual,
butitalsohighlightedthetransformationalandconfidence-buildingpotentialofmother-to-
mothersupport,whichthetextaimedtooffer.Itprivilegedthematernalspaceasthe
logicalsiteforthedevelopmentofknowledgeaboutinfantfeedingandday-to-day
childcare.Itgavepracticaladvicetohelpmotherstransformtheirownhomesinto
maternalspacesinwhichtheycouldconfidentlybreakawayfromproblematicdominant
practices,relyonmaternalinstincttoguidedecision-making,developdeeperrelationships
withtheirfamilies,andfindmorepersonalfulfillment.
Thecontentofthetextpromotedtraditionalgenderrolesandhighlightedbiological
differencesbetweenthesexes,arguingthatbearingandraisingchildrencouldbeasource
ofstrengthforwomenwhowishedtoexperienceadifferentandmorefulfillingapproach
thanthatpromotedbyscientificmotherhood.Additionally,LLLreliedontherhetorical
leveragingofideasassociatedwithsuchtraditionalviewsofgenderandtheculturalcode
ofmotherhoodtodevelopitsownmaternalrhetoricandconnectwithitsaudience,which
neededbothstrongpersonalmotivationandpracticaladviceinordertoeasilyresist
dominantideologiesregardingbreastfeedingandchildcare,embracetheconceptofnatural
motherhood,andcreatetheirownmaternalspaces.
Eventhepracticalsolutionsforfundingtheprintinganddistributionofthecourse
revealsanefforttoadvocateforandsuccessfullysupportmothers.Thefundingtoprintthe
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course-by-mailcamefromtheproceedsofatalkbyDr.GrantlyDick-Read,theinfluential
BritishphysicianwhohadpublishedChildbirthWithoutFearin1942topromotenatural
childbirth.InapproximatelyAugustof1957,EdwinaFroehlichhadreadthatDick-Read
waspreparingforaspeakingtourintheUnitedStates,soshesentaletterrequestingthat
hespeakforanaudienceofmothers.Heagreedtospeakforhisusualfeeof$700.LLLcould
notaffordthisfee,butFroehlichwasdeterminedtotryagainasshefeltwomenwerea
logicalaudienceforDick-Read,despitethefactthathegenerallyaddressedaudiencesof
medicalprofessionals.“Whodeservedtohearhimspeakmorethanus?”Shereasoned,
“Afterall,wewerethewomenwhowerehavingourbabieshisway,sowhywouldn’the
wanttotalktous,too?”(Lowman,Revolutionaries19-20).Froehlichwrotebacktoexplain
theorganization’smissionandrequestheconsidercomingtospeaktoLLLforasmaller
fee.Dick-ReadassuredFroehlichthatifLLLweretohosttheeventandchargeasmallentry
fee,hisnamewoulddrawenoughaudiencememberstocoverhisspeakingfee.The1,250-
seatauditoriumwasfilledonthatnightinOctober1957.AccordingtoFroehlich,LLLhad
providedDick-Read“withthebiggest,mostexcitinggrouponhistour.Hewas
tremendouslypleasedoverthelargeturnoutandinterestshown”(Lowman,LLLove21).
ThefoundersofLLLwerehappywiththeresultsoftheeveningaswell.Aftercoveringtheir
expenses,theorganizationmadeaprofitof$350,whichtheyappliedtothecostofprinting
thecourse-by-mail.Beyondthepracticalimplicationsofthesuccessoftheevening,italso
offeredLLLanopportunitytoshowthatwomennotonlyhadaninterestindiscussing
mattersrelatedtowomen’sandchildren’shealth,butinhostingatalkbyDick-Readthat
wasopentothegeneralpublic,LLLundertookarhetoricalactionthatmadeanargumentin
favorofwomen’sinclusioninsuchdiscussions.
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Oncethefundingforprintingthecourse-by-mailhadbeensecuredandWhite,
Froehlich,andCahillhadfinishedwriting,thecoursewasprintedonfortypagesof8½x11
paper.Withthecourseinhand,thefoundersbegantoreconsidertheirmethodof
distribution.AccordingtoMaryAnnCahill,thefoundershadinitially“designedtheCourse
ByMailsothatwecouldsendeachmotherwhateverpartsshewanted,notnecessarilythe
wholething”(Lowman,LLLove24).However,withthecoursereadyfordistribution,the
foundersdecidedthatsendingoutthesectionsseparatelywasnotthemostbeneficial
approach.Uponreflection,Cahillsays,“werealizedthatthemotherreallyneededthe
wholethinginfrontofher.Shemightonlybewritingabout[sufferingfrom]sorenipples,
butwebegantoseethatsheneededawholebackgroundofinformation—sheneededthe
wholepicture.Andwewantedhertogetmotheringideas—nottowatchtheclockbut
respondtothebaby”(Lowman,LLLove24).Thisrealizationthatamotherstrugglingwith
sorenippleswouldneed“thewholepicture”showsthatLLL’sfoundersrealizedthatthey
couldnottrulysupportmothersunlesstheycouldhelpthemunderstandwhysuch
struggleswereworththeeffort—thatbreastfeedingwasnotsimplyameansoffeedinga
babybutalsoapracticethatfacilitatedaclosermother-childbond.Inordertoprovidethis
contextformothers,thefoundersaddedanintroductiontoLLLanditsphilosophyof
naturalmotherhood,aswellasasectionincludingbriefbiographiesofallofthefounding
mothers,andputtheentirecoursetogetherinawhitefolder.Itwasdistributedbymailfor
afeeof$2.00underthenameCourseByMail,thoughthetitlepageidentifiedthetextas
TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,whichishowitcametobeknown.
TheremainderofthechapterexaminesthewayinwhichTheWomanlyArtof
Breastfeedingcraftedamaternalrhetoricthatcombinedethical,logical,andpathetic
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appealswhileleveragingtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodtopromotebreastfeedingand
naturalmotherhoodandpushbackagainstscientificmotherhoodandtheconceptof1950s
domesticity.LLLuseditsmaternalrhetorictoframemothersasthenaturalauthoritieson
infantfeeding,topresentnaturalmotherhoodasasensibleapproachtomothering
employedbygoodmothers,andtoencouragewomentomodifytheirhomemanagement
activitiesinordertocreatematernalspacesthatreflectednaturalmotherhood.
Additionally,TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingmodeledanargumentthatmotherscould
employinordertoprompttheirhusbandstogetonboardwithnewdomestic
arrangements.Inemployingtheserhetoricalstrategiesinthe1958editionofTheWomanly
ArtofBreastfeeding,LLLbegantouniteawidelydispersedaudienceofmothersintoa
counterpublicthatwouldspreadLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood,challenge
dominantmaternalpractices,andeventuallygaintheattentionofthemedicalprofession.
MATERNALRHETORICINTHEWOMANLYARTOFBREASTFEEDING
Inordertocraftaneffectiveargumentinfavorofbreastfeedingandnatural
motherhoodinTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,LLLneededtoaddressandpushback
againstproblematicassumptionsaboutwomenandtheirmaternalrole.Intheprevious
chapter,Iglossedtheconceptof1950sdomesticitytorevealthelinkbetweendomesticity
andscientificmotherhoodandtodrawacontrastbetweentheconceptsofdomesticityand
maternalspace,whichLLLmotherssubversivelyestablishedintheirhomessoastohavea
morenaturalexperienceofmotherhood.Inthissection,Iexploretheconceptofpost-WWII
domesticityinmoredepthwithafocusonthewayinwhichitwasconstructedtextuallyin
popularmedia.Icontrasthowpopularwomen’smagazinesframeddomesticityandhow
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LLLemployedmaternalrhetoricinitsearlytextstoencouragereaderstotransformtheir
homesintomaternalspaces.Insodoing,womenfoundthefreedomandautonomytoreject
dominantpracticesandembracethealternativeparadigmofnaturalmotherhood.
LLLemergedfromasocialenvironmentinthepost-WWIIerathatrequired
domesticityofwhite,middle-classmothers.Whilemothershadworkedoutsideofthe
homeduringthewarera,followingthewar,arenewedemphasisondomesticity
encouragedwomentoexittheworkforcetomakeroomformenreturningfromwar.
Popularimagesofwhite,middle-classhomemakerswereidealizedandviewedasasymbol
oftheAmerica’ssuccessfulcapitalism(Coontz;Odland).Often,imagessuchastheCompact
vacuumadvertisementbelow(figure2),depictedhappyhomemakersenjoyingmodern
labor-savingdevices.Inthisparticularimage,amotherandheryoungdaughtersharetheir
delightovertheirnewvacuum.AquicksurveyofissuesofLadies’HomeJournalfrom1957
revealsthatadvertisementsfrequentlydepictedmothersbondingwiththeiryoung
daughtersoverhouseholdchoresandlabor-savingdevices.Thesuggestionwasthatnot
onlydidgoodmothersembracedomesticity,buttheytaughttheirdaughterstodosoas
well.Whilesuchimages,whichcametosymbolizethefreedomofAmerica’scapitalist
system,impliedthatwomenenjoyeddomesticchores,1950sdomesticityandscientific
motherhoodconstrainedmothersandundervaluedtheirknowledgegainedfrom
experience.
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Figure2.CompactadvertisementfromTheLadies'HomeJournal;Jan.1957,74.1,p.20;
personalcopy.
CommunicationsscholarSarahBurkeOdlandprovidesinsightintothetextual
constructionofpost-WWIImotherhoodinpopularmediaaimedatwomen.Inherarticle
“UnassailableMotherhood,AmbivalentDomesticity:TheConstructionofMaternalIdentity
inLadies’HomeJournalin1946,”Odlandrevealsthatintheimmediatepost-WWIIperiod,
motherhoodwasunderstoodtobeanunfulfillingdutycarriedoutbyself-sacrificing
mothersactingontheordersofchildrearingexperts,aswomenwereperceivedtolackthe
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capacitytomakeinformeddecisionsaboutchildcare.AccordingtoOdland,areviewof
1946issuesofLadies’HomeJournalrevealedsixrecurringthemesthatrepresentedthis
constructionofmotherhood:
• Motherhoodwasapatrioticdutythatcouldensurethewell-beingofthe
nation/state(67).
• Thehome,especiallythekitchen,wasthedomainofthemother,whowas
depictedaswhiteandmiddle-class(69).
• Motherhoodrequired“self-sacrificeandhands-onmothering”thatcateredto
the“inclinations,moods,andneedsofthechild”(70).
• Thepaternalisticadviceofchildrearingexpertswasconsiderednecessaryto
guidetheday-to-dayactivitiesofmothers,whowerefrequentlyinfantilized,
dismissed,andblamedbothbyexpertsandindepictionsappearingin
advertisements(72-73).
• Whiledomesticitywasn’trequiredpriortomotherhood,andchildless
womencouldenjoycareers,theywereexpectedtoadheretotraditional
genderrolesandremaininthehomeoncetheybecamemothers(73).
• Motherhoodwaswomen’shighestcalling,andwomen’sdesiresand
ambitionswereexpectedtobesetasidesothatmotherscouldfocusontheir
domestic,maternalroles(75).
Odland’sanalysisofdomesticityasdepictedintheLadies’HomeJournalshowsthat
mothersofthepost-WWIIerawereboundtothehomebyculturalexpectation,andwithin
thehome,motherswerefurtherconstrainedbyaculturalunderstandingthatthedaily
activitiesofmotherswereguidedbyaheavyrelianceonexpertadvice.AsOdlandshows,
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somephysicianstookacondescendingtonetowardmothersandblamedthemforillnesses
andaccidents,andadvertisementsfrequentlyconstructedmothersasuninformedandin
needofexpertguidance.WhilethesethemesappearedinLadies’HomeJournaladecade
priortoLLL’sfounding,theywerestilllargelyrelevanttothedominantideologyof
scientificmotherhoodthatprevailedinthe1950s.ThoughLLL’sfounderswerewhite,
middle-classhomemakers,establishingLLLforthepurposeofsharingexperience-based
knowledgewasaradicaldeparturefromthestatusquo.
Inordertoconvincemotherstoadoptthephilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodandits
practices,LLLneededtopresentapersuasiveargumentthatLLL’sleadership,aswellas
mothersmorebroadly,hadthecapacityandauthoritytoofferadviceaboutinfantfeeding
andchildrearing.InTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,LLLcraftedamaternalrhetoricthat
employedethical,logical,andpersuasiveappealstoarguethatrejectingthedominant
practicesofscientificmotherhoodtoinsteadbreastfeedandestablishaclosemother-child
bondwasasensibleandlovingchoicemadebygoodmothers.Throughtheinterplayof
ethos,logos,andpathos,rhetorssuchasLLL’sfoundersareableto“unitealloftheir
resources—intellect,will,andemotion—incommunicatingwithoneanother”(Lundsford
andEde43).Pathosandlogosareinextricablylinked,claimscholarssuchasLaura
Micciche,JeffreyWalker,AngelaLunsfordandLisaEde,as“howwethinkaboutwhat
constitutesevidenceandgroundsforanargument—indeed,howweevendecidethatan
issuedeservestobe‘argued’—isalreadyshapedbyouremotionalinvestmentsinhow
thingsoughttobe”(Micciche3).Whilelogos“mediatestheperceptions(and
interpretationsofperceptions),”pathostriggers“aphysicallyembodied,psychologically
compulsivewill-to-act”(Walker81).Pathos,claimsMicciche,is“the‘stickiness’that
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generatesattachmentstoothers,toworldview,andtoawholearrayofsourcesand
objects”(1).Itisthestickinessofemotionalattachmentstotraditionalvaluesthatmakes
theculturalcodeofmotherhoodsuchapowerfulrhetoricaldeviceandallowswomento
employthecodetocraftmaternalethos.AsLindalBuchananexplains,“TheMother’s
persuasiveforce,then,stemsfromitsplacewithinthegenderhierarchyandcultural
matrix,itscapacitytostiremotionandinspiretrust,anditsabilitytoencourage
acquiescenceandmutecriticalreflection”(7).
AccordingtoBuchanan,womenrhetors,suchasProgressiveerabirthcontrol
activistMargaretSanger,havefrequentlyreliedontheculturalcodeofmotherhoodtocraft
maternalethos.Sangeremployedtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodinorderto“appear
seemly,sensible,andhonorable;toappealtomothersandincitethemtoaction;andto
challengethestatusquoinarelativelynonthreateningmanner”(Buchanan29).While
BuchananwasdescribingtheeffectofSanger’sattemptstodevelopmaternalethos,her
descriptionhighlightsthewayinwhichthethreepisteisofethos,logos,andpathoswere
complementaryinSanger’smaternalrhetoric.Hermaternalethosframedherasseemly
andhonorable,thusshepresentedherselfasagoodmother;however,hermaternal
rhetoricalsoframedherassensible,assheemployedappealstologictorationalizeher
progressiveactivities.Finally,Sangerappealedtomothersinsuchawaythattheywere
incitedtoaction.Tomovemotherstoaction,Sangerlikelyneededtoemployemotional
appeals,astheyhavemorepowerthantheothertypesofappealstoinspiresuchamove
(Walker81).LLL’smaternalrhetoricoperatedsimilarlytoSanger’s,asitframedLLL
mothersasseemlyandtraditional(ethos),presentedtheirresistancetothepracticesof
scientificmotherhoodandtheirsubversionofdomesticityassensible(logos),andargued
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thatthealternativeparadigmofnaturalmotherhoodwasamorelovingapproachthat
wouldensurethewellbeingofbabies(pathos).
LLL’srhetoricalstrategieshelpedtheorganizationrecruitanddevelopa
communityofmotherswhowouldbecomeacounterpubliccapableofpromptingthe
medicalprofessiontochangeitsviewsonbreastfeedingandre-evaluateitsrelationshipto
mothers.LLLalsouseditsmaternalrhetorictoargueinfavorofalternativewaysof
behavingwithinandorganizingthehomeinordertoassistmothersincreatingamaternal
spacethatwouldhelpthemsuccessfullyadoptLLL’sapproachtonaturalmotherhood.
DEVELOPINGMATERNALETHOS
OneofthefirsttasksthatLLLhadtoaccomplishinTheWomanlyArtof
Breastfeedingwastodevelopamaternalethosthatwouldframeitsfounders,aswellas
thosemotherswhoembraceditspractices,asgoodmothers.LLLneededtoarguethat
rejectingthestatusquoandadoptingalternativepracticescouldbeamoralandaltruistic
choicebymothersratherthantheactofsocialdeviants,misfits,orthoseotherwiseliving
onthefringesofacceptablesociety,suchasthefreewheelinghipstersofthe1940sorofthe
hedonistic,anti-materialistbeatniksofthe1950s.Therefore,LLLfirmlygroundedits
maternalethosinthemainstreamviewsofsociallyacceptablemoralityanddecency,andit
foregroundedconceptsandvaluesassociatedwiththeculturalcodeofmotherhoodinits
self-representation.AccordingtoCarolynSkinner,“aneffectiveethosisonethat
demonstratesthattherhetor'scharactermatchestheaudience'svalues”(Skinner,“She
Will”255).Rhetorsconstructtheaudiencebysuggestingthattheaudiencenaturally
“already(oratleastshouldalready)privilegethecharacteristicstherhetorbelievesarethe
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mostimportant”(Skinner,“SheWill”242).AsLindalBuchananexplainsinRhetoricsof
Motherhood,womenrhetorsoftendevelopthiskindofconnectionwiththeiraudiencesby
rhetoricallyforegroundingcharacteristicsandvaluesassociatedwiththeculturalcodeof
motherhood;thisallowswomenrhetorstodevelopaneffectivematernalethos.
Mother,accordingtoBuchanan,isagod-termthatisassociatedwithconceptssuch
aschildren,love,self-sacrifice,religion,altruism,home,protection,nourishment,and
morality(8).Buchananclaimsthatthegod-termMotherandthedevil-termWomanexist
onacontinuum(Table).Placingawomantowardthemotherendofthecontinuumcanbe
rhetoricallyadvantageousbecausemotherhoodhasanexaltedstatusinAmericansociety
andithasthe“capacitytostiremotionandinspiretrust”aswellas“encourage
acquiescenceandmutecritiqueandreflection”(Buchanan7).Rhetoricalassociationwith
theWoman-endofthecontinuumcantarnishawoman’sreputationanddemeanher
(Buchanan9).Theinvocationofmotherhoodandtheassociationofrhetorswithelements
oftheculturalcodeofmotherhood“providesrhetorswiththepersuasivemeansthatnot
onlyreflectdominantculturalsystemsandgendercodesbutalsohavethepotentialto
reify,resist,andrevisethem”(Buchanan22).
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Woman
(DevilTerm)
childlessness
work
sex
self-centeredness
materialism
immorality
hysteria
irrationality
extremeemotion
self-indulgence
weakness
thesensualbody
thepublicsphere
Rhetoricsthat
combine
elements
ofthe
Womanand
theMother
Mother
(GodTerm)
children
home
love
empathy
protection
religion
nourishment
altruism
morality
self-sacrifice
strength
thereproductivebody
theprivatesphere
thenation
Table1.TheWoman/MothercontinuumfromBuchanan,Lindal;RhetoricsofMotherhood;
Carbondale:SouthernIllinoisUP,2013;p.9.
IarguethatinTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,LLLleveragedtheculturalcodeof
motherhoodtocraftamaternalethosthatwouldplacetheorganization,itsphilosophyof
naturalmotherhood,anditsalternativepracticesfurtheralongtheMother-endofthe
Woman/Mothercontinuumthanscientificmotherhood(andthusthemotherswho
adheredtoitsstrictschedulinganditshand-offpractices).Bytreatingmothersasthough
theywereirrational,scientificmotherhoodassociatedmotherswiththedevil-term
Woman,justasthemedicalprofessiondidwhentheyframedthematernalbodyasweakby
promotingdruggedchildbirthanddoubtingwhethermotherscouldadequatelyprovide
nourishmenttotheirchildrenbybreastfeeding.LLLpresentedanalternativeparadigmof
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motheringthatplacedmothersmuchfurthertowardtheMother-endofthe
Woman/Mothercontinuum.Insodoing,LLLpresentedaconvincingargumentthatnatural
motherhoodisamorebenevolent,truer,fulfilling,andbeneficialapproachtomothering
thanthedominantapproachthatpromoteddetachment,emphasizedstrictroutines,and
strippedmothersoftheirsubjectivity.
LLLbeganitsethosbuildingprojectinvisualformontheveryfirstpageofThe
WomanlyArtofBreastfeeding.Thetitlepage(figure3)featuredthesmilingfacesofall
sevenofthefoundingmothersandtheirchildrengatheredinacozylivingroom.The
positioningofthisimage,asthefirstthingthatreaderscameuponwhenreadingthetext,
madeitclearthatLLLwasnotanameless,facelessorganization,butthatitwasindeeda
groupofyoung,friendly,experiencedmothers.Theplacementofthegroup,infrontofthe
fireplaceinMaryWhite’shome,suggestedthatthiswasawarm,familiar,andcomfortable
environment.Themothersinthepictureappeartohavebeenateaseandcomfortable.
Theywerewell-coiffedandwearingfashionableclothing.Theirdressandstylingwere
appropriateforwhite,middle-classmotherswhoembodiedvirtuessuchasmoralityand
respectability.Theyweresurroundedbyoverflowingbookshelves,whichimpliedthatthey
hadaccesstoknowledgeandanopportunitytopartakeinpersonallyfulfillingactivities;
yettheroomwascozyandclean,whichimpliedthattheystillmaintainedacleanand
comfortablehome.Theirsmilingfacesconveyedthattheywerecontentedwiththeir
maternalexperiences.Theirchildrenseemedhealthyandwell-fed,whichlikelyallayed
fearsabouttheabilityofbreastfeedingtobeanadequatesourceofnutrition.Thechildren
wereheldclose,eitheronthelapsoftheirmothersorstandingnexttothemwhilea
youngersiblingoccupiedhisorhermother’slap.Theimagewasbothwelcomingand
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aspirational;itwelcomedinmotherswhowereintriguedbyLLL’sideasandmission.It
offeredreassurancethatrespectablewomenwhocaredfortheirbabieshadembraced
breastfeedingsuccessfully.
Figure3.TitlepagefromTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding;FranklinPark,IL:LaLeche
LeagueInternational,1958.Ltd.ed.replica;personalcopy.
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Inadditiontoincludingavisualimageinthebeginningofthetext,theconclusionof
TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingfurtheredthedevelopmentofmaternalethosthrough
theinclusionofabiographysectionthatpaintedtextualportraitsofeachofthefounding
mothers.ThesedescriptionswouldhavebeenathomeinacontemporaryissueofLadies’
HomeJournal.MarianTompsonwasdescribedasthesoft-spoken,serene,andpetite
motheroffivedaughterswhoalsohappenedtoserveaspresidentoftheorganization.
MaryWhitewasdescribedasarelaxed,funnydoctor’swifeandmotherofsevenandthe
“OfficialHeadofResearch”forLLL(30).EdwinaFroehlich,whowassaidtohavecrackling
blueeyes,wasthewarmandarticulatemotherofthreeboyswhoservedasthe
organization’ssecretary.MaryAnnKerwin,amotheroftwowholookedlikeacollegeco-
ed,servedasthe“exceptionallyconscientiouslibrarian”forLLL(30).BettyWagner,a
motheroffivewhoservedasLLL’streasurer,was“blessedwithanuncommonlygood
shareofgoodcommonsense”(30).ViolaLennon,amotheroffour,wasdescribedasbeing
smartand“smart-looking”(30).Mary-AnnCahillwasthe“red-hairedandchic”motherof
sixwhohadagiftfortakingdiscussions“beyondmerewordstowarm,human
understanding”(30).ThesedescriptionsofLLL’sfoundingmembersvividlypaintedthem
asunique,experiencedindividualmotherswithavarietyofskillsandtalents.
MothersreadingthetextcouldlikelyrelatetooneormoreofLLL’sfounders.The
factthateachfounderhadmultiplechildrenofferedadditionalassurancesthatreaders
weregettingadvicefromexperiencedmothers.Referencestotheirlookshelpedthemseem
modernandattractive,whichunderminedanymisconceptionthatbreastfeedingmothers
weredowdyorthatrejectingtrendsinchildcareandinfantfeedingmadeone
unfashionable.Thefocusontheirpersonalities,characteristics,andtalents—Viola
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Lennon’sintelligence,EdwinaFroehlich’swarmth,MaryWhite’shumor,MarianTompson’s
serenity,BettyWagner’scommonsense,Mary-AnnCahill’sunderstanding,andMaryAnn
Kerwin’sconscientiousness—helpedtheaudienceviewLLL’sleadershipasacollectionof
uniqueindividualswithsharedvaluesandbeliefs.TheimplicationwasthatLLL’sideology
ofnaturalmotherhoodanditspracticesweresuitedtoandsuitableforawidevarietyof
women.Thetextseemedtosuggestthattherewasnoparticulartypeofwomanwhowould
bebettersuitedthanotherstoLLL’sviewsandpractices.Inreality,however,thefounders
ofLLLwereahomogenousgroupofwhite,middle-classCatholicwomen.Theaffordances
oftheirlifestylemadeiteasiertoembraceanalternativeapproachtomotheringandinfant
feedingthatrequiredconstantandclosecontactwiththeirinfants.
Inadditiontodevelopingamaternalethosofcompetent,moral,andlovingmothers
ofhealthychildren,thesevisualandtextualrepresentationsofLLL’sfoundershelpedtheir
audiencemakeaconnectionwithLLL.TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingfurtherdeveloped
itsmaternalethosandencouragedthisconnectionbyframingtheorganizationasa
friendlyneighbor.Theorganizationaimedtofosterasenseofmother-to-mother
communicationandsupport,evenfromadistance.Inordertodoso,LLLdecidedthatit
wasimportanttoshowempathyandusenaturallanguagethatwouldbeappropriatefora
conversationbetweenfriends(“LLLDialogue”25).InwritingTheWomanlyArtof
Breastfeeding,LLLdevelopedafriendlytonethatmadeapointofplacingtheleadersofLLL
andthemothersintheiraudienceonequalfooting.Theopeninglineofthetextconstructed
theorganizationas“aneighborwithsomethinginherhandandhearttosharewithyou.
Callita‘wayofmothering’”(WomanlyArt1).“Seeherasawomanwithababyinherarms
andasmileonherface,”theintroductioncontinues,“proudofherselfandlongingtoshare
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withyouthewealthofallshehasexperiencedandlearned.Shehassuccessfullynursedher
baby”(WomanlyArt1).LLL’sleadershipwantedwomentoviewtheorganizationasthey
wouldafriendlyneighborwhowashappytoshareadvicebaseduponhersuccessful
experiencewithmothering.Bydescribingtheknowledgegainedfromthefirst-hand
experienceofhavingsuccessfullynursedababyintermsofwealth,LLLframedmaternal
experienceasavaluableresourcethatcouldnotbeprovidedbymedicalprofessionals
unlesstheyhappenedtobenursingmothersthemselves.Thisgoalofsharingexperience-
basedknowledgeinafriendlywayinvokedtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodbysuggesting
thattheorganizationwasempatheticandaltruistic.ThisimageryputLLL’sleadershipand
thereaderonlevelfooting.Theimageryofasmilingmotherwithherbabyinarmsalso
subtletyconveyedthemessagethatitwasfulfillingandrewardingtoresistthedominant
practiceofbottle-feedingandignoretheadvicetoavoidholdingthebabyandinstead
establishaphysicallyclosemother-childbond.Clearly,TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding
carefullyemployedvisualandtextualimagerytoconveyamaternalethosthatframedthe
organizationasawholesome,loving,friendly,altruistic,empathetic,capable,and
responsiblemotherwhofoundhappinessandfulfillmentinherchoicetomotherinamore
naturalway.
ESTABLISHINGMATERNALAUTHORITYANDINSPIRINGSELF-CONFIDENCE
Theabsenceofconfidenceinwomen’sabilitytomakedecisionsaboutchildcarewas
perhapsthelargestobstaclethatLLLhadtoovercomeinTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding.
DevelopingmaternalethostoconvincemothersthatLLL’sleaderswererespectable,good
motherswasperhapsamoremanageabletask.Toconvincemotherstoembracenatural
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motherhood,LLLneededtoconvincereadersthattheirmaternalexperiencesmadethe
foundersofLLLanauthoritativesourceonbreastfeedingandchildcare.Theyalsoneeded
toconvincereaderstoviewthemselvesasnaturalauthoritiesonthecareoftheirown
childrenandtobelievethattheyhadthecapacitytomakeinformeddecisionsabouttheir
children’suniqueneeds.TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingmadeappealstologic(logos)
andemotion(pathos),ordeeplyheldvalues,inordertoconvincemothersthatnatural
motherhoodwasthelogicalapproachtomotheringandthatitwouldbettermeetthe
complexneedsofindividualbabies.SpecificrhetoricalmovesthatLLLemployedasit
developeditsmaternalrhetoricincludedcontextualizingthelossofmaternalconfidence,
outliningwhatitbelievedtobethelogicalrolesoffirst-handmaternalknowledgeand
medicalscienceinchildcare,makingpatheticappealstomaternaldesiresandfears,linking
thefulfillmentofmaternaldesirestoLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood,and
referencingtheBiblicalcharacterofEvetoarguethatmotherhoodwouldcomenaturallyif
societalpressuresdidnotinterfere.
WhileLLLcarefullyemployedvisualandtextualimagerytoconstructamaternal
ethosfortheorganizationthatframedthefoundersasrespectable,competent,loving,
happy,nurturingmothers,italsoneededtoframeexperiencedmothersasauthoritieson
mattersrelatedtoinfantfeedingandchildcare.Evenwhenrhetorssharevalueswith
membersoftheiraudience,duetosocialnormsandmores,audiencemembersandrhetors
maynotagreethatactionstakenorsuggestedbytherhetorreflectsharedvalues.Thisis
trueofLLL,whichwasdevelopedinaneraduringwhichmotherswereexpectedto
passivelyacceptandinstitutephysicians’adviceaboutchildcareandinfantfeeding;
therefore,itwouldhavebeenchallengingtoconvincewomentoacceptadvicefromother
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mothersormaketheirowninformeddecisionsabouttheday-to-daycareandfeedingof
children.AsSkinnerexplains,“Shiftingtheaudience'svaluesmaybeparticularlynecessary
forrhetorswhoseveryactofspeakingisascontroversialasthechangetheyadvocate”
(242).Inordertoshiftthevaluesofitsaudienceandconvincethemtotrustinmaternal
authorityoverchildcareandinfantfeedingandembracenaturalmotherhood,LLLneeded
toshowthatthepracticesassociatedwithscientificmotherhoodwereillogicaland
contradictedthevaluesthattheorganizationanditsaudiencehelddear.Italsoneededto
provideevidencethatnaturalmotherhoodwasamoresensibleapproachtomotheringthat
betterreflectedtheirsharedvalues.
TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingsuggestedthatthemedicalizationofchildcarehad
negativelyimpactedmothers’viewsofthemselvesandtheirchildren(1).AsIdetailedin
ChapterII,themedicalprofessionviewedwomenashavingweakbodiesthatnecessitated
routineinterventioninchildbirthandsupplementationinthecaseofbreastfeeding.
Medicatedchildbirthhadbecomesoprevalentthatmanyphysicianshadneverattendedan
unmedicatedbirth.ThebirthexperiencesofMarianTompson,whohadendurednegative
experiencesgivingunmedicatedbirthinahospitalandhadenjoyedthepositiveexperience
ofgivingbirthathome,showedthatthefieldofmedicinedidnottrustwomen’sbodiesto
functioncorrectly.
Unsurprisingly,theattitudeofphysicianstowardmothershadanimpactontheir
self-confidence.LLL’sfoundersfeltthatwomen’sfaithintheirinstinctualabilitytocarefor
theirchildrenhadbeenharmedbytheexpectationthattheywouldstrictlyadheretothe
adviceofphysicians.TheintroductionofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingmadethispoint
bydrawingacomparisonbetweenthelossofmaternalconfidenceandtheeffectonone’s
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abilitytowalkifitweresubjecttothislevelofscrutiny:“wetakeourabilitytowalkfor
granted.Imagine,though,ourlossofconfidence,perplexity,andperhapscompletefailure
ofthisnaturalfunctionifwewereconstantlybeingquestionedorcriticized”(WomanlyArt
1).Thispassageemployedbothlogicalandemotionalappeals.AsOdlandshowed,popular
mediahadinfantilizedmothersanddepictedthemasincompetent(72-73).Byattributing
failuretobreastfeedtoself-doubtcausedbythisconstantcriticism,thetextgavearational
explanationformothers’struggleswithbreastfeeding.Italsomadeanemotionalappealby
encouragingmotherstoreflectontheharmthathadbeendonetothembythedominant
ideologyofscientificmotherhood.Additionally,byusingtheplural,first-personpronoun
“we,”LLLcreatedacommunalbondwithitsaudience.Italertedreaderstothefactthat
leadersofLLLcouldunderstandandrelatetotheemotionalturmoilthatmothersfaced
whentheyfailedintheirattemptstodosomethingthatwaspresumedtocomenaturally.
Thepronoun“our”showedthatthelossofmaternalconfidencewasnotaunique
experience,butthatitwasasharedlossresultingfromthechallengesofthesocialcontext.
Becauseitwasasharedloss,itwouldtakealargemovementofwomenpushingback
againstthecauseofthatlossinordertohelpmothersregainconfidence.
NotonlydidTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingexposethecauseofmothers’
difficultieswithbreastfeeding,italsorevealedthewayinwhichscientificmotherhoodhad
harmedthemother-childrelationship.LLLleadersbelievedthatthecomplexityofformula
feeding,withitschartsandscales,couldcauseamotherto“begintoregardherbabyasa
complexdigestivesysteminsteadofamostdependentbut‘feeling’person”(WomanlyArt
1).Here,LLLmadealogicalappealbyprovidingareasonedexplanationoftheproblematic
wayinwhichbottle-feedingmechanizesinfantfeedingandthusencouragesmothersto
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developadetachedviewthatunderstandsbabiesaseatingmachines.Tostrengthenthis
logicalargument,thetextmadeanemotionalappealbypointingoutthatscientific
motherhoodtreatedbabiesasthoughtheywere,oroughttobe,independentanddevoidof
feelings.Additionally,itunderscoredthewaythatthedominantapproachdiscouraged
mothersfromdemonstratingempatheticunderstandingoftheirbabies.Thisaspectof
scientificmotherhoodhadrealeffects,asitencouragedmotherstotakeahands-off
approachtomotheringthatLLLarguedwasunfulfillingforbothmothersandbabiesand
affectedthepsychologicalwell-beingofboth.Incontrasttothisviewofbabiespromotedby
scientificmotherhood,LLLarguedthatbreastfeedingwasasimplewaytomeetboththe
nutritionalneedsofbabiesandwhatLLLconsideredtobebabies’otherprimaryneed:the
psychologicalneedforthecomfortandphysicalpresenceoftheirmothers.
TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingpushedbackagainstthedamagedonebythe
privilegingofmedicalknowledgeoverfirst-handexperiencebyfirmlydefiningwhatLLL
believedtobetheappropriateroleofexperienced-basedmaternalknowledgeandtherole
ofmedicalknowledgeinchildcare.Eventhetext’stitleforegroundedmaternalagencyand
revealedanunderstandingofbreastfeeding,andmotheringbyextension,asapractice
motivatedbyaninternaldriveorinstinctratherthanexternalforcessuchasthestrictrules
ofscientificmotherhood.LLLsuggestedthatbreastfeedingwasanartratherthanascience,
anditwaspassedfromwomantowoman.Thecontrastdrawnherebetweenartand
sciencewasastrategicwaytochallengethelogicoftheone-size-fits-allapproachto
childcareandfeedingthatwasprevalentunderscientificmotherhood.Framing
breastfeedingasanartimpliedthatwhilebreastfeedinginvolvedphysiologicalprinciples
andtechniquesthatcouldbetaught,especiallybyexperiencedmothers,breastfeedinga
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babywasauniqueexperiencethatchangedaccordingtothenutritionalandpsychological
needsofindividualbabies.
Doctors,theintroductiontoTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingclaimed,hadvery
littletodowithbreastfeeding(WomanlyArt2).Toestablishtheauthorityofmothersover
breastfeedingandchildcaredecisions,LLLcarefullyexplainedtheroleofphysiciansinthe
historyofinfantfeeding:“Themedicalprofessioninitsroleofassistingorsubstitutingfor
Nature,tackledtheproblemoffindinganacceptablemilkforthebabywhocouldnotget
breastmilk”(WomanlyArt1).Thesuggestionherewasthatthemedicalprofessionshould
onlyinterveneininfantfeedingiftherewasamedicalreasonthatthebabycouldnotnurse.
Theproblem,accordingtoLLL,isthat“somehowtheexceptionbecametherule”(Womanly
Art1).Incontrastingtheaffordancesofknowledgegainedfromfirst-handexperiencewith
thatofthemedicalprofession,LLLwasmakingalogicalappealtoitsaudience,prompting
readerstodosomedeductivereasoning.Formulafeedingwasmeanttobeasolutiontoa
problemthatpreventedthenaturalandidealmethodoffeedingfrombeingemployed.Why
routinelyemploythesolution,particularlyasitofferedfewerbenefits?Clearlydefiningthe
appropriateroleofphysicians,whichwastointerveneonlywhenmedicallynecessary,
helpedsupporttheargumentthatmotherswerethenaturalauthoritiesontheunique
needsoftheirbabiesandthattheyshouldthereforetakeamoreactiveroleinmaking
decisionsaboutthecareoftheirownchildren.
TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingfurtherdevelopeditslogicalargumentinfavorof
maternalauthoritybypromptingitsaudiencetoconsiderhowmotherslearnedto
breastfeedbeforethemedicalprofessionexisted.Thetextsuggestedthatthemyriadof
decisionsmothersneededtomakeaboutinfantcareandtheconflictingadvicethat
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mothersreceivedmadecontemporarymotheringmuchmorecomplexthanitwouldhave
beenforEve.LLLblamedtheoveruseofinfantformulaandthestrictpracticesofscientific
motherhoodforunderminingmaternalself-confidence.Itarguedthatwhilemothers
shouldhavebeenconsideredthenaturalauthorityoninfantcareandfeeding,societal
forceshadunderminedtheirabilitytounderstandthenaturalroleofmotherinthe
relationshipbetweenmotherandchild.Accordingtothetext,mothershad“strongoften
unfulfilledyearnings”andthatignoringthe“naturalinclinationsofamothertoholdand
nurseherbaby”(WomanlyArt2)couldhavenegativeconsequencesfortheirpsychological
health.Breastfeedingincreasesthehormoneprolactin,whichelevatesemotionsandbuilds
motherlylove(WomanlyArt4).Byemphasizingthisphysiologicaleffectandits
relationshiptomaternallove,LLLmadeapatheticappealtomothers’desirestohave
strongbondswiththeirchildrenandimpliedthatfollowingphysicians’advicetobottle-
feedmightobstructthedevelopmentofthedesiredmother-childbond.
LLL’sfoundersknewthatinorderforamothertoresistthedominantviewofthe
irrationalityandweaknessofmothers,“Themostimportantthingshemustdo,andthe
hardest,istolearntohavefaithinherselfasamother”(WomanlyArt18).Timeand
experience,accordingtoLLL,weretheonlythingsthatcouldtransformanuncertain
mothertoaconfidentone(WomanlyArt18),butwhataboutthefirst-timemother?How
couldshebeginmotheringwithconfidence?Whiletimeandexperiencearetheprimary
vehiclesthroughwhichamotherwouldgainconfidenceinhermaternalabilities,LLL’s
philosophyofnaturalmotherhoodofferednewmothersanalternativeframeworkfor
understandingthemselvesastherightfulauthoritiesoverroutinematterssuchasthecare
andfeedingofchildren.
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LLLusedanumberofthemestoargueinfavorofnaturalmotherhood,including
foregroundingreligionandnature.FortheCatholicfoundersofLLL,naturewasassociated
withreligion,anditwasunderstoodtobetheresultoftheintentionaldesignofacreator.
WhileProtestantsoutnumberedCatholics,over90%ofAmericanadultsidentified
themselvesasChristiansinthe1950s(Newport),soinvokingBiblicalimagerywasawayto
createcommongroundwiththeaudience.TheintroductiontoTheWomanlyArtof
BreastfeedinginvokedtheBiblicalstoryofEveinefforttomaketheclaimthat,wereitnot
forsocietalfactorsthatinhibitwomenfrombeingintunewiththeirnaturalbodies,
breastfeeding,aswellasmothering,wouldcomeaseasilyasbreathing:“HowdidEve
manage?Certainlyshedidn’tjoinaleague.Evehaditeasy.Herbabycame.Themilkcame.
Shenursedherbaby”(WomanlyArt1).ByinvokingtheBiblicalstoryofEve,thefirst
womanincreation,thetextpresentedaparadeigma,aformofinductivereasoningthat
suppliesamodelasanexampleinordertoconstructaparadigm(EdeandLunsford42).
Thisparadeigmamakesalogicalappealbypointingoutthatpriortothedevelopmentof
themedicalprofession,womensuchasEvewereabletobreastfeedandmother
successfullywithoutexpertadvice.Incontrast,womenofthecontemporaryperiodhad
accesstoscientificadvice(fromexpertswithnofirst-handexperience),buttheyalsohad
difficultybreastfeedingsuccessfully.Theimplicationisthatrelianceonmisguidedscientific
expertisestrippedmothersofconfidenceinnatureandmaternalinstinct,preventing
successfulattemptstobreastfeed.InreferencingEve,thefirstwomanincreation,LLLwas
suggestingthat,iflefttotheirowndevicesandwithnointerferenceofphysicians,mothers
wouldnaturallydevelopanunderstandingofhowtofeedandnurturetheirbabies.Not
onlywerethetext’sreadersaskedtousereasoningskillstocontemplatehowmothers
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throughouthistorycopedwithouttheoversightofmedicalprofessionals,butthetextmade
apatheticappealbyinvokingtheBiblicalstorytoencouragedmotherstoreflectondeeply
heldreligiousbeliefs.Religiousvaluesandbeliefoftenfunctionaspatheticappeals,asthey
inspirestrongemotionalfeelingsandincitepeopletoaction.Byinvokingreligion,thetext
waspromptingmotherstoviewthematernalbodyasanintelligentdesign;thus,bylinking
religionandbreastfeeding,LLLmadeanargumentthatmotherswerethenatural
authoritiesonchildcareandfeeding.
TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingmadeaneffectiveargumentthatscientific
motherhoodwasharmfultomothersandchildren,butitneededtoalsopresentavery
strongargumentinfavorofitsalternativeparadigmofnaturalmotherhood.Pathetic
appealstomaternaldesiresandfears,accompaniedbyscience-basedevidenceinsupport
ofbreastfeeding,wereacentralaspectofthisargument.Mothersgenerallydesiretohave
healthychildren,whichiswhysomemotherswouldhavelikelybeenhesitanttoactively
resistthedominantpracticesofthemedicalprofession.LLLprovidedevidencetoallay
thesefearsbyreferencingmedicalexpertswhohighlightedtheimportanceofaclose
mother-childbondinensuringthelong-termwell-beingofchildren.Thisfocusonaclose,
physicalbondbetweenmotherandchildwascontrarytothenotion,popularizedunder
scientificmotherhood,thatadetachedrelationshiphelpedbabiesdevelopindependence.
Incontrast,LLLpointedtoevidencethatshowedthatdetachedrelationshipscouldimpede
healthypsychologicaldevelopment.LLLclaimedthattheconsequencesofanimpaired
mother-childrelationshipcouldbesevere,as“themannerinwhichababy’searlyneedsare
metoftengreatlydetermineshisgoodorbadresponsetopeopleandthingslaterinlife”
(WomanlyArt2).Suchaclaimlikelypromptedanemotionalresponseinmothersand
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perhapsmovedthemtoembraceLLL’salternativepracticesinefforttoensuretheir
children’sfuturephycologicalwell-being.LLLfurthermotivatedmothersbyquoting
severalphysicianswhodescribedadditionalbenefitsofbreastfeeding,includingalower
riskofallergiesandeczema(3-4).AccordingtoLLL,notonlywasastrongearlymother-
childrelationship,whichcouldbefacilitatedthroughbreastfeeding,amorefulfilling
experienceforboththemotherandthebaby,butitwasnecessaryforthepsychological
welfareandfuturehealthofthebaby.Theargumentbeingmadewasthatagood,loving
motherwouldnaturallychoosetobreastfeedtoensurethatherbabywasgiventhebest
startinlife.
Inadditiontousingpatheticappealsandscientificevidencetoconvincemothersto
rejectdominanttrendsinfavorofbreastfeedinganddevelopingclosemother-childbonds,
LLLemployedlogicalappealsandsecond-personpronounstoengagemothersandprompt
themtofeelpersonallycompelledtobreastfeed.Thefollowingpassage,inwhichthetext
arguedthatbreastfeedingcompensatedforthenewborn’slostphysicalconnectiontothe
motherfollowingbirth,isaprimeexample:
Puttingyourinfanttoyourbreastisyourveryfirstactofloveforhimafteryou
deliverhimintotheworld.Itisthesecondimportantstepinyourroleasmother.
Thus,theintimatesharingofyourbodywhichyouandyourbabyexperiencedwhile
youcarriedhiminyourwombissomewhatprolongedforanotherfewmonths.
(WomanlyArt5)
Thisargumentthatbreastfeedingisthenaturalphysicalprogressionofthemother-child
relationshipwasapowerfulone.Itmadeapatheticappealbyforegroundingloving
maternalfeelingsandinvokingelementsoftheculturalcodeofmotherhood,includinglove,
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nourishment,protection,andthereproductivebody.Additionally,thetextmadeanappeal
tologicbyimplicitlysuggestingthatbabieswhowerenotbreastfedweremissingoutona
naturalstageofinfantdevelopment.LLLarguedthatnatureintendedtheretobeastrong
physicalattachmentandwouldallowthebabytogainindependencegraduallyovertime.
Theuseofthepronoun“you”inthepassageabovewasastrategicrhetoricaldecisionthat
furtherconnectedthereadertotheargumentinfavorofbreastfeedingandnatural
motherhood.Inusingthepronoun“you”tomakethisargument,thetextmadethereader
feelthatshewasbeingpersonally,directlyaddressed.Itdrewthereaderintothesceneand
madeherfeelknownintimatelyinawaythataphrasesuchas‘themother’wouldnot.
Somemothersmayhaveexperiencedfeelingsofguiltwhenreadingthispassageiftheyhad
notbreastfedpreviouschildrenoriftheyhadconsideredbottle-feeding;however,The
WomanlyArtofBreastfeedingwaswrittenformotherswhoalreadyhadaninterestin
breastfeedingandwhoorderedthetextformoreinformation.Forthosemothers,thetext
likelyprovidedsomeaffirmationofthedecisiontobreastfeed;however,eventhose
mothersneededstrongmotivationtobreastfeedandpracticeamorenaturalapproachto
motherhoodbecauseresistingthestatusquowouldhavebeenchallenging.
Naturally,thisfocusonthegradualdevelopmentofachild’sindependenceposeda
significantchallengetothebasicassumptionsofscientificmotherhood.LLLrejectedthe
notionthatbabiesshouldgaintheirindependenceasearlyaspossiblebysuggestingthat
theroleofamotheristoprovideprotection,nourishment,andcomfort—allconcepts
associatedwiththeculturalcodeofmother—untiltheindividualchildreaches
independenceathisorherownrate.TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding.Thetext
recommendedthatmothersletbabiestaketheleadonwhentowean:“Hestillneedsyou,
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notjustthesucking,andifhe’sgottenallhewantswhenhe’slittle,byarelaxed,easy-going
mother,he’llbemuchlessdemandingbytheendofhisfirstyear”(WomanlyArt27).This
argumentforbaby-leadweaningmadeitclearthatLLLviewedbreastfeedingasmorethan
simplyamethodoffeedingbabies,butthatbreastfeedingcouldhelpestablishandnurture
arelationshipbetweenmotherandchild.
Byestablishingwhatitbelievedtobetheappropriateroleofmaternalfirst-hand
knowledgeandmedicalscienceinchildcare,makinglogicalappealsinsupportof
breastfeeding,craftingpatheticappealstomaternalvaluesandemotions,andinvoking
religionandnaturetoarguethatmotherswerethenaturalauthoritiesonchildcare,LLL
craftedaconvincingmaternalrhetoricthatauthorizedtheorganizationtoengagein
mother-to-motherbreastfeedingsupportandencouragedmotherstobreastfeedandadopt
analternativeparadigmofmotherhood.
MATERNALRHETORICANDTHEDEVELOPMENTOFMATERNALSPACE
OncemotherswereconvincedtotrustLLL,toembraceLLL’sphilosophyofnatural
motherhood,andtofeelmoreconfidentintheircapacitytomakedecisionsabout
motherhood,LLLstillneededtoconvincethemtomakethepracticallifestylechanges
neededtobreastfeedsuccessfullyandpracticethealternativeparadigmofnatural
motherhood.TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingrhetoricallyleveragedtheculturalcodeof
motherhoodandconceptsassociatedwiththerolesoffatherandhusbandinorderto
persuadefamiliestoreorientthemselvestowardamorefamily-centeredlifestylethat
wouldsupportbreastfeedingandthedevelopmentofstrongmother-childbonds.Whilethe
advicethatLLLgavewaspractical,itwascontrarytothedominantviewofthedomestic
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roleofthemothers.Inorderformotherstodevelopthehomeintoaprivatematernal
space,breastfeedsuccessfully,andadoptamorenaturalapproachtomothering,theyand
theirhusbandsneededtorevisetheirunderstandingsoftheirrolesinthehome.By
employingmaternalrhetoric,LLLhelpedfamiliesmoveawayfromanunderstandingofthe
maternalrolebasedon1950sdomesticitysothattheycoulddeveloptheirhomesinto
maternalspacesinwhichmotherscouldfeelconfidentabouttheirdecisions,assert
maternalauthority,andbuildstrongbondswiththeirchildren.
Toeffectivelycraftanargumentinfavoroftransformingfamilylifetoreflectthe
alternativeparadigmofnaturalmotherhood,TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedinghighlighted
theproblematicnatureof1950sdomesticity.Dedicationtodomesticity,whichOdland
definedasthemanagementofthehouseholdanddailychoresunrelatedtochildcare(67),
wasexpectedofwomeninthe1950s.Domesticityandscientificmotherhoodwere
complementary.Infact,accordingtoRimaD.Apple,theideologyofscientificmotherhood
regardedhousekeepingtobeafull-timescientificprofession(1782).Acomplementary
themethatcharacterizedthedominantviewofmotherhoodintheperiodwasthat
maternalself-sacrificewasarequirementofmotherhood.Mothers,accordingtoOdland,
wereexpectedto“placetheirdesiresanddreamsaside,willinglysacrificingtheirownlives
fortheirchildren’sneeds”(71).Thisapproachtomotheringseemedtohavebeenvery
child-centered,asmotherswereexpectedfocusonactivitiessuchasdiapering,bathing,
feeding,anddressingtheirownchildren(Odland70).Advertisementsdepictedgood
mothersascookingandbakingfoodthattheirchildrenenjoyed.Underthismodelof
motherhood,“amother’sworkwasneverdone”and“hercommitmenttohands-on,self-
sacrificingperformance”hadtobeunwavering(Odland71).Thechild-centeredfocusofthe
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motherandtheendlesslengthstowhichshewasexpectedtogo,withnoconsiderationof
theself,mademotherhoodaninconvenienceandaconstraint.
Incontrasttothefocusonself-sacrificialdomesticityunderscientificmotherhood,
LLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodfocusedmoreonfosteringclosefamily
relationshipsthanonattendingtothephysicalenvironmentofthehome.LLL’spractical
advicetoinTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingencouragedmotherstoadoptanapproachto
householdmanagementthatcreatedamaternalspacethatwasbothchild-centeredand
mother-centered.Insteadofframingthematernalroleasonefocusedondutyandself-
sacrifice,LLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodframedmotherhoodasapleasurableand
fulfillingexperience.LLLsuggestedthatarevisedapproachtomotheringwasnecessaryin
partbecausetheexistingparadigmwasnotsatisfyingorfulfillingformothers:“Time,
however,andstrongoftenunfilledwomanlyyearningsarenowdemandingwetake
anotherlookatourbabiesand‘mothering’”(WomanlyArt2).Whilethereisanelementof
biologicalessentialismtothisclaim,thetextemphasizedthatmothersshouldfeelhappy
andfulfilled.Personalfulfillmentwasanimportantelementintheconstructionofmaternal
space,whichrequiredthatmothersbeabletofindcomfortandpersonalfulfillment.
Mothersneededtoexperienceasenseoffreedomandrespitefromtheoppressive
demandsofsocialexpectationinordercreateasafespacetobondwiththeirchildrenand
attendtotheirhealthandemotionalwell-being.
TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingencouragedmotherstorelaxandenjoytheirtime
inthehome.Motherswhowereaccustomedtofocusingtheirenergyonhouseholdchores
mayhavefeltthatrelaxingtheirstandardsforcleanlinessinordertorelaxandenjoymore
timewiththefamilywasasignthattheywerebadmothers.Inordertocombatthisnotion,
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thetextforegroundedmaternalprotectionandnurturancewhenitwarnedthatfocusingon
whatwasbestforthebaby’semotionalandpsychologicalwell-beingmaynotallowthe
mothertokeephouseatherformerstandards,sosheshouldresignherself“tolivinga
moreeasy-goingkindoflife”(WomanlyArt6).Theideathatmothersshouldliveaneasy-
goingkindoflifeseemedcontrarytogoodmothering,asitwasarejectionofself-sacrifice
anddomesticity;however,theeasy-goinglifestylefreedthemothertofocusonthebaby’s
emotionalwell-being,whichwouldensurehisfutureemotionalhealthandhelphim
developintoaproductivememberofsociety.LLLfeltthatbreastfeedingfacilitatedaneasy-
goingapproachtomotherhoodbecausetherewerenobottlesandrubbernipplesto
sterilizeandbecauseitrequiredmothertositandrelax:“NursingyourbabyisNature’s
wayofhelpingyourelaxandrest.[…]Whenyourbabygetshungryyoustoprightinthe
middleofsomebusyworkandwithaclearconsciencerestcomfortablywithyourbabyand
nursehim”(WomanlyArt6-7).ThisadvicebyLLLwasaclearrefutationofthenotionthat
motherhoodrequiredperpetualself-sacrifice.Additionally,thisadvicehelpedmothers
transformtheirhomesintomaternalspaces,asitfreeduptimeforthemtospendwith
theirchildren.MotherswhosoughtassistancefromLLLthroughreadingTheWomanlyArt
ofBreastfeedinglikelywerereassuredbythenotionthatmotherscouldrelaxandenjoy
theirtimewiththeirchildrenwithoutguiltratherthanexhaustthemselvesbytryingto
motherinfantswhilekeepingspotlesshomes.
LLLofferedsomepracticaladvicetohelpmothersadoptamoreeasy-goinglifestyle
thatwouldmakeiteasiertomaintainthatmaternalspace.TheWomanlyArtof
Breastfeedingsuggestedanumberoftime-savingmethods,includingeasymeal-prepand
givingupbakinginfavorofservingfreshfruitsandvegetables.Suchstrategieshelped
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mothersfocustheireffortsondevelopingstrongmother-childtiesthatwerebeneficialto
theemotionalhealthoftheirbabies.“Whenyouholdhimcloseandnursehimthatwhich
heneedsmostisgivenbacktohim,”LLLclaims,“Youmeanmuchmoretohimthanaclean,
whitebed;snug,warmcovers;therightroomtemperature”(WomanlyArt4).Inmaking
thisargument,LLLforegroundedelementsoftheculturalcodeofmotherhoodincluding
love,nurturance,andprotectiontoarguethatgoodmotherswouldputasideconcernsfor
thestateofthehomeanddevotethemselvesfirsttotheirbabies’emotionalneeds.LLL
accompaniedthisclaimwithquotesfrommedicalexpertslinkingtheemotionalwelfareof
babiestostrong,lovingtieswiththeirmothers.Whilethenotionthatthehomeshouldbea
placetodevelopalovingmother-childbondmayseemobvioustopresent-dayaudiences,
formothersintheeraofscientificmotherhood,thedomesticspacewastobeasterile
environmentwiththeprimarypurposeofkeepingthechildsafe.LLLsuggeststhatmothers
usetheirtimegettingtoknowtheirbabies,because“Themoreofyourtimeyougivehim
now,ungrudgingly,thelessdemandinghewillbeashegrowsolder”(WomanlyArt6).The
reminderthatchildrenwhofeltsecurewouldbemoreemotionallyandpsychologically
healthyinthefutureprovidedanexigenceformotherstoembracenaturalmotherhood,
anditencouragedmotherstotransformtheirhomesintomaternalspaceswheretheywere
abletofocusonthedevelopmentofthemother-childrelationshipandmeettheunique
needsoftheirchildren.
Inadditiontoofferingmotherspracticaladvicetohelpthemcreatematernalspace,
LLLalsocraftedanargumenttoconvincehusbandstobuyintotheirwives’effortsto
breastfeed,embracenaturalmotherhood,andtransformthehomeintoamaternalspace.
Thiswasacriticalrhetoricalmove,assuccessfulbreastfeedingandconstructionofasafe
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maternalspacewithinaheterosexual,two-parenthouseholdrequiredthatfathersbe
supportiveofmothers’efforts.LLLcouldhaveleftmotherstotheirowndeviceswhenit
cametogarneringthesupportoftheirmalepartners,butinstead,LLLmodeledan
argumentthatwomencouldemployinordertoconvincetheirhusbandstoinvest
themselvesinthelifestylechangesthatmothershopedtomake.
InalengthysectionofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,LLLharnessedconcepts
traditionallyassociatedwithmasculinityandtheroleofhusbandandfathertodevelopan
argumentthatwomencouldadoptinordertoconvincetheirhusbandstoacceptand
supportthedecisiontorejectthestatusquoandbreastfeed.Byforegroundingconcepts
suchasprotection,strength,andconfidence,LLLencouragedfatherstoprotecttheir
breastfeedingwivesfrompeopleandsituationsthatcouldunderminetheirattemptsto
breastfeedandmothertheirchildrenonalovingway.
ThefoundersofLLLunderstoodthatfatherslikelyfeltthattheyhadverylittlepart
toplayinthefeedingandcareofabreastfedinfant,andtheymayhaveevenfeltalienated
bytheclosemother-childbondthatbreastfeedingfacilitated.TheWomanlyArtof
Breastfeedingmadeitclearthatfathersneededtoknowthattheycouldprovideaunique
andessentialkindofsupport.Thetextassumedthatfatherswantedtoprotectthe
breastfeedingmotherandchildpairbutneededguidanceonwhatitwasthattheywere
guardingagainst.LLLsuggestedthatthekeytogainingafather’ssupportwastoinvoke
conceptsassociatedwithmasculinityandtherolesofhusbandandfather.Thefatherwould
feelengagedifheknewhowtochannelhisurgetoprotecthisfamily.Thetextsuggested
thatfathersshouldbeencouragedtoprotectthebaby’srighttoitsmother’smilk,toprotect
hiswifefromdiscouragingpeopleandinfluences(especiallyhisfamilymembers),andto
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protectherfromherownself-doubtsbyfrequentlyencouragingandpraisingher
(WomanlyArt18).Thefatherherewasframedasthestrongpillarthatprovidedhisfamily
withsupport.Ratherthanbeingalienated,thefatherwasreassuredthathissupportwas
instrumental.Asupportivehusbandwhorespectedandprotectedhiswife’seffortsto
breastfeedanddevelopastrongmother-childbondwasakeyelementinthecreationofa
maternalspaceinwhichthemothercouldfeelconfidentinherchoicetopracticean
alternativeparadigmofmotherhood.
Inadditiontorevealinghowfatherscouldbeconvincedthattheyhadavitalroleto
playinthesuccessoftheirwives’attemptstobreastfeed,thetextalsomodeledthe
developmentofanargumenttoconvincefatherstotakeanactiveroleinfamilylifeandto
viewtimespentwithhisfamilyasanotherwayofprovidingsupportandprotection.The
textemphasizedthat“thereshouldbeareorientationonthepartofbothparentsaway
fromsomeofthemoreself-centeredpursuitsofthepasttowardfamily-centeredliving”
(WomanlyArt19).Thetextsuggestedthatfatherswouldbecomemoreinvolvedinfamily
lifeandfindmorepersonalfulfilmentiftheyunderstoodthevalueofsharedparentingand
wereencouragedtosharein“thejoysofparenthood”(WomanlyArt20).Thehomein
whichthehusbandtookaninterestinandengagedwiththewife,becomingacompanion
whosharedtheexperienceofparenting,wasmorelikelytobecomeasafematernalspace
thanoneinwhichthehusbandremainedanaloofobserver.Bysupportinghiswifein
creatingafamily-centeredlifeandsharingtheexperienceofparenting,thefatherwas
helpingtocreateamaternalspacethatsupportedhiswife’seffortstoembracethe
paradigmofnaturalmotherhood.
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Inadditiontoencouragingfatherstoprotecthiswife’seffortstobreastfeed,to
providesupportandcompanionship,andfocusonfamily-centeredliving,TheWomanlyArt
ofBreastfeedingreveledthewaysinwhichgenderedbinariescouldbeemployedto
convincefatherstoactashelpmatesandshareindomesticchores.Byappealingtotheir
senseofmasculineself-confidenceandtheirrolesasprotectors,thetextsuggestedthat
fatherscouldbeencouragedtopartakeindomesticchoreswithoutfeelingasthoughtheir
masculinitywasunderthreat.LLLencourageditsaudiencetodo“whatcomesnaturally—
withoutworryingtoomuchaboutlosingourmasculinityontheonehandorourwomen’s
rightsontheother”(WomanlyArt19).Insteadofworryingaboutthedangertohis
masculinity,thetextarguedthataself-confidentmanwhoisassuredofhismasculinity
“knowsthathisdignityandstaturearenotinjeopardywhenheperformsakitchenchore”
(WomanlyArt20).LLLassureditsaudiencethattraditionalgenderroles—thoseof
membersofthe1950swhite,suburban,middle-classfamily—wouldstillbeintactiffathers
weretodohouseholdchoresbecause“Whilethepregnantornursingmotherofnecessity,
staysathome,thefather,ofnecessity,willgooutandmakealiving”(WomanlyArt19).The
textthensuggestedonewaytoensurethatfathersdidnotfeelathreattotheirmasculinity
wouldbetoreassurethemthattherewouldstillbea“naturaldivisionoflaborwithinthe
family”astheir“greaterbrawn”madethemidealforthehandlingofhomeimprovement
tasks(WomanlyArt19).Highlightingthefather’sphysicalstrengthcouldreassurehimthat
hismasculinitywasnotendangeredbyhelpinghiswifearoundthehouse.Infact,thetext
suggestedthathouseworkcouldbeframedasawaythatthefathercouldprotectthe
motherandensurethattheirchildrensawthematernalroleasvaluable.Thiswas
important,asavoidinghouseworkandtreatingitaswoman’sworkwouldleadtoa
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downgradingofthevalueofthemother’sroleinthechildren’seyes(WomanlyArt20).
Ensuringthatthemother’sroleinthehomewasvaluedwasanotherwayinwhichthe
fathercouldhelphiswifetransformthehomeintoamaternalspaceandprotectthe
sanctityofthatspacesothatshecouldbesuccessfulinhereffortstoresistthedominant
ideologyandpracticesofmotherhoodandinsteadembracenaturalmotherhood.
Ratherthansermonizingorposingachallengetotheirmasculinity,TheWomanly
ArtofBreastfeedingmodeledanargumentthatassuredfathersthattheirmasculine
characteristicsprovidedvitalsupportandstrengthtothebreastfeedingmother-childpair.
ThiseffortbyLLLtoensurethatfatherswereencouragedtotakeamoreactiverolein
parentingreflectswhatseemstohavebeenatrendinwhichthelivesofmenwere
influencedbythecultureofdomesticity.Thetrendledanumberofpublicintellectualsof
the1950stosoundthealarmoveracrisisinAmericanmasculinity.HistorianJamesGilbert,
authorofMenintheMiddle:SearchingforMasculinityinthe1950s,attributesthepanic
overtheseemingcrisisinmasculinitytoarapidlychangingsocietythatwasincreasingly
domesticandsuburban.Gilbertexplainsthatsomeconcernedoverthestateofmasculinity
inthe1950sbelievedthat“womenwereintrudingintomaleinstitutionsandfeminizing
Americanlife,”andthey“pouredworryandwoeintoAmerica’sgrowingcultureof
domesticity”(217).WhileIhavepreviouslyexplaineddomesticityintermsofthe
expectationsplacedonmothers,domesticityseemedtobecomeapervasivethemeinthe
1950swayoflife.Gilbertexplainsthatdomesticityinfluencedlifeinvariousways,
including“incompanionatemarriages,inthesuburbs,inmaledomesticworklikedo-it-
yourselfprojects,orincorporationswherecooperation,notcompetition,definedthedaily
rules”(Gilbert219).Whilepublicintellectualsmayhavebeenconcernedoverthe
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implicationsthatthetrendtowarddomesticityhadonmasculinity,particularlythatof
white,urban,middle-classmen,thereisnoevidencethatmanyaveragemenweregreatly
concernedoverthesedevelopmentsandtheeffectsthatithadontheirownmasculinity
(Gilbert219).TherolethatTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingsuggestedfathersshouldtake
reflectedatrendtowardmen’sgreaterinvolvementindomesticmatters,andithelped
fatherstoembracethischangingviewofthefather’srolewithoutfeelingthattheir
masculinityhadbeenchallengedorundermined.
LLL’srhetoricalemploymentofgenderedbinaries,callingupondominant
constructsofmotherhoodanditscorollaryfatherhood,helpeditdevelopaneffective
argumentinfavorofthedevelopmentofmaternalspace.Byprovidingamodelargument
thatmotherscouldemployinordertoinvolvefathersmorefullyinfamilylifeandconvince
themtoshareinhouseholdchores,TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedinghelpedmothersto
transformtheirhomesintomaternalspacesinwhichtheyhadmoreautonomyovertheir
maternalexperiencesandcouldfocusondevelopingfamilialrelationshipsratherthan
fulfillingsociety’sexpectations.
CONCLUSION
Itisasignificantundertakingtotranslatetheworkofaface-to-facesupportgroup
intowriting,butIarguethatLLLwaslargelysuccessfulinitsattemptatcraftinga
breastfeedingmanualthatreflecteditsphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodandits
supportivepractices.TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingwassuccessfulinpartbecauseit
developedamaternalrhetoricthatframedLLLmothersasgood,lovingmothers,argued
forthelogicofnaturalmotherhood,craftedemotionalappeals,andidentifiedwithits
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audienceofmothersbyhighlightingtheirsharedvaluesandbeliefs.Craftingsucha
convincingtextualargumentwasasignificantsteptowardestablishingacounterpublic
thatcouldbringaboutchangeinthedominantdiscourse.WhileLLLcraftedpowerful
argumentsinfavorofbreastfeedingandnaturalmotherhoodbyrhetoricallyleveragingthe
culturalcodeofmotherhood,itrecognizedthatmotherswouldalsoneedtobepersuaded
tomakethekindsofpracticalhouseholdchangesthatwerenecessaryinorderto
breastfeedsuccessfullyandnurtureastrongmother-childbond.
Becauseofthepervasivenessof1950sdomesticity,whichframedmotheringas
sacrificialandviewedhousekeepingasascience,itwascriticalthatLLLcraftedapowerful
argumentinfavorofitsalternativeapproachofnaturalmotherhoodandofferedadvice
helpmotherssuccessfullycreatematernalspace.LLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood
valuedmaternalinstinctovergeneralizedmedicalexpertiseinmattersofroutinechildcare;
however,mothershadbeentrainedunderscientificmotherhoodtomistrusttheirown
maternalfeelingsanddesiresanddevotetheirtimeinthehometomaintaininghigh
standardsofcleanliness.Inordertofeelconfidentenoughtotrustintheirowninstincts
andlearntorespondtotheirbabies’individualneeds,ratherthanfollowstrictschedulesof
caretakingactivitiesprescribedbyphysicians,mothersneededtohavethefreedomto
spendtimewiththeirchildren.Tohelpmothersguiltlesslyfreethemselvesfromthe
oppressivedevotiontocleanlinessexpectedfrommothersandinsteadcreatematernal
spaceintheirhomes,inTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,LLLemployedrhetorical
argumentsthatleveragedtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodtoargueinfavorofastronger
emphasisonfamilybondingthanoncleanliness.Additionally,becauseitisdifficulttofully
developasafematernalspaceifotheradultsoccupyingthatspacedonotholdthesame
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valuesorsupportthemother,LLLmodeledhowwomencouldpersuadementoassisttheir
wivesincreatingandmaintainingamaternalspace.Therhetoricalargumentsinfavorof
restructuringthefamilylifestyletocreateamaternalspacehelpedmothersnavigatethe
practicalchallengesthattheywouldfaceathomewhenfirstattemptingtobreastfeedand
practiceanalternativeapproachtomothering.Inhelpingitsaudienceofmotherscreate
safematernalspaces,LLLtookacriticalsteptowarddevelopingintoacounterpublicthat
wouldonedayresistandchangethestatusquo.
Inthenextchapter,IwillexplorethewayinwhichTheWomanlyArtof
Breastfeedingofferedmothersarhetoricaleducation,intheformsofscriptsandmodeling,
tohelpthembuildtheirownmaternalrhetoricthatleveragedtheculturalcodeof
motherhoodinordertosuccessfullynavigateinteractionswithmembersofthemedical
professioninordertocreatepublicmaternalspaceinthehospital.
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CHAPTERIV
THEREVOLUTIONARIESWOREPEARLS:RHETORICALEDUCATIONINEARLYLALECHE
LEAGUETEXTS
In1958,whenplanningtheirpublicoutreach,LaLecheLeague’sfoundersmadea
decisiontoavoidthedirecttargetingofphysicians,andinsteadtheyhopedthattheir
effortstosupportmotherswouldgraduallycatchtheattentionofthemedicalcommunity
asitinteractedwithincreasingnumbersofbreastfeedingmothers.AdecadeafterLLL
publishedTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingin1958,therewasampleevidencethatLLL’s
counterdiscoursehadintersectedwiththedominantdiscourseofmedicine,andasaresult,
theattitudesandpracticesofthemedicalcommunitywereundergoingatransformation.In
the1960s,LLLwasreferencedintheAmericanJournalofNursingnumeroustimes,
frequentlyasahelpfulresourcebynurseswritingletterstotheeditor.Inaddition,LLL
receivedrecognitionfromTheJournalofPediatricsin1968whenLeeForrestHill,the
formerAmericanBoardofPediatricsPresident,praisedLLL’seffortsinaneditorial.
AccordingtoHill,the“dedicatedwomen’sorganization”deservedthecommendationofthe
medicalandnursingprofessionsforitsattempts“torestorewhatiscalledbysome,‘the
lostartofbreast-feeding’”(Hill162).Hepointedoutthat,incontrast,“Perhapsthemedical
andnursingprofessionsshouldfeelsomeembarrassmentthatundertheirguidancebreast-
feedinghasbeenpermittedtodeclinetothelowincidenceof25percent,whenithasbeen
repeatedlydemonstratedthatthemajorityofwomencannursetheirbabiesiftheywish”
(Hill161).Thiseditorialmakesitclearthatadecadeafterthepublicationofthefirstissue
ofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,LLL’sworkhadpromptedself-reflectionamongst
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leadersofthemedicalprofessionandinspiredthemtorethinktheirapproachtoinfant
feeding.
InPerfectMotherhood,medicalhistorianRimaD.ApplecreditsLLLwithhelping“to
pushthemedicalprofessionandUnitedStatesculturetoaccommodatebreastfeeding”
(137),notbyresistingtheimportanceoftheprofessionbutby“utilizingmedicaland
scientificadvicetosupportitsstands”(138).ShecreditstheactivitiesofLLL,alongwith
thelatereffortsoftheBostonWomen’sHealthBookCollective,withhelping“tovalidate
women’spersonalandfamilialhealth-careexperiencesandtoalterthebalanceof
relationshipswithincontemporarymedicalpractice”bypushingfor“amoreequal
partnershipbetweenmedicalprofessionalsandpatients”(PerfectMotherhood139).While
ApplerecognizesLLL’stransformationalimpactonthemedicalprofessionandthe
Americanpublicmorebroadly,sheattributesthisimpacttoitsrelianceonmedicaland
scientificexpertstosupportitsarguments.WhileIagreewithApple’sclaimthatmedical
andscientificevidencedidcertainlystrengthenLLL’sargumentinfavorofbreastfeeding,
anoverlookedbutsignificantfactorleadingtotheorganization’sspreadwasits
employmentofmaternalrhetoric,whichitleveragedinordertoauthorizeresistanceto
dominanttrendsinbreastfeedingandmothering.Maternalrhetoricaccountsforthespread
ofLLL’sideasandpracticesamongstitsgrowingcounterpublicofbreastfeedingmothers,
butitalsoplayedasignificantroleinthedevelopmentoftherelationshipbetweenLLL’s
counterpublicandthemedicalprofession.Inthischapter,IaimtoexplorehowLLLarmed
membersofitscounterpublicwitharhetoricaleducationthathelpedthememploy
maternalrhetoricinindividualinteractionswithmedicalprofessionals.Thiseducation
enabledwomentoconstructmaternalethos,establishmaternalspacewithinclinicsand
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hospitals,andauthorizeresistancetodominantpracticessothatmothersweresupported
intheireffortstobreastfeed.
WhileLLLhadgainedtheattentionofthemedicalcommunity,whichbeganto
rethinkitsattitudetowardandunderstandingofinfantfeedingaccordingly,theinitial
spreadofLLL’sphilosophyandpracticeslargelyoccurredasaresultofindividualactionby
motherswhoturnedtoLLLforsupport.Inturn,theyspreadtheirknowledgetoother
mothersandexposedmedicalprofessionalstoanincreasingnumberofsuccessful
examplesofbreastfeedingmothers,yettheseindividualactsofresistancebybreastfeeding
mothersdidnotoccurinisolationandwithoutasupportnetworktoleanonforrhetorical
strategiesandencouragement.IarguethatLLLwasarhetoricallysavvyorganizationthat
preparedmothers,themembersofitsgrowingcounterpublic,tobesuccessfulastheyacted
individuallytopubliclyresistdominanttrendsinmotheringandinfantfeedinginthefirst
decadeaftertheorganization’sfounding.
AccordingtoNancyFraser,counterpublicsaremembersofsubordinatedsocial
groupswhohavecometogetherwithina“paralleldiscursivearena”andhavebegunto
“inventandcirculatecounterdiscourses;”insodoing,they“helpexpanddiscursivespace”
(Fraser67).Suchcounterpublicshavea“dualcharacter”inthattheyfunctionas“spacesof
withdrawalandregroupment”,yet,theyalso“functionasbasesandtraininggroundsfor
agitationalactivitiesdirectedtowardwiderpublics”(68).LLLcertainlyfunctionedinthis
way,asthelocalmother-to-mothersupportgroupoperatedasasiteformothersto
withdraw,shareknowledgebasedonmaternalexperiences,developthephilosophyof
naturalmotherhood,andobservethemodelingofbreastfeedingtechniquesandnatural
motherhood.Inthepreviouschapter,IexploredthewaythatTheWomanlyArtof
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Breastfeedingemployedmaternalrhetorictopersuademotherstobreastfeedandadopt
thephilosophyofnaturalmotherhood.Additionally,IdetailedhowLLLusedrhetorical
strategiestoconvincebothmothersandfatherstotransformthehomeintoamaternal
spacethatwouldprovideasafespaceformotherstopracticeanalternativeparadigmof
motherhood.Inthischapter,IwillanalyzeearlyLLLtextstorevealhowtheyoperatedasa
rhetoricaltraininggroundsforLLL’sgrowingcounterpublicofmothers.Throughoutreach
materialssuchasLaLecheLeagueNews,abimonthlynewsletterfirstpublishedinthe
summerof1958,andthebreastfeedingsupportmanualTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,
LLLtrainedmotherstoemploymaternalrhetorictonegotiateconflictsandassertmaternal
agencyintheirpublicinteractions,particularlywiththemedicalestablishment.Itwas
criticalthatmothersbepreparedtoassertthemselvesrhetoricallywithmembersofthis
audience,asmedicalprofessionalsarethefirstandperhapskeymembersofthepublic
whommothersneededtoconvincetosupporttheirattemptstobreastfeed.Bydeveloping
maternalethosintheirinteractionswithmedicalprofessionals,motherscouldtransform
doctors’officesandhospitalmaternitywardsintomaternalspacesinwhichtheycouldgain
supportfortheireffortstobreastfeedsuccessfullyandpracticeanalternativeparadigmof
mothering.
Thischapteraddstothediscussion,ledbyscholarssuchasAmyKoerberandSarah
Hallenbeck,ofthewayinwhichwomenoutsideofthemedicalprofessionhavecontributed
tochangingdisciplinaryunderstandingsofthecapabilities,functionality,andsuitabilityof
women’sbodiesthroughindividualactsofresistance.AmyKoerber’s“RhetoricalAgency,
Resistance,andtheDisciplinaryRhetoricsofBreastfeeding”examinesthewaythat
mothers,manyofthemLaLecheLeaguemembers,attheturnofthetwentieth-firstcentury
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enactedrhetoricalagencybyresistingthedominantpracticesaroundpublicbreastfeeding
andtherebychangingthatdiscourse.Koerbercalledforotherfeministscholarstocontinue
thisworkbyexploring“thelong-termeffectsoftherhetoricalagencyandresistancethat
womenenactagainstmedicaldiscourseonaspectsoflifesuchasinfantfeeding”(100).
SarahHallenbeck’sClaimingtheBicycle:Women,Rhetoric,andTechnologyinNineteenth
CenturyAmericatookupthiscallbyexaminingthewayinwhichthecollective,yetnot
centrallyorganized,rhetoricalactivitiesofnineteenth-centurybicycle-ridingwomenledto
arevisedunderstandingofthecapabilitiesofwomen’sbodies.
Thischapterbuildsonthisscholarshipbyexploringhowwomen’sindividualactsof
resistancecanreshapediscourseandpracticesaroundwomen’shealth.Iexaminetheway
thatLLLarmeditscounterpublicofbreastfeedingmotherswiththerhetoricalstrategies
necessarytotransformhospitalsanddoctors’officesintomaternalspacesinwhich
mothersweresupportedintheireffortstoresistthestatusquobybreastfeeding.While
KoerberandHallenbeckfocusedtheiranalysisonthewaysinwhichwomenpublicly
resistedthestatusquotoaffectchangeinmedicaldiscourse,thischapterfocuseson
rhetoricalstrategiesemployedbymotherswithinphysicalspacesunderthecontrolof
membersofthemedicalprofession.IarguethatLLLofferedscriptstohelpmothers
navigatepublicinteractionswiththoseindividuals,particularlymedicalprofessionals,who
mightundermineordenigratetheirattemptstobreastfeedandpracticeLLL’salternative
paradigmofmotherhood.Insodoing,LLLcraftedacounterpublicpreparedtoinfluence
themedicalprofessiontoreviseitsunderstandingofinfantfeedingandre-evaluateits
perceptionoftheroleofmothersinchildcare.
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TounderstandthewayinwhichLLLofferedarhetoricaleducationtohelpmothers
navigatepublicinteractionswiththosewhohadconflictingviewsoninfantfeeding,this
chapterexaminesthe1958and1963editionsofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingaswell
asissuesofLaLecheLeagueNewspublishedbetween1958and1961.LaLecheLeague
News,LLL’sbimonthlynewsletterfirstpublishedinthesummerof1958,extendedthe
effortsofthe1958editionofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding.Thelatterpublicationwas
largelyconcernedwithconvincingmotherstoadoptthephilosophyofnaturalmotherhood
andbreastfeeding,andithelpedmotherstransformtheirhomesintomaternalspacesthat
wouldmoreeffectivelyallowmotherstopracticenaturalmotherhood.Meanwhile,La
LecheLeagueNewsfrequentlysharedstoriesandofferedstrategiestohelpwomen
navigatethepracticalconcernssurroundingthepubliclivesofbreastfeedingmothersand
babies,anditalsoservedasanavenuethroughwhichLLLwouldofferarhetorical
educationandestablishanetworkofbreastfeedingwomen.Anexaminationofthe
recurringthemesinthesetextswrittenbyLLL’sfoundersandinthecorrespondencethat
LLLchosetopublishrevealsthemeansthroughwhichLLLdevelopedacounterpublicof
motherswhowerepreparedtorhetoricallyassertmaternalagency.Throughmodelingand
scripts,thetextstaughtmothersrhetoricalstrategiessuchasaudienceanalysisand
argumentationbasedonlogicalappeals.Theymodeledthedevelopmentofmaternalethos
andtheadaptationofthatethosforvariousaudiences,particularlyphysicians,nurses,and
hospitalstaff,aswellasthegeneralpublic.
Intheremainderofthechapter,Iwillreviewtheoriesofmaternalrhetoricsand
ethosthatguidemyinterpretationofLLL’stext,andIwillprovideatextualanalysisto
showhowLLLhelpedmothersemploymaternalrhetoric,emphasizingtheimportanceof
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ethos,innegotiationsandrenegotiationswithvariousmembersofthemedicalprofession.
Theserhetoricalstrategieshelpedmotherscreateamaternalspacewithinmedicalclinics
andhospitalwardssothattheycouldassertmaternalagencyandshapetheoutcomesof
publicinteractionswiththosewhohadthepowerandauthoritytounderminemothers’
initialeffortstoestablishbreastfeeding.Finally,Iwillexploreevidenceofthewayinwhich
LLLandthearmyofmotherswhomadeupLLL’scounterpublicsuccessfullychallenged
scientificmotherhood,reshapeddominantmedicalpractices,andgraduallychangedthe
publicperceptionofbreastfeeding.
MATERNALRHETORICINLLL’SRHETORICALEDUCATION
Inearlierchapters,IarguedthatLLL’slocalmother-to-mothersupportgroup
functionedasaparalleldiscursivearenaforLLL’scounterdiscoursetodevelopandgrow,
andthosemeetingsallowedindividualmothersanempowering,safeplacetoencounter
andpracticeLLL’salternativeparadigmofnaturalmotherhoodand“motheringthrough
breastfeeding”.IdetailedrhetoricalstrategiesthatLLLemployedtopersuadebothmothers
andfatherstomakechangesinhomearrangementsandfamilystructuresthattransformed
theirhomesintomaternalspacesinwhichmotherswereempoweredtobreastfeedand
practicemotheringontheirownterms;however,asmostmothersgavebirthwithina
hospitalandattemptedtoestablishbreastfeedingwhilethere,LLLneededtohelpmothers
transformhospitalmaternitywardsintomaternalspacesinwhichtheycouldasserttheir
authorityandgarnersupportfortheirattemptstoinitiatebreastfeeding.
LLLuseditstextualoutreach,TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingandLaLeche
LeagueNews,toinstructmothersindevelopingargumentsthatwouldappealtodiffering
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audiences.ThemodelsandscriptsthatLLLofferedforinteractingwithmedical
professionalssuggestedmakingappealsprimarilytoreasonandtotheaudience’s
perceptionofthemother.ThisapproachreflectedtheAristotelianrhetoricaltraditionin
whichargumentscouldbeclassifiedasappealstologos(logic),pathos(emotion),and
ethos(perceptionofthespeaker’smoralcharacter).LLL’sscriptsandmodelsemployeda
varietyofpersuasivemethods,includinglogicalappealstoexampleandsyllogismaswell
aspatheticappeals,buttheyprimarilyemphasizedthedevelopmentofmaternalethos.The
textsinstructedmotherstodevelopmaternalethostoframethemselvesasgoodmothers
byforegroundingaspectsoftheculturalcodeofmotherhoodintheirconversationswith
medicalprofessionals.Suchmethodsofethosdevelopmentcanbeemployedtosoftenthe
progressiveaimsofmothers,asLindalBuchanan’sRhetoricsofMotherhooddetails.
MargaretSanger,forexample,authorizedherbirthcontrolactivismandmadeherself
appeartobe“seemly,sensible,andhonorable”byshowing“sensitivitytogenderedscripts,
codes,andvaluesoftheperiod”(Buchanan29).Likewise,LLLemployedconceptsand
valuestraditionallyassociatedwithmotherhoodinscriptedinteractionsbetweenmothers
andmedicalprofessionalssothatmotherscouldconstructethosassensible,thoughtful,
andgoodmothers.
InbothTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingandLaLecheLeagueNews,LLLused
storiesandscriptstohelpmothersdeveloprhetoricalstrategiestonavigateinteractions
withmedicalprofessionals.TheserhetoricallysavvymodelsrevealthatLLLwasawarethat
differingaudiencesandsituationsrequireddifferentrhetoricalappeals.Thesescripts
reliedheavilyonappealstologicandmaternalethosincommunicationswithphysicians
andnurses,butasthetextsreveal,theconstructionoftheseappealswasacomplicated
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matter.ThiswasparticularlyapparentinthewayinwhichLLL’sscriptsdeveloped
maternalethos.
Becauseofthedifferingrolesthatmedicalprofessionalsperformedinthehospital,
LLLneededtooffermodelsandscriptsthatreflectedafluidandadaptablematernalethos.
InspiredbyNedraReynolds’scholarshipexploringtheroleofsocialpositioninginethos
construction,Buchananarguesthat“ethosisafluid,ratherthanastableorconsistent,
rhetoricalartifactandthataspeaker’sshiftinglocationsandalliancesmaycallforchanging
constructionsofcharacter”(Buchanan31).Whilechangingone’sethostoadaptitto
varyingaudiencescanbeproblematic,asitiswithMargaretSanger’srhetoric(Buchanan
31),failuretoadaptethostotheaudiencecanalsobedetrimental.Carefulconsiderationof
theaudienceiscritical,asCarolynSkinnerexplains:“Becauseaneffectiveethosisonethat
demonstratesthattherhetor'scharactermatchestheaudience'svalues,shapingthe
audienceanditsvaluescancontributetoapositiveperceptionoftherhetor”(Skinner,“She
Will”255).Whileitmaysometimesberelativelysimpletoidentifyandforegroundvalues
thatappealtoahomogenousaudience,asLLLdidwhenitemployedmaternalrhetoricin
TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedinginordertoreachmotherswhohadaninterestin
breastfeeding,morecomplexrhetoricalstrategizingwouldbeneededinordertoconstruct
aneffectiveethosforaheterogenousaudience.
Maternalethosconstructedforaheterogenousaudiencewithdifferingvaluesand
rolesrequiresmorecomplexvaluenegotiationsbetweentherhetorandtheaudience.In
WomenPhysiciansandProfessionalEthosinNineteenth-CenturyAmerica,Skinnersuggests
thatinthesekindsofsituations,itmaynotbepossibletocraftethos“inresponsetoa
coherentandidentifiablesetofvalues”(39).Instead,ethosmaybecomposed“inadynamic
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contextthatincludesmultiplecompetingideasaboutthe‘best’virtues”(Skinner,Women
Physicians39).Insuchcases,ethosformation“frequentlyinvolvesvaluenegotiationsand
oftenreciprocitybetweenrhetorandaudienceidentityconstructs”(Skinner,Women
Physicians39).AccordingtoSkinner,womenphysiciansofthenineteenthcenturyhadto
undertakesuchvaluenegotiations,balancingthecompetingmasculinevirtuesassociated
withtheprofessionalphysicianandfemininevirtuesassociatedwithwomen,inorderto
craftanethosoftheprofessionalwomanphysician.
WhilemembersofLLL’scounterpublicwerenotseekingtocrafttheprofessional
ethosofadisciplinaryinsider,suchvaluenegotiationswereacriticalaspectofinteractions
betweenmedicalprofessionalsandmothers,andtheywerecriticaltotheestablishmentof
maternalspaceinthehospital.Scientificmotherhoodframedgoodmothersaspassive
adherentstoexpertadvicewhileLLL’snaturalmotherhoodframedmothersasthenatural
authoritiesonthecareoftheirownchildren.LLLdidnotencouragerejectionofmedical
expertisebutinsteadencouragedmotherstoexerciseautonomyinmakingdecisionsabout
childcare.Inordertocraftmaternalethosthatmedicalprofessionalswouldfind
persuasive,motherswouldneedtoemployrhetoricalstrategiestorenegotiatetheirrolein
decisionsconcerningchildcare.Inordertorenegotiatetheirmaternalidentityandcraftan
effectivematernalethosasgoodandcompetentmothers,membersofLLL’scounterpublic
neededtoconsidertheaudience’spre-existingunderstandingofmothers’identityas
passiveadherentstoexpertise,thelikelyvaluesandsocialrolesofaudiencemembers,
materialandspatialarrangementsofthespace,andbalanceofpowerwithinthosespatial
arrangements.
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Thiskindofmultifacetedconsiderationofdynamicssuchasaudienceandthe
affordancesofthelocationrequiresanecologicalawarenessoftherhetoricalsituation.Like
Skinner,authorsKathleenJ.Ryan,NancyMyers,andRebeccaJonesviewethosconstruction
asnegotiatedandco-constructed.Theyarguethatecologicalawareness,facilitatedbya
“feministecologicalmindset,”aidsintheproductionoffeministecologicalethēthat
“operateasfluid,evolving,andnegotiatedrhetoricalactswithworldlyimplications”(11).
Ryan,Myers,andJonesunderstandethostobe“negotiated,andrenegotiated,embodied
andcommunal,co-constructedandthoroughlyimplicatedinshiftingpowerdynamics”
(11).ThisunderstandingofethosisevidentintherhetoricaleducationthatLLLofferedto
mothers,particularlyasaguidetonavigateandshiftthepowerdynamicsofthehospital
duringthepost-partumperiodinordertocreatematernalspace.
Inofferingscriptsandmodelsthatinstructedmotherstoemploymaternalrhetoric
intheirinteractions,LLLengagedinwhatSkinnertermeda“processofcollectiveethos
formation”throughwhich“similarlysituatedrhetorscollaborateonorcompeteoverthe
characteristicsmembersofthatgroupwilldemonstrate”(WomenPhysicians180).Skinner
explainsthat“becauserhetorsfromgroupshistoricallyexcludedfromapowerfuldiscourse
areoftenseenasprecedentsorasrepresentativesoftheirgroups,marginalizedspeakers
andwritersfrequentlyfindthemselvesoutlininganethosforotherslikethem,whether
theywanttoornot”(180).Tounderstandtheprocessofcollectiveethosformation,
Skinnerencouragesotherscholarstoexplorehow“ethosisformedcollectivelyandhowit
functionscollectively”(180).Inthischapter,ItakeupSkinner’scalltostudytheformation
andfunctioningofcollectiverhetoricbyexamininghowLLLengagedinaprojectof
collectiveethosdevelopment.LLLwillinglysetouttohelpbreastfeedingmothersdevelopa
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maternalethosthatwouldhelpthemnavigateindividualinteractionswithmembersofthe
dominantpublic,particularlymembersofthemedicalprofession.LLL’smodelsandscripts
recognizedtherelationalpowerdynamicsbetweenmothersandmembersofthepublic,
particularlythemedicalprofession,andusedtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodand
rhetoricalappeals,particularlymaternalethos,tosubtlyshiftthoserelationshipdynamics.
Asmothersemployedthesemodelsandscriptstocreatematernalethosintheir
interactionswithphysicians,theyslightlyshiftedthebalanceofpowerintheir
relationshipswithphysicianstocreatematernalspaceinthematernityward,andthey
graduallyshapedtheprofession’sunderstandingofbreastfeedinganditsviewofmothers.
ThescriptingthatwasprovidedinLLL’stextsaidedwomeninnavigatingthetricky
powerdynamicsandrelationshipswithmedicalprofessionals,thefirstmembersofthe
dominantpublicthattheywouldencounterasbreastfeedingmothers,andmembersofthe
publicmorebroadly.Whomevertheywereaddressinginthescripts,atemperedapproach
toresistanceseemedtobeacriticalaspectoftherhetoricalmodelthatLLLpresentedinLa
LecheLeagueNewsandTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding.Thetemperedapproachisa
practicalrhetoricalstrategywhenwomenspeakinlocationsandsituationsinwhichtheir
authoritytospeakisormaybecalledintoquestion.LikethewomenoftheWomen’s
ChristianTemperanceUnion(WCTU)ofthenineteenthcentury,LLL’sleadersfeltthat
“theircausecouldbebestservedbyusingasubtle,non-threatening,yetpersuasive
approach,andtheyconsciouslychosetoworkonwomen’sbehalfinthatmanner”
(Mattingly21).AsMattinglyexplains,womenoftheTemperancemovementtempered
theirprogressiveactivitiesandadvocacybyincorporating“bothtraditionaland
progressiveideaswithintheirpresentations”inawaythatwas“carefullycraftedtoappeal
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toawidelydiverseaudience”(7).LLL’stextsrecommendedasimilarapproachthattook
intoaccountthepower-imbalancethatexistedininteractionsandrelationshipsbetween
mothersandmedicalprofessionals.TheWCTUreliedonspecificoutlinesandproper
procedurestohelpassurewomenspeakers,addresstheirneeds,andhelpthemdealwith
problems(Mattingly66).LLLsimilarlyofferedstoriesandscriptstohelpwomenassert
theirmaternalauthorityinawaythatdidnotseemlikerejectionofmedicalexpertisebut
insteadreframedtheconversationsothatmothers’actsofresistancetodominantmedical
practicesalignedwiththevaluesandvaryingrolesofmedicalprofessionals.
ThistemperedapproachthatLLLadoptedwasexemplifiedinthetitleThe
RevolutionariesWorePearls,oneofLLL’sorganizationalhistories.Intheforeword,Judy
Torgus,along-timeLLLmemberandleader,wrotethat“Theyworetheirpearlsandhats
andwhitegloves,theyreferredtoeachotherasMrs.GregoryWhiteandMrs.John
Froehlich,buttheydidindeedstartarevolution”(Lowman,RevolutionariesWorePearls,
vii-viii).Asthisquotesuggests,LLLwascarefultoabidebysocialnormsandconventions
ascamouflageforitssubversiveactivitiessolongasthosegenderedsocialnormsand
conventionsdidnotharmtheirmissionorconflictwiththeirphilosophyofnatural
motherhood.Whiletheiradvocacyforbreastfeedingandnaturalmotherhoodwas
revolutionary,conservativedressandtheuseofgenderednamingconventionstempered
theethosofLLL’sfounderssotheyseemedtoberespectableandwholesome1950s
womenratherthanradicalnon-conformists.Thiscompliancewithsocialnormsallowed
LLLtoappealtoabroadaudience.
EvenargumentsbaseduponreasonwerepresentedinatemperedmannerinLLL’s
scripts.Appealstologicincommunicationswithmedicalprofessionalswereaprevalent
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partofLLL’sscriptedinteractionsandmodels.Onesuchmodel,asummaryofamother’s
lettertoLLL,appearedintheJuly-August1959issueofLaLecheLeagueNews.Amother,
whowasbreastfeedingherfourthbabyafterbottle-feedingthefirstthree,usedthe
physician’sownrecordstoarguethatthenursinginfant’sweightgainoflessthanapound
amonthwasnotaconcern,asthedoctorseemedtothink.Themothercheckedthedoctor’s
weightrecordsandshowedthedoctorthatherfive-year-olddaughter,whowasbottle-fed
andwhohadnohealthproblems,andnotedthatshehadasimilarrateofgain.Themother
arguedthatthisslowweightgainmayhavebeenafamilytrait,andthedoctoragreed,
despitethefactthatthemother’sthree-year-oldhadgainedweightmuchmorequickly.
Themothersuccessfullymadearationalappealtoexamplehere,whichisaformof
inductiveargumentation(BizzellandHerzberg172).Ifthedoctor’sownrecordsrevealed
thatoneofthemother’spreviouslybottle-fedbabieshadasimilarpatternofweightgain
andwasnowahealthyfive-year-old,thenthemothercouldmakeaninductiveargument
thatherbreastfedbaby,whowasexhibitingasimilarpatternofweightgain,wouldalso
likelybehealthy.Thismotherwasastuteinherunderstandingofthekindoflogical
reasoningthatmightswaythedoctor.Thisstrategicrelianceonthedoctor’sownrecords
andexpertise,thoughitwasanactofresistance,didnotofferoffensetothedoctorbecause
itreliedonhisownobservations.
Framedbytheideologyofscientificmotherhoodasapassiveadherenttothe
physician’sexpertise,thismothersubtlynegotiatedwithhimtopresentherselfasan
intelligentmothercapableofdrawinginformedconclusionsaboutherchild’shealth.While
shepresentedanargumenttocounterthedoctor’sconcerns,herappealtoinductive
reasoningbasedonthedoctor’sownrecordswasatemperedapproachthatdidnot
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attempttounderminethedoctororrejecthisauthority.Shedidnotdevelopanethosasa
rebel-mother;instead,shepresentedherselfasaconcernedmotherwhowasnotonly
conscientiousbutalsorespectedtheauthorityofphysiciansandtheirvaluingof
quantitativeevidence,akeycomponentofscientificmotherhood.Herphysicianwaslikely
morewillingtoacceptherargument.Shelikelyseemedtotrulyhaveherchild’sinterestat
heart,asshewasdeterminedtoprovidethebestnutritionpossibleforherchild,butshe
alsopresentedherselfascompetent,level-headed,andwell-informed.Themothersubtly
shiftedthebalanceofpowerinthephysician’sofficetocreateamorematernalspacein
whichshewasabletoassertmaternalauthorityandnegotiatewiththedoctorovermatters
concerningthehealthofherchild.
LLLtextssuggestedthatinteractionswithphysicianswouldbemoresuccessfulif
mothersdevelopedamaternalethosthatexhibitedrespectfortraditionalgenderrolesand
gendereddivisionsoflabor,particularlytheexpectationthatprivate,domesticspaceisthe
domainofthemother.RhetoricallysuccessfulmothersinLLL’stextsfrequentlypresented
themselvesastraditionalmotherswhilerejectingdominantpracticesanddiscourses
surroundingbreastfeeding.TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingofferedscriptsthatreflected
thiskindofcarefulconstructionofmaternalethoswhilenavigatingconversationswith
physiciansinpreparationforgivingbirthandbreastfeedinginthehospital.Whenmothers
cameincontactwithphysicianswhowereonlyfamiliarwithbreastfeedingonatheoretical
levelandwhocouldnotofferanypracticaladvice,themanualsuggestedthatmothers
should“reassurehimthatyouhaveawonderfulbookfromexperiencedmothers,whohave
eveninvitedyoutowriteorphonethemaboutanypracticalproblemsthatmightcomeup”
(WomanlyArt20[1963]).Whilethisstatementexudedself-confidenceandimpliedthat
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mothershaveauthorityoverbreastfeeding,itdidsoinawaythattappedintotraditional
notionsaboutgenderedroles,divisionsoflabor,andassumptionsaboutwomen.It
confirmedassumptionsaboutthedifferencesbetweenwomen’skindsofknowledge,based
ondomesticexperienceandconcernedwithpracticalmatters,andmen’sknowledge
concernedwiththeoryandscience.AsReynoldsexplains,“Whenaknowerislocatedasa
femaleinthisculture,knowledgeisexperienced,constructed,andrecalledin
nonhierarchical,nonlinear,andnonobjectiveforms.Inotherwords,femaleknowersadapt
totheirmarginalizedpositionsbyseeingdifferently—andlearningdifferentthings”(330).
LLL’sscriptcapitalizedonsuchgenderedwaysofknowingtoframebreastfeedingasa
woman’sconcern,andthescriptimpliedthatthemalephysiciannaturallydidnothavethe
first-handknowledgetocoachwomenthroughtheexperienceofbreastfeeding.Other
women,whowereframedasthenaturalsourceofinformationonthesubject,couldbe
relieduponforadvice.Thisargumentestablishedtheauthorityofmothersover
breastfeeding,andthismayhaveappealedtobusyphysicianswhowerelikelygratifiedto
havetheresponsibilityforcoachingwomenthroughtheexperienceofbreastfeedingtaken
outoftheirhands.
Bothoftheseaboveargumentsexhibitedanethos-buildingtacticthatmadeasubtle
shiftintheidentityconstructofthemother.Skinnerclaimsthatethosformationmay
involve“reciprocitybetweenrhetorandaudienceidentityconstructs”(WomenPhysicians
39).Inherstudyofnineteenth-centurywomenphysicians,Skinnerobservedthatthe
authorityofwomenphysiciansreliedinpartona“reciprocitybetweentheethosofthe
speakerandoftheaudience[…]inwhichtheassertionofprofessionalauthoritybywomen
physicianssuggestedthataudiencemembersoughttoadoptthecomplementaryroleof
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obedientpatient”(WomenPhysicians176).LLL’smodelsandscriptsprovideadifferent
viewofthereciprocalrelationshipbetweentheethosofthepatientandthephysician.In
theseexamples,thepatientwasabletoclaimabitmoreautonomyindecisionmakingby
maintainingrespectforthephysician’sethosasamedicalexpertandconstructingherown
maternalethosbyshowingherselftobecompetentandsensible.Atthesametime,she
framedbreastfeedingasanon-medicalwoman’sissueaboutwhichshefeltconfident.
Insteadofdenyingtheimportanceofmedicalexpertise,LLLofferedascriptthatwould
allowmotherstoshifttheresponsibilityforofferingbreastfeedingsupportawayfrom
physicianstoothermotherswhileframingthisshiftaswaytolightenthephysician’s
burden.Byframingherselfandothermothersmorebroadlyasthenaturalexpertsonsuch
mattersasbreastfeeding,thisscripthelpedmothersgainmoregroundininteractionswith
physiciansintheiroffices,thustransformingthedoctor’sofficeintoamaternalspacein
whichmothersconsultedwithphysiciansratherthanactingasobedientadherentsto
physicians’advice.
NotonlydidLLLinstructmotherstodevelopmaternalethosthatexhibiteda
respectformedicalauthoritywhilepracticingresistancetodominantmedicalpractices,
butLLLalsoadoptedthisstrategyaspartofitsownorganizationalethos.LLLavoided
givingoffensebypayingrespecttophysiciansandmedicalwaysofknowingwhilealso
preparingmotherstoengageinactsofresistanceagainstdominantdiscourseandpractices
ofmedicine.ThroughoutLaLecheLeagueNewsandTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,LLL
reliedonquotesfrommedicalexpertstooffersupportfortheorganization’sclaimsabout
breastfeeding.ThisrelianceonmedicalexpertisetoimbueLLL’sphilosophyofnatural
motherhoodanditspracticeswithasenseofauthoritywasastrategicone.Ina1963note
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toLLL’sletter-writingmothers,membersofLLLtaskedwithcorrespondingwithmothers
whowrotetoLLL,theorganizationwarneditsletter-writersagainstgivingmothersdirect
orders.Instead,theyweretoldtoreferenceandquotephysiciansorcitematernal
experiencewithoutgivinginstructions:
Ifadoctorhastoldthemothertostartsolidswedon’tsay,“Don’tgivethe
babyanysolids.”Rather—"Therearemanydoctorswhobelieveitisnot
necessarytostartsolidsuntilatleast3months,amoung[sic]themHerman
Meyerwell-knownpediatricianwhohaswrittenabookfordoctorsonInfant
Foods.”Or,“Weknowfromexperiencethatearlysolidsisnotonlynot
necessarybutcanseriouslyaffectthemilksupply—myown…babieshave
thrivedbeautifullyonbreastmilkalone,etc.”(“InstructionsforLetter
Writers”).
Therespectformedicalexpertisewaspreserved,andLLLcouldavoidanylawsuitsorlegal
claimsarguingthatLLLhaddispensedmedicaladvice.Additionally,membersofthe
generalpublicwhowereaccustomedtotheauthoritativeroleofthephysicianunderthe
dominantideologyofscientificmotherhoodweremorelikelytoacceptLLL’sarguments
andthepracticesofnaturalmotherhoodiftheyweresupportedbythemedicalexperts.
WhileLLLavoidedgivingdirectinstructions,theyofferedmodelsofsuccessbysharing
personalexperience.Theviewsofsupportivephysiciansandthepersonalexperiencesof
LLL’sfounderswereusedinterchangeablyhere,whichframedpersonalexperiences,
especiallythepersonalexperiencesofmultiplemothers,asvalidevidence.Thissuggests
thatwhileLLLtempereditsrhetoricwitharespectfortheexpertiseofphysicians,it
balancedthatrespectwitharegardformaternalauthority.LLLavoidedaffrontingthe
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medicalprofessionbyrespectingtraditionalviewsongenderedwaysofknowing,butit
placedvalueonmaternalwaysofknowing,arguingthatwhileitwasdifferent,itwasno
lesslegitimateoruseful.Placingthedisciplinaryknowledgeofphysicianswhoadvocated
forbreastfeedingonequalfootingwiththeexperiencesofmotherspresentedamodelfor
motherstofollowintheirowninteractionswithphysicians.
ThoughLLLreliedonandvaluedmedicalexpertise,itwasselectiveaboutitschoice
ofphysicianstociteasevidence.Certainly,conflictingviewpointsexistedinthefieldof
medicine;however,LLLchoosethoseexpertswhoseviewsandvaluesalignedwithitsown.
TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingassuredmothersthattheyalsohadthisrighttochoose
theirownpersonalphysicians.“Yourrightandprivilegeasapatient,”themanualasserted,
“isthechoiceofadoctorsympathetictoyourneedsanddesires”(WomanlyArt20[1963]).
Bypointingouttomothersthattheyhadtherighttochoosethemedicalexpertsthat
tendedtothemandtheirchildren,LLLwasshowingmothersthattheyhadmoreagency
andauthorityovertheirmaternalpracticesthanthedominantideologyofscientific
motherhoodwouldsuggest.Therighttochoosemedicalprofessionalswhoalignedwith
theirownviews,shapedbyLLL’sideologyofnaturalmotherhood,gavemothersinLLL’s
counterpublicasenseofagencythattheycouldcarrywiththemintotheirinteractionswith
physicians.
Whileitmightseemthatmotherswhoassertedsomematernalagencyand
presentedastrong,confidentmaternalethosgroundedinwomen’swaysofknowingmight
offendorannoyphysiciansintheageofscientificmotherhood,LLL’sscripts,basedonthe
experiencesofanumberofitsfounders,suggestedthatphysiciansweremorewelcoming
ofmaternalconfidencethanmightbesupposed.Mothersmighthavefeltthattheywereata
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disadvantagewhenitcametomakingdecisionsabouttheneedsofthebaby,particularly
whenthereweremedicalcomplicationsthatrequiredaphysician’sintervention;however,
TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingmaintainedthatwhiledoctorsmadedecisionsthatwere
influencedbyamyriadoffactors,suchashospitalregulationsandhisownviewsand
experiencesasaphysician,themotheralsoplayedacrucial,thoughlikelyunacknowledged,
roleinthephysician’sdecision-makingprocess.
Accordingtothemanual,thedoctorwhoperceivedthemothertobelukewarmin
regardstobreastfeedingmighthavebeeninclinedtoadvisethemothernottostartor
continuebreastfeeding(WomanlyArt89[1963]).Amotherwhodiscussedbreastfeeding
withthephysicianinthiswaypresentedanethosasamothermotivatedbyasenseofduty
ratherthanastrongdesiretonourishandnurtureherbaby.Actinginthismanner
regardingbreastfeedingsuggestedthatthemotherdidnotseebreastfeedingasnurturing
butmerelyanalternativemeansofprovidingsustenance.Thesuggestionherewasthat
whenmothersdidnotseemparticularlymotivatedtobreastfeed,thenthedoctorwas
likelytorecommendbottle-feedingasamorereliableoptionwithwhichhewasmore
familiar.Incontrast,themanualexplainedthat“ifyouareveryearnestaboutnursingyour
baby,hemaytakethisintoconsiderationandgoalongwithyou.Sobesuretolethimknow
howyoufeelaboutit”(WomanlyArt89[1963]).Thisearnestreassurancewasanethical
appealthatpresentedthemotherassincerelyconcernedforthewell-beingofherbaby.
Themotherwhomadesuchanappealwouldseemtobeagood,lovingmotherwillingto
sacrificeherselfforthegoodofherchild.Thesuggestionwasthatastrongmaternalethos
ofanengaged,motivatedmotherwhofeltconfidentinherabilitycouldhaveperhaps
persuadedthephysiciantoletthehertaketheinitiativeandleadtheway.Inthiscase,the
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motherwouldhavebeensuccessfulinemployingmaternalrhetorictoassertconfidencein
hermotheringandauthorityoverthecareofherchild,whilethephysician’srolewas
reframedasthatofasupportivemedicalconsultant.
Motherswerelikelyfrequentlyunawareoftheswaythattheyhadoverthe
physicians’choicesabouthowtoproceedwiththetreatmentofthebaby.Scientific
motherhoodhadgiventheimpressionthattheknowledgeandadviceofphysicianswas
beyondtheinfluenceofmothers,whowereframedaspassiveconduitsforthedoctor’swill.
Inhighlightingthemother’sabilitytosubtlyinfluencethephysicianthroughthecareful
craftingofhermaternalethos,LLLwashelpingmotherstoasserttheiragencyina
temperedway.Themessagethatmothersreceivedwasthattheirresistancetothestatus
quoofmedicalpracticeandproceduredidnotrequirethemtobemilitantor
confrontationalintheirinteractionswithphysicians;instead,theycouldinfluencethe
physician’sdecision-makingprocessbyconveyinganearnestandconfidentattitude
towardbreastfeeding.Inthisway,motherstookasubtleapproachtorestructuringtheir
relationshipswithphysiciansbymakingsubtleshiftsinbehaviorandattitudethatwould
helpthephysiciandevelopanewviewoftheirmaternalidentities.
Wheninteractingwithotherhospitalstaff,somepartsofTheWomanlyArtof
Breastfeedingadvocatedforanapproachthatwassimilartothatrecommendedfor
interactionswithphysicians:atemperedapproachthatwasfriendlyandpositivewhile
beingfirm.Thetextwarnedmotherswhoweredealingwithoppositionthattheyshould
not“antagonizethehospitalpersonnelbythrowingyourweightaroundandtellingthem
howtoruntheirhospital.Youcan’twin”(WomanlyArt58[1963]).Instead,theysuggested
thatmothersbefirmintheirinsistenceonbreastfeeding,“butotherwisegoslowontrying
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tobucktheestablishedroutines;smileandsmile,andgetoutofthereasfastasyourdoctor
willletyou”(WomanlyArt58[1963]).Thistemperedapproachdemonstratedmaternal
self-confidenceandafirmdesiretonourishherchildbybreastfeedingwhilealso
respectingthemedicalestablishment.LLLrecognizedthatpushingtoohard,tooquickly
againstnormalpracticesandproceduresmightseemtobearejectionofthemedical
profession,andthusitwouldlikelyunderminemothers’effortstogainthesupportof
medicalprofessionals.
Whenmothersweremetwiththeskepticismandraisedeyebrowsofhospital
personnel,TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingsuggestedthatmothers“cheerfullyandfirmly
letthemknowyoumeanit.Taketheattitudethatyouarebeingquiteprogressive”
(WomanlyArt53[1963]).Afriendlydemeanorwasmorelikelytoelicitcompliancewith
themother’swishesthanexpressionsoffrustrationoranger.Suchdisplaysofnegative
emotionmighthavemadethemotherappearself-centeredandunconcernedforherbaby,
asshewasresistingattemptsbymedicalprofessionalstoensurethatherbabyreceived
nourishment.Toavoidthiskindofself-presentation,TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding
suggestedthatotherissuescouldbedealtwithinalettertothehospitaladministration
afterwards,andsuchletters“maymakeiteasierforthenextbreastfeedingmother
deliveringinthehospital”(WomanlyArt58[1963]).Savingothercomplaintsandwaiting
toadvocateforamoresupportiveenvironmentuntilafterleavingthehospitalkeptthe
peace,anditallowedagoodrelationshiptoexistbetweenthemotherandthenursingstaff,
whosesupportofmother’sdecisionswasofparticularimportancetothecreationofa
maternalspaceinwhichshecouldexercisesomeauthorityoverhealthcaredecisions.
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WhileLLLrecommendedamaternalethosthatpresentedmothersasconfident,
friendly,anddeterminedtonourishtheirchildrenbybreastfeeding,whilealsorespecting
medicalexperts,therewereinstancesinwhichthisapproachwasnoteffective.Thestoryof
EdithaGrice,publishedintheMay–June1959issueofLaLecheLeagueNews,illustrates
thechallengesthatmothersfacedwhenthepoliciesofthehospitalandprejudicesofthe
nursingstaffconflictedwiththemother’sdesire.Grice,amotheroftwins,wasdetermined
toexclusivelybreastfeedthem.Griceseemedtohavebeenself-assuredanddetermined,
whichreflectedthekindofmaternalethosthatLLL’sscriptsdevelopedintheirscripted
interactionswithphysicians;however,insteadofbeingreceptiveandlettingthe
determinedmothertryitherway,thenursingstaffpushedback,tellingherthatitwas
impossibletobreastfeedtwins.AccordingtoGrice,thenurses“objected—saidthebabies
wouldloseweightandevenfedthemformulaatfirstagainstmyorders”(LLLNews,2.1:2).
WhenGriceinsistedthatthebabiesbeexclusivelybreastfed,thenurses“broughtbottles
eachtimewiththebabiesbecausetheywantedtheirbabiestogetenoughliquid”(LLL
News,2.1:2).Thesenursesclearlyfeltownershipovertheinfantsandtheactivitiesthat
occurredwithinthehospital,andtheydevelopedanadversarialrelationshipwithGrice.
Thisadversarialrelationshipcanlikelybeattributedtothedifferencebetweenthe
roleofthephysicianandtheroleofthenurseinthehospitalandthedifferentwaysthese
professionalswouldlikelyhaverespondedtothisrequest.Justasthemother’sattitude
couldhaveasignificantimpactonthemedicaladvicethatphysiciansprescribed,the
mother’sattitudehadthepotentialtosignificantlyimpactthenursingstaff’ssupport,or
lackthereof,forthemother’sattemptstobreastfeed.Whilephysiciansattendedbirthsand
occasionallyexaminedthemotherandbaby,itwasthenursingstaffwhooversawthe
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operationsofthematernitywardandthecareofinfants.Theyweremorelikelytobe
challengedorinconveniencedbychangestonormalroutineandpractices.Anotherfactor
thatlikelyaffectedGrice’sexperiencewiththenursingstaffwasthebreak-downofthe
reciprocalrelationshipbetweentheethosofthepatientandtheethosofthenursingstaff.
ThenursesmayhaveviewedGriceasaproblematic,obstinatepatientratherthanasa
motherattemptingtoactinthebestinterestofherchildren.Griceviewedthenursesas
territorialandunwillingtoallowhertoexerciseauthorityoverdecisionsaboutthecareof
herchildren.Inthehospitalward,mothersneededtobeabletoconvincenursesthatthey
sharedgoalsandvalues.LLLsuggestedrhetoricalstrategiestohelpmothersnavigate
relationshipdynamicsandsustainagencyinmaternitywards.Thedifferencesbetweenthe
roleofnursesandphysicians,aswellasthenatureoftherelationshipofthemotherand
thenurse,requiredsomewhatdifferentrhetoricalstrategies.
Ratherthanplacingthemselvesinadversarialrelationshipswiththenursingstaff,
orbeginningtheirrelationshipswithnursingstaffbydictatingexpectations,TheWomanly
ArtofBreastfeedingsuggestedthatmothersattempttoarrangebeforehandtohavethe
doctorgiveorders.Thetextadvisedmothersthatdoctorsmaygrantarequesttoprohibit
bottle-feeding“evenifhe’slukewarmaboutbreastfeeding,ifyouaskhimtodoit.Sodoask
himaboutitaheadoftimeandremindhimaboutit,ifheagrees”(WomanlyArt54[1963]).
Thegrantingofsucharequestfreedmotherstoenterintotheirrelationshipwiththe
nursesonmoreequalfootingandallowedthemtoattempttobuildcamaraderiewith
nursesovertheirsharedgoaloffollowingthedoctor’sordersandensuringthatthebaby
wasfed.Nurseshadquitealotofcontroloverthecareofinfantsinthehospital,
particularlyinhospitalsthatdidnotallowforbabiestoroomwithmothers;when
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breastfeedingmothershadtorelyonnursestobringtheirbabiestothemtobenursed,it
wasintheirbestinteresttohavethedoctor’sordersandtogarnerthesupportofnurses
throughrhetoricalmeans.
WhileLLLpromotedconfidence,friendliness,andfirmnessinscriptedinteractions
withmedicalprofessionals,TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingtaughtmotherstoconsider
thevaluesandconcernsoftheiraudience,particularlythenursingstaff.Physician’sorders
mighthelpgarnernurses’cooperation,butinabusyhospitalward,mothersmightstill
havehadtoemployrhetoricalstrategiestoensurethatthenursessupportedtheirefforts
andfollowedthedoctor’sorders.TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingsuggestedasubtle
approachtoremindnursesofthedoctor’sordersinthefollowingscript:
Itwon’thurttomentioncasuallytothenursethatyou’regladyourbabyisn’t
gettinganyformula—sinceyou’llbecompletelybreastfeedinghim,any
formulagivennowcouldleadtohisdevelopinganallergytocow’smilkwhen
itisreintroducedintohisdietseveralmonthslater.Thenursingstaffmaynot
knowthisfactaboutallergies,andthroughbusyforgetfulness,orsimplyout
ofthegoodnessoftheirhearts,theymaythinktheyaredoingyourbabya
kindnessbygivinghimabottleortwoduringthosefirstdaysbeforeyour
milkcomesin.Knowingthisallergyfactmayhelpthemrememberthe
doctor’sorders.(WomanlyArt54[1963]).
Thisbriefscripttookasubtle,temperedapproachtoremindingthenurseofthedoctor’s
orderswithoutdictating.Ratherthanframingthenurseasanadversary,thisscriptframed
thenurseasapartnerwhosharedthegoalofprovidingthebabywithagood,healthystart
inlife.Thescriptalsoencouragedethosreciprocitybetweenthemotherrhetorandthe
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nurseaudience.Motherswhoemployedthisscriptpresentedamaternalethosofcaring
andconcernedmotherswhohavethoughtfullyconsideredtheimplicationsoftheir
decisiontobreastfeedonthehealthoftheirbabies,andtheyweremakingasyllogistic
argumentastowhytheirbabiesshouldnotreceivesupplementalformula.Ifformula
supplementationofabreastfedbabycouldleadtofutureallergies,thenthisparticular
breastfedbabyshouldnotreceivesupplementalformula.
Theforegroundingofmaternalconcernoverherbaby’shealthandthelogical
argumentpresentedinthisscriptcouldhaveledtoasenseofidentificationand
camaraderiebetweenthemotherandthenurse.Thenursecouldhavecertainly
sympathizedwiththisconscientiousmotherinherconcernoverthedevelopmentofamilk
allergyinanursingbaby.Themother’sexpressionofreliefthatformulawouldbeavoided
wasagentleremindertothenursethattherewerelegitimatemedicalreasonsforavoiding
formula.Nursesatthattimewouldhavebeeninthehabitofgivingformulatobabies,and
theywouldlikelyhaveseenfewerbreastfeedingbabies.Thiskindofsubtleinteraction
wouldlikelyhavehelpedbusynursesmovingthroughtheirroutinestobemindfulofthe
differingneedsofthebreastfeedingbaby.Italsoremindednursesthatexclusive
breastfeedingwasn’tsolelyaprogressivefad,butthattherewerepotentialhealth
consequencestosupplementingabreastfedbabywithformula.Ininvokingthespecterof
possiblenegativehealthimpacts,thisscriptalignedthegoalsofthemotherwiththegoals
ofthenurse,thuscreatingareciprocalrelationshipbetweentheethēofthemotherandthe
nurse.Theresultofsucharenegotiationoftherelationshipbetweenmothersandthe
nursingstaffwasthatthematernitywardwastransformedintoamaternalspaceinwhich
motherscouldsubtlyasserttheirdesiresandgainthesupportofthenursingstaff.For
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EdithaGrice,whoclashedwiththenursingstaffwhentryingtoinitiatebreastfeedingwith
hertwininfants,thiskindoftemperedapproachmighthavehelpedtoheadofftheconflict
beforeitbegan.WhileGricedidmanagetosuccessfullybreastfeedhertwinsforsixmonths
despitethechallengesthenursingstaffpresented,atemperedapproachthatdeveloped
maternalethosinnegotiationwiththenursingstaffcouldhavehelpedheravoidsomeof
theearlyobstaclestobreastfeeding.
Thescriptingofinteractionsbetweenmedicalprofessionalsandmothers
constitutedarhetoricaleducationtohelpmothersnavigaterelationshipsthatcouldeither
supportorunderminetheirattemptstoestablishbreastfeeding.Suchscripting—which
fosteredamaternalethosforegroundingmaternalself-confidence,nurturance,and
protectionoftheirbabies—framedtherelationshipbetweenmothersandmedical
professionalsasapartnership.ItallowedmotherswhoadheredtoLLL’sviewsand
embracedtheirpracticestoengageinactsofresistanceinsuchawaythattheyrecognized
theethosoftheprofessionalswithwhomtheywerespeaking,andthustheywerelikelyto
garnerthesupportofthemedicalprofessionratherthaninspireskepticismorstrife.Such
scriptedinteractionshelpedmothersassertmaternalauthorityandcouldhelpthem
establishmaternalspaceinlocationsoutsideofthesafe,maternalspacesoftheLLL
mother-to-mothersupportgroupmeetingandthehomeofthemotherwhohadembraced
LLL’sparadigmofnaturalmotherhood.
COLLECTIVERHETORICALACTIONANDTHEBUILDINGOFACOUNTERPUBLIC
WhiletheearlytextsofLLLassistedbreastfeedingmothersindevelopingrhetorical
strategiestonavigateinteractionswiththepublic,particularlymembersofthemedical
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profession,thetextsalsohelpedLLLtomakethetransitionfromalocalsupportgrouptoa
counterpublicwithaninternationalreach.BothTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingandthe
bimonthlynewsletterLaLecheLeagueNewsplayedacriticalroleinthegrowthand
developmentofthatcounterpublic.AccordingtoLLLfounderMaryAnnCahill,mothers
benefittedfromtheconstantreassuranceandreinforcementthatthenewsletterprovided
(Lowman,LLLove26).Thenewsletter,whichhad600subscribersatthetimeofthe
May/June1961issue(Lowman,LLLove26),servedtheneedofbreastfeedingmothers“to
beconstantlyencouragedtohearaboutothermotherswhothoughtthatnursingababy
wasworthwhile”(Lowman,LLLove26).Inadditiontoofferingsuchencouragement,La
LecheLeagueNewshelpedtobuildanetworkofbreastfeedingmothersandadvocates.The
newsletterincludedanumberofexamplesofcorrespondenceinwhichmotherswroteto
saythattheyhadpassedontheircopiesofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding.Onemother
wrotetosaythatwhenshepassedonhercopytohersister,shefeltasthoughshehadshe
hadlosther“bestrighthandman”(LLLNews,1.6:1).Anothermotherclaimedthatafter
beingridiculedinthehospitalforchoosingtobreastfeed,sheplannedtotakecopiesofThe
WomanlyArtofBreastfeedingwithheronhernexthospitalvisitto“encouragemore
nursingmothers”(LLLNews,1.6:1).Theinclusionofsuchtestimonialsinthenewsletter
showedthatLLL’smother-to-mothersupportnetworkgrewasaresultofindividualefforts
tofurtherthecauseofLLL.
SarahHallenbeck’sstudyofthecollectiverhetoricofnineteenth-centurybicyclists
showsthatevenwithoutcentrally-organizedcoordinationandguidance,suchasthat
providedbyLLLtobreastfeedingmothers,counterdiscoursescanflourishandleadtoa
revisionofthemedicalprofession’sunderstandingofthewomen’sbodies.Whatisrequired
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forcollectiverhetorictomakesuchatransformationalimpact,accordingtoHallenbeck,is
thatthedistributedactsoftheindividualactorsbevisibleandlegibleandthatthewidely
distributedaudiencerecognizetherelatednessoftheseindividualactsandinterpretthem
similarly.Forthistowork,claimsHallenbeck,“eachindividualrhetormustalignherself
withelementsofthenetworkinwhichsheoperates”(xviii).Suchnetworkbuildingcan
happeninanorganicwaywithdispersedindividualsandgroupsfindingoneanother
throughsharedinterestsandgoals;however,IarguethatLLL’sbimonthlynewsletter,La
LecheLeagueNews,andTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingfunctionedinsuchawayasto
buildacentrallyorganizednetworkthatpromoteditsideasandpracticesandprepared
motherstoemploymaternalrhetoricinordertoresistdominanttrendsofinfantfeeding
andchildcare.
WhileLLLhelpedmothersdeveloprhetoricalethosintheirowninteractionswith
medicalprofessionals,theorganizationwasalsobuildingacounterpublicofmotherswho
engagedincollectiverhetoricalaction.Inherstudyofthemethodsthatnineteenth-century
womenphysiciansusedtodevelopprofessionalethos,CarolynSkinnershedslightonthe
wayinwhichethoscanbecollectivelydevelopedanddeployed(WomenPhysicians178).
AccordingtoSkinner,collectiveethosformationoccurswhen“rhetorscollaborateonor
competeoverthecharacteristicsmembersofthatgroupwilldemonstrate”(178).Justas
womenphysiciansofthenineteenthcenturycollaboratedtodevelopanethosforwomen
physicians,theauthorsofLLL’searlytextscollaboratedwithmotherstodevelopanethos
forthebreastfeedingmother.Thescriptsandmodels,someofwhichwerethepublished
accountsoftheexperiencesofwomenwhowrotetoLLL,werenotonlyanefforttohelp
womendeveloptheirownmaternalethos,italsorepresentedacollaborativeeffortto
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developacollectiveethosforthebreastfeedingmotheringeneralandmembersofLLLin
particular.ByutilizingLLL’smodelsandscripts,thearmyofmotherswhomadeupLLL’s
counterpublicgraduallychangedthemedicalprofession’sperceptionofmothers.Skinner
claimsthat“theethoschoicesanindividualrhetormakesinfluencenotonlyhisorher
immediatecommunicativesituationbutalsothebroadercontextandthepersuasive
optionsavailabletootherpotentialspeakersandwriters”(178).Eachtimethatamother
followedLLL’sadviceandemployedmaternalethosandtemperedrhetoricalstrategies
thatleveragedtheculturalcodeofmotherhoodinherinteractionswithmedical
professionals,thatmotherwasnotonlyrenegotiatingherrelationshipwiththatparticular
doctorornursetocreateamaternalspaceinwhichshecouldassertmaternalauthority,
butshewasalsolikelyopeningthedoorforothermotherstodothesame.Gradually,these
individualactsofmaternalethosformationshiftedthemedicalprofession’sviewnotonly
ofbreastfeedingbutoftheroleofmothersinchildcaremorebroadly.
ThespreadofLLL’scounterpubliccanbetracedthroughthenewsletterLaLeche
LeagueNews.Thenewsletterincludedpublishedexcerptsfrommothers,fathers,and
medicalprofessionalswhowrotetotheorganization.Italsoreportedondevelopments
withintheorganizationandnotedmilestonesintheorganization’sspread,suchas
attentionthattheorganizationreceivedinthepress.Between1958and1961,LLLreceived
agooddealofattentionfromlocalnewspapersandsmallcirculationmagazines,someof
whichhadtiestotheCatholicchurch.Earlyon,itwasoftenmembersofLLLwhobrought
theorganizationtotheattentionofthesepublications.In1958,thehusbandofanLLL
memberwroteanarticlepromotingtheorganization.ItwaspublishedinMarriage
Magazine,“asmallMidwestcirculationreadbyyoungCatholicfamilies”(Lowman,LLLove
180
31).Inanothersuchcase,amotherwrotetocolumnistMarciaWinnoftheChicagoTribune
in1959torecommendLLL.Withinaweekoftheletter’spublication,LLLreceived150
lettersfrommothers,doctors,andnurses(LLLNews,2.2:3).In1959,Ladies’HomeJournal
recommendedLLLtoamotherwhowrotetothemagazineforadvice(LLLNews,1.6:2).In
additiontothesereferencestoLLL,asurveyofissuesofthenewsletterrevealsthatby
1961LLLhadbeenmentionedatleast25othertimesbyavarietyofpublications,including
theChild-FamilyDigest,HeraldofHealth,BabyTalk,Prevention,FamilyCircle,Christian
Parent,TheChicagoSun-Times,GeneralPractice(thejournaloftheAmericanAcademyof
GeneralPractice),andInfantFoodsandFeedingPractices,abookthatattributedarisein
interestinbreastfeedingtoLLL.TherecognitionthatLLLreceivedfromthesemany
publicationsshowsthatitwasenteringintothepublicconversationonbreastfeeding
severalyearsbeforeLeeForrestHill’s1968JournalofPediatricseditorialrecognizedLLL
foritseffortstosupportbreastfeedingmothersandrestorelostknowledgeof
breastfeeding.
FollowingthepublicationofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingandLaLecheLeague
Newsin1958,LLLquicklydevelopedintoanengagedcounterpublicwithaninternational
reach.BythetimethattheJan./Feb.1958LaLecheLeagueNewswaspublished,LLL’s
foundershadreceivedcorrespondencefrommothers,doctors,andnursesin36states,the
DistrictofColumbia,Canada,Germany,England,Austria,andSouthAfrica.Frequently,
lettersarrivedinhigherthanaveragenumbersasaresponsetopublications(LLLNews,
1.5:1).AfteramotherwrotealettertothesyndicatedcolumnofphysicianHaroldT.
Hyman,publishedintheLacrosseTribuneofLacrosse,Wisconsin,LLLreceivedover100
letters,50ofwhichwerewrittenindirectresponsetothearticle(LLLNews,1.1:4).InMay
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of1960,LLLreceivedover800lettersfollowingthepublicationofthearticleintheFamily
Circle(Lowman,Revolutionaries46).MuchofthecorrespondencethatLLLreceivedwas
frommotherswhosharedtheirsuccessesandstruggleswithbreastfeeding.Somemothers
reportedpositiveinteractionswithmedicalprofessionalswhileothersreported
disappointingexperienceswiththemedicalestablishment.Medicalprofessionalsalso
wrotetoofferpraisefortheworkoftheorganization.Thiscorrespondenceshowsthat
LLL’semploymentofmaternalrhetoricinitsadvocacyforbreastfeedingandnatural
motherhood,aswellastherhetoricaleducationthatLLLofferedtomothers,wasmaking
animpact.
OneOklahomamother,whoalsohappenedtobeaphysician,wrotetoexpressher
viewofthecriticallyimportantnatureofLLL’ssupport:“Iamadoctorandanursing
mother,andIwantyoutoknowthatwithoutthehelpofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding
mybabywouldhavebeenabottlebaby”(LLLNews3.3:4).Sheclosedherletterwitha
requesttopurchasetwoadditionalcopiesofthetext.Suchstoriesillustratethewayin
whichthehorizontalnetworkthatLLLhadbeenbuildingthroughitstextualoutreach
intersectedwithandtransformedthemedicalprofession,whichunderscientific
motherhoodhadbeenconstructedasaverticallyoriented,top-downauthority.Through
individualinteractionswithbreastfeedingmotherswhoweresuccessfulinlargepartdue
tothesupportofLLL,themedicalprofession’sviewofbreastfeedingandtheroleof
mothersindecisionsaboutchildcarebegantoevolve.Whiletherehadbeensome
breastfeedingadvocatesinthemedicalprofessionpriortoLLL’sfounding,theincreasing
demandforbreastfeedingsupportbegantochangethemedicalprofessionatthelocallevel,
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andthesemicro-transformationsbegantoreshapethemedicalprofessionatthemacro-
level.
WhilethecorrespondencepublishedinLaLecheLeagueNewsshowedthatthe
organization’scounterdiscoursewasspreadingrapidlyandimpactingthemedical
profession,therecordofsalesofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingwerealsoimpressive.
WithinsixmonthsoftheprintingofTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedinginthefallof1958,
LLLhadsoldallofthe1,000copiesthathadbeenprinted(Lowman,Revolutionaries17).
Theseinitialcopiesweresoldprimarilytomothers,butmedicalprofessionalsalso
purchasedcopies.Oneobstetricianorderedadozenforhispatients,aformerchaplain
orderedsixcopiestobesenttoaColoradohospital,andnaturalchildbirthgroupsalso
purchasedcopies(LLLNews,1.5:1).In1960,LLLprintedanother5,000copies.Overa
periodofthreeyears,LLLsoldapproximately17,000copiesoftheoriginaleditionofThe
WomanlyArtofBreastfeeding(Lowman,Revolutionaries44).ThesecondeditionofThe
WomanlyArtofBreastfeedingwaspublishedin1963,aroundthesametimethatReader’s
Digestpublished“TheyTeachtheJoysofBreastfeeding,”thechapterofKarenPryor’sbook
NursingYourBabythatfocusedonLLL.InpartbecauseoftheattentionthattheReader’s
Digestarticlereceived,LLLsold10,000copiesofthesecondeditionofTheWomanlyArtof
Breastfeedinginthefirsttwomonthsfollowingitspublicationin1963(Lowman,
Revolutionaries47).
AnadditionalmeasureofLLL’ssuccesswastheincreasingfrequencywithwhich
membersofLLLweresoughtoutfortheirexpertise.Between1958and1961,LLL’s
foundershadbeenaskedtospeakforsuchaudiencesastheNationalHealthConvention,
RosaryCollege,YoungChristianWorkers,theIllinoisCommitteeonMaternalandInfant
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Health,andtheSouthSuburbanChildbirthEducationAssociation(LLLNews,1.1,2.4,2.6).
ThatthefoundersofLLLwereinvitedtospeakforsuchgroupsshowsthatnotonlywasits
counterpublicexpanding,butitwasgrowinginprominenceaswell.LLL’sefforttoframe
maternalexperienceasasourceofknowledgeandauthorityonmattersofinfantfeeding
washavinganimpactonpublicandmedicalperceptionsofbreastfeeding.Infact,some
professionalswithaninterestinbreastfeedingchosetotraveltotheFranklinParkarea
specificallytomeetthefoundersofLLLandlearnfromtheorganization.In1959,four
nurse-midwivestraveledfromOttawa,CanadatospendtimewithLLL.Theytookthe
knowledgethattheygainedfromtheirmeetingwithLLLandincorporateditontotheir
childbirthclasses(Lowman,Revolutionaries36).In1964,TheAmericanJournalofNursing
publishedanarticlethatexaminedtheeffortsofLLLfromanurse’sperspective.JanetIorio,
AssistantProfessorofNursingatSetonHall,explainedthatsheandothernursesspenttime
withanLLLgroup.Themotherswhohadsharedtheirexperiencescausedthenursesto
realizethatmotherswereoftenconfusedbyinconsistentmedicaladvice,andinresponse,
thenursesestablishedguidelinesforclearandconsistentadviceregardingbreastfeeding
(Iorio119).Thisaccountshowsthatnotonlyweresomenurseswillingtosupport
breastfeedingmothers,butthattheywerealsowillingtoestablishnewpoliciesand
routinesinordertodoso.Thiswillingnessofnursestobetteraccommodatebreastfeeding
mothersbychangingpoliciesandprocedureswasasteptowardthetransformationofthe
maternitywardintoamaternalspacewherebreastfeedingmotherscouldasserttheir
wishesandreceivesupportfromnurses.
TheattentionthatLLLreceivedfrommagazinesandnewspapers,thesignificant
amountofcorrespondencethatLLLreceived,thespreadofLLLgroups,thesalesofThe
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WomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,andsubscriptionstoLaLecheLeagueNewsshowthatLLL’s
counterdiscoursestruckachordwithmothersandsomemembersofthemedical
profession.Whilecorrespondencefrommotherssometimesreporteddisappointing
responsesfromtheirattemptstogainthesupportofmedicalprofessionals,manymore
motherswrotetoreportpositiveresponses.Thehorizontalnetworkofbreastfeeding
motherswasgrowing,andtheverticalnetworkofthemedicalestablishmentwas
beginningtotakenotice.
THEIMPACTOFLLLONDOMINANTPRACTICESANDSOCIALNORMSSURROUNDING
INFANTFEEDINGANDMOTHERHOOD
LLL’sface-to-facemeetingsandtextualoutreachinthe1950sandearly1960s
producedacounterpublicthatwouldprofoundlyalterthemedicalprofessioninthecoming
years.WhileitisdifficulttoquantifyLLL’spreciseimpacts,anexaminationoflarge-scale
trendsintheratesofbreastfeedingandchangingattitudesofthemedicalprofession
towardthemother’sroleindecision-makingsuggestsasignificantcorrelationbetweenthe
advocacyofLLLandtheshiftawayfromthedominantattitudesandpracticesofscientific
motherhood.
LLLcontinuedtogrowrapidlyandgarnertheattentionofthemedicalprofession
andthepublicmorebroadlythroughoutthe1960s,anditcontributedtoagradualincrease
intherateofbreastfeeding.Inthe1950s,whenLLLwasformed,thebreastfeedingratehad
fallenagreatdeal.AccordingtoadatapublishedbytheNationalcenterforHealth
Statistics,priorto1950,58.9%ofwomenintheUnitedStateshadbreastfedtheirfirst
child;intheperiodof1956to1960,thatnumberhadfallento43.1%andwasona
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continuingdownwardspiral(Hirschman,etal.11).ThankslargelytoLLL’sinfluence,the
trendwaseventuallyreversed.By1980,thebreastfeedingratehadrisento55%(Eckhardt
andHendershot410).Trendsindemographicsofbreastfeedingmothersalsochanged,
perhapsinpartduetothefactthatLLL’seffortswereaimedprimarilyatwhite,middle-
classmothers.AccordingtoLindsayGartmanBaker,inthe1940sasignificantlylarger
percentageofblackmothersbreastfedtheirbabies(25).Atthattime,breastfeedingwasas
associatedwithmothersoflowsocioeconomicstatuswhocouldnotaffordbreastmilk
substitutes.Bythemid-1960s,forthefirsttimesincebreastfeedingtrendshadbeen
recorded,whitewomen-initiatedbreastfeedingatahigherratethandidblackwomen,and
highlyeducatedmiddle-classwhitewomenbreastfedatahigherratethananyother
demographic(Baker25).Barkerattributesthischangingtrendtotheavailabilityof
informationandsupportamongstthesedifferentdemographics(Baker25).Thistrend
alignswiththenatureofLLLanditsphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood.LLLwasfounded
bymiddle-classwhitewomenwhohadtheabilitytofocusthebulkoftheirtimeandefforts
onthecareandfeedingoftheirchildren;economicallydisadvantagedwomenandworking
motherswerenotaswell-servedbyLLL’sattitudesandphilosophy.LLL’scounterpublic
wascomprisedchieflyofwhite,middle-classwomenwhocoulddevotethemselvestothe
alternativeparadigmofmotheringofferedbyLLLandhadthesocialandeconomic
leveragetoemploytherhetoricalstrategiesthatLLLtaughtintheirearlytexts.
WhileLLL’smodeldidnotserveallmothersequally,itwascriticaltothesuccessof
breastfeedingmotherswhowereinapositiontobenefitfromitssupport.Inher1971
dissertationTheRelationshipofInformationandSupporttoBehavior:TheLaLecheLeague
andBreastfeeding,socialpsychologistAliceKahnLadassetouttouncovertheimpactof
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LLL’smodelofbreastfeedingsupportonmother’sattemptstobreastfeed.Ladasstudied
responsestointerviewsandquestionnairesregardingthebreastfeedingexperiencesoftwo
disparategroupsoffirst-timemothers:membersandnon-membersofLLL.Ladasfound
thataccesstoeitherinformationaboutbreastfeedingoraccesstobreastfeedingsupport
didseparatelycontributetoahigherrateofsuccessamongstbreastfeedingmothers;
however,thehighestrateofsuccessofbreastfeedingmothersresultedfromaccesstoboth
informationandbreastfeedingsupportaswasprovidedunderLLL’smodel(Ladas2).This
studyshowedthatLLL’smethodofofferinginformationandsupportmayhavehada
significantlinktoanincreaseintherateofsuccessfulbreastfeedingmothers;thus,the
organizationunderminedthebottle-feedingpracticesofscientificmotherhood.
WhilethecontributionsofLLL’scounterpublicplayedasignificantroleintherateof
mothersinitiatingbreastfeeding,LLL’schallengetoscientificmotherhoodalsoshiftedthe
attitudeofthemedicalprofessiontowardmothersmorebroadly.AccordingtoRimaD.
Apple,physiciansinthe1970sfeltthattheywerebeingpushedbysocialtrendstoinvolve
mothersinthedecision-makingprocess(Apple,PerfectMotherhood143).Thebabyboom
endedinapproximately1960,andasbirthratesdeclined,hospitals,asconsumer
businesses,foundthattheyneededtoincreasinglyaccommodatethedesiresofmothersto
drawthemtotheirmaternitywards(Apple143);thus,hospitalspurposefullysetoutto
offeranenvironmentthatallowedmotherstoexercisematernalauthorityandcreate
maternalspaceinthematernityward.LLL’scounterpublic,thenaturalchildbirth
movement,thecountercultureofthe1960sand1970s(Apple143),andmedicalstudies
affirmingtheimportanceofaclosephysicalconnectionbetweenmothersandbabiesinthe
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immediatepost-partumperiod(Martell),hospitalshadtoincreasinglyaccommodate
mothers’decisionsregardingmedicalcareandcreatefamily-centeredenvironments.
LLLitselfbecameawell-respectedauthoritytowhichthemedicalprofessionturned
forinformationonbreastfeeding,andeventually,LLLandthemedicalprofessionofficially
partneredtobettersupportbreastfeedingmothers.In1973,LLLhelditsfirstPhysicians’
BreastfeedingSeminar,whichtheAmericanMedicalAssociationsurveyesinorderto
decidewhetherornottograntaccreditationtoLLLforthepurposeofprovidingcontinuing
educationcreditstophysicianswhoattendedtheseminar(Lowman,LLove64).One
physicianreportedlyaskedLLLtocontinuetheseminarsbecausetherewas“noplace[sic]
elsefordoctorstogetthiskindofinformation”(Lowman,LLLove64).MarianTompson
wasdoubtfulthatLLLwouldreceiveaccreditation,saying“Aftersomanyyearsofbeing
outsidetheestablishment,Ijustcouldn’tbelievethattheywouldacceptus”(Lowman,
LLLove64);however,theAMAdidindeedgrantLLLaccreditationfollowingthatinitial
physicians’seminar.ThisachievementmarkedamajormilestoneinLLL’sgrowing
influenceonmedicalprofessionals.
Theabilitytotakeatemperedapproachtoadvocacyandrhetoricallyoccupythe
middle-groundislikelywhatledtotherapidgrowthofLLLandtotheincreasingly
widespreadembraceofitsviewsandpractices.AlittleoveradecadeafterLLL’sfounding,
LeeForrestHill,PresidentoftheAmericanBoardofPediatricswasadmonishingthe
medicalprofessionforlettingbreastfeedingfalloutoffavoronitswatchandpraisingLLL
forrevivingthepractice(Hill162).It’snotlikelythatLLLwouldhavehadsuchsuccessful
outcomesiftheyhadadoptedamoremilitantstyleofresistancetomedicalauthorityand
discourse.
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It’sundeniablethatLLLcontributedsignificantlytotheshiftawayfromthestrict
top-downmodelofscientificmotherhoodinwhichmotherswereexpectedtoactas
obedientadherentstotheadviceofphysicians.Bycraftingtextsthathelpedmothers
developtherhetoricalstrategiestonavigateinteractionswithmedicalprofessionalsand
creatematernalspace,LLLeasedthepathforbreastfeedingmothers.Whiletempering
theiractsofresistancecouldnotensurethatthattheiraudiencewouldsupporttheir
efforts,thedevelopmentofmaternalethosmadetherevolutionaryactivitiesofLLL
mothersmorepalatable.Throughtheemploymentofmaternalethosinindividualactsof
resistance,membersofLLL’scounterpublicofbreastfeedingmothersparticipatedina
collectiveethosbuildingprojectthatcompelledchangeinthemedicalprofessionandin
perceptionsofwomen’sroles.
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CHAPTERV
CONCLUSION:“WECAMEWANTINGTOLEARNTHEARTOFBREASTFEEDING.WE
FOUNDAWAYOFLIFE.”
Inher1976examinationofthemodernexperienceofmotherhood,OfWomanBorn,
AdrienneRichcritiquedtheinstitutionofmotherhoodasasocialconstructionthat
“ghettoizedanddegradedfemalepotentialities”throughoutrecordedhistorybyinvesting
allwomenwith“magicalpowers”forthepurposeofcontrollingthem(13).Whilethe
institutiondoesnotreflecttherealityofthelivedexperiencesofmothers,ithasstillshaped
theirlivesinsignificantways(Rich42).Thisinstitution,claimedRich,hadcausedharmby
placingstrictexpectationsonmothersasaformofsocialcontrol,butitfailedtoreflectthe
realitythatmotherhoodisauniquerelationshipbetweeneachwomanandchild.Rich
calledforthedestructionoftheinstitutionofmotherhoodandexpressedhopethatwomen
wouldbeabletobreakawayfromtheviolencedonetowomenandchildrenunderthe
strictconfinesoftheinstitution:
Whatisastonishing,whatcangiveusenormoushopeandbeliefinafutureinwhich
thelivesofwomenandchildrenshallbemendedandrewovenbywomen’shands,is
allthatwehavemanagedtosalvage,ofourselves,forourchildrenevenwithinthe
destructivenessoftheinstitution:thetenderness,thepassion,thetrustinour
instincts,theevocationofacouragewedidnotknowweowned,thedetailed
apprehensionofanotherhumanexistence,thefullrealizationofthecostand
precariousnessoflife.Themother’sbattleforherchild—withsickness,with
poverty,withwar,withalltheforcesofexploitationandcallousnessthatcheapen
190
humanlife—needstobecomeacommonhumanbattle,wagedinloveandpassion
forsurvival.Butforthistohappen,theinstitutionofmotherhoodmustbe
destroyed.(280)
Evenwithintheconfinesoftheinstitutionofmotherhood,accordingtoRich,mothershad
beenabletorebelinsomewaysbyexperiencingpowerfulemotions,trustingintheir
instincts,andfindingcouragewithinthemselves.
Theideologyofscientificmotherhood,thedominantideologyofmotherhoodinthe
earlytwentiethcentury,causedthekindofinstitutionalviolenceagainstmothersand
childrenthatRichsodespairedofinOfWomanBorn.Theideologyofscientificmotherhood
madeitdifficultforwomentotrusttheirinstinctsandexperiencematernaltendernessand
passion.Itdiscountedmaternalinstinct,relyinginsteadonstrictprescriptionsforthecare
andfeedingofchildren.Themother-childbondwashamperedbytheideology,asthe
routinelyprescribedadvicewastoavoidfrequentlyholdingtheinfantinorderto
encourageindependence.Whilesomemothersstruggledundertheconfinesofscientific
motherhood,afewpushedback,asdidthefoundersofLLL.
Atatimewhenmothershadlostconfidenceintheirabilitytomakesounddecisions
aboutthecareoftheirownchildrenandwerediscouragedfromdevelopingstrongmother-
childbonds,thefoundersofLLLrebelledbybreastfeeding,nurturingstrongmother-child
bonds,anddevelopingtheirownideologyofnaturalmotherhoodtocounterscientific
motherhood.LLLresistedthedominantpracticesofchildcareandinfantfeedingthathad
beenpopularizedunderscientificmotherhood,butthefoundersoftheorganization
realizedthatforsuchresistancetobesuccessful,mothersneededasupportivenetwork
aroundthem,andtheyneededpracticaladvicetonavigatethechallengesofbreastfeeding
191
andpracticinganalternativeparadigmofmotheringinasocialclimatethatdidnotsupport
theseefforts.Throughthedevelopmentofacounterpublic,LLLwasabletohelpmany
womenrestorewhattheyhadlost,includingautonomy,trustinoneself,andself-
confidence;thus,twodecadesbeforeRich’sOfWomanBornwaspublished,LLLhad
embarkedonanefforttocombatthestrict,confininginstitutionofscientificmotherhood
andhelpwomenregainsomeofwhathadbeenlosttothem.
Whiletheorganizationsuccessfullychallengedtheoppressionofmothersby
scientificmotherhood,paradoxically,asexplainedintheintroductionofthisproject,much
ofthecriticismleveledatLaLecheLeaguebyfeministscholarshashighlightedthewayin
whichtheorganizationrequireddomesticityofmothersanddiscouragedmothers’active
involvementinthepublicsphere.BerniceHausmanobservedthatfeminists“warily
approachLeagueasanideologicallysuspectorganizationwithrigoroussocialcontrolsover
thewomenwhobecomeinvolvedwithit—muchlikeacult”(161).Eventhosescholars,
suchasHausman,whoacknowledgedthesignificantrolethatLLLplayedinshapingthe
historyofinfantfeedingandrecognizedthattheorganizationcould,anddid,empower
somemothers,viewitasaparadoxicalorganizationthatconstrainedmotherswhile
empoweringthem.This“boundedliberation”(131),accordingtoChristinaBobel,both
empoweredmotherswhileitalsoconstrainedthemwithintherealmofdomesticity.
Thisdissertationprojectconfirmsfeministscholars’assessmentoftheparadoxical
natureoftheorganization,butitalsoilluminatesthewayinwhichtheorganization’s
rhetoricalpowerresidedinleveragingthepositionofmothersonthemarginsas
disciplinaryoutsidersbyrhetoricallyforegroundingtraditionalvaluesassociatedwith
motherhoodandarguingthattheirstatusasoutsidersprovidedthemwithexperience-
192
basedknowledgethatwasvitaltosuccessinbreastfeeding.Inefforttohelpmothersassert
theirmaternalauthority,LLLhelpedmotherstransformtheirhomesintomaternalspaces
thatoperatedassafeenclavestopracticeanalternativeparadigmofmotherhoodand
rejectstatusquopractices,suchasbottle-feeding.
WhileLLLdidempowersomemotherstoresistdominanttrendsinmothering,
creatematernalspace,andbreastfeedsuccessfully,overitshistory,theorganizationhas
marginalizedmotherswhowerenotwhite,middle-classhomemakers.Womenofcolor,
singlemothers,lesbianmothers,workingmothers,andbottle-feedingmothersareamong
thosewhodidnotfitintoLLL’smodeloftheidealmother.Becausetheycouldnottakeon
thematernalroleprescribedinLLL’sparadigmofnaturalmotherhood,whichLLL
promotedasgoodmothering,thesemotherswereframed,throughexclusion,as
inadequate.Theorganization’sproblematicmessaging,exclusionarypractices,and
paradoxicalnaturehavebeendiscussedbyotherfeministscholars;therefore,this
dissertationfocusedprimarilyonunderstandinganunexploredaspectofthe
organization—thewayinwhichLLL’semploymentofmaternalrhetoricempowered
mothersandledtoashiftinthemedicalprofession’sunderstandingofbreastfeedingand
itsrelatedpractices.ThesuccessofLLL’smaternalrhetoricandthecollectivematernal
ethosthatitscounterpublicdevelopeddependedlargelyuponthesocialpositioningofits
targetaudienceofwhite,middle-classhomemakers.
ThehistoryofLLL’ssuccessfuladvocacyforbreastfeedinganditsownphilosophyof
naturalmotherhoodprovidesevidencethatcounterpublicscanbeahighlyeffective
solutiontotheproblemsposedbydisciplinarygatekeepingandgenderedspatial
segregation.Counterpublicsoftendevelopinenclavedsafespaces,whichFrasercalls
193
“paralleldiscursivearenas”(67).AreviewofLLL’searlyorganizationalhistoryandan
analysisofitsearlytextualoutreachrevealsthewayinwhichchangesindominant
practicesanddiscoursescandevelopastheresultofthecollectiverhetoricalactivitiesof
counterpublics.Eachchapterofthisdissertationhascorrespondedtoastageinthe
developmentofacounterpublicthatwouldeventuallyintersectwithandtransformthe
medicalprofession’sunderstandingofandattitudetowardbreastfeedingandtheroleof
mothersindecision-making.
Theearlieststage,thedevelopmentoftheparalleldiscursivearenaofthelocal
mother-to-mothersupportgroup,witnessedtheestablishmentoftheorganizationandthe
developmentofLLL’scounterdiscourse,includingitsphilosophyofnaturalmotherhood.
Thisstagebeganwhenmotherswhohadfacedsimilarstruggleswiththeirattemptstodefy
dominantpracticeandbreastfeedcametogetherinamaternalspacewiththeintentionof
offeringoneanothermutualsupport.Theyrecognizedthatsupport,orlackthereof,had
playedasignificantroleintheirattemptstobreastfeed,andtheywantedtoofferthat
supporttomotherswithintheirlocalareainamoreformalandorganizedway.
Whilethisdomesticmother-to-mothersupportgroupprovidedapracticalsolution
totheissueoflackofknowledgeablesupport,anditprovidedasafematernalspaceforthe
foundingmotherstoshareandcomparetheirexperiences,italsofunctionedinamanner
similartothefeministconsciousnessraisinggroupsthatdevelopedinthelater1960s.In
sharingandcomparingtheirexperienceswithchildbirthandbreastfeeding,themothers
whoattendedthoseinitialLLLmeetingswereabletoanalyzethedominantdiscourse
aroundinfantfeedingandchildcareandidentifythewaysinwhichalocalmother-to-
mothersupportgroupcouldaddressthefailureofthemedicalprofessiontoaccommodate
194
theneedsofmothers.Someofthefoundershadoptedtogivebirthathomeandhad
discoveredthattheprivatespaceofthehomecouldbetteraccommodatetheneedsofthe
unmedicatedbirthingmotherthancouldahospitalmaternityward.Throughtheir
conversationsaboutchildbirthandbreastfeeding,themembersofLLLwereabletoanalyze
moredeeplywhatdreweachofthemtothedecisiontobreastfeedandseekoutanatural
childbirth,andasaresultoftheseconversations,LLLdevelopedaphilosophyofnatural
motherhood.Instarkcontrasttothemodelofscientificmotherhood,thephilosophyof
naturalmotherhoodunderstoodmotherstobeintuitiveaboutthebiologicalandemotional
needsoftheirchildren.LLL’sfoundersbelievedthatthemother’snaturalintuitionand
confidenceinone’smotheringhadbeenharmedbytheexpectationthatgoodmothers
followstrictprescriptionsforthecareandfeedingoftheirchildren.Theestablishmentof
theinitiallocalmother-to-motherbreastfeedingsupportgroupwithinamaternalspace
wasarhetoricalactiontothisharmposedbyscientificmotherhood.Thesharingthattook
placewithinthematernalspaceofthemother-to-mothersupportgroupvalidatedmaternal
experienceasasourceofknowledgeandasgroundsformothers’authorityoverthecareof
children.LLLbelievedthatbabieshaduniqueneedsandthatattentivemotherswho
practicedanaturalapproachtomotherhoodwoulddevelopastrongunderstandingoftheir
babies’needsbydevelopingclosemother-childbonds.ThesafematernalspaceoftheLLL
meetingenabledtheorganizationtodevelopthephilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodthat
assumedthatmothershadaninstinctualunderstandingoftheirchildren’sneedsanda
desiretomeetthoseneeds;thus,naturalmotherhoodframedmothersasthelogical
authorityoverthecareoftheirownchildren.InthematernalspaceoftheLLLmeeting,
wherebabiesandchildrenwerewelcome,notonlydidnewmothersbenefitfromthe
195
knowledgeandsupportofexperiencedmothers,buttheyalsowitnessedthebenefitsofthe
strongmother-childbondthatwastheresultofbreastfeedingandamoreresponsive,
naturalapproachtomotherhood.
ThesecondsignificantdevelopmentinLLL’sevolutionasacounterpublicinvolved
thebroaderrecruitmentofmothersthroughthedistributionofTheWomanlyArtof
Breastfeeding,atextaimedatsharingLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodandoffering
atextualalternativetotheface-to-facemodelofmutualsupport.Thechallengeof
translatingtheworkoftheface-to-facesupportgroupintotextwascomplex,asthe
informationsharedinthemeetingwasonlyoneaspectofthedynamicthatmadetheface-
to-facegroupsuccessfulinprovidingsupportandrestoringconfidenceinmaternalwaysof
knowingbaseduponexperienceandcommunalsharing.Camaraderie,anegalitarian
sharingofexperience-basedknowledge,andvisualmodelsofsuccessfulnursingand
motheringundertheparadigmofnaturalmotherhoodwereaspectsofthelocal,face-to-
facemeetingthatweremoredifficulttotranslate.Intheattempttocommunicatethese
elementstoawidelydistributedaudience,LLLusedavarietyofrhetoricalstrategies:it
createdamaternalethosfortheorganizationbyassociatingthefounderswithelementsof
theculturalcodeofmotherhood;italignedthephilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodwiththe
BiblicalfigureofEve,therebymakinganappealtologicandassociatingnatural
motherhoodandmaternalinstinctwithmorality;itcharacterizedtheorganizationnotasa
groupofmoreexperiencedmotherssupplementedbyamedicaladvisoryboardbutasa
friendlyneighborwhowantedtosharetheknowledgeshehadgainedfromherexperience;
ittargetedanaudiencemadeupofonlymotherswhowerealreadyinclinedtobreastfeed,
therebyappealingtolike-mindedwomenwithsimilar,thoughperhapsunexplored,
196
attitudestowardthedominantparadigmofscientificmotherhood;anditleveragedthe
culturalcodeofmotherhoodtoconvinceboththemotherandthefathertomakepractical
changesinthehomethatwouldtransformthehomeintoaprivatematernalspace.
Instructionincreatingamaternalspaceinvolvednotonlyamaterialrearrangement
ofthehomebutalsoarestructuringoffamilydynamicsandre-evaluationoftheprimary
roleofwifeandmotherinsideofthehome.KayeLowman,theauthoroftheorganizational
historiesTheLLLoveStoryandTheRevolutionariesWorePearls,describedtheimpactof
LLL’ssevenfoundersandtheirphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodinthisway:“Theyhave
changedourlives,thesesevenwomenwhofoundedLaLecheLeague.Wecamewantingto
learntheartofbreastfeeding.Wefoundawayoflife”(Lowman,LLLove75).LLL’smodelof
naturalmotherhoodwascertainlyasignificantshiftawayfromthestatusquo.Ratherthan
focusondomesticchores,amarkerofmaternalidentityinthe1950s,LLLencouraged
motherstoconcentrateonthedevelopmentofthebondbetweenmotherandchild,
particularlyinearlyinfancy.TheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingemployedrhetorical
strategiestoconvincemothersthatarestructuringofthehome,withlessfocuson
domesticchores,astrongerfocusonthedevelopmentofstrongfamilybonds,anda
supportivehusbandactingasanengagedco-parent,wasnecessaryandbeneficial.Thetext
alsomodeledrhetoricalstrategiesthatwomencouldemployinnegotiationswithhusbands
inordertogarnertheirsupport.Yet,ratherthanchallengingthegendereddivisionoflabor
inreimagingroleswithinthehome,LLLreaffirmeditbyemphasizingtheunique,nurturing
roleofthemotherandhermaternalbiology.Thebiologicalessentialisminherentinthe
organization’sphilosophyanditsreaffirmationthatthehomeistheappropriateplacefor
mothersservedtoalienatesomemothersandresultedinmuchcriticismfromfeminist
197
scholars;however,forthefoundersofLLL,thehomewasasiteofliberationfromthe
oppressionsofthemedicalestablishmentduringchildbirthandinthepost-partumperiod.
Additionally,forthemembersofLLL,themother-to-mothersupportgrouphadbeenasite
ofmaternalempowerment,soincomposingTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeeding,LLLnot
onlyaimedtooffersupporttowomenwhowishedtobreastfeedbutalsotopersuade
motherstoresistthestatusquoandpracticeamorenaturalapproachtomotherhoodin
thematernalspaceoftheirhomes.Justasthelocalmother-to-mothersupportgrouphad
operatedasa“paralleldiscursivearena”(Fraser)forthedevelopmentofLLL’s
counterdiscourse,thematernalspaceofthehomeprovidedasafeenclaveinwhich
individualmotherscouldpracticematernalagency.Inassistingmothersincreatingthese
maternalspaces,LLLdevelopedintoahorizontalnetworkcomprisedofanarmyof
motherswhowerewell-versedinLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodandwell-armed
withtherhetoricalandpracticaltoolsnecessarytocreatetheirownsafeenclavesinwhich
toembraceandpracticeanalternativeparadigmofmothering.
ThethirdstageofthedevelopmentofLLLasadistinctcounterpublicinvolvedits
interactionwiththedominantpublic.JustasLLLusedtextualoutreachtopersuade
motherstoadoptLLL’sphilosophyofnaturalmotherhoodandprovidedthemwiththe
rhetoricalmeansandpracticaladvicetodosowithintheirownhomes,LLLusedtextssuch
asTheWomanlyArtofBreastfeedingandLaLecheLeagueNewstoprovidemotherswith
therhetoricaltrainingnecessarytomoveoutintothepublicandeffectivelyengagewith
andresistthedominantdiscourseinatemperedwaythatforegroundedconceptsand
valuestraditionallyassociatedwithmotherhood.Muchoftheseeffortsatrhetorical
educationinLLL’searlypublicationswerefocusedonhelpingwomennavigateinteractions
198
withmedicalprofessionalsinthehospitalintheimmediatepost-partumperiod.LLL
offeredscriptsthathelpedmotherscraftmaternalethosthatreliedonwhatRyan,Myers,
Jonesdescribedasan“ecologicalmindset”(11)inordertorenegotiatethebalanceof
powerbetweenmothers,physicians,andothermedicalprofessionals.Additionally,LLL’s
counterpublicofbreastfeedingmothersengagedinaprojectofcollectiveethosformation
thatwouldgaintheattentionofthemedicalprofessionandprompttheprofessiontorevise
itsunderstandingofbreastfeedingandofthecapacityofmotherstotakeamoreactiverole
inmakingdecisionsaboutchildcare.
CarolMattinglyarguesthattheuseofatemperedapproachtoactivismbymembers
oftheWomen’sChristianTemperanceUnionmadetherhetoricmoreacceptabletoabroad
publicthananapproachthatblatantlychallengedthestatusquo(21).IarguethatLLLwas
rhetoricallysavvyenoughtoteachmotherstodevelopamaternalethosgroundedinideals
associatedwiththeculturalcodeofmotherhoodandthatpaidrespecttoexpertiseand
subtlyframedtheexpert’sknowledgeasgroundsforresistancetothestatusquo.The
scriptsthatLLLprovidedtoreadersmodeledaudienceawarenessandtheadaptationof
maternalethosforvaryingaudienceswithinthemedicalprofession.Thesescriptshelped
mothersrenegotiateandre-framerelationshipswithmedicalprofessionals,andinso
doing,thesemothersemployedmaternalethostocarveoutmaternalspacewithinphysical
spacescontrolledbythedominantpublic,inthiscasethemedicalprofession.Inthisway,
LLLprepareditshorizontalnetworkofmotherstointeractwiththedominant,traditionally
top-downmedicalprofessioninsuchawaythatcausednoaffronttotheprofessionbut
insteadbegantoreshapeboththepracticeswithinthegenderedinstitutionalspacesof
199
medicineandthemedicaldiscoursesurroundinginfantfeedingandtheroleofmothersin
makingdecisionsabouttheirchildren’shealthcare.
WhileIexplorethethreestagesofdevelopmentofLLL’semergenceasa
counterpublic(formation,spread,engagementwiththedominantpublic),Idonotmeanto
suggestthatthebuildingofcounterpublicshappensindefinedanddistinctstages.Inthe
periodIexamined,primarily1956-1963,thespreadofLLLthroughtextualsupportand
engagementwiththedominantpublicoccurredsimultaneously.Muchofthefoundational
scholarshipthatexploresthenatureanddevelopmentofpublics(Habermas)and
counterpublics(Fraser)doessoprimarilythroughanabstractexplorationofthetheoryof
theirtrajectoryandtheirimpacts.ThisstudyofLLLprovidesanoverviewofthewayin
whichaparticularcounterpublicgrewfromtheideaofasmallgroupofindividualsand
thenspreadinsuchawayastointersectwithandalterdominantdiscourseandpractices
aroundinfantfeeding.Followingthe1960s,LLLcontinuedtodevelopastrongerandlarger
counterpublicbyreachingouttomothers,offeringthemsupportandeducation,and
preparingthemtoengagerhetoricallywithadominantpublicthatmaynothavebeen
preparedtounderstandoraccommodateitsphilosophyandpractices.Eventually,LLLno
longeroperatedascountertothedominantdiscourseoninfantfeedingbutwasinstead
acceptedasanauthorityontheissueofbreastfeedingbythemedicalprofession.
Oneimplicationofthisstudyisthatthefieldofrhetoricalstudiesshouldmore
closelyexaminetheparadoxicalmessagingofconservativeorganizationsthatseemsto
constrainasmuchasitempowers.ScholarssuchasCarolMattingly,LisaShaver,and
CharlotteHogghaveexploredthewayinwhichconservativewomenhaveusedthe
rhetoricalmeansavailabletothemtoadvocateonbehalfwomenandimprovetheirlives
200
whenmoreradicalapproachesmayhavefailed.Thisdissertationbuildsontheirworkby
suggestingthatconservativerhetoricalstrategiesemployedbywomen’sorganizationscan
leadtorapidandradicalchangeindominantviewsofwomenandtheirroles.LLLhaslong
beenregardedasaparadoxicalorganization,simultaneouslyempoweringand
disenfranchisingmothers,andthereisincontrovertibleevidencethatthiswassometimes
thecase;however,acloserexaminationrevealsthattheparadoxicalnatureofLLLandits
rhetoricwasperhapsthekeytoitssuccess.AsLindalBuchananexplainsinRhetoricsof
Motherhood,maternalrhetoricsareparadoxical,astheirpowerliesintappingintothose
ideasandconceptsthatwetraditionallyassociatewithmotherhoodinordertoauthorize
activitiesthatmightotherwisebedeemedastoocontroversialorrevolutionarytobe
acceptable(5).InLLL’scase,itsabilitytoharnesselementsoftraditionalmotherhoodand
usethemtosubvertunderstandingsofwhatitmeanstobeagoodmotherwasits
rhetoricalstrength.
Anotherwaythatthisdissertationcontributestofeministrhetoricalscholarshipis
thatitproblematizesthenotionthatonlywomen’sfullandequalaccesstodisciplinary
sitesofknowledgecanaffectchangeinthebeliefsandpracticesofadominantpublic.
Genderedspatialsegregationisgenerallythoughtofbyfeministscholarsasabarrierthat
limitswomen’sabilitytoaffectchangeandchallengethestatusquo.Itisforthisreason
thatDaphneSpainarguesthatthemarginalizationofwomenbydisciplinaryauthorities
canonlybefullyandeffectivelychallengedwhenwomenhavefullaccessandequal
involvementindisciplinarycentersofpower(5).Anumberoffeministrhetoricalscholars
haveexploredtherhetoricalstrategiesthatwomenhavehistoricallyusedtoauthorize
theirentranceintomaledominatedprofessionsandtherebyreshapethoseprofessions.
201
Thesescholarshaveexploredthewayinwhichwomenhaveusedtherhetoricalmeans
availabletothemtoarguefortheirfullandequalparticipationindisciplinaryor
professionalspaces,frequentlyafterlengthy,orevenmultigenerational,efforts(Wells;
Enoch;Skinner;Buchanan;Mountford;Applegarth;Moseley).Forexample,bothSkinner
andWellsexploretheentranceofwomenphysiciansintothemedicalprofessioninthe
nineteenthcentury,andasSkinnerexplains,oncewomengainaccesstomale-dominated
locationsandpositionsofauthority,theystillmaynotbeviewedasequalsandmust
developethos,sometimesfromtheirmarginalizedpositions,toarguethattheyhave
authorityandexpertise.
Equalaccesstopositionsofauthorityalongwithequalrespectandinfluenceon
disciplinaryknowledgeis,ofcourse,theideal;however,ifchangeisonlytooccurfrom
advocacyandagitationalactivitiesthattakeplacefromwithinthediscipline,changemay
bedelayedforasignificantamountoftime.AsSarahHallenbeckrevealsinClaimingthe
Bicycle:Women,Rhetoric,andTechnologyinNineteenth-CenturyAmerica,thecollective
rhetoricalactivitiesoflaypersonscanpromptadisciplinetoreviseitsunderstandingand
practices.Initsearlyhistory,LLLsparkedasimilarlaypersons’movementbydevelopinga
counterpublicofbreastfeedingmothers.AsthisstudyofLLLsuggests,counterpublicsand
theirassociatedcounterdiscoursesthatbeginonthemarginsofadisciplinarydiscourseare
abletointersectwiththedominantdiscoursesandeventuallytransformthem.
Inadditiontoprovidinganexampleofthewayinwhichcounterpublicscanshape
dominantdiscourse,thisstudyalsorevealsthesignificantrelationshipbetweenthe
genderingofspaceandtherhetoricaltoolsthatareavailabletoaidtherhetorinthe
developmentofethos.ThisprojectbuildsontheworkofscholarssuchasSpain,Jack,
202
Enoch,Mountford,andJohnsonwhohaveexploredtherhetoricityofgenderedspace,such
astheWW-IIerafactory(Jack),andthewayinwhichwomenhavebeenpulledintoand
pushedoutofpubliclife,aswellasfeministscholarssuchasSkinner,Reynolds,andRyan,
Myers,andJoneswhoarguethatethosisasocialconstructthatisco-constructedand
negotiated.Iarguethatmoreattentionshouldbefocusedontherolethatphysically
genderedspacesplayinthedevelopmentofwomen’srhetorics.Themeansthroughwhich
marginalizedrhetorsareabletorenegotiaterelationshipsandassertagencyinphysical
locationswheretheyaredisadvantageddisciplinaryoutsiders,suchasbreastfeeding
mothersinthematernityward,arealsoanunderexploredareaoffeministrhetorical
scholarship.
Icalluponmyfellowrhetoricianstodelvemoredeeplyintotherhetorical
affordancesoffemininegenderedspaces,particularlymaternalspace.Traditionally,the
homehasbeenviewedasaspaceofconstraint,butforthefoundingmothersofLLLand
manymembersthereafter,thehomehadthepotentialtobeanempoweringmaternal
spacethatofferedrespitefromtheconstraintsthatthemedicalprofessionandsociety
morebroadlyplacedonmothersandtheirbodies.Motherswereabletocarryforwardthe
self-confidenceandsenseofauthoritythatthematernalspaceofthehomeofferedandtake
itoutintotheworld,employingmaternalrhetoricandnegotiatingamaternalethosthat
enabledthemtocarveoutmaternalspacewithinthegenderedinstitutionofmedicine.
Maternalspace,whichiscreatedthroughmothers’beliefs,values,andactivities,
offersalensthroughwhichrhetoricalscholarscanexaminewomen’sunderappreciated,
everydayactivitiesasrhetoricalactionandactivism.Studyingthewaythatwomencreate
maternalspacecanshedlightonthewaythatwomenempowerthemselvesandassert
203
agencyastheygoabouttheireverydaylives,bothwithinandoutsideofthehome,while
alsopotentiallyimprovingthelivesofotherwomenthroughtheirefforts.
204
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APPENDIX
COPYRIGHTPERMISSION
Figure4.CopyrightpermissionfromBuchanan,Lindal."PermissiontoReplicateWoman/MotherContinuumTablefromRhetoricsofMotherhood”ReceivedbyJennyMoore,17April2020.Email.
214
VITA
JennyL.MooreOldDominionUniversity,DepartmentofEnglish5000BattenArts&Letters,Norfolk,Virginia23539ProfessionalExperience AdjunctFaculty,WritingandCommunications,UniversityofMarylandGlobal
Campus,Spangdahlem,Germany.2018-2020. OnlineAdjunctFaculty,Writing,SouthernNewHampshireUniversity Manchester,NH.2018-2020. AdjunctInstructorofEnglish,DiabloValleyCollege
PleasantHill,CA.2013-2015. OnlineAdjunctInstructorofEnglish,IvyBridgeCollegeofTiffinUniversity
Toledo,OH.2010-2013. TeachingAssistant,NortheasternStateUniversity Tahlequah,OK.2005-2007. WritingCenterCoordinator,NortheasternStateUniversity. Tahlequah,OK.2005-2007.Education PhDinEnglish(Rhetoric),May2020.OldDominionUniversity,Norfolk,VA. MAinEnglish(CompositionandRhetoric),December2009.NortheasternState
University,Tahlequah,OK.GraduateCertificateinWritingProgramAdministration,December2009.
NortheasternStateUniversity,Tahlequah,OK.BAinEnglish,December2004.NortheasternStateUniversity,Tahlequah,OK.
SelectedPresentations
“Where‘TheRevolutionariesWorePearls’:TheSubversiveUseofMaternalSpaceAnd1950sDomesticityintheCounterdiscoursesofLaLecheLeagueInternational.”FeminismsandRhetorics2019,CoalitionofFeministScholarsintheHistoryofRhetoricandComposition,November2019,JamesMadisonUniversity,Blacksburg,VA.
“Promoting‘MotheringthroughBreastfeeding’:ShapingMedicalDiscourseandMaternalPracticethroughLaLecheLeague’sMother-to-MotherSupportGroup.”2018VirginiaColloquiumontheRhetoricofHealthandMedicine,June2018,GeorgeMasonUniversity,Fairfax,VA.
“MakingaCaseforMaternalAgency:ExploringtheRhetoricalInvitationtoPartnershipandConfidenceinEarlyLaLecheLeaguePublications.”FeminismsandRhetorics2015,CoalitionofFeministScholarsintheHistoryofRhetoricandComposition,October2015,ArizonaStateUniversity,Tempe,AZ.