Post on 18-Jan-2023
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Our Best Selves: J. G. Ballard, Jennifer Egan, and Conceptions of Happiness UnderNeoliberalism
Malone, Patricia
Award date:2018
Awarding institution:Queen's University Belfast
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PATRICIAMALONEBA,MA
‘OurBestSelves:J.G.Ballard,JenniferEgan,andConceptionsofHappinessUnderNeoliberalism.’
SUBMITTEDINPARTIALFULFILMENTOFTHEREQUIREMENTS
FORTHEDEGREEOFDOCTOROFPHILOSOPHY
14/09/2017
2
ABSTRACT
Inthisthesis,Iseektoexploreconceptionsofhappinessunder
neoliberalismthroughaninvestigationofcontemporaryliterature,
lookingattheworkofJ.G.BallardandJenniferEgan.Ihavesoughtto
offeralooselyFoucauldianreadingofthewayinwhichhappiness
hascometooperateasaformofneoliberalgovernmentality.Ibuild
onexistingaccountsofhowaformofneoliberal‘commonsense’
comestoinstituteprocessesofself-managementandself-
maximisationandpaysignificantattentiontoanunder-represented
areaofenquiryinexploringhowneoliberalhappinessdiscourse
permitsandregulatesunhappinessaspartofitsprogramme.My
readingofBallardmovesawayfromthepsychoanalyticcontextin
whichheisusuallysituatedtoofferanaccountofhisworkthat
recognisesitsemphasisonthematerialconditionsoflife,and
highlightsapoliticalshiftinhislateworknotyetmuchcommented
on.Thesecondhalfofmythesis,whichlooksatJenniferEgan’swork,
substantiallyexpandsexistingscholarship,examiningallfourofher
novelspublishedtodateandseekingtoofferacomprehensive
overviewofhercurrentcriticalposition.Thecomparisonbetween
theseauthorsispartofawiderexplorationofthefunctionof
literature,throughwhichIassesshowliteraturecanrepeat,resist,
andrevealtheinsidiousnatureofneoliberalpower,andthe
conceptionsofhappinessthatgowithit.
3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thisthesisisdedicatedtomyfather,afteradifficultyear;tomy
husbandDanny,whohasdonemoreformethananypersonshould
reasonablybeexpectedtodo,andisbetterthananyonecouldhope
tobe;tomysister,whoprovidedtheendlessfreecoffeethatallowed
metothinkImightactuallyfinishit.Tomymother,for
understandingwhyIneverhadtimetoSkype,andtoallmyfriends,
particularlyKimberleyO’Brien,myconstantcompanioninmisery,
andGraceLoughrey,whoseownexperiencesoftheprecarityoflife
providedmuchinspiration.MysincerestthankstoPaulMichaelfor
managingtoproofreadworkthatattimesevenIdidnotunderstand.
Finally,tomysupervisor,AndrewPepper,whosomehowmanagedto
pullmethrough,againstallodds(andreason).Mayweallcontinueto
struggleontogether,inthehopesofbeatingbacktheceaselesstides.
WithatipofthehattoEgan,thisthesishasathemetune.Atfirst,
afterBallard,Ithoughtitwas‘DeathorGlory,’byTheClash.Asall
Clashfansknow,thefutureisunwritten.However,Ihavesince
realisedthatitisactually‘Anthem’byLeonardCohen,towhose
musicIwasintroducedbymyfather.
“Ringthebellsthatstillcanring
Forgetyourperfectoffering
Thereisacrack,acrackineverything
That’showthelightgetsin.”
4
Introduction.................................................................2
WhatWeTalkAboutWhenWeTalkAboutNeoliberalism:Foucault,
Governmentality,andSelf-RegulatingSubjects............................10
WorkingSubjectsandWorkingontheSelf................................23
DistressandDissonance...................................................32
Happiness,AffectandthePoliticalImplicationsofFeeling................35
Onthe‘ProductiveImperative’............................................42
What’sLiteratureGotToDoWithIt?:Explainingmyapproach...........43
LookingatBallard:SystemsandSelfhood.................................48
ExploringEgan:WhoAreWeNow?........................................53
InSummation..............................................................58
Chapter2BALLARD
OnBallard..................................................................66
ThePoliticsofPsychopathology?...........................................74
‘InnerSpace’:Ballard,ScienceFictionandthe‘Psy’Sciences.............80
BetterOffTogether:Leisure,Criminality,andtheConstructionof
CommunityinCocaineNights..............................................85
AllWorkandNoPlay:GlobalElitesandtheHappinessImperativeinSuper-
Cannes(AnEdenFullofSnakes)..........................................101
MillenniumPeople:TheCultureIndustry,ClassandPrecarity...........123
KingdomCome:‘LostintheSupermarket’................................142
CHAPTER3EGAN
OnEgan...................................................................165
ContemporaryAmericanLiteraryCulture:NewTimes,NewSelves,New
Sincerity?.................................................................171
TheInvisibleCircus:PromisesWeCouldn’tKeep........................179
LookatMe:“LetBeBeFinaleofSeem”...................................200
TheKeep:DoNeoliberalsDreamofElectricSheep?......................235
AVisitFromtheGoonSquad:TheDaytheMusicDied...................256
CONCLUSION..............................................................289
2
Introduction
Inthisthesis,Iaimtoexplorethefunctionofliteratureintheprevailing
neoliberalframeworkofthecontemporarymoment.TherouteIhavetakeninto
thisistheexplorationofhowconceptualisationsofhappinessfigurein
contemporaryliterature,seekingtoidentifywhatisdistinctaboutsuch
conceptionsunderneoliberalism.By‘neoliberalism,’Imeanthebroadprocessof
themarketisationofallpartsoflife,andtheresultant‘businessontology’that
proliferatesundertheguiseofcommonsenseinthecontemporarymoment.The
term‘businessontology’istakenfromMarkFisher’swork.Itismentioned
brieflyinCapitalistRealism,andelaboratedonina2009interview,whereFisher
said,
BusinessontologyasIunderstooditwassimplytheideathat
everythingisfoldedinsideabusinessrealitysystem,thattheonly
goalsandpurposeswhichcountarethosethataretranslatableinto
businessterms.TheproblemisthatBusinessOntologyhasnoplace
foranythinglike‘thepublic.’It’stimetoreinventtheconceptofthe
public;andalsoforworkersinpublicservicestostarttodriveout
businessinterestsandbusinessmethods.Upuntilthe[2008]credit
crisis,weboughttheideathatbusinesspeoplesomehowhavea
betterhandleonrealitythantherestofuscanmuster.But,afterthe
creditcrisis,that’snolongertenable.AndasIsayinthebook,if
businessescan’tberunasbusinesses,whyshouldpublicservices?1
Ofcourse,thisisnotwhathappenedafterthecreditcrisis,whichwasused
insteadtousherinaperiodofausterity,withcutstopublicservices,andto
institutearhetoricofscarcitythathasallowedemploymenttobecome
increasinglydestabilised,mostnotableintheriseofzerohoursorcausualised
contracts.2Underlyingallofthisisthefactthatthesemovesarenotactuallyor
necessarily“goodbusinesspractice”unlessthispracticeisdefinedonlyby
keepingcostslowandextractingmaximumlabourvaluefromworkers.What
elsemight“goodbusinesspractice”looklike?HenryFordfamouslypaidhis
1‘QuestioningCapitalistRealism,”MarkFisherinterviewedbyMatthewFuller,Mute,December2009.http://www.metamute.org/community/your-posts/questioning-capitalist-realism2Thisisdiscussedindetailthroughoutthisthesis.
3
workersabovethestandardrateinordertoincreasemoraleandreducethe
levelsofturnoverinhisfactories;thiswasagoodbusinesspracticethatalso
improvedthelivesofworkers.Theunderlyingrationalewaseconomic,butthere
wasalsoanimplicitrecognitionthattheconditionsinwhichpeopleworkaffect
theirlivesbeyondwork-thisextendedtoFord’spaternalisticSocialization
Organization,whichlookedatthetypeofpersonaworkerwas,apaternalistic
practicewithsignificantimplicationsfortoday’sjobmarket.3Theturnoverat
Ford’sfactorieswascausedbyworkerstakingtheirlabourelsewhere-acore
aspectoffreedomandcheckonpowerbuiltintothemarket,accordingto
neoliberaleconomistMiltonFriedman–butwhilethefearofjobscarcity
pervades,workersareincreasinglyunlikelytodothis,andsobecomesubjectto
everworseningconditionsunderthelogicofbeing“lucky”tohaveajob.4This
alsoaffectsmoraleand,giventhataffectiveoremotionallabourisalargerpartof
workthaneverbefore(asIwillexplorelater),theworkermaybetooexhausted
-physically,mentally,emotionally-toexercisethis‘right’anyway.5This
frameworkgesturestothewayinwhichthepoliticaldimensionofneoliberalism
positedbytheoristssuchasFriedmanandFriedrichHayekhasbeenevacuated
inthecontemporarypracticeofneoliberalism,whichIdiscussinmoredetail
below.
Ireadtheriseofstatesof“affectivedistress”asrepresentativeofthe
widespreadsufferingcausedbythepoliticalinadequacyofneoliberalism,and
thewayinwhichitslogicseekstorendersubjectsaseconomicunitsandtohave
themunderstandandconducttheirlivesaccordingtoitsone-dimensional
framework.6ThisdrawsfromMichelFoucault’sworkinTheBirthofBiopolitics
(2008),mostnotablyhisconceptionofthetransformationfromthe‘subjectof
3‘TimWorstall.‘TheStoryofHenryFord’s$5aDayWages:It’snotWhatYouThink,’Forbes,4March2012.https://www.forbes.com/sites/timworstall/2012/03/04/the-story-of-henry-fords-5-a-day-wages-its-not-what-you-think/#314cb23a766d.Thisis,evidently,notintendedtoholdFordupasamodelod=fbenevolentcapitalism,buttohighlightinsteadtheincreasingly‘economised’logicofneoliberalismoverevenFordistcapitalism,discussedlater.4MiltonFriedman.CapitalismandFreedom.Chicago:ChicagoUniversityPress,1962p.14.5Thiserosionininformalrightsisexacerbatedbythedecliningpowerofunionsintheworkplace,whichIaddresslaterinlookingat‘coolcapitalism’andtheobstaclestoorganisingthatnowexist.6ThistermisalsotakenfromFisher’swork.
4
right’tothe‘subjectofinterest’;theriseofhomoeconomicus.7Thesubjectof
rightisgovernedbythegeneralwill,whichis,theobjectiveorjuridicalprinciple
ofright.Thesubjectofinterestis,incontrast,governedwithreferenceto
subjectivewill–self-interest,whichFoucaultcharacterisesas“anirreducible,
non-transferable,atomisticindividualchoice.”8Foucaultsaystheremaybesome
reconciliationbetweenthesesubjects–thatthesubjectentersintothesocial
contract(andthusbecomesthesubjectofright)becausetheyhaveaninterest.In
hisaccount,thesubjectofinterestisnotreplacedbythesubjectofrightthrough
theemergenceofthecontract;instead,thesubjectofinterest“remains,subsists
andcontinuesuptothetimeajuridicalstructure,acontract,exists.Foraslong
asthelawexists,thesubjectofinterestalsocontinuestoexist.Thesubjectof
interestconstantlyoverflowsthesubjectofright.Heisnotabsorbedbyhim.He
overflowshim,surroundshim,andisthepermanentconditionofhim
functioning.”9Rightdoesnotsubsumeortranscendinterest,eveninthe
presenceofthejuridicalwill.Thesubjectofrightissplit,astheycontinueto
possess“anumberofimmediateandnaturalrights,”butatthesametimeagree
inprincipletotherelinquishmentofrightsunderthesocialcontract.Incontrast,
Foucaultsays,“fundamentallythesubjectofinterestisnevercalleduponto
relinquishhisinterest.”10Thisis,hesays,whereeconomicanalysisconnectsto
thesubjectofinterest–fortheseinterestscanbeclearlyfiguredintermsof
economicinterest.Herehegivesanexamplefromthegrainmarket,wherea
countrywithasurplusofgrainmightseektoselltheirstockstoacountrywitha
poorcrop,previouslyprohibitedfordangerofcausingashortageinthefirst
country.Helaysouttheeconomists’argument–whichsuggestageneral
advantagemaybeattainedthroughthemaximisationofindividualinterest-
thus:
Notonlymayeachpursuetheirowninterest,andtheymustpursueit
throughandthroughbypushingittotheutmost,andthen.Atthat
point,youwillfindtheelementsonthebasisofwhichnotonlywill
7MichelFoucault.TheBirthofBiopolitics:LecturesattheCollègedeFrance,1978-1979.translatedbyGrahamBurchell.London:Palgrave,2008,pp.267-290.8Foucault.TheBirthofBiopolitics,p.272.9Foucault,TheBirthofBiopolitics,p.274.10Foucault,TheBirthofBiopolitics,p.275.
5
theinterestofothersbepreserved,butwilltherebybeincreased.So,
withthesubjectofinterest,astheeconomistsmakehimfunction,
thereisamechanismwhichiscompletelydifferentfromthedialectic
ofthesubjectofright,sinceitisanegoisticmechanism,adirectly
multiplyingmechanismwithoutanytranscendenceinwhichthewill
ofeachharmonizesspontaneouslyandasitwereinvoluntarilywith
thewillandinterestofothers.Themarketandthecontractfunction
inexactlyoppositewaysandwehaveinfacttwoheterogeneous
structures.11
Theamplificationofinterestis,Foucaultsays,thefundamentalcharacteristicof
homoeconomicus.Forthissubject,Foucaultsays,followingAdamSmith,the
conceptofthecollectivegood“mustnotbeanobjective.”12Thisaccordswiththe
workofneoliberaltheoristsMiltonFriedmanandFriedrichHayekinits
insistencethatthegovernmentmustnotandcannotobstructorinterferewith
individualinterests,andthatnogovernmentorrulereverhassufficient
knowledgetoattempttocontrolorplanthe“totalityoftheeconomicprocess.”13
Liberalism,writesFoucault,“acquireditsmodernshapepreciselywiththe
formulationofthisessentialincompatibilitybetweenthenon-totalizable
multiplicityofeconomicsubjectsofinterestandthetotalizingunityofthe
juridicalsubject.”14Thejuridicalsovereignisandshouldbepowerlessagainst
theinterestofhomoeconomicusbecausetheycannotknowthetotalityinwhich
theyoperate.Thereis“noeconomicsovereign”–norulebutinterest,which
operatesintheunknownandunknowabletotalityoftheeconomic.15Thisiswhy
Foucaultconcludesthat“economicsciencecannotbethescienceofgovernment
andeconomicscannotbetheinternalprinciple,law,ruleofconduct,or
rationalityofgovernment.”“Economics,“hewrites,“isasciencelateraltotheart
ofgoverning.Onemustgovernwitheconomics,onemustgovernalongside11Foucault,TheBirthofBiopolitics,pp.275-6.12Foucault,TheBirthofBiopolitics,p.279.13IwilldiscussthecontributionofFriedmanandHayektoneoliberalthoughtinamoment.14Foucault.TheBirthofBiopolitics,p.282.15Atthesametime,theproliferationofbureaucracyIdiscusselsewherethatrepresentstheincreaseofdocumentation,measurement,andtrackingofthesubjectmightbeconnectedtothisshift:toagovernmentlaitycentredontheindividual,orthesubjectofinterest,ratherthanthegeneral,orsubjectofright.Inthisway,thehappinessdiscourseItraceinthisthesiscanbeclearlyseenasonesuchaspectofgovernmentality.
6
economists,onemustgovernbylisteningtotheeconomists,buteconomicsmust
notbeandthereisnoquestionthatitcanbethegovernmentalrationality
itself.”16Undercontemporaryneoliberalrationality,however,theartof
governinghas,againstallthis,becomeeconomic.17Anditishereourdifficulties
lie.
Despitethevalorisationofhomoeconomicus,accountsofthegoodlifethat
relyonnon-economicconceptionsofthegoodpersistinthepublicimagination.
Ingivinganaccountofsuchconceptions,IdrawfromRichardSennett’swork,
whichpositstheneedforasustained(andsustaining)lifenarrative,requiring
secureintimaterelationships,theabilitytodevelopandnurtureindividual
talentsorcompetenciesinwork,andasecureplaceofresidence:
Aselforientedtotheshortterm[theidealneoliberalself],focusedon
potentialability,willingtoabandonpastexperienceis…anunusual
sortofhumanbeing.Mostpeoplearenotlikethis;theyneeda
sustaininglifenarrative,theytakeprideinbeinggoodatsomething
specific,andtheyvalueexperiencesthey’velivedthrough.The
culturalidealrequiredinnewinstitutionsthusdamagesmanyofthe
peoplewhoinhabitthem.18
TheelementsSennettseesasnecessaryforconstructionofsomesortof‘good
life’arenotinterchangeable.Theydependoneachother,andrecognisethe
relationalaspectofselfhood;nooneisanisland.Thestructuraltransformations
wroughtbyneoliberalism,elaboratedatlengthbelow,worktoundermineeach
oftheseaspects.Centraltothisisthetransformationoflabourtoanincreasing
stateofimmaterialityandprecarity.Workisadistinctfocusinthisthesis
becausemanyofthesystemicchangesofneoliberalismaredirectlylinkedtothe
16Foucault.TheBirthofBiopolitics,p.286.17Thismeansnotonlyliterally,butalsointhesensethatgovernmentalactionhasbecomepronetocalculationthrougheconomiclogic,acost-benefitanalysis:see,forinstance,WendyBrown’saccountofthewayinwhich“neoliberalismreplacesstricturesondemocraticproceduralismandaccountabilitywithnormsofgoodmanagement:effectivityorprofitability.Indeed,itsetsasidelegality,accountability,andtruthfulnessinfavorofthesecriteria.”Brown.‘AmericanNightmare:Neoliberalism,Neoconservativism,andDe-Democratisation,’p.706.ShegivestheexampleofGeorgeBush’sstatementonthelegitimacyofthegroundsforinvadingIraqasanexampleofthis:‘DidwegetridofSaddamornot?Istheworldabetterplaceforitornot?”Thisis,wemightsay,aformulationbasedoninterest,ratherthanright.18RichardSennett.TheCultureoftheNewCapitalism.NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,2006,p.5.
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changingnatureofworkandtheworkplaceinpost-Fordistcapitalism,whichhas
seentheriseofimmaterialeconomies,affectivelabour,andtheprecaritisationof
theworkforce.
FordistcapitalismtakesitsnamefromthefactoriesandprocessesofHenry
Ford,andtheindustrialisedandstandardisedmodesofmassproductionand
consumptionenabledbythenewtechnologiesoftheearlytwentiethcenturyand
therationalisationofbothworkplaceandworkerthataccompaniedthese.Ford
famouslyintroducedtheassemblylineprocess,whichmeantworkersdidnot
requirespecialisedskillsandwere,instead,‘cogsinthemachine’ofproduction.
Aswehaveseen,Fordplacedgreatemphasisonthe‘moralcharacter’ofhis
workers–onehadtobethe‘rightkindofperson’toworkinaFordfactory.Atthe
sametime,FrederickWinslowTaylorwasintroducinganewsetofprinciplesof
scientificmanagement,elevatingandexpandingtheroleofmanagers.Taylor’s
innovationsreliedona“scientificanalysisof‘timeandmotion’inthe
workplace.”19Thisanalysisreliedonthecloseobservationofworkersand
measurementoftheiroutput,aswellascarefulanalysisofdifferentfactorsof
production,breakingtheprocessintoindividualcomponents.ForTaylor,the
primacyofmanwasover,andthemachinemustnowreign;inshort,menshould
bemorelikemachines,astheywereonFord’sassemblylines.AlthoughTaylor’s
methodshavefallenoutoffavour,theirinfluencecanstillbefelt,intheriseof
managementasadiscipline,thepersistenceofsurveillanceintheworkplace,and
therhetoricofscientificanalysisthataccompaniesproductivitystudies.William
DavieshassuggestedthatonereasonforthedeclineofTaylorismisitsinability
toaccountfortheephemeralorintangible,whichhavebecomemoreimportant
thanphysicallabourinourneweconomy.20
Tosaythatourcurrenterais‘post-Fordist,’then,referstothechanging
natureoflabour–thedeclineofthefactory,theriseofcreativityover
standardisation,theshiftfrommanufacturingthingstoproducingknowledgeor
experiences.Thispointstotheriseofimmaterialeconomy,whichvariously19WilliamDavies.TheHappinessIndustry.LondonandNewYork:Verson,2015.p.118.Inthespecificexamplegivenhere,Taylor’sstrategieswereappliedtotheproblemofincreasingtheamountofpigironthatlabourerscouldloadontoawagon.20Indeed,DaviessuggeststhattheriseofhappinessdiscourseisareasonforthedeclineininterestinTaylor’stheories,whichofferednoaccountofthehappinessorunhappinessoftheworker.pp.120-1.
8
referstoknowledge-basedeconomies;totheriseofaffectivelabour;andtothe
increasedvalueofthoseintangiblesnotconsideredinthe‘machineoverman’
theoriesofFordismandTaylorism.Thesechangesinwork–initstype,its
location,anditsdemandsontheworker–pointtoototheemergenceofanew
typeofworker,andanewsystemoflabourvalue,whichIexplorethroughout
thisthesis.
Severalcriticsrecognisethepersistenceofthosegoodobjectsoutlinedabove,
suchasLaurenBerlantinher2011work,CruelOptimism.Berlant’sworkhas
informedthetheoreticalframeworkofthisthesisinitssuggestionthatpeople
remainattachedtoideasofthegoodlifethatarerendereddifficultoreven
impossibleunderneoliberalism.AlthoughBerlantrecognisesthatthese
attachmentsmaybedamaging,shesuggeststhattheymightstillenablesubjects
tostructuresomesenseoffuturityagainstthe“crisisordinariness”oflifeunder
neoliberalism.Thisisconnectedtomysuggestionthatpsychotherapeutic
rationales,wellnesspractices,andotherelementsofneoliberalhappiness
discourse,mayusetheideaofhappiness–ofworkingonone’sownhappiness–
asawaytodisguisetheimpossibilityofthosenon-economicallybasedaccounts
ofthegoodlifepositedbytheoristssuchasSennett,andtodistortthestructural
inequalitiesthatrenderthemimpossible.Thewayinwhichconceptionsof
happinessareatworkunderneoliberalism,andtheparticulartypeofhappiness
discoursethathasevolvedunderitsrationales,maybeseenasadistinctformof
governmentality,asIexplorebelow.Throughtheproliferationofthishappiness
discourse,thedistressofsubjectsiscontained,depoliticised,anddétournéd,
transformedintoaformofgenerativesufferingwhichdoesnotchallengethe
primacyoftheproductiveimperativethatliesattheheartofneoliberalism,
whosegreatestenemyisstasis.
Incharacterisingthishappinessdiscourse,Iamnothereconcernedwiththe
precisedifferencesbetweendifferentbranchesofpsyscience.Instead,whatIam
lookingatisthedisseminationofpsystrategiesinserviceofaparticularend.
Thisendisnotnecessarilyaclearorunanimousideaof‘happiness,’butbetter
understoodinmyworkastherecuperationofdistressandthecreationand
maintenanceoftheproductivesubject.Thisrefersmorebroadlytotheprocess
of‘psychologisation’oflife,whichhasbeendescribedatlengthbyvarious
9
theorists,includingJandeVos.InPsychologisationinTimesofGlobalisation
(2012),deVoswrote:“Ifyouwanttoknowthehuman,don’tstudypsychology,
studypsychologisation.”21MyfocusisnotsimplywhatDavidInglebycalls“the
psycomplex.”22Instead,Iseethisasoneavenueofdisseminationforthis
happinessdiscourse,whichalsofunctionsthroughinformalandnon-medicalised
practices,asseen,forinstance,inthe‘wellnessindustry’chartedbyCederstrom
andSpicer.Thisisconnected,asIsuggestlater,totheexpansionofthe
psychologicalfromspecialistdiscoursetoeverydayrationality:wemightsay,
even,theunfurlingofthedisciplineofpsy.This,too,movesbeyondastate-
centricapproachtolookatthenetworksofdisseminationthatallowand
perpetuatethishappinessdiscourse.DeVospositsafigurehedescribesashomo
psychologicus;onemightsaythisthesisisinterestedintheevolvingrelationship
betweenhomopsychologicusandhomoeconomicus,butdoesnotassumethe
absoluteexistenceofeitherfigure.Instudyingliteraryfiction,itshouldbe
possibletotracktheculturaldisseminationofthesefiguresinthedevelopment
ofcharactersandsituations,andtousethisasthebasisforbeginninganaccount
ofhowtheseforcesareatworkintheworldbeyondthetext.
TheauthorsIhaveselectedforthisinvestigationareJ.G.Ballardand
JenniferEgan;thebroadfocusofmythesisisAnglo-American.Iwillexplainand
elaborateoneachofthesechoicesinthisintroduction,beginningwithan
accountoftheunderstandingof‘neoliberalism’andassociatedcriticaltermsthat
underpinmywork,movingintoanelaborationontherelationofliteratureto
thisframework,andwhyIseehappinessasimportanttothisinvestigation.
Followingonfromthis,IwillexplicatewhyIhaveselectedtheworkofBallard
andEganasasiteofenquiry.Iwillofferanaccountofmytheoreticalframework,
aswellasanoverviewofotherliteratureoperatinginthesamearea,andan
explanationofhowmyworkbuildsonexistingcriticalapproaches.
21JandeVos.PsychologisationinTimesofGlobalisation.London:Routledge,2012.p.10.22DavidIngleby,‘TheAmbivalenceofPsychoanalysis,’FreeAssociations;Psychoanalysis,Groups,Politics,Culture.15,1984.ThisaccordswithRose’sFoucauldianaccountofpsysciencesasacomplexnetworkofpowerdiffusion,cuttingacrossdifferentpartsoflifeincludingfamily,workplace,andsoon.
10
WhatWeTalkAboutWhenWeTalkAboutNeoliberalism:Foucault,
Governmentality,andSelf-RegulatingSubjects
Inanyacademicworkthatinvokesneoliberalism,aneffortmustbemadeto
explainwhatexactlytheauthormeansbyneoliberalism.Whereour
understandingofcapitalismhaslongremainedcloselytiedtoMarx’s
illuminations,itsmostrecentiteration–oratleast,thetheoreticaldeployment
thereof–remains,apparently,fraughtwithuncertainty.Neoliberalismhas,atits
roots,thebasicideathatthefreemarketisthebestmechanismformaximising
humanfreedomandensuringafairsociety.ItisassociatedwiththeChicago
SchoolofEconomics,andtheworkofFriedrichHayekandMiltonFriedmanin
particular.Boththesewritersframedtheirdefenceofcapitalisminreactionto
theriseofcentralisedorplannedeconomies,suchasthoseofSovietRussiaor
NaziGermany.Aneconomycontrolledbythestatewas,theyargued,onein
dangerofbecomingtyrannical,attheexpenseoftheindividual(bothas
sovereignpoliticalsubjectandascreativeforceforprogress).Bothwere
respondingtoanintellectualclimateinwhichtheirideaswerewidelyunpopular
–Keynesianeconomictheorywasdominantinthepost-warera,asnations
soughttostabiliseeconomically,socially,andpolitically.Thetwowerebrought
togetherinthe1940s,whenseveralfacultymembers,includinguniversity
presidentRobertHutchins,conspiredtobringHayektotheUniversityof
Chicago,whereby1946Friedmanwasafacultymember.Thiswaspartofa
consciousefforttouniteconservativeeconomistswhoopposedKeynesian
orthodoxy,intheintellectualspiritoutlinedabove.Thisschoolofthought
identifiedasliberalintheirbeliefintheabsoluteprimacyoftheindividual;in
TheRoadtoSerfdom(firstpublishedin1944),Hayekwroteofhisbeliefthatat
thatmomenttherehadbeen“anentireabandonmentoftheindividualist
traditionwhichhascreatedWesterncivilization.”23Friedmanoutrightrejected
theideathatpoliticalfreedomwaspossibleinaneconomicallyunfreecontext,
andinsistedonthe“intimateconnection”betweeneconomicsandpolitics.”24
Indeed,forFriedmanandHayek,theeconomicwasnotsomerealmoflife
separatefromthebusinessofliving,buttheverystuffoflifeitself,andeconomic
23FriedrichHayek.TheRoadtoSerfdom.LondonandNewYork:Routledge,2006.p.20.24Friedman.CapitalismandFreedom,p.8.
11
theorywasa“coherent,logicalwholethatheldtogether,thatdidn’tconsist
simplyinasetofdisjointedpropositions.”25Hayekinsistedthatthe“Endof
EconomicMan”wasoneofthe“governingmyths”oftheage,refutingitwithhis
insistencethatthosewhoespousedthisendatthesametimecouchedtheirown
idealsineconomicterms:that“thepoliticalidealsofthepast,ofliberty,equality
andsecurity”hadbeenrecastthroughleftistclaimsforsocialreconstruction
which,byHayek’sreading,alwaysreliedoneconomicreconstruction.26
Thefirstvenueinwhichthesetheoristsandtheircohortweregiventhe
opportunitytoputtheirtheoryintoactionwasChile,inthemid-nineteen
seventies.27FollowingPinochet’scoup,Friedmanbecamehiseconomicadvisor.
Thiswasnothisfirsttimeinsucharole;hehadpreviouslyactedaseconomic
advisortoRepublicanBarryGoldwaterduringhis1964presidentialrun.
Goldwater’srunhadbeenunsuccessful,however,andsoChilebecamethefirst
siteinwhichFriedmancouldtesthisassertionthat“Onlyacrisis–actualor
perceived–producesrealchange”andperformareal-lifetrialoftheutilityofhis
free-markettheories.Inreturn,theChicagoboysweretobestowlegitimacyon
Pinochet’sreforms,andenhancethecredibilityofhisregime.Incontrastto
FriedmanandHayek’sowninsistenceontheindissolubilityofeconomicand
politicalfreedom,thePinochetregimewas,fromitsinception,ruthlessly
totalitarian.28VanHornetalconnectthistothegrowingpublicimageofthe
ChicagoSchoolasMachiavellianschemerswhoseonlyconcernwasthegrowthof
thefreemarketatallcosts,asDavidHarveyimpliesinhischapteronthesubject,
entitled‘Freedom’sJustAnotherWord…’VanHornetalalsorecognisethatsuch
interpretationdependsonthecriticalapproachtaken,asinanyhistoriography:
InNaomiKlein’srendering,theChicagoSchoolrepresentsthe
epicentreofanhistoricprocessof“capitalistreformation,”withthe
1970sexperimentinChileservingasanoffshore“laissez-faire
25MiltonFriedmaninLivesoftheLaureates:Twenty-threeNobelEconomists,ed.WilliamBreitandBarryT.Hirsch,Cambridge,MA:MITPress,2004.p.65.26Hayek,p.207.27RobertVanHornetaleds.BuildingChicagoEconomics.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2011.p.xlii;DavidHarvey,ABriefHistoryofNeoliberalismOxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2008,p.7,NaomiKlein,TheShockDoctrine,London:PenguinBooks,2007,p.7.VanHornetalgivetheyearas1975,Harveysuggests’73;Kleindoesnotgiveapreciseyear.28Kleinconnectedthe“economicshocktreatment”oftheChicagoSchoolwithPinochet’sregimeoftortureinTheShockDoctrine.
12
laboratory”fortherestorationofapurifiedmarketorder.Here,the
ChicagoSchoolitselfitendowedwithremarkablepurposivecapacity,
withFriedman(“DrShock”)astheprincipalprotagonist.Orthodox
andsympathetichistoriographies,incontrast,eschewthe
conspiratorialundertonesinfavourofheroicnarrativesofscientific
contestationandtransformation,culminatingintherighteousdefeat
offlawedKeynesianformulationsandtherevelationofenduring
economictruths.29
Whatisinterestinghere,Ithink,isthequestionofpurposeorintent–thisis
equallytrueinHarvey’swork,whichascribesaclearanddistinctfunctionto
neoliberalism:therestorationofclasspower.Theremitofthisthesis,however,
isnottodecideontheintentionoftheoriginaltheoristsofneoliberalism,butto
lookatthewaysinwhichtheirideashaveproliferatedthroughoutandreshaped
societyatlarge,andtheeffectthishashadonourunderstandingandexperience
of‘happiness.’
HarveyoffersarundownofthedetailsoftheChicagoplanforChile,
suggestingthatalthoughitwasinitiallysuccessful,theLatinAmericandebtcrisis
in1982souredtheoutcome,resultingin“amuchmorepragmaticandless
ideologicallydrivenapplicationofneoliberalpoliciesintheyearsthat
followed.”30Itwasthisturn,Harveysuggests,thatprovidedtheevidenceto
supporttheturntosimilareconomicpoliciesintheUSandUKinthe1980s.31I
understandthisturnasthestartofabroadscaleculturalshiftaroundpublic
economicpolicyandtheprivateconceptualisationoftheself–ifHayekbelieved
thatEconomicManwasneverdead,thentheemergenceof‘commonsense’
neoliberalismmarkedbythisturnsawhisfullresurrectioninthepopular
imagination,inthefigureofhomoeconomicus,theidealneoliberalsubject.What
Iamfollowing,then,mightbedescribedtheriseofneoliberalculture.Inthis
understanding,theinsistenceonthefree-marketasthebestmechanismfor
29VanHornetal,p.Xxvii30Harvey,9.VanHornetalpointoutthatChile’slatertransitiontodemocracyandeconomicgrowthhasbeenusedasadefenceoftheChicagoprogrammeandarefutationoftheassociationwithtotalitarianism.31Thesepolicies,whicharenowrecognisedashallmarksofneoliberalprocess,includetheprivatisationofstate-runindustries,thede-regulationofresources,andthecreationoffreemarketswhereverpossible.
13
individualfreedombecomesallbutirrelevant,thankstotheinstitutionofa
‘businessontology’thatrewritesthemarketnotasameansbutasanall-
encompassingend,andanideologicalendatthat.ThisiswhatImeanwhenI
suggestthatneoliberalismasitoperatesnowisnotsomuchpoliticalsystemas
aneconomicone,althoughIrealisethatsuchaformulationmaybefraught.It
suggests,inthefirstplace,broadacceptanceoftheveracityofFriedmanand
Hayek’sassertionsregardingtheirbeliefinfreedom;thisstandsincontrastto
readingsofintentsuchasKleinandHarvey’s.Letmeseektodispensewiththese
concernsbyreiteratingthatIamnotseekingtogiveahistoryoftheevolutionof
newliberalismorfree-marketliberalismtopresent-dayneoliberalism,whichI
thinkisofadifferentcharacter,asIhavesuggested.InthesamewayIdrawupon
Foucault’swork,butseektomovebeyondit,Iampositingaversionofneoliberal
thoughtthathasinsomewayssurpassedandinothersdistortedtheoriginal
visionofFriedmanetal.Idonotclaimtounderstandthisvisionbeyondtheir
ownwriting,andhere,asaliteraryscholar,Iturntothetextforevidence:ifthey,
asauthors,insistontheauthenticityoftheirbeliefs,Iwill,fornow,takethemat
theirword.Asmuchastheysoughttoreformeconomicspractically,these
thinkersconnectedthistoatransformationoftheintellectualclimate.Dothey
believeinthefreemarket?Yes.Dotheybelieveinthefreemarketbecausethey
believeittobethebestmechanismtoassureindividualfreedom?Accordingto
theirwriting,theydo.Doesthecurrentincarnationofneoliberalismsharethis
belief?Ithinknot.Whentheeconomicbecomesanontology,disconnectedfrom
widerpoliticalideals–fortherighttochooseisnotthesameastherightto
freedom,asNikolasRoseandothershavepersuasivelyargued,andasIwill
suggestthroughoutthisthesis–thenthoseclaimsregardingtheinnate
connectionbetweenthepoliticalandtheeconomicmustbere-evaluated.
Althoughneoliberalismasitnowoperatesmayconstituteamodeoflife,Ibelieve
thatitnolongerhasaclearpoliticaldimension,whichwemightalsounderstand
asa‘freedomfunction,’perFriedmanetal.32Theabsurdityofthispositionisthat
32Withregardtothisideaofneoliberalismasa‘modeoflife,’wemightthinkofFoucault’sdistinctionbetweenEuropeanandAmericanneoliberalisminTheBirthofBiopolitics,whichherelatestothedistinctcharacterofAmericanliberalism,writing,“Americanliberalismisnot–asitisinFranceatpresent,orasitwasinGermanyimmediatelyafterthewar–justaneconomicandpoliticalchoiceformedandformulatedbythosewhogovernandwithingovernmental
14
themarketbecomesatoolonlytoensurethattheworldfunctionsasamarket,
andIbelievethewidespreadevidenceofaffectivedistressItraceinthisthesisis
bothsymptomandevidenceoftheapoliticismofcontemporaryneoliberal
culture.33Friedmanhimselfdiscussestheproblemofmeansandendswhen
thinkingaboutfreedom,suggestingthat,
Acommonobjectiontototalitariansocietiesisthattheyregardthe
endasjustifyingthemeans.Takenliterally,thisobjectionisclearly
illogical.Iftheenddoesnotjustifythemeans,whatdoes?…Desirable
ornot,anyendthatcanbeattainedonlybytheuseofbadmeans
mustgivewaytothemorebasicendoftheuseofacceptablemeans.34
Ifthemarketbecomesbothmeansandends,ithassurelyceasedtobe
acceptable,andithascertainly,Ithink,ceasedtobeaguarantoroffreedom;in
thisway,ithasceasedbepolitical.35
IntheintroductiontoTheHandbookofNeoliberalism(2016),SimonSpring,
KeanBirchandJulieMacLeavyassertthat,“Neoliberalismisaslipperyconcept,milieu.LiberalisminAmericaisawholewayofthinkingandbeing.”p.218.FoucaultalsoinvokedHayekasakindofhonoraryAmericaninthisreading:“SomeyearsagoHayeksaid:Weneedaliberalismthatisalivingthought.Liberalismhasalwaysleftittosocialiststoproduceutopias,andsocialismowesmuchofitsvigorandhistoricaldynamismtothisutopianorutopia-creatingactivity.Well,liberalismalsoneedsutopia.Itisuptoustocreateliberalutopias,tothinkinaliberalmode,ratherthanpresentingliberalismasatechnicalalternativeforgovernment.Liberalismmustbeageneralstyleofthought,analysis,andimagination.”pp.218-9Itisthis‘generalstyle’Iconnectmyaccountoftheexpansivediscourseofneoliberalism,althoughforthoselivingthroughit,itseemsmorelikeamodefordystopiathanutopia.33Howdoesoneresistamodeoflogicthatdoesnotfinditsprimaryexpressioninparticularpoliticalbeliefs?Thiscanbeconnected,too,tothebroadpoliticalshifttotherightdiscussedelsewhereinthisthesis,aswellastotheextremedifficultyevenopponentsofneoliberalismfindinframingargumentsagainstitwithoutresortingtomimeticeconomiclogic.Think,forinstance,oftheupcomingstrikeintheuniversitysector.Althoughthisstrikeispartofawidermoveagainsttheneoliberalizationoftheacademy,studentshavebeenencouragedtodemandcompensationfromuniversitiesforclassesmissedduetotheunwillingnessofmanagementtonegotiate;seeSallyWeale,‘Studentsdemandcompensationfromuniversitiesoverlecturerstrikes,’TheGuardian,7February2018https://www.theguardian.com/higher-education-network/2018/feb/07/students-demand-compensation-from-universities-over-lecturer-strikes.Althoughthisasframedasonewaytogettheattentionofthemanagement,whosepreoccupationiswiththefinancesoftheuniversity,italsoriskstacitlyacceptingthemodelofstudentsas‘consumersofeducation’thathasbeenpushedbytheneoliberalisationofhighereducation.Again,thisabsurditymightbeusefullyconnectedorcomparedtotheriseofbureaucracyundertheneoliberalbusinessontology,wherepaperworkbecomestheoutcomeofproductivity,ratherthanitsmeasure:thelogicsgeneratedbythissystemare,againandagain,illogical.34Friedman,p.22.35Despitethis,itmaystillhavepoliticaloutcomes,asneoliberallogicisusedtoframepublicpolicyetc.–butIfindithardtobelievethatthereisanycomprehensivepoliticalphilosophyinwhichthisisdesignedtofunctionasamechanismoffreedomatworkbehindsuchframing.Tothisend,the‘neoliberalstate’seemsalwaystobesomethingofachimera(asHarveyhasalsosuggested).
15
meaningdifferentthingstodifferentpeople.”36Inessence,astheeditorsofthat
handbookrecognisethemselves,theneoliberalmomentisthematerial
realisationofpost-Fordistcapitalism.Thecontemporaryusageofthetermhas
itsrootsinFoucault’swork,asmentionedabove,inthoselecturescollectedas
TheBirthofBiopolitics(2008),whereFoucaultgaveanaccountofvariousforms
ofneoliberalism(German,Austrian,American).Intheselectures,Foucaultdrew
outtheconnectionbetweenthegovernmentoftheselfandthegovernmentof
thestate–biopolitics–andalsodeployedtheconceptof‘governmentality.’
Foucaultlinkstheconceptofgovernmentalitytogovernment,andspecificallyto
thestate,whichhedescribesas‘governmentalised’.Inthisunderstanding,
‘government’referstoatypeofpowerinsociety,theobjectofwhichis
population.Thisgovernmentalisationbroadlyreferstothespaceofrule,andis
markedforFoucaultbyachangeinthenatureofgovernment,whereitis
transformedfromdispositionaltoprocessual.Thistransformationsignalsashift
fromthecorrectarrangementofthings,asitwere,tothereconceptualisationof
governmentasconcernedwitha“sortofcomplexcomposedofmenandthings,”
ortheimbricationofmenandthings,asFoucaulthasit.37Governmentality
occursthroughtheeverydayprocessesthatshapeandconstitutelife,becauseit
istheseprocessesthattakeastheirtargetthisimbricationofmenandthings.
Foucaultdevelopsthisconceptwithakindofgenealogyofpower,inhis
historicaltracingoftheprocessesbywhichhesuggestssovereigntywas
transformedintogovernmentality,aslaidoutinSecurity,Territoryand
Population:LecturesattheCollegedeFrance1977-8(2009).Thishistorical
trackingislargelyirrelevanttothisstudy,whichseekstolookforward,rather
thanback,tounderstandthewaysinwhichpeopleincontemporarysociety
renderthemselvesgovernable,asdistinctfromaprocesswhichchartsthewaysin
whichtheyareorhavehistoricallybeenrenderedso.Theunderstanding
explicatedinthisthesisisalsocloselylinkedtotheideaofdeterritorialised
36SimonSpringer,KeanBirchandJulieMacLeavy,editors.TheHandbookofNeoliberalism.LondonandNewYork:Routledge,2016,p.1.37MichelFoucault.‘Governmentality,’pp.87-105.TheFoucaultEffect:StudiesinGovernmentality,editedbyGrahamBurchell,ColinGordonandPeterMiller.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1991,p.93.
16
populations,whichmustnecessitateachangeinthenatureofgovernmentality,
whengovernmentalityisunderstoodtorefertopopulationasitsobject.
Consideringakindofdeterritorialisedgovernmentalityalsosteersdiscussion
awayfromthestricturesofthestate,andopensupthosenewvirtual
technologiesoftheselfIframeasenablingandenactingself-regulatory
processesinneoliberalhappinessdiscourse.Inconsideringthis,onemight
returntoFoucault’sgenealogymomentarily.If,ashesuggests,progressbroadly
movesfromsovereigntytogovernmentality,atleastinasmuchassovereignty
becomespartofgovernmentality,thereisnoreasontoassumegovernmentality
isimmutableorunchangeable,andthatittoomightnotbeadaptedthroughthe
changingnatureofpowerandpopulation.Thisstudyisnotsuggestingthat
governmentalityhasbeensupersededbyanyotherpracticeorrealmofpower
butratherthat,althoughkeyelementsofFoucault’stheorystillhavesocialand
theoreticalresonance,itistheiradaptationbycontemporarytheorists,suchas
NikolasRoseandPaulRabinow,fromwhichIdevelopmywork.Thisadaptation
doesandmustreflectthechangingnatureofthesocietyinwhich
governmentalityispracticedandinthemodesofsubjectivityamongstthoseon
whomitispracticedandwho,inturn,practicegovernmentality.Thisstudyseeks
toadaptandexpandFoucault’sworkthroughliteraryinvestigation.
Foucault’sconceptionofbiopoweriscloselyrelatedtothisconceptof
governmentality,andtotheshifttotheprocessual.Theconceptofbiopoliticsor
bipowerfunctioninginthisdiscussiondoesnotfollowthetraditionalhistorical-
medicalFoucauldianmodelexactly.Theconceptofbiopoliticswasintroducedin
TheHistoryofSexuality,whereFoucaultdescribedtheemergenceofbiopolitics
ontwolevels:first,basedontheideaofthebodyasamachine:
Itsdisciplining,theoptimizationofitscapabilities,theextortionofits
forces,theparallelincreaseofitsusefulanditsdocility,itsintegration
intosystemsofefficientandeconomiccontrols,allthiswasensured
bytheproceduresofpowerthatcharacterizedthedisciplines:an
anatomo-politicsofthehumanbody.38
38MichelFoucault.TheHistoryofSexuality.translatedbyRobertHurley.London:Penguin,1990.p.139.
17
Thesecondlevelofthisistheconceptualisationofthebodyasthespeciesbody,
whichwecanlinktoFoucault’saccountoftheshifttopopulationastheobjectof
government,whereby“issuesofindividualsexualandreproductiveconcern
interconnectwithissuesofnationalpolicyandpower.”39Biopowerispower
overbodiesbothattheindividuallevelandthespecieslevel,asFoucaulthasit;
biopoliticsarethosedisciplineswhichemergefromthisframework,whichalso
seeincreasesinmeasuring,recording,andmanagingthebody–elementswhich
arealsoimportantinunderstandinghowadiscourseofhappinessinwhich
subjectsbecomeself-regulatinghasemerged(foritis,bynow,ordinaryto
measure,accountfor,record,andattendto,ournearnesstoordistancefrom
happiness,ininformalsettingssuchassocialmediapostsaswellasinformal
psychiatricsettings).
Myunderstandingoftheterm‘biopolitics’seekstoreaditasmoreinherently
humanistic,takentoimplythelivelynatureofpowerflowsandthenecessityof
thevitalsubject–thatis,specifically,thesubjectwhoiscapableofacting,aswell
asbeingactedupon.The‘bio’inthis‘biopower’isunderstoodtoimplynotjust
livingbodies,butalsoembodiedsubjectivities.Toadheretoanunderstandingof
biopowerthatdoesnotmakethistheoreticalleap,particularlywhen
contemporarysocietyincreasinglytendstobeshapedbytheinformationaland
immaterial,wouldbetosubscribetoanunhelpfulCartesiandichotomy.This
moveextendsthedomainofbiopower,andredrawsthelinesofitsmateriality,
hencetheneedtomoveawayfromthehistorical-medicalmodel.This
understandingpointstoadramaticshiftinmodesofgovernance,whichare
developedfromcertainhistoricalideasasdescribedbyFoucault,suchastheidea
thatlife“hasnotbeentotallyintegratedintotechniquesthatgovernand
administerit;itconstantlyescapesthem,”andtheideaoflifegenerallyas
transmutedfromanegativetopositivepoliticalforce–thatis,themovefromlife
39TheFoucaultEffect:StudiesinGovernmentality,editedbyGrahamBurchell,ColinGordonandPeterMiller.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1991.p.5.Foucaultalsosuggeststhattheemergenceof‘population’astheobjectofgovernmentisconnectedtoandmadepossiblebytheemergenceoftheeconomicasarealmofgovernmentbeyondthejuridicalframeworkofsovereignty:seeMichelFoucault.‘Governmentality,’pp.87-105.TheFoucaultEffect.p.99.
18
assomethingthatcouldbetakenbythesovereigntosomethingthatmust
insteadbemaximisedbygovernance.40
TheconceptionsofhappinessItraceandinvestigateinthisthesis,then,canbe
looselyunderstoodasbeginningwiththewaysinwhichtheneoliberalsubjectis
interpellatedtoprocessesandstatesofself-maximisation.Thisisseenmost
clearlyinthepracticesofpositivepsychology,asadvocatedbyMartinSeligman
etal,abranchofpsysciencethatpromotes“humanflourishing”asitsprimary
objective.41Moreovertlycommercialpracticeshavearisenaroundthis
principle,intheformofthe‘wellness’or‘mindfulness’industries,asexploredby
CarlCederströmandAndréSpicerinTheWellnessSyndrome(2015)andWilliam
DaviesinTheHappinessIndustry(2015).Althoughthesemaximisation
strategiesfigureheavilyintheovertconceptualisationofhappinessunder
neoliberalism,theyareoftenstrategiesforthewell:theyassumetheexistenceof
abaseof‘happiness’or‘wellness’thatcanbemaximisedthroughtheir
programmesandtechniques.Myconcernwithstatesofaffectivedistressleadsto
aslightlydifferentfocus;Istartfromthepremisethatsubjectsaresuffering
underneoliberalism,whichinstitutesatomisticpoliciesandpracticesthatrely
onandincreaseeconomicandotherinequalities,andremovestatesafetynets
forcitizensthroughthedismantlingoflegalprotectionsandtheunderminingof
thewelfarestate.42Assuch,althoughIexploretheimpactoftheseself-
maximisationframeworks,Iammoreinterestedinthewayinwhichaberrance
ismanaged–howaretheunwellmadewell,ortheunhappyconvincedtothink
ofthemselvesasabletobehappy,withoutconsideringthematerialpolitical
dimensionsofthissuffering?Underneaththisisthequestionofconsent–howdo
we,assubjects,cometobeenmeshedinalifesystemthatisdamagingtous,to
others,andtotheplanetonwhichwelive,ecologicallyspeaking?43
40Foucaulted.Burchell,etal.TheFoucaultEffect,p.96.41SeetheUniversityofPennsylvaniaAuthenticHappinesswebsite:www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu/.42DavidHarveyhasoutlinedthisriseininequality(aspartofhisthesisthatneoliberalismisaprojecttorestoreclasspower)inABriefHistoryofNeoliberalism,pp.152-182.Manyothertheoristshavedemonstratedthisincreaseininequality,too:see,forexample,HeatherWhitesideandTomSlater’schaptersinTheHandbookofNeoliberalism,pp.361-9and370-81.43Thislatterpointreferstothetreatmentoftheearthasanapparentlyinexhaustiblesourceof‘naturalcapital’inthefaceofallevidencethatsuggestsournaturalresourcesarelimitedandfinite,andthathumaninterventionischangingtheverygeologicalformationoftheearth.See,for
19
NikolasRose’sworkhasbeenimportantinunderstandingtheseprocessesand
inallowingmetoformulateanaccountofhownewtechnologiesoftheself,as
wellasnewtypesandsitesoflabour,constitutenewspacesofsubjectification
andsitesofself-regulation.Iexplorethiswhenlookingattheroleofsocialmedia
andvirtualidentityinJenniferEgan’swork.InInventingOurSelves(1996),Rose
writesthat:
inthegenealogyofsubjectification,prideofplaceisnotoccupiedby
thephilosopherreflectingontheirstudiesonthenatureofthe
person,thewill,theconscience,morality,andthelike,butratherin
theeverydaypracticeswhereconducthasbecomeproblematicto
othersoroneself,andinthemundanetextsandprograms–on
asylummanagement,medicaltreatmentofwomen,improvingone’s
self-esteem–seekingtorendertheseproblemsintelligibleand,atthe
sametime,manageable.44
Thesearethespacesandprogrammeswithwhichmythesisismostoccupied.
Theyrepresentthewaysinwhichpsychotherapeuticrationales,wellness
rhetoric,andotheraspectsofneoliberalhappinessdiscourseinterveneinorder
to‘contain’affectivedistress.Affectivedistresshasthepotentialtobecome
problematicconductintwoprimaryways.Iftransformedintopoliticaldissent,it
mighthavethepowertorecogniseandseektoresistthestructuralinequalities
wroughtbyneoliberalism–whichare,often,atthebaseofthisdistress.Evenif
affectivedistressissuccessfullydepoliticised,andtheproblematicconductof
politicaldissentstavedoff,thisdepoliticisation–alearnedpowerlessness–can
renderasubjectincapableofengagingwiththeworldonanyproductivelevel–
thedepressedorstressedpersonwhocannotattendwork.Thesemundanetexts
andprogrammesaredesignedtointervenetoensurethattheprimarylanguage
ofsufferingispersonal,i.e.removedfromsystemiccritique,andalsotoensure
thatthisdepoliticisedaccountofsufferingdoesnotcausesubjectstodetachfrom
systemsofproductionandconsumption.Thisiswhymyworkhereisless
concernedwithgivinganaccountofhowweshouldlivethanitiswithlookingat
instance,DipeshChakrabarty,‘TheClimateofHistory:FourTheses,’CriticalEnquiry,35:2,2009,pp.197-222.44NikolasRose.InventingOurSelves:Psychology,Power,andPersonhood.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1998,p.26.
20
howwedolive.Thedefinitionof‘problematicconduct’is,asmythesis
recognises,broadinscope,andoftenmanifestsasclass-bound–theunderlying
conceptofhappinessasself-maximisationisdistinctlymiddleclass,asexplained
elsewhereinmythesis.Iexplorethisinlookingattheworkofboththese
authors,whichalsorevealsdifferentsocietalexpectationsregardingthe
representationofclassinU.S.andU.K.literaryculture,asIwilldemonstrate.Part
ofmythesispositstheidealneoliberalsubjectasdistinctlymiddleclass,asI
outlinebelow.Rose’sfocuson“everydaypractices”and“mundanetextsand
programs”alsoinformsmyapproachinseekingtoexploretheprocessesby
whichsubjectsareinterpellatedtomaketheirsubjectivitytheprincipleof
personallife,ethicalsystemsandpoliticalchoices.45Thisoccurs,Isuggest,
throughtheelevationofthefeelingofpersonal–individual-happinessasthe
supremegood,andtheinsistencethatsuchhappinessisachievablethrough
makingthe‘correct’choicesinlife.
Broadlyspeaking,then,neoliberalpracticereferstothefinancialisationof
bankingpractice,theprecaritisationoflabour,andthereconstructionofthe
idealselffromsovereignbeingtoenterprisingsubject–alltheresult,according
toSpringeretal,of“theextensionofcompetitivemarketsintoallareasoflife,
includingtheeconomy,politics,andsociety.”46Effortstogivemorespecificityto
neoliberalismtendtooccurwithinthedisciplineofgeopolitics,connectedto
accountsofspecificpracticesofneoliberalismaroundtheglobe,whichoften
emphasisethevarietyanddiscordanceamongstthesepractices.Myresearchhas
focusedonneoliberalismintheU.K-U.Scontext,perthebackgroundofBallard
andEgan,whobothemployideasofnationalidentitywithintheirwork,albeitin
verydifferentways.J.G.Ballard’swork,inthelatequartetofnovelsonwhichI
focus,interrogatesthefigureofthecosmopolitanglobalcitizeninbothaleisure
andworksociety,inCocaineNights(1996)andSuper-Cannes(2000)
respectively.InMillenniumPeople(2003),Ballardlookscloselyatthequirksof
theEnglishclasssystem,usingthisfocustoexplorehisthematicinterestinthe
45SeeNikolasRose.GoverningTheSoul.London:FreeAssociationBooks,2nded.,1999,p.11.46Springeretal.TheHandbookofNeoliberalism,p.2
21
‘bourgeoisationoflife.’47KingdomCome(2006)directlyexplorestherelationship
betweennationalismandconsumerism,posedinahyperrealproto-fascist
society.Egan’sworkexposesthe‘specialrelationship’betweenAmericaand
neoliberalism,mostnotably,perhaps,inLookatMe(2001).Isuggestthatthis
relationshipistheresultofthedistinctlyAmericanemphasisonindividualism
andthecapacityforself-reinvention,bothofwhichcanbetracedtothevery
beginningofthatcountry’snationhood,asrecognisedintheworkofAlexisde
Tocqueville.
Thegeopoliticalspecificityofthisapproachhasitsorigins,too,inthe
concomitantriseofneoliberaleconomicpolicyinbothcountries.DavidHarvey’s
historicalaccountoftheemergenceofneoliberalismasthedominanteconomic
frameworkrecognisesthepremiershipsofMargaretThatcherintheU.K.and
RonaldReaganintheU.S.asinstrumentalinthisrise.48Hewrites,
Volcker[headoftheU.S.FederalReserveunderReagan]and
Thatcherbothpluckedfromtheshadowsofrelativeobscuritya
particulardoctrinethatwentunderthenameof‘neoliberalism’and
transformeditintothecentralguidingprincipleofeconomicthought
andmanagement.49
TheU.K.andtheU.S.haveahistoricallyspecificsharedrelationshipwith
neoliberalism,aswellasalongercommoneconomicandsocialhistory,andas
suchitmakessensetofocusonauthorsfromthesecountriesinthis
investigation.
Springerhaselsewherearguedthatgiventheexistenceofthesevarious
understandingsofneoliberalism,wemightmostfruitfullyunderstandand
describeneoliberalismasadiscourse,andassessitsimpactthrough
conceptualisingitasaprocessualforce.By‘processualforce,’hemeansaforce
manifestingthroughthosesystemsandproceduresthatgiveshapetoeveryday
life,andwhichinstitutethesystemsoflogicbywhichweassubjectsareshaped
47SeeJ.G.BallardinterviewedbyZinovyZinik,‘1998:RussiaonMyMind,’pp.356-363inExtremeMetaphors,editedbySimonSellers,London:FourthEstate,2012,p.357.48HesituatesthisalongsideDengXiaoping’seconomicliberalisationofChina,whichissomewhatbeyondtheremitofthisthesis.49Harvey.ABriefHistoryofNeoliberalism,p.2.
22
andlearntoshapeourselves.50ThisisaFoucauldianunderstanding,inwhich
“…neoliberalismis…recognisedasamutable,inconsistent,andvariegated
processthatcirculatesthroughthediscoursesitconstructs,justifies,and
defends.”51Happiness,Isuggest,isonesuchdiscourse.Springer’sprocessual
understandingofneoliberalismimmediatelyconnectsittothedirecthuman
impactithasonsubjectsthroughexplicitlyrecognisingthewayinwhichit
worksonsubjectswhomustnegotiatethesevariegateddiscourses.Thisisalso,I
think,theunderstandingthatliteraturecanofferus,andthatIseektoexpandon
inthisthesis.Springer’sprocessualunderstandingcanalsobelinkedtoRose’s
accountoftheneedtounderstandthose“mundanetextsandprograms”that
seekto“render…problemsintelligibleand,atthesametime,manageable.”52
Thechaosofchoiceandlackofpoliticaldimensionunderneoliberalismrender
power,asitactsonandthroughthesubject,unintelligible.Theconceptof
happinessisdeployedasawaytorenderthesufferingthiscausesasintelligible
andmanageable,whilstensuringitremainsremovedfrompolitically
consequentialformulationsthatmightdisruptneoliberalpractice.Thisisechoed
inStuartHallandAlanO’Shea’sconceptionof‘common-senseneoliberalism,’in
whichtheywrite,
Thestructuralconsequencesofneoliberalism–theindividualisation
ofeveryone,theprivatisationofpublictroublesandtherequirement
tomakecompetitivechoicesateveryturn–hasbeenparalleledbyan
upsurgeinfeelingsofinsecurity,anxiety,stressanddepression.
Thesearenowresponsibleforoneineverythreedayssickleavefrom
work.Weneedtoacknowledgetheseaffectivedimensionsthatarein
play,andwhichunderpincommonsense.53
Thisemphasisesanotherofthereasonshappinesshasbecomeacentral
battlegroundforneoliberalism;physicalmanifestationsofaffectivedistress
disrupttheworkplace,underminingwhatIhavedescribedasthe‘productive
50SimonSpringer.‘Neoliberalismasdiscourse:betweenFoucauldianpoliticaleconomyandMarxianpoststructuralism,’CriticalDiscourseStudies,9:2,2012,pp.133-41.51Springer.‘Neoliberalismasdiscourse,’p.135.52Rose.InventingOurSelves,p.26.53StuartHallandAlanO’Shea.‘Common-senseneoliberalism,’Soundings,55,8-24,2013.pp.8-24,p.12.
23
imperative’bywhichneoliberalism,andallcapitalistsystems,reproduce
themselves,andproducetheirsubjects.
WorkingSubjectsandWorkingontheSelf
AsIhavesaid,thisthesisfocusesontheriseofnewtypesandsitesoflabour,and
newtechnologiesoftheself,asrequiringandreproducingnewformsof
subjectivityandsitesofsubjectification.Thetwoarecloselylinked–theriseof
newtechnologies,inavirtualoronlinecontext,givesrisetonewformsofwork,
aswellasnewsocialities.InSimians,CyborgsandWomen(1990),Donna
Harawaywrotethat,forMarxists,“Labouristhehumanizingactivitythatmakes
man;labourisanontologicalcategorypermittingknowledgeofasubject,andso
theknowledgeofsubjugationandalienation.”54AsHarawaysuggests,Marxist
analysisseessystemicalienationastheresultofthewagerelation.Ina
Foucauldianaccount,asminelooselyis,labourisbutonesiteinwhichpoweris
revealed.Giventheeconomicprimacyofneoliberalism,however,thesubjectis
encouragedtooperatenotjusttheirlifebutalsotheirsubjectivityaccordingto
whatFisheridentifiedasthe“businessontology”ofneoliberalism.55Incontrast
toMarxisttheory,workcannotbeseenastheprivilegedcategoryof
subjectificationbecausethequestionofwhatworkishasbeenradically
transformedbyimmateriallabour;thisisdemonstrated,forinstance,bythe
accountof‘glamourlabour’IexploreinlookingatEgan’swork,primarilyinThe
Keep(2006)andLookatMe(2001).Inthisunderstanding,theMarxist
constructionofalienationisinadequate:theboundariesbetween‘labour’and
‘life’areincreasinglydestabilisedbyimmaterialandaffectiveeconomies,asI
discussatsomelengthinmyassessmentofEgan’swork.Thisrecallstheearlier
quotefromFoucault,assertingthatlife“hasnotbeentotallyintegratedinto
techniquesthatgovernandadministerit;itconstantlyescapesthem.”56These
newtypesandsitesoflabourrepresentanewintegrationoflifeintosystemsof
governmentandadministration,whichispresentedasnatural,inevitableand
evendesirable.Thisintegrationalsoreliesonthesubject’sapparentlywilling54DonnaHaraway.Simians,CyborgsandWomen:TheReinventionofNature.London:FreeAssociationBooks,1991,p.158.55MarkFisher.CapitalistRealism.London:ZeroBooks,2009,p.17.56Foucaulted.Burchelletal.TheFoucaultEffect,p.96.
24
enmeshmentinthesesystems–affectivelabourwantstherightattitudeasmuch
astherightcandidate,afterall.WilliamDaviesquotesIanCurtisofJoyDivision
onhisexperienceofworkinginaTayloristfactory,whereheclaimed,“Iwas
reallyhappybecauseIcoulddaydreamalldaylong.”57Affectivelabourasksus
forourdaydreams.ItencroachesontheprivateimaginativerealminawayI
identifyasincreasinglyproblematicwhenitcomestotheformulationofan
objectivepoliticalimaginary.Suchanimaginaryallowsfortheconstructionof
solidaritythatwouldactasanecessaryprecursortoanytheoryofsocialjustice
thatmightseektoredressthesystemicinequalitiesperpetuatedby
neoliberalism.
AngelaMcRobbiehasrecognisedmanyofthedifficultiesthatarisefrom
affectivelabourinherworkoncreativeindustries,suchasBeCreative(2016).
Here,shelooksathowthevalorisationof“beingcreative”asawayoflifehas
beenusedtoobscuretheprecaritythatfrequentlymarksemploymentin
creativeindustriesand,increasingly,inotherimmaterialindustries,suchasthe
servicesector.Theriseofthesekindsofworkalsorevealsthewayinwhichthe
languageofself-maximisationhasbeenemployedintheworldofwork–the
logicof“ifyoulovewhatyoudo,you’llneverworkadayinyourlife.”David
Graebergesturedtothiskindofthinkinginhisessay‘OnthePhenomenonof
BullshitJobs,’wherehetoucheduponthewayinwhichresentmentisstirredup
against“anyonewhoseworkhasclearandundeniablesocialvalue”inaneraof
precariouslabour.58Theperceptionoffulfilmentthroughworkasavailableto
thosewhosejobsareseentohaveintrinsicworth–doctors,teachers,fire
fighters–isusedasatoolbywhichthestatecanjustifytheremovalof
traditionalprotectionsfromthosejobs.Workersshouldbegladtohavethe
opportunitytoworkinthoseindustries,thisreasoningsuggests;nooneelsehas
jobsthatmakethemfeelgood,whydotheyalsodeservelegalprotectionsother
workersdonothave?Elsewhere,thecallto“becreative”redirectsthesesame
dissatisfactionsthroughsuggestingthatanyjobisanopportunityto
57Davies.TheHappinessIndustry.p.120.TaylorismreferstothescientificmanagementtechniquesoriginatedbyFrederickWinslowTaylorinthe1880sanddesignedtoanalyseandsynthesiseworkflow.58DavidGraeber.‘OnthePhenomenonofBullshitJobs,’StrikeMagazine,August172013.strikemag.org/bullshit-jobs/
25
demonstrateyourcreativity.Thiscanbeconnected,too,toculturesof‘cool’
capital,asdescribedinJimMcGuigan’swork.IlookatthisinexploringEgan’s
oeuvre,inmyanalysesofLookatMeandTheKeep.Elsewhere,LeeKonstantinou
hasofferedareadingof‘coolness’inEgan’sworkinhischaracterologicalstudy,
CoolCharacters(2016).ForKonstantinou,coolnessisassociatedwithirony,and
hisreadingofEganfocusesonAVisitFromtheGoonSquad,inwhichhereadsthe
characterofLuluasrepresentativeof“afuturewherecoolmaynolongerbeon
thestreetstobehuntedbutmayhavebeensubsumedbythecommodificationof
everydaylife.”59Konstantinou’scompellingstudyconnects‘coolness’toirony,
andchartsthewaysinwhichironymaybeapoliticallyusefulformofcoolness–
andthewaysinwhichthe‘post-postmodern’moment(outofwhichEganwrites,
perKelly)mightalsobeapost-ironicmoment.Heseesthisasproblematic
because“andpoliticalfantasythatdispenseswithreification...risksdispensing
withthegroundsofpoliticalaction,”neatlysummingupsomeoftheproblemsI
identifywithEgan’swork.60
Bydiscipline(asocialscientistratherthanaliterarycritic),McGuiganisnot
inclinedtoofferaliteraryreadingofcoolness.Hisworkdoes,however,insiston
anoverlapbetweentheriseofCulturalStudiesintheacademyandcool
consumption.61ThisoverlapintersectswithKonstantinou’sworkatvarious
points,notleastofwhichisKonstantinou’sefforttoaddressthe“largelacuna”in
MarkMcGurl’sanalysisoftheprogramera.62Thislacunareferstotheoversight
inMcGurl’sworkregardingtheimpactofthelabourmarketonwritersofliterary
fiction.WhatMcGuigansuggestsisthattheinfocusonconsumptionasthe
privilegedsiteofCulturalStudies,thereexisted“adiscernablehomology
betweentheactive[consuming]subjectofCulturalStudiesandthesovereign
consumeroffree-marketcapitalism”–thisis,wecannote,theessenceofNikolas
Rose’scritiqueoftheobligationtochoose(freedom).63
59LeeKonstantinou.CoolCharacters.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.2016.p.268.60Konstantinou.p.259.61SeeJimMcGuigan,‘ThePoliticsofCulturalStudiesandCoolCapitalism,’CulturalPolitics,2:2,2006,pp.137-158.62Konstantinou,p.238.Thislacunaisalsorecognisedinmyaccountoftheshiftinattitudestowardscommercialsuccess,exploredinthesectiononEgan.63McGuigan,2006,p.149.ItisworthnotingherethatMcGuigan’sanalysisfindsadifferentfocusthanKonstantinou’snotjustbydisciplinebutalsobygeography:itisspecificallythe
26
LikeKonstantinou,McGuigantraceshisaccountofcoolnesstoblackculture,
suggestingthat,“Scholarsofthetopicgenerallyagreethatcoolcameoutof
Africa.”64However,whereforKonstantinou,coolnessasacharacterological
featureretainsitsassociationwithironythroughouthisanalysis,forMcGuiganit
beginswithanideaof“composureinbattle,heat,andlifegenerally,especially
foryoungmales.”65McGuiganrecognisessomefunctionofironyinhisaccount,
specificallyironicdetachment,althoughhesuggestsatthesamepointthat
hedonism–thepursuitofpleasuretoexcess–isalsoafactor.Indeed,
McGuigan’saccountof“thepresent-dayhedonisticmainstream”sees“anotable
constituent[as]beingextravagantunrulinessandbinge-drinkingamongst
teenagedgirlsandyoungwomen,”inaformulationthatseemstotakepopular
accountsofladettecultureasaformoffemaleempowermentasatemplatefor
theactualexperienceandintentionoffemalebehaviour.66McGuigandescribes
coolas“markedbyapredominantlymasculineexpressionofdignityfrom
below,”which,admittedly,followsasimilargenealogicallinetoKonstantinou’s
account.67Whatwemightaddtoboth,however,istheriseintheimportanceof
creativityasanaspectofcoolnessandcoolidentity,asitwere.Differentiating
betweencoolnessasamonolithicandinterpretableconceptandmovingtowards
developmentofculturalstudiesinBirminghamonwhichhefocuses,whereasKonstantinoulooksatAmericanfictionand,byimplication,theacademyinAmerica.Nonetheless,therearelegitimateandsignificantconnections:afterall,coolnessisagloballanguage.WemightevenbridgethetwothroughlookingatThomasFrank’sTheConquestofCool,inwhichhelooksatHerbertMarcuse’sworkasaculturalcriticandhighlightsitsnearnesstoadvertisingcopy.SeeTheConquestofCool:BusinessCulture,Counterculture,andtheRiseofHipConsumerism.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1997,p.62.McGuiganandKonstantinoubothmakereferencetoFrank’sinfluentialstudyintheirwork.McGuiganevengoessofarastoacknowledgeFrank’sinnovationinreadingmanagementliteratureaswaytodiscerntheculturalshiftsofthe1960s,butfailsinthisinstancetoanticipatehowcrucialthesestrategieshavebecome–anunavoidablepointinlookingattheself-managementstrategiesinstitutedbycontemporaryneoliberallogic.64McGuigan,p.149.65Ibid.McGuigan’sreadinggivesusspacetospeculateonwhyitis,culturallyspeaking,somucheasierformentobecool.Konstantinoudoesnotnecessarilyoverlookthis,butIcannothelpfeelinghemissessomeopportunitiestoexpanduponit:hisdiscussionofKathyAckerinthecontextofpunk,forinstance,mightbebolsteredbyconsiderationofthatwriter’sclearanddirectassociationwiththeriotgrrrlmovement(see,forinstance,SashaFrere-Jones,‘HannaandHerSisters,’TheNewYorker,November26,2012).66Iwas21in2006andwouldsuggest,frompersonalexperience,thattherewere(andstillare)stillmanypartsoftheworldinwhichthissortofbehaviorbywomenwasseenasfarfrom‘cool’;indeed,Egan’saccountofexcessivedrinkinganddrugusebywomeninAVisitFromtheGoonSquaddemonstratesthis,inanovelwrittenin2010.67McGuigan.2006,p.150.
27
anunderstandingofcoolidentityliessomewherebetweentheliteraryanalysis
ofKonstantinouandthesocialandculturalanalysisofMcGuigan.Itis,aswithso
muchelseinthisthesis,anefforttoencapsulatethedynamisminherentinsuch
categoriesinamomentwheretheclassictropesofcoolnessareincreasingly
uncertain,aswellastorecogniseadistinctlyperformativeaspectofcoolness
thatisnotnowrelatedtodisconnection,buttocaring–forinthepost-Occupy
worldtowardswhichKonstantinou’sworklooks,ithasindeedbecomecoolto
care.Thisformofcaring,however,isrifewithmanyofthesameproblems
Konstantinouidentifiesinhiswritingonpost-irony.Foremostoftheseistheway
inwhichtheassumptionofsubsumptionremovesthegroundsforaction
traditionallyunderstoodaspolitical,whichcanbeseenasanecessarycondition
fortheshifttoleftistfocusonidentitypolitics,characterisingthisasanareain
whichthesubjectcanexperienceandexertsomemeasureofcontrol(asopposed
totheeconomywhichhasbeenincreasinglymystifiedbyitsrecastingasthe
functionofgovernmenti.e.thedomainof(ruling)experts).Thisisconnectedto
myaccountofthepoliticsofintimacy,whichseescoolnessshiftedfrom
dissociationtoassociation,wherethisassociationtakesplaceonpersonalterms
i.e.couchedinthepsychologisedlanguageofunderstanding.
Thisconceptofcaringasafactorofcoolnessisaninherentlyfeminised
construct,giventhetraditionalassociationbetweencaringlabourandwomen.
ThisissupportedbytheoristssuchasAngelaMcRobbie,whoseektoraw
attentiontothewaysinwhichtheemotionaloraffectivelabourrequiredin
immaterialindustriescoincideswithtraditionallyfeminineroles.Further,
McRobbie’sanalysisofcreativityfeedsintothistoo,andisimportanttoconsider
inlightoftheevolvingconceptofcoolness–fortobecreativemeanstomake
somethingandtocareaboutit.Theprogenitordoesnotdisownordisavowtheir
offspring;rather,theyarepassionatelyattachedtoit(atleastinasmuchasthose
genderedreadingsofcreativitythatrelyon‘birthingideas’andsoonare
concerned).Wheretraditionallymasculinistaccountsofcreativityhaveinvolved
adisregardorindifferencetotheconditionsofreception,theentrepreneurial
spiritofneoliberalcapitalismteachesusthatnotonlyisitcooltocare,butitis
alsofinanciallyviable.Ifourworkiswhoweare,thenourprideinitisnomore
thanprideinourselves.Ouridentitiesasworkersandmakersareenmeshedina
28
feminiseddiscourseofresponsibilityandpersonalidentity.InEgan’swork,
Danny,thecoolcharacterinTheKeepwhoprofessestocareaboutnothing,isa
figureofridicule–untilhefindssomepurpose,andsomewaytocare.Indeed,
eveninBallard’swork,whichisnotoriouslypoorongender,itisultimatelythe
redemptivefigureofDrJuliaGoodwinwhoofferssalvationattheendofthe
quartet(althoughinKingdomComethisisoutsideofproductiveneoliberal
networks,giventhattheshoppingcentrethatdominatesthetexthasbeen
destroyedbythetimethisredemptionarrives).AlthoughKonstantinou’s
accountoftheliteraryshiftfromironytobelief(and,perhaps,post-belief?)is
convincing,thisaspectofcreativityrequiresmoreconsideration.LaterIdiscuss
theideaofcoolnessasaformofprotection,whichissomewherenear
McGuigan’sreading,andKonstantniou’saccountofirony.Bythis,however,I
referspecificallytothewayinwhichcoolnessbecomesadefenceagainstthe
demandforcreativity,particularlyamongstworkingclasssubjectswhose
performativevocabularyconceivesofcreativitywithadifferentsetof
significations.68Further,theideaofcaringinaworkplacethatconsistently
underminesandbelittlestheworker–asisthecaseinindustriesinwhichzero-
hourscontractsarecommon,forwhatdoessuchacontracttellyouexceptthat
yourvalueisminimal?–becomesrisible,whichservestounderminetheideaof
unionformationorothercollectiveaction.Itmightbecooltocare,butperhaps
onlyincertainclasses,incertainsettings,andforcertainpeople:thosewhocan,
onewayoranother,affordto.
McRobbie’sworkhasalsoidentifiedthewayinwhichyoungwomenare
encouragedtodis-identifywithworkingclassidentitythroughaspirational
mediaandlifestylemessages,andnotedthatinservicesectorjobsthereisrarely
68RichardFlorida’saccountofhowtheworkingclassarepushedoutofcitiesasthosecitiesbecomecreativeareasoffersmaterialevidenceforthisreading.Floridahasdefendedhimselffromcriticswhopilloryhimasanadvocateofneoliberalismbysuggestingthathisthesisisthat“[e]veryhumanbeingiscreative,”butitishardtodiscernanyclearunderstandingofcreativitybeyondamiddle-class,employablenorminhiswork.Indeed,hiscontinuedinsistenceonthemeritocracyofthe‘creativeclass’echoessomeofthemostpersistentexcusesofproponentsofneoliberalcapitalism(tosaynothingofhistalkofa“shifttopost-materialistvalues”–tellthattomillennialsstrugglingtobuyahouse)SeeRichardFlorida,’TheRiseoftheCreativeClass,Revisited,’Citylab,June252012.https://www.citylab.com/life/2012/06/rise-creative-class-revisited/2220/.Toputitinanutshell,theaccountofcreativityheredoesnotdoenoughtoofferanaccountofhowthiscreativitymightfunctionasanimaginativeforcetocountertheexistingrealityofwide-scalemarketization,whichisthesamepleathatclosesbothKonstinatou’stextandLaurenBerlant’sCruelOptimism(and,infact,thisthesis).
29
anypossibilityofunionisation,butthatthesejobsmayofferopportunitiesfor
‘life-longlearning’andprofessionaladvancement.Thisformspartofherrebuttal
totheoristssuchasMichaelHardtandAntonioNegri,whoofferedanoptimistic
accountofthepotentialofimmateriallabourinEmpire(2000)anditssequels.
Althoughmyworklookslargelyattherepresentationofworkincontemporary
literature,Ihavesoughttogroundmyreadingsinrelationtotheactualworldof
workasfaraspossible,andtousethosestudiesandcriticalworksthatbest
representthelivedexperienceofsubjects.Throughthisexploration,Ifindmyself
morecloselytheoreticallyalliedtoMcRobbie,andmyworkinsistsonthe
importanceofconsideringhowthesenewformsofworkimpactthosebondsof
solidaritythatareassumedaspossibleunderaMarxistapproach.The
marginalisationofworking-classsubjectshasmuchtodowiththeemergenceof
formsofaffectivelabourinwhichthenecessaryperformativeskillsetsare
overtlycodedasmiddleclass–readingsocialcues,smilingondemand,
demonstratinganappropriaterelationshipwiththecustomer.69Inaworld
shiftingfrommakingthingstoproducingexperiences,beingthe‘rightsortof
worker’meansbeing–oratleasttryingtobe–theidealneoliberalsubject.And
theidealneoliberalsubjectis,asIexploreinmywork,clearlycodedasmiddle
class.
Thefetishisationofthemiddleclassundertherhetoricofaspirationand
choiceisoftenobscuredbydebatearoundwhatconstitutesa‘newmiddleclass,’
thankstothemeltingpotofneoliberaleconomicpolicyinthe1980s,whichsaw
distinctionsbetweenthepetitebourgeoisieandthe‘professional’class(doctors,
solicitors,accountants)eroded.Theidealversionofthemiddle-classsubject
underneoliberalismowesmuchtotheentrepreneurialspiritofthepetite
bourgeoisie,butthisisoftenunderratedinaccountswhichstillprivilegethe
visiblerespectabilityofthe‘professions’i.e.law,medicine,teaching.Weneed
onlyglanceatBallard’sworktoseethis,andhefrequentlysatirisesthis
perception:inthefinalnovelofhislatequartet,KingdomCome,thewrongful
releaseofanassassinhingesonthetestimonyofagroupofwitnesses
69ThisisshowninEmmaDowling’swork,whichMcRobbiereferences.See‘ProducingtheDiningExperience:Measure,SubjectivityandtheAffectiveWorker,’ephemera,7:1,2007,pp.117-132.
30
constitutedbyateacher,adoctor,andasolicitor,whoseprofessionsassuretheir
respectability–andwhoarealllyingintheirtestimony.Infact,theideal
neoliberalsubjectisamemberofneitherofthesesubsets,butsomethingmuch
morelikeamanager.Thiscanbeseeninthestrategiesforsubjectificationunder
discussionhere,whichare,asRosesuggests,muchmoreakintomanagement
strategiesthanphilosophicaldeliberationsonhowtolive/constructandconduct
oneselfintheworld.Thisoccursatthesametimeasthetransformationofthe
stateunderthesesamerationalities–WendyBrownandothershavenotedhow
thestateunderneoliberalismisremade“inthemodelofthefirm,”gesturing
towardsthewayinwhichthisalterstheobjectofthestatefromprotecting
citizenstoprotectingprofits(ortheeconomy).70
Thisisnottosaythatthelanguageofpoliticalphilosophicalenquiryis
obsolete,butrathertohighlightthewayinwhichanewandapparently
unobjectionablefaux-philosophicalregisterhasbecomecommonplacein
articulatingstrategiesofself-management–thelanguageofpositivepsychology,
of‘mindfulness’and‘self-love.’Thisconnectsusagaintothoseself-maximisation
strategiesthatimaginethesubjectasfreetochoosehappiness–themiddle-class
subjectisimaginedasthesubjectwithoutinclination,withoutanyofthe
substantivebondsorburdensthatmightmakeimpossiblethosechallenges
identifiedbySennett.71ThisunderstandingdrawsonandelaboratesSara
Ahmed’sworkinThePromiseofHappiness,inherdiscussionoftheconstruction
of‘happyobjects’andthesubject’srelationshiptotheseobjects.Usingthe1983
filmEducatingRitaasacasestudy,Ahmeddescribedhowtheprotagonistinthat
filmbecomes‘free’:
ForRitatobecomeeducatedrequiresthatshebecomefreefrom
hungerforthings,frominsistenceonandinenjoyment.Having
70WendyBrown.‘AmericanNightmare:Neoliberalism,Neoconservativism,andDe-Democratisation,’PoliticalTheory,34,2006.pp.690-714,p.706.Thismightbeseentoexplainthegovernmentbailoutofbanksfollowingthe2008financialcrash,whichrancontrarytothestrictestlogicofneoliberaltheoriesofthestate(i.e.non-interference),butmakessensebythisunderstandingofstatetransformation.71Sennett.TheCultureoftheNewCapitalism,p.5.
31
becomefree,Ritacannowchoose,withthecapacityforchoicebeing
organizedthroughtropesofindifference.72
Thiscoincideswiththoseculturesof‘cool’capitalismtoucheduponearliertoo,
inwhichthe‘coolness’ofthesubjectmanifestsasapoliticallyconsequential
indifference,whichIsuggestmayoperateasaformofprotectionforthe
vulnerableworkerundertheprecariouslabourpracticesandpoliciesof
neoliberalism.Iseektoquestiontheassumptionsofapathy,learnedor
otherwise,thattoooftenunderpinaccountsofperformativeindifference–this
is,Ithink,aparticularprobleminreadingworking-classsubjects,andprecarious
workersmoregenerally.
Tensionsdoexistbetweenthisaccountofthemiddle-classsubjectasfree
frominclinationandtheriseofleftistidentitypoliticsthatseektoinscribe
attachmenttoidentityasthefoundationalelementofthepoliticalsubject.Ihave
soughttopaysomeattentiontothisinmythesis,asthe‘hollowingout’ofleftist
critiquehasplayedanimportantpartintheriseoftheneoliberalhappiness
discourseItraceinmywork.Thesetensions,broadlyspeaking,havetheirroots
inthecounterculturalmovementsofthenineteensixties,inwhichpolitical
freedomandthecapacityforindividualhappinesswerecloselyinterconnected.
BothBallardandEganexplicitlyrecogniseandaddressthisintheirnovels,which
isanotherreasonformyfocusontheirwork.WendyBrown’scritiqueofidentity
politicsinStatesofInjury(1995)hasbeenhelpfulinmyexaminationofthese
tensions.Brown’sworkhasbeenimportantinunderstandinghowtheconceptof
ressentimentisatworkincontemporarysociety,whichisexploredinlookingat
KingdomCome.Heraccountofhowsufferingistransformedintoasiteof
politicalidentityhasalsobeenusefulinformulatinganaccountofhowsufferers
ofaffectivedistressarereconstitutedasproductivesubjects.Thisreconstitution
islinkedtomyreadingofsocialmediaasasiteofsubjectificationinwhich
sufferingmaybetransformedintoaformofsocialandeveneconomiccapital,
elaboratedbyinvestigationofLookatMe.
72SaraAhmed.ThePromiseofHappiness.Durham,NCandLondon:DukeUniversityPress,2010,p.35.
32
DistressandDissonance
AlthoughIagreewithPhilipMirowski’sassertionthat“mostpeoplehavenoclue
whatneoliberalismis,muchlessharboropinionsabouthowtheirownthought
processesmightrelatetoit,”thoseprocessesandpoliciesIhaveoutlinedasthe
structuralmanifestationsofneoliberalismarediscernabletosubjects,andtheir
impactsareclearlyfelt.73Forinstance,workersinthe‘gigeconomy’often
understandthattheirlackoflegalprotectionisrelatedtothesystemic
dismantlingofformalunionpowers–andeveniftheydon’t,theyrealisethat
workershistoricallyhaddifferentrightsthanthosetheyarecurrently
permitted.74Likewise,theraisingofenvironmentalconsciencethrough,for
example,state-sponsoredrecyclingprogrammes,meansthatmostpeopleare
awareofthecontemporarystateofenvironmentalprecarity,tosomedegree
(althoughtherearethosewhodisputeit,forvariousreasons).Withtheadventof
theInternet,andtheriseofmobileInternettechnologies,aswellasthegeneral
riseinaffluencethatseesmoreandmorepeoplewiththematerialand
educationalmeanstoaccessthesetechnologies,informationismoredirectlyand
widelyavailableinthewestthanatanyotherhistoricalmoment.75Giventhis,
theconceptof‘falseconsciousness’onwhichMarxismhasreliedforitsaccount
ofhowsubjectsremainenmeshedinoppressivecapitalistsystemsisoflimited
utility.Instead,Iproposeamodelof‘cognitivedissonance,’inwhichthesubject
isatonceawareofthemoreorlesscompletestateofcrisisoftheworld,but,
findingnowaytorenderthisintelligibleinthedepoliticisedcontextof
neoliberalism,maintainsastateofdisconnectionfromtheirownimbricationin
thiscrisis.Atthesametime,thisawarenessisinherentlydistressingtothe
73PhilipMirowski.NeverLetASeriousCrisisGoToWaste,LondonandBrooklyn,NY:Verso,2014,p.34.74AgoodexampleofneoliberalisedstatepracticescanbeseenintheTaylorreview’saccountofthefunctionofunions,whereitissuggestedthatthe‘culture’ofhaving‘avoice’maybeanadequateordesirablesubstituteforunionprotections,particularlyinnewindustries–see‘GoodWork:TheTaylorReviewofModernWorkingPractices,’July2017,51-2:www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/627671/good-work-taylor-review-modern-working-practices-rg.pdf.Thiswilfullyignoresthevarietyofreasonsworkersmaynotfeelcomfortableadvocatingforthemselves,inthecontextofprecariouszero-hourscontractsandothernewworkingpractices.ThisistoucheduponwhenlookingatEgan’sworkandthetypeofsubjectwhomayprosper(ornot)intheseworkplaces.75Concomitantly,wemightsuggest,misinformationisalsomorefreelyavailablethaneverbefore.Iwilltouchuponthislater,inmyaccountof‘post-truthpolitics.’
33
subject,nomatterhowdeeplysuppressed,andthuscontributestothese
widespreadstatesofaffectivedistress.
Myreadingofthesubjectisalways,Ishouldstress,asympatheticone:Isee
affectivedistressasarealformofsuffering,andamseekingtoestablishan
alternativewayinwhichsubjectsmaybeabletorenderitintelligible,outsideof
psyorwellnessstrategiesthatquietpoliticalcritiqueanddiscouragesystemic
analysis.76Iamsuggestingthatfictioncancounterthisdistressordissonancein
itsabilitytorevealtheundercurrentsofpowerthatshapeourlives,andin
offeringreadersanimaginativevocabularywithwhichtolookbeyondthe
presentmomentandbegintoconstructanalternativefuture.Itcanalsoshowus
theanticipatedconsequencesifwedonot;lookatthecurrentsuccessofthe
adaptationofMargaretAtwood’sTheHandmaid’sTale(1985).77Literaturehasa
clearpublicfunction:itbondsandbindsus,andcontributestothosemythsthat
formourculture,andourselves–thisisevidentinmyaccountofAmerican
literaturewhenlookingatEgan’swork.
Theindividualisationofdistresslimitstheempatheticpotentialofsubjects,
whichcanonlybedamagingonbothapublicandprivatelevel.Inthisthesis,I
amnotseekingtodisparageanyformoftreatmentortosuggestthatmental
healthisentirelyamatterofsocialdeterminism,althoughIbelievethatthereisa
strongcorrelationbetweenthetwothatisdeliberatelydownplayedinmost
publicdiscussion,whichtendstofocusmoregenerallyonissuesofsocialstigma
aroundthereportingandsharingofstatesofdistress,understatingtheroleof
materialandsocialcapitalinprocessesofreportingandsharing.Indeed,sucha
focusmayevenbecounter-productive,inlightofthe‘responsibilisation’that
occursthroughneoliberalism’sindividualisingprocesses.Thisrhetoricallows
thosewhoaremiddleclasstoconsume(private)therapeutictreatmentandbe
valorisedfortheirchoice,whilethemorecomplexsufferingofworkingclassor
otherwise‘undesirable’subjectsisdemonisedasachosenstateofaberrance–
whydothey,too,notavailthemselvesoftheseresources?Thisfailstoaccount
76Thesestrategiesalsoenmeshthesubjectinprocessesofconsumptionthatareenvironmentallydestructive.Althoughthishasnotbeenacentralobjectofinvestigationinmythesis,itdoesformpartofthebackgroundtotheseexperiencesofaffectivedistress.77JosefAdalian.‘HowTheHandmaid’sTaleChangedtheGameforHulu,’Vulture.June152017,www.vulture.com/2017/06/hulu-the-handmaids-tale-how-it-changed-the-game.html.
34
fornotjustmaterialdisparity(moneytoaffordtreatment)butalsothemore
complexprocessesofsocialisationbywhich‘wellbeing’isconstructed.Ballard’s
workisacutelyawareoftheseprocesses.Hemostdirectlydeconstructsthemin
MillenniumPeople,withitssustainedfocusonthecultureindustryandthewayit
enactsacivilisingprogrammeforthemiddleclass.Morebroadly,Ballard’s
repeatedreturntoclosedcommunitieswithcovertrulesthatareatfirst
unintelligibletohisprotagonistsrepresentstheinarticulacyofnon-middle-class
subjects–“outsiders”–inthelogicsandbehavioursofthatprivilegedclass.
Egan’sworkdoeslesstorevealtheseprocesses,becauseitremainscaught
withinthem,asweshallsee.
Oneofthecentralproblemsoftheprimacyofhappinessdiscourseisthatit
institutesaframeworkinwhichsufferingisrelativisedaccordingtohowitisfelt.
Assuch,themiddle-classsubjectwhopurchasestherapytoalleviatepersonal
distressmaycometocharacterisethisasaformofpoliticalaction–theworldis
bad,andtheyaretakingactionnottofeelbadinit,whichiscastasapolitically
rebelliousstance.Iexplainthisfurtherbelow,inmyaccountoftheproblematics
ofthe‘politicsofintimacy,’aswellasexploringitinEgan’swork,inwhichthese
samelogicsareapparent.Ihaveidentifiedthisasadistinctproblemin
contemporaryfeministdiscourse.Theriseofdiscussionsofaffectivedistressasa
commonoccurrence,parsedinthelanguageofmentalhealth,alsotendsto
presentsufferingasnaturaland‘normal,’withnoefforttoexplainitbeyondthe
individual.Theseformsofsufferingmayevenberecastasformsofsocialcapital.
Theriseincelebrityaccountsofsufferingfromanxiety,aswellasitsfrequency
inblogsandothersocialmedia,isaninstanceofthis.78Thisis,again,not
intendedasajudgment,butasanindictmentofthewayinwhichneoliberallogic
seekstoimpelsubjectstomarketiseeverypartoftheirlifeandsubjectivity–
eventhesufferingitcauses.Thisisalsoadangeroustendencybecausethe
intensefocusonpersonalexperiencesofdistressminimizeswiderempathetic
abilitythroughtherelativisationofsufferingandtheobfuscationofthelink
betweenpubliclifeandindividualselfhood.
78AGooglesearchfortheterm‘celebritieswithanxiety’bringsup894,000results:www.google.co.uk/search?q=celebrities+with+anxiety&oq=celebrities+with+anxiety&aqs=chrome..69i57j0l5.3543j0j9&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8
35
Theprimacyof‘happiness’asalogicofselfoperatesasa‘styleofthought,’
whichessentiallyworksbackwardsfromagivenanswerordictateslimitsof
understanding.AsRosesuggests,astyleofthoughtis,
notjustaboutacertainformofexplanation,aboutwhatitisto
explain,itisalsoaboutwhatthereistoexplain.Thatistosay,it
shapesandestablishestheveryobjectofexplanation,thesetof
problems,issues,phenomenathatanexplanationisattemptingto
accountfor.79
Inasimilarvein,SaraAhmedsuggeststhat,“Positivepsychologyispositive
aboutpositivefeeling;itpresumesthepromissorynatureofitsownobject.”80
Subjectivityastheguidingprincipleoflife,withtheovertaimofmaximisinga
personalfeelingofhappiness,makesthesamepresumption:happinessbecomes
notanexplanation,buttheformofwhatthereistobeexplained.Anxiety,then,
shouldnotbelinkedtoimminentenvironmentaldisaster,risinglevelsof
personaldebt,ortheincreasingdifficultyinsecuringstablehousing,butframed
asa‘problemoftheself.’Theseotherthingsare,byneoliberalcommonsense,
factsthatthesubjectcannotchange.Ifthesubjectcannotavoidawarenessofor
concernabouttheseapparentlyinevitablefacts,sheshouldseektorestructure
herresponsetothesefacts–tomaximiseherexperienceofhappinessormanage
herexperienceofdistressinaccordancewiththesystemthatgeneratesthese
facts.Bymyaccount,oneofthecorestrengthsofliteratureisthatithasthe
capacitytostageaconfrontationbetweenthereaderandtheseaspectsoflife
thatareotherwisenaturalised,andinsodoingtodenaturalisethemandrefute
their‘inevitability’–toundocommonsense.
Happiness,AffectandthePoliticalImplicationsofFeeling
ThelanguageofmentalillnesstowhichthetermsemployedearlierbyHalland
O’Sheabelong–“feelingsofinsecurity,anxiety,stressanddepression”-
generatesitsownmanagementdiscourse,withtheconcomitantfoilofmental
wellnessasa“moralimperative,”asCarlCederströmandAndréSpicerdescribe
79NikolasRose.ThePoliticsofLifeItself.Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,2007,p.12.80Ahmed.ThePromiseofHappiness,p.8.
36
it.81CederströmandSpicermakereferencetoAlenkaZupancic’sdefinitionof
“biomorality,”partofa“moralityoffeelingsandemotions”:“apersonwhofeels
good(andishappy)isagoodperson;apersonwhofeelsbadisabadperson.”82I
amnotconvincedthatthisdefinitionaccuratelycorrespondstopublicattitudes
tomentalhealth,particularlygiventheon-goingworkaroundremovingthe
‘stigma’ofmentalillness,whichhasbecomeacorepartofpublicdiscourse
around‘happiness’underneoliberalism.83Thismessagehasbeenwidely
disseminateddue,undoubtedly,tothemuchvaunted‘globalmentalhealth
epidemic’authorssuchasOliverJames(SelfishCapitalism,2008),RichardLayard
(Happiness:LessonsfromaNewScience,2005)andMartinSeligmanhavesought
toanalyse,andthesearchfora‘cure’.Ratherthancastingsufferersofmental
illness-whichisgenerallyreportedasaffectingaboutonepersonineveryfour
familiesworldwide,ahugeproportionoftheglobalpopulation-as‘bad’or
aberrant,andtreatingthempunitively,thesecampaignsseektoreassure
sufferersthattheyarenotalone,thatthereisnoshameinstrugglingwithmental
healthand,crucially,thatthereisawayto‘overcome’suchstruggles,through
productiveengagement.84Governmentsarenotaloneinthis–manybusinesses
andbrandshaverecognisedthecommercialpotentialofsufferingasaselling
point,asnotedinanarticleinMarketingWeeklastyear,‘Howbrandsarehelping
toremovethestigmaofmentalillness.’85Thereisevenaclothinglinecalled,
‘WearYourLabel’whosebiosays:
WearYourLabelstartedasasimpleidea:clothingtocreatea
conversationaroundmentalhealth.Ourteammembers[the
81CarlCederströmandAndréSpicer.TheWellnessSyndrome.Cambridge:Polity,2015,p.4.82CederströmandSpicer.TheWellnessSyndrome,p.5.83Asearchfortheterms“mentalillnessstigma”onjournalrepositoryScienceDirectrevealsasteadyincreaseinthenumberofarticlespublishedonthetopicsince1999,withmoreresultsinthepastfiveyearsthantheprevioustencombined:www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleListURL&_method=list&_ArticleListID=-1144347055&_sort=r&_st=13&view=c&md5=c9dd6355db136a78216fcecd574de095&searchtype=a.Thisismatchedbyanincreaseinpubliccampaigns(oftengovernmentfunded)designedto‘de-stigmatise’mentalillness.SomeexamplesarecollectedbySarahManavis,in‘9MentalHealthCampaignsFromAroundtheWorld,MentalFloss,May132016.www.mentalfloss.com/article/79812/9-mental-health-campaigns-around-world84RangaswamySrinivasaMurthyetal,editors.‘MentalHealth:NewUnderstanding,NewHope.’TheWorldHealthReport2001.Geneva,2001,p.24.85JonathanBacon.‘Howbrandsarehelpingtoremovethestigmaofmentalillness,’MarketingWeek,12May2016,www.marketingweek.com/2016/05/12/how-brands-are-helping-to-remove-the-stigma-of-mental-illness/.
37
preferrednomenclatureforemployeesintheneoliberallanguageof
theworkplace]haveallexperiencedmentalillness[theword
‘experienced’bothsuggestsdistancefromtheillness,i.e.overcoming,
andcategorisesthissufferingasimpermanentandwithinthe
vocabularyofchoice–neoliberallogictellsuswecanchooseourown
experiences,withhappinessdiscourseofferingstrategiesfor
‘reclaiming’and‘reframing’thosewhichhavenotfeltchosen]and
unitedunderthecommongoalofendingthestigma,instyle[thereis
noclearindicationastowhy‘style’wouldimpacteithermentalhealth
oranyattendantstigma,althoughtheappealtopresentationtiesin
wellwiththeframeworkof‘selfasenterprise’anditsemphasisona
highlevelofself-presentation].86Ourmotto?It’sokaynottobeokay
[aslong,itseems,asthisfallswithintherealmsof‘notok’whereyou
canstillmakemoneytospendongarmentsdesignedtopublicise
yourlackof‘okayness’].87
Thesuffererofmentalillnesshasbeenrecastasaconsumerdemographic,at
leastatthelevelofsufferingwheretheyareabletoengagein‘productive
consumption,’toborrowatermfromHarvey.88Thecharacterisationofsufferers
as‘bad’ismorecomplex,andistiedtoamorecomprehensivedisengagement
fromproductiveactivity–asHarveymakesclear,sicknessundercapitalismis
definedas“inabilitytogotowork,inabilitytoperformadequatelywithinthe
circulationofvariablecapital(toproducesurplusvalue)ortoabidebyits
disciplinaryrules.”89The“moralimperativetohappiness”musttreadacareful
86SeeLoisMcNay,‘SelfAsEnterprise:DilemmasofControlandResistanceinFoucault’sTheBirthofBiopolitics,’Theory,CultureandPolitics,26:6,2009,pp.55-77.87Seethe‘bio’sectionoftheWearYourLabelwebsite,wearyourlabel.comItshouldbeobviousthatthisstrategyisdistinctfromthoseoflinguisticreclamationpracticedbyminoritygroupssuchasmembersoftheLGBTQorblackcommunities,relyingasitdoesonvagueappealstoanilldefinedcommunityof‘sufferers’ratherthanofferingthedétournementofwordswhichhavebeenusedtodiminishoroppressmembersofthosegroups.88DavidHarvey.SpacesofHope.Edinburgh:EdinburghUniversityPress,2000,p.103:“Productiveconsumptionofthecommoditylabourpowerinthelabourprocessunderthecontrolofthecapitalistrequires,interalia,themobilisationof‘animalspirits’,sexualdrives,affectivefeelings,andcreativepowersoflabourtoagivenpurposedefinedbycapital.”89Harvey.SpacesofHope,p.106:“Thosewhocannot(forphysical,psychicorsocialreasons)continuetofunctionasvariablecapital,furthermore,falleitherintothe‘hospital’oftheindustrialreservearmy(sicknessisdefinedundercapitalismbroadlyasinabilitytowork)orelseintothat
38
lineinitscharacterisationoftheunhappy:itwouldnotdotoalienatepotential
consumers.
Toelaborateonthe‘affectivedimension’ofsufferingcategorisedasmental
illness,then,wemustrecallthataffectisdifferentfromfeeling.Theaffective
realmconstitutesapre-personalspaceinwhichthelogicandconvention(both
biographicalandsocial)thatgiveformtoemotionorfeelingareabsent.Brian
MassumimakesthisclearinhisintroductiontoDeleuzeandGuattari’sA
ThousandPlateaus(1980):“Itisaprepersonalintensitycorrespondingtothe
passagefromoneexperientialstateofthebodytoanotherandimplyingan
augmentationordiminutioninthatbody’scapacitytoact.”90Massumiisa
centraltheoristofthe‘affectiveturn’inhumanitiesandsocialsciences,along
withauthorssuchasPatriciaCloughandLaurenBerlant.91Theaffectiverealmis
identifiedasonewithpotentialfordisruptionthroughitsremovalfrom
processesofsubjectification:itcontainspotential,ratherthanpossibility,in
Massumi’sterminology.Possibilityissomethingliketheretrogradeexpression
ofpotential,sowhenwesaythehorizonsofpossibilityarenarrowedunder
neoliberalism,weareeffectivelyworkingbackwardsfromitspresumedprimacy.
This‘potential’offersaconceptualspaceoutsideofthetotalisingforceof
neoliberalism.Theneedtocontroltheaffectiverealminordertodiscouragethe
spreadofthispotentialisoneofthecentralreasonsfortheconstructionofa
regulatorydiscourseofhappinessunderneoliberalism,whichseekstomanage
affectandredirectitintothesortsofstateslistedbyHallandO’Shea.Affect
theoryimplicitlyrecognisesthatneoliberalculturedoesnotdependon
intentionality-andexplicitly,asinMassumi’swritingonRonaldReaganin
Movement,Affect,Sensation:ParablesfortheVirtual(2000).Theirrationalityof
neoliberalismisexploredatlengthbyHarvey,inhisaccountofhowithas
undisciplinedinfernoofthelumpenproletariat(read‘underclass’)forwhomMarxregrettablyhadsolittlesympathy.”90BrianMassumi.‘NotesontheTranslationandAcknowledgements,’inGillesDeleuzeandFélixGuattari,,AThousandPlateaus:CapitalismandSchizophrenia.LondonandMinneapolis,MN:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1987,pp.v–xix,p.v.91ManyofthesetheoristsarebroughttogetherinTheAffectiveTurn:TheorizingtheSocial,editedbyPatriciaTicinetoCloughandJeanHalley.LondonandDurham,NC:DukeUniversityPress,2007.HarveyalsoinvokesthelinksbetweentheoriesofaffectandMarx’swork,inhisreadingofMarxon‘senseperception,’SpacesofHope,p.101.
39
betrayeditsownapparentlyfoundationallogic.92This‘irrationality’or
variousnessisacentralpartofneoliberalcommon-sensesuccess,throughits
abilitytosubjectalloppositionaldiscoursestoitsmarketlogicandthussubsume
them.
Thisisconnected,too,tothecontemporarypoliticalmomentcategorisedas
‘post-truth’politics,markedbyBrexitintheU.K.andDonaldTrump’sriseto
powerintheU.S.A.andaccordingwithaglobalre-emergenceofrightwing
nationalism.93RalphKeyes2004workThePost-TruthEraisoftencitedasan
earlysourceforthecontemporaryuseoftheterm,althoughIthinkthatKeyes’
emphasisondishonestysomewhatmischaracterisesthenatureof‘post-truth,’
whichreliesnotsomuchondeliberatefalsification(althoughthisispartofit),
butonare-categorisationofauthority-thatis,therighttomaketruth
statements.94Theemergenceofpost-truthpoliticsisconnectedtotheriseof
statesofaffectivedistress,inthatitheightenstheunintelligibilityofpower
throughitsdestabilisationofauthority.Italsodemonstrateshowpervasive
neoliberalhappinessdiscourseis:inunderstandingthis,IhavefoundMimiThi
Nguyen’saccountofthe‘politicsofintimacy’tobeausefulconceptual
framework.95The(de-radicalised)politicsofintimacyrepresentstheannexingof
thepublicspherebythepersonalthroughthesamelanguageoffeelingand
instinctemployedinpsychotherapeuticrationales,wellnessrhetoric,self-
maximisationstrategies,andotheraspectsofneoliberalhappinessdiscourse.
Nguyen’saccountisdrawnfromtheintimateaestheticthatmarkedtheriot
grrrlmovementofthe1990s,whichshedescribesasexpressing,“awishforan
authenticformofknowledgefreefromerrorandillusion”and“asentimental
politicsaswellasanaesthetics.”96Unlikethepoliticsofaffect,Nguyen’sconcept
doesnotrelyonaprioriknowledge,butlocatesthepoliticsofintimacyastaking
92Harvey.ABriefHistoryofNeoliberalism,pp.79-81.93Theriseofpost-truthpoliticscanbeseenintheOxfordEnglishDictionary’sselectionof‘post-truth’asthe‘wordoftheyear’for2016.Itisdefinedthereinas“relatingtoordenotingcircumstancesinwhichobjectivefactsarelessinfluentialinshapingpublicopinionthanappealstoemotionalandpersonalbelief.”OxfordDictionaryOnlinewww.en.oxforddictionaries.com/word-of-the-year/word-of-the-year-2016.94RalphKeyes.ThePost-TruthEra.NewYork:StMartin’sPress,2004.95See‘RiotGrrrl,RaceandRevival,’Women&Performance:ajournaloffeministtheory,22:2-32012,pp.173-196.96ThiNguyen.‘RiotGrrrl,RaceandRevival,’p.177.
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placeself-consciouslywithinand,inheraccount,inoppositionto,structural
determinations.Nguyen’scritiqueofthispoliticsas“engenderinganemotional
style,andarhetoricalpractice,thatsometimesglossedintimacyforreciprocity,
experienceforexpertise,andmisrecognizedhowforcesworkthroughthese
idioms”seemstomeasuccinctsummationoftheemotiverealmofpost-truth
politics,andanillustrationoftheriseoftherhetoricof‘truthiness’-another
recententrytotheOED,definedas“thequalityofseemingorbeingfelttobetrue,
evenifnotnecessarilytrue.”97Therhetoricofpost-truthpoliticsseeksto
subsumematerialinequalityintowhatitcastsasapoliticallyinconsequential
emotionalrealm;thisisthepoliticsofinjuryBrownhaswarnedagainst,where
materialdisadvantageissublimatedtosufferingassiteofpoliticalidentity.98
Post-truthrhetoricallowsformaterialitytobecomeentirelydetachedfrom
perceivedexperienceofsuffering;thuswehavethereactionaryriseofthe
straightwhitemaleasminoritygroup,overturningtheprincipleof‘protected
class’entirely.Politicaldiscourseinwhichsufferingismeasuredthrough
professionoffeelingdivertsattemptstounderstandthewaysinwhichsystems
andprocessesofpowerworktodisadvantageandmarginaliseparticularpeople
andclasses.Sufferingbecomesaprobleminthatitrepresentsanobstacleto
privatehappiness–toflourishing,asSeligmanmighthaveit–insteadofbeinga
measureofmaterialoppressionorpublicunfreedom.Thedenigrationof
expertiseisbuiltintoapoliticalframeworkthatreliesonindividualaccrualof
knowledgethroughdirectemotionalidentification.
InexploringEgan’swork,IuseaquotefromDianaFussinwhichshewrites,
“‘Thepersonalispolitical’re-privatizessocialexperience.”99Ifthesenseofthe
personalthatbecomespoliticalisaconceptionofselfhoodbuiltthroughand
aroundthelanguageandlogicofpsychotherapeuticrationales,allactiononthe
97ThiNguyen.‘RiotGrrrl,RaceandRevival,’p.177.SeealsoRose’scommentsinGoverningtheSoul:“Publicappearance,language,conduct,arenotnowvaluedforwhattheycanachieve,butareinterpretedintermsoftheinnerpersonalitythatismanifested;closeness,warmthandthefrankexpressionoftheinnerselfhavebecomethesupremevalues.”p.219,emphasismine.Roseusesthephrase“tyrannyofintimacy”forthisphenomenon.Thisdefinitionof‘truthiness’takenfromOxfordLivingDictionaries,www.en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/truthiness,emphasismine.98WendyBrown.StatesofInjury:PowerandFreedominLateModernity.Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,1995.99DianaFuss.EssentiallySpeaking:Feminism,Nature&Difference.LondonandNewYork:Routledge,1989,p.101.
41
selfmaybepresentedaspolitical.Thislegitimatesapoliticswithlittleinterestin
practicalredistributiveaction,protectionoflabourrights,andsoon,instituting
insteadapoliticsofself-maximisation,operatingbythesamelogicasthe
happinessdiscourseIchartinthisthesis.Thisway,neoliberalismcanmoderate
itsowneconomicfocuswithadiversionarypoliticaldiscoursethatdovetails
withitsnarrativeofresponsibilisation.Ifallproblems,includingpolitical
problems,areproblemsoftheself,thereisnoneedforeconomicredressorstate
intervention,orforexpertiseingovernance.Thedenigrationofexpertiseisa
corestrategyofpost-truthpoliticsandneoliberalhappinessdiscoursealike;this
ishowfeelingbecomesequivalenttofact,and(individual)happiness–rather
than,say,freedom,orequality–comestobethecentralprincipleoflife.
Theriseofthisemotivepoliticalregisterisdue,inpart,tothelackofany
politicalconceptionofthegoodlifeinneoliberalism,towhichIhavealready
alluded.Anypoliticalconstructionof‘goodlife,’beitLockean,Hobbesianor
Rousseauian(oreventheuncertainutopiaofMarxism,whichconcentratesmore
onavoidingthe‘badlife’),reliesonafoundationalbeliefinthebestwayto
organisesocietyforthebenefitofcitizensandavoidanceofconflict,inbroad
terms.Neoliberalismisnotapoliticaltheory.Itisaneconomictheorywith
politicalconsequencesandnoattachmenttoanyethicaldimension,asshownby
itsabilitytoaccommodateandsubsumedisparateandoftencontradictory
discourses.100Harveyrecognisestheproblemthisposesforneoliberalisminits
applicationasatheoryofstate,highlightingtheproblemof‘socialincoherence’
withwhichBallard’sworkgrapples:
Atthepopularlevel,thedrivetowardsmarketfreedomsandthe
commodificationofeverythingcanalltooeasilyrunamokand
producesocialincoherence.Thisdestructionofformsofsocial
solidarityandeven,asThatchersuggested,oftheveryideaofsociety
itself,leavesagapingholeinthesocialorder.Itthenbecomes
peculiarlydifficulttocombatanomieandcontroltheresultantanti-
100Thisis,quitesimply,becauseneoliberalismisatheartaneconomicstructure,ratherthanapoliticalone.Itreconceptualisesthemanagementofpopulationasthemanagementofeconomicforces.
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socialbehaviourssuchascriminality,pornography,orthevirtual
enslavementofothers.101
Theunintelligibilityofthispowerisdistressingtosubjects,makingitdifficultto
identifyforcesofdominationandsodifficulttoresist.Theimperativetochoose
–toconstructalifebasedonaseriesofchoices,each“imbuedwithaself-
referentialmeaning”–involvesthesubjectinthischaosofchoice,obligingthem
toparticipateinchoicesaccordingtowhatisavailable,evenwhenthesechoices
maynotbeintheirbestinterests.102Neoliberalhappinessdiscourseseeksboth
tomanagethisdistressandtodiscouragesubjectsfromseekingtounderstand
theirsufferingonanystructurallevel.Thisworksthroughemphasisonholistic
wellnessandbiologicalreadingsofunhappiness,whichrecastsufferingasboth
physical-andtherefore,curablethroughworkonthebody-andnatural–that
is,inevitableunderanyformofsocialorganisation.Inthislanguage,althoughthe
conditionofbeingunhappymaynotbeachoice,‘choosing’tostaythatwayis.
Thesubjectisencouragedtotakeresponsibilityfortheirowndistressandto
choosebetweenarangeofstrategies(pharmaceutical,therapeutic,narrative)to
manage,andthusalleviate,it.Thisdisconnectionalienatestheindividualfrom
structuralcritiqueandenmeshesthemdeeperwithintheobligationofchoiceby
whichneoliberalismconstructsitsownidealsubjects-orrather,forcesthese
subjectstochoosetheirownconstruction.Thisisportrayedandenactedin
Egan’swork,aswewillsee.
Onthe‘ProductiveImperative’
InthisintroductionandthroughoutmythesisIusetheterm‘productive
imperative’todescribethemotorofneoliberalreproduction.Thistermisclosely
connectedtothegrowthimperativeofcapitalism,ofwhichPaulM.Sweezy
wrote,
Intheirsingle-mindedpursuitofprofit,inwhichnonecanrefuseto
joinonpainofelimination,capitalistsaredriventoaccumulateever
101Harvey.ABriefHistoryofNeoliberalism,p.80.102Rose.GoverningtheSoul,p.231.
43
morecapital,andthisbecomestheirsubjectivegoalandthemotor
forceoftheentireeconomicsystem.
Itisthisobsessionwithcapitalaccumulationthatdistinguishes
capitalismfromthesimplesystemforsatisfyinghumanneedsitis
portrayedasinmainstreameconomictheory.103
Iusetheterm‘productiveimperative’insteadofgrowthimperativebecauseIam
lookingnotattheeconomicsystemofneoliberalism,althoughitsconsequences
areimportant,asIhaveoutlined.Thisisnot,asshouldbeclearbynow,aMarxist
reading.Instead,Iamfocusingontheneoliberalsubject,oreventheproduction
ofsubjectivityundertheprocessesofneoliberalism.Theaimofpromotinga
discourseofhappinessthatfunctionsasaformofgovernmentalityand
interpellatessubjectstobecomeself-regulatingisnotonlytoensuresubjectsdo
notactoutdissentorinterruptmarketflows,butalsotoperpetuatethesubject’s
imbricationinprocessesofproductionandconsumption.Itisthisimbrication
thattiesthesubjecttothesystemthatisatthesametimethecauseoftheir
suffering.Thisinformsmysuggestionthatthereareacceptableorcorrectforms
ofsuffering,oftenoverlookedincontemporarycriticalaccountsofhow
conceptualisationsofhappinessareatworkunderneoliberalism.
What’sLiteratureGotToDoWithIt?:ExplainingMyApproach
Givenallthis,then,whydoesmythesisfocusonliterature,insteadofanyother
culturalform(besidestheeconomicimperativeoffundingreceivedunderthe
auspicesofliteraryscholarship)?Andwhythesetwoauthors?Ihavetouchedon
theanswerstothesequestionsthroughoutthisintroductionsofar,andwill
attemptheretogiveafullexplanationforeach.Theunderstandingofliterature
onwhichthisthesisisbuiltreliesonseeingliteratureasapublicformofartwith
thecapacityforpoliticalconscienceandanethicaldutytothereader.If,as
FredericJamesonandMarkFisherhavesuggested,itiseasiertoimaginetheend
oftheworldthantheendofcapitalism/neoliberalism,andthesesystemsinflict
damageateverylevel,asIhavesuggested,thequestionofimaginativecapacity
becomesapoliticalone.In‘AProperlyPoliticalConceptofLove’(2011),Berlant
103PaulM.Sweezy.‘CapitalismandtheEnvironment,’MonthlyReview,56:5,2004.www.monthlyreview.org/2004/10/01/capitalism-and-the-environment/.
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described“theworkofnormativenegationthatarevolutionaryprojectmust
assumeasitsburden.”104WhatIamsuggesting,then,isthatliteraturehasa
revolutionarycapacity,whichinthecontextofmyworkistwofold.
First,literaturehasthecapacitytostageaconfrontationwithrealitythat
exposesthoseelementsofpowerthatareusuallyrenderedinvisiblethrough
common-sensenaturalisation.Laterinthisthesis,IuseMaryWollenstonecraft’s
gothicwritingasanexampleofthiscapacity.105Moreimmediately,thisiswhatI
thinkBallard’sworkdoes,throughitsfocusonthesystemsbywhichourworld
isconstructed.Thiswillbecomeapparentthroughmyexplorationofhislate
novelsinthefollowingsection.Thesecondcomponentofthisrevolutionary
potentialisthewayinwhichliteratureisuniquelypositionedtoofferreaders
thespaceinwhichtoconstructanewpoliticalimaginarybasedonaconditionof
empatheticsolidaritythatovercomesthelimitingorproblematicaspectsofthe
politicsofintimacyexploredearlier.Literaturehasadistinctabilitytoofferthe
readernarrativeinsightintothelivesandthoughtsofcharacters.Eganoncesaid
thatforher,writing“islikepeekingintowindowsandgoinginsidehousesand
findingoutwhatthepeopletherearelike,whattheythink.”106Inthis“peeking
inside,”fewerconstraintsareplacedonthereaderthaninotherformsthatmay
alsoofferpotentialempatheticencounters;forexample,inafilm,wemaybe
confrontedwithanactorplayingarole,withwhomwehavecertainassociations
thatinhibitourcapacitytoidentifythemfullyasthecharactertheyportray.
Literatureoffersthepossibilityofanimmersiveempatheticexperience.Thisis,I
think,somethingliketheaccountofitspossibilitythathasbeenpositedbythe
emergentschoolofNewSincerity,whichIalsoaddressinmyexplorationof
Egan’swork.
Intheircollection,RethinkingEmpathythroughLiterature(2014),Meghan
MarieHammondandSueJ.Kimintroduceavarietyofperspectivesonthis
empatheticpotential.Althoughmanyofthestudiestheycitesuggestthatthere
104LaurenBerlant.‘AProperlyPoliticalConceptofLove,’CulturalAnthropology,26:4,2011,pp.683-691.p.685.105SeeMaggieKilgour,TheRiseoftheGothicNovel.LondonandNewYork:Routledge,1995,p.75.106JenniferEganinterviewedbyZaraDinnen,‘’Thisisallartificial”:AnInterviewwithJenniferEgan,.Post45,May2016.www.post45.research.yale.edu/2016/05/this-is-all-artificial-an-interview-with-jennifer-egan/.
45
aretoomanycontributoryfactorstomakedirectcausalconnectionsbetween
empatheticreadingandaltruisticaction,therehavebeenotherstudiesthat
claim,inturn,todemonstratetheempatheticpotentialofliterature.107
Regardlessofthesecontradictoryclaims,myworkrestsonanunderstandingof
empatheticpotentialthatreliesonthatsamefoundationconceivedofinthe
theoreticallyradicalaspectofthepoliticsofintimacy(butnot,Ihavesuggested,
carriedoutinpractice):thisunderstandingmusttakeplaceinthecontextof
existentstructuraldeterminations,thatis,withanawarenessofhowpower
works.Otherwise,asBerlanthasdemonstratedonherworkonsentimental
narratives,thesamelimitationsofintimacyarerepeated–afalsetranscendence
oftheselfthatholdsnocapacityforincitingaction.108IhavefoundAnnJurecic’s
essay‘EmpathyandtheCritic’(2011)usefulforthinkingpasttheselimitations,
particularlyhersuggestionthat,ratherthansignallingdirectidentification,
empathymightinsteadinvitereaderstoconsider“theambiguitiesofsocial
experience.”109Jurecic’semphasisontheteachingofliteratureisalsohelpfulin
consideringthepublicaspectofliteraturethatenablesitspoliticalpotential;
thosewhoarescepticalofsuchpotentialmaybetooinclinedtofocusonreading
asapassiveact,whenbymyargumentitis,andmustbe,anactive,engaged,and
engagingprocess.
Thesecontradictorypositionsare,Iargue,playedoutbytheworkofthetwo
authorswithwhomIengageinthisstudy.Ballard’sworkseekstonegotiatethe
passivityofreadinganditsownstatusasculturalobjecttoexposethecirculation
ofpowerinawaythatis,Isuggest,designedtoprovokethereadertopolitical
action.Incontrast,Egan’sworkremainstiedmorecloselytotheprivate
imaginarysphere,andthustendstoofferanaccountofliteratureasaprivate
good.Suchanaccountneutersthepoliticalpotentialofliteratureand,Ithink,too
closelyreplicatesthose‘values’propagatedbyneoliberalismandthe
conceptionsofhappinessitpromotes–individualism,atomism,andsolipsism.If
literaturemayhave,asIsuggest,arevolutionaryfunction,itstandstoreason107See,forexample,MajaDjikicetal.‘ReadingOtherMinds:EffectsofLiteratureonempathy,’ScientificStudyofLiterature,3:1,2013.pp.28-47.108SeeLaurenBerlant,‘PoorEliza’inNoMoreSeparateSpheres!:ANextWaveAmericanStudiesReader,editedbyCathyN.Davidson,JessamynHatcher.Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress,2002,pp.291-323.109AnnJurecic.‘EmpathyandtheCritic,’CollegeEnglish,74:1,2011,pp.1-27,p.22.
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thatitmightalsohaveaconservativeone.Contrastingtheseauthorsallowsme
todemonstratethis,andtotentativelysituatethesetendenciesintermsofwider
literarypractice.ThismostlyoccurshereinthecontextofEganandthe
contemporaryliterarylandscapeinAmerica,asmuchofBallard’sworkgestures
totheimpactofAmericanculturalimperialismonBritain.Iamkeentoexpand
myreadingofBallardinthiscontextinthefutureandoriginallyhopedtoinclude
theworkofMichelHouellebecqinmythesistoallowabroadercomparison–
unfortunately,duetospaceconstraints,thiswasnotpossible.
In‘ReadingOtherMinds,’MajaDjikicetalpropose“thatinsteadofthinkingof
fictionasmade-up,fictionisbettercharacterizedintermsofsubjectmatter:the
socialworld.”110Elsewhere,DonnaHarawayinsistedthat,“Socialrealityislived
socialrelations,ourmostimportantpoliticalconstruction,aworld-changing
fiction.”111Literaryfictioncanofferusapeekintothelivesofothers,butmore
thanthis,itcanilluminatethewaysinwhichtheselivescometobeconstructed,
andaskustoconsiderourownlifeinthesameway.Partofthesuccessof
neoliberalismhasbeenitstotalisingimpactonpublicandprivatenarratives:the
wayinwhichithasnaturalisedeconomicrationalesandlogicsatapersonaland
politicallevel.WendyBrowngivesthisexample,mentionedearlier,inthe
politicalrealm:
[Neoliberalism]replacesstricturesondemocraticproceduralismand
accountabilitywithnormsofgoodmanagement:effectivityor
profitability.Indeed,itsetsasidelegality,accountability,and
truthfulnessinfavourofthesecriteria.Hence,forexample,G.W.
Bush’sroutineresponsetoquestionsaboutwhetherthepretextfor
invadingIraqwasfoundedandlegitimate:“DidwegetridofSaddam
ornot?”“Istheworldabetterplaceforitornot?”112
Thissameprocesscan,Isuggest,betracedonapersonallevel,aswe
increasinglyseeinthecontemporarypoliticalclimate.Theriseofahappiness
discoursethatjustifies(andevenpromotes)personalfeelingasarationalefor
actionandallowsconsiderationsofconsequencetobelimitedtothatsamelogic110Djikic,etal.‘ReadingOtherMinds,’p.29.111Haraway.Simians,CyborgsandWomen:TheReinventionofNature,p.149.112Brown.‘AmericanNightmare:Neoliberalism,Neoconservativism,andDe-Democratisation,’p.706.
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i.e.howtheymaketheactorfeel,discouragessubjectsfromconsidering
themselvesrelationally.Throughbothperformingrelationally–thatis,being
publiclyreadanddiscussed–anddemonstratingtherelationalnatureof
subjectsintext–therealityoflivedsocialrelations–literaturecanoffersome
ballasttotheselimitingconstructions.
ThefinalargumentIofferforconductingthisinvestigationthroughthe
explorationofcontemporaryliteratureisitsactualimaginativecapacity–thatis,
thewayinwhichtheworldsintowhichwepeekmaynotexistinourreality.
BothBallardandEganengageinaloosekindofspeculativefictionthrough
whichtheyhyperbolisebothourexistingrealityandourimminentreality.
Fictioncanbothrepresentandexceeditstemporalmoment,andthisisauseful
traitatamomentinwhichtechnologicaladvancesseemtooccurexponentially.
Asmentionedearlier,Ihavesoughttoexplorethisinrelationtoconceptionsof
happinessandselfhood,andinthisIhavefoundtheworkofSherryTurkle
invaluable,especiallyher2006book,AloneTogether.JaronLanier’sworkhas
alsohelpedmeinthinkingaboutthe‘nextfiveminutes,’andabouthowourlife
onlineisconnectedtoour‘reallife.’113Initsabilitytoofferusrecognisable
futurisedpresents,literaturecanalsodemonstrate“theenergy[to]generatethis
sustainingcommitmenttotheworkofundoingaworldwhilemakingone
[which]requiresfantasytomotorprogramsofaction,todestroythepresenton
behalfofwhatthepresentcanbecome.”114If,asIhavesuggested,theneoliberal
subjectisrequiredtoadoptapermanentstateofcognitivedissonanceinorder
tosurvivetheeverydaycrisesofneoliberalism,apublic,engaged,and
speculativeliteraturegroundedinmaterialrealitybutnotboundbyitmaybe
abletopiercethe“greycurtainofreactionwhichhasmarkedthehorizonsof
possibilityundercapitalist[neoliberal]realism.”115FollowingBerlant,again,this
kindofliteraturecanoffera
surrealisticaffectospheretocountertheonethatalreadyexists,
enablingaconfrontationwiththefactthatanyactionofmakinga
claimonthepresentinvolvesbruisingdetachmentfromanchorsin
113ParticularlyYouAreNotAGadget:AManifesto(2011)andWhoOwnstheFuture?(2014).114Berlant.CruelOptimism,p.263.115Fisher.CapitalistRealism,p.81.
48
theworld,alongwithoptimisticprojectionsofaworldthatisworth
ourattachmenttoit.116
Thefirstanchortodrop,Isuggest,mustbeourattachmenttothedisconnected
andatomisticaccountsofhappinessthatneoliberalismoffersus.Berlant
suggeststhatthecruxofcrueloptimismliesinthefactthat“itisawkwardandit
isthreateningtodetachfromwhatisalreadynotworking.”117Infact,under
neoliberalcommonsense,itisnotsimplyawkwardorthreatening,but
impossiblebecause,asThatcherinsisted,thereisnoalternative.Thejobofthe
author,andtheroleofliterature,isnottoshowusthatthereis,buttoremindus
thatwearecapableofconstructingsuchanalternativeforourselves.Itisthis
capacityIexploreinthefollowingpages.
LookingatBallard:SystemsandSelfhood
InmyexplorationofJ.G.Ballard’swork,Ilookathislastquartetofnovels.I
suggestthatthesenovelsworktogethertodemonstrateabroaderthesis,and
representtheadoptionofamoreovertlypoliticalapproachthanisinevidencein
Ballard’searlierwork.Whilstthesenovelsutilisethemesandmotifsevident
throughoutBallard’swork,suchasclosedcommunitiesandsuspicionof
consumerism,itismycontentionthatthesearedeployedwithamoredeliberate
intentintheselatenovels.Thisis,Ibelieve,aresponsetotheriseof
neoliberalismanditsglobalpervasiveness.Assuch,thesenovelsareintendedto
emphasisetheheightenedinequalitiesthatproliferateunderneoliberalism,
whichareobscuredanddistortedbyneoliberalhappinessdiscourseasaformof
governmentalitythatpresentsitselfascommonsense.Ballardexposesthis
throughafocusonthosesystemsthatstructureandshapeeverydaylife–
leisure,work,thecultureindustry,andconsumerism–underlinedbyhis
affectlessstyle,whichinitsdepthlessnesshighlightsthenearnessofthese
systemstothesurfaceoflife.IsuggestthatBallardisseekingtoilluminatethe
dangerofadepoliticisedcommon-sensepublicdiscourse,whichrationalisesand
allowssufferingasnaturalandinevitable.Theselastfournovelsare,Ithink,a
directappealtothereader;acalltoaction,ifyoulike,stressingtheneedto
116Berlant.CruelOptimism,p.263.117Berlant.CruelOptimism,p.263.
49
reclaimtheimaginativerealminordertofashionalternativestotheapparently
totalisingeconomiclogicofneoliberalism.Ballard’sworkrailsagainstthe
somnambulisticeffectofcognitivedissonance,andlookstoestablishsome
groundingforapubliclifethatresiststhestructuraldeterminationsofextant
power,insteadofrepeatingthem.Inthis,Ballardcondemnsconservatismofall
stripes,andrecognisesthattraditionalistleftistthinkingmaybeasout-datedas
right-wingnostalgia.
MyinvestigationofBallard’sworkbeginswithanaccountofhowIreadthese
latenovelsinrelationtohiswideroeuvre,andanattempttocontextualisethe
politicalshiftoutlinedabove.Thisalsoinvolvesexplainingtheconnection
betweenBallard’sworkandaffecttheory,whichIlinktoBerlant’swritingonthe
Event.Iexplainhowmyinterventionrecognisesexistingpsychoanalytic
criticismonBallard,butthatIdonotseektomakethistheframeworkofmy
investigation.InmyexplorationIseektodemonstratethewayinwhichthe
“mundanetextsandprogrammes”ofneoliberalhappinessdiscourseare
manifested–andcritiqued–inBallard’swork;thepsysciencesconstituteonly
oneaspectofthis.IemphasisetheneedtorememberBallard’sowninsistenceon
thematerialcircumstanceoftheworldandtheimpactthishasonthehorizonsof
possibilityforindividualsubjects.
Intheopeningpartofmyclosereading,Iconcentrateonthefirstnovelfrom
thislatequartet,CocaineNights.Thisnovelexploresthetourismandleisure
industry,andusestheholidayresortsandretirementcommunitiesoftheCosta
delSoltorepresentamicrocosmofneoliberal‘shockdoctrine’ineffect.Italso
introducestheformcommontotheselatenovels,whicharealllooselysketched
using–andsubverting-thetropesofdetectivefiction.Eachfeaturesacentral
protagonistwhoarrivestoaclosedcommunitywiththeintentionofunravelling
somemysterythatpertainstohimself.Inthecourseofhisinvestigation,each
protagonistisdrawnintotheheartofthesocietyheseekstoinfiltrate,and
discoversthattheoriginalmysteryispartofalargernetworkofcorruptionand
depravity.Thepersonallymotivatedquestfallsbythewaysideinthecourseof
theserevelations,andisgenerallyresolvedtolittlefanfare,orglossedoverin
favourofotherconcerns.
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InCocaineNights,protagonistCharlesPrenticeinitiallyseekstodiscoverwho
setafirethatkilledseveralprominentresidentsofaholidaysettlement,inorder
tofreehisbrother,Frank,whohasbeenarrestedforthecrime.Asthenovel
progresses,welearnthathisbrotherisinfactinnocent,andthatthefirewas
actuallytheworkofagroupofcapitalistconspirators,partofaplantorevitalise
thecommunity.Whereleisureunfitssubjectsforthecycleofproductive
consumption,intimationsofmortalityserveasacorrective–areminderthat
happinessisprimary,andthathappinesscomesfromconsumption.The
discoveryofthetruthisirrelevantinthisnovel,offeringnoredemptionfor
FrankPrentice–CharlesPrenticebecomesthenextscapegoat,gesturingtothe
cyclicalnatureofcapitalistviolence.Thisnovelalsodemonstrateshow‘deviant’
behaviours–theft,rape,burglary–cannotconfrontordamageneoliberal
capitalismbecausetheyareimmanenttoitandthuseasilysubsumedbyit.
Thisisexpandedinthenextnovelinthequartet,Super-Cannes.Inplaceof
leisure,thisnovelfocusesontheworldofwork,atthehighestlevelofthe
informationaleconomy.Ittellsthestoryofabusinessparkwhereelite
executivesbegantosufferaninexplicablemalaiseuntilresidentpsychiatrist
WilderPenroseinstitutedasystemofprescribedpsychopathy,whichallowed
paedophilia,drugdealing,andracistattacksonnon-residentsofthepark.
BallardemploysaBaudrillardianframeworktoparodythehyperrealityof
financecapitalandinformationalindustries.Thisframeworkisalsopartofa
deliberatereflexivitythatshapesthesenovelsinwhichthereaderisconstantly
remindedthatBallard’sfictiveworldis,likeDisneyland,morerealthanthereal.I
exploreBallard’streatmentoftheriseofmanagementstrategiesasanaspectof
neoliberalhappinessdiscourse,andbegintolookatthewaytheworkplacehas
beentransformedundertherubricofself-maximisation.IalsolookatBallard’s
useofflightasawaytofigureimaginativepotential,andhisinvocationof
AntoinedeSaint-Exupéry’sworkasawaytorepresenttheneedforan
imaginativespaceoutsideofthedemandsofcapital–thisrecursinKingdom
Come,too.
Inmyexaminationofthisnovel,IsuggestthatalthoughBallardwarnsagainst
thedangersofnostalgia,herecognisestheimportanceofthepastasaformof
ballastagainsttherationalisingforceoftechnologicalprogress,aftertheworkof
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HerbertMarcuse.ThisgivesrisetoareadingthatsuggestsBallardseessome
causeforhopeinthewretchedfiguresofneoliberalcapitalism;theunemployed
protagonistofthisnovel,PaulSinclair,remainsoutsideoftheproductiveworld
ofEden-Olympia,quiteliterallyattheendofthenovel.Isuggestthatthisnovelis
anexplicitwarningagainstacceptingtheviolenceandinequalityofneoliberal
capitalismasinevitableornatural,andallowingourselvestoretreatintothe
palliativeworldofpersonalhappiness,asneoliberalhappinessdiscoursewould
haveusdo.Theendingofthenovel,asIdemonstrate,clearlyplacestheonuson
thereadertoacceptresponsibilityforenactingchange;toresist,asSpringerhas
it,“Thebanalityofevil[whichis]anerasurethatdeprivesusofourabilityto
recognizeviolenceasamomentthatisatoncebothexceptionaland
exemplary.”118
ThethirdnovelofthequartetisMillenniumPeople,andinmyreadingofitI
concentrateonBallard’sunpackingofclasspoliticsandtheriseofprecarityasa
modeofliving.Thisexplorationexposesthemythoftheneutralneoliberal
subject,andmakesplainhowneoliberalhappinessdiscoursedrawsonand
perpetuatesmiddle-classcodinginordertogenerateself-regulatingsubjects.I
lookatBallard’sexplorationofthe‘goodobjects’ofneoliberalhappiness
discourse,exploringthisinrelationtoAhmed’sworkandherconceptionofthe
idealneoliberalsubjectasonewithoutinclination.Inthisnovel,Ballarddraws
attentiontohisownsustainedfocusonthemiddleclassthroughouthiswork,as
wellasparodyingthecultureindustryandleftistprotestmoregenerally.Isee
thisasaclearefforttowriteoutoforbeyondhisculturalposition,anattemptto
resistincorporationintoprocessesofinterpassivity.Thisistied,again,tomy
argumentthatBallardisseekingnottoperformcritiqueintheselatenovels,but
tospurreaderstoactionthroughconfrontationwiththoserealitiesusually
obscuredthroughthedistortinglensofneoliberalhappinessdiscourse.This
novelwrestleswiththedifficultiesofresistingasystemthatseemscapableof
consumingallalterity,culminatinginaviolentstandoffwhereviolenceis
returnedtoitsrightfuloperative(thestate),andthemiddle-classrebelsofthe
ChelseaMarinaareplacatedwiththeadditionofasportsclubandan
118SimonSpringer.‘TheViolenceofNeoliberalism,’inTheHandbookofNeoliberalism,NewYork:Routledge,2016,pp.153-64,p.158.
52
enlargementofthemarina–theyhave,itseems,“almosteverythingyouwant
here.”119
Itisthisdanger-ofgettingwhatyouthinkyouwantunderneoliberal
capitalism–thatgivesshapetothelastofthesenovels,KingdomCome.Inmy
readinghereIconcentrateonthethemesofcommunityandconsumerismthat
underpinthenovel,whichrecountsafascistuprisingcentredarounda‘super
mall’inthemotorwaytownsbeyondLondon.IsuggestthatBallard’sfiguringof
fascismisconnectedtoFoucault’saccountof“thefascisminusall…thefascism
thatcausesustolovepower,todesiretheverythingthatdominatesandexploits
us.”120Inthisnovel,Ballardexploresthevacuumcreatedbytheabsenceof
valuesunderneoliberalism.Thedisappearanceofasubstantialpublicpolitical
discoursecreatesaspaceinwhichfearanduncertaintyaremanagedthrough
compulsiveconsumptionandthelogicofconsumerismsupplantsanyconception
ofindividualwill,embeddingself-regulationinserviceofmaterialconsumption
asanaturalpartof(neoliberalised)existence.Withoutanysubstantialcivic
realmoutsideoftherulesofcommodification,subjectsbecomevulnerabletoan
‘emptiedout’politics,onethatreliesonmoodandfeelinganddrawsitsstrength
fromtheexclusionofthosewhoareseentobeoutsideofWesternconsumerist
structures.Inthenovel,thisistransformedintoaracistnationalismthatsees
non-whitecommunitiesbecometargetsofviolence.
IexplorethelooselyNietzscheanframeworkofthenovel,andconnectthisto
WendyBrown’saccountofressentimentinStatesofInjury(1997).Ialsoreturnto
Ballard’scritiqueofleftistoppositionthatfailstoformulatenewcritical
approaches,anddescribehowwemightconnectBallard’sworktothecurrent
politicalmomentintheU.K.andU.S.InKingdomCome,Ballardhyperbolically
literaliseshisfearsof“governmentbyadvertisingagency,”andrailsagainstthe
ideathatpoliticsshouldbedictatedbypersonalfeeling.121Thereisaclear
condemnationofthewayinwhichthe9/11attackswereinstrumentalisedasa
politicaltool,inhisdepictionofanattackontheMetro-Centre.Thesalvationof
119J.G.Ballard.MillenniumPeople2003London:HarperPerennial.2004,p.291.120MichelFoucault.PrefaceinGilesDeleuzeandFelixGuattari,Anti-Oedipus,1972,translatedbyRobertHurley,MarkSeemandHelen.R.Lane.Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress.1983,pp.xi-xv.p.xiii.121Ballard.‘1998:RussiaonmyMind.’ExtremeMetaphors,p.357.
53
theprotagonistinthisnovelcomesthroughthere-establishmentofintimate
relationships,whichallowshimtorecogniseandresisthispositioninthe
networksofdominationconstructedaroundtheMetro-Centre–whichistosay,
aroundconsumercapitalism.IlinkBallard’sworktoBaudrillard’sagainhere
andsuggestthatBallardcallsforaformofself-knowledgethatallowsus,after
Foucault,“nottodiscoverwhatwearebuttorefusewhatweare.”122Thisispart
ofamovetowardsanethicsoftheselfthatreliesondefyingthetotalisingefforts
ofneoliberalismandinstitutingasystemofself-critique,ratherthanself-
maximisation,thatallowsustorecogniseourownenmeshmentinpower
structuresandtoconstructawaytoresistit.Thisdemonstratesthepowerof
literaryintervention,andpointstothenecessityofanimaginativerealmoutside
ofneoliberalmarketlogic.
ExploringEgan:WhoAreWeNow?
InmysectiononEgan,Iofferclosereadingsofthefourfullnovelsshehas
publishedtodate.IncontrasttoBallard’ssystem-focusedaccountof
neoliberalism,inwhichneoliberalhappinessdiscourseisclearlyvisibleasa
formofgovernmentality,IsuggestthatEgan’sworkoperatesatasubjectlevel.
Thatis,hernovelsdepicttheindividualexperienceofneoliberalhappiness
discourse.ItakeissuewithEgan’sdeploymentofliterarytheory,positingitas
partofadisavowalofpoliticalintentorfunctionthatunderminesthepoliticised
contentofherwork.Iidentifytheconceptof‘self-objectification’ascentralto
Egan’swork,andseethisaslinkedtonewvirtualtechnologiesoftheself,and
formsofaffectivelabour,whichoperateassitesofsubjectification.Incontrastto
Ballard’seffortstointerveneinandresistthetotalisingforceofneoliberalism
andthediversionarystrategiesofneoliberalhappinessdiscourse,Egan’swork
reliesonaviewofliteraturethatseesitasaprivategood,apersonalpleasure,or
evenasolaceinthefaceoftheapparentinevitabilityofneoliberalism.Thisview,
Isuggest,isadangerousone,becauseitleavesherworkopentoreproducing
thosesameprivatisingandatomisticlogicsthatinduceaffectivedistress.
MyinvestigationofEgan’sworkbeginswithanaccountofthecritical
contextinwhichIcometoherwork.Thisinvolvesidentifyinga‘special122MichelFoucault.‘TheSubjectandPower,’CriticalEnquiry,8:4,1982,p.777-795,p.785.
54
relationship’betweenthe‘values’ofneoliberalismandtheAmericancultureof
individualism,whichIframeusingtheworkofAlexisdeTocqueville.Iexplain
thatTocquevillesawthisstrainofAmericannationalcharacterasmediatedby
substantialinterestinpublicaffairs,butthattheprivatisingimpetusof
neoliberalpoliciesandprocessesundoesthisinterest,andleavesindividualism
unchecked.IsuggestthatthedominanceofAmericanconsumercultureandthe
historicfiguringoffreedomasthefreedomofeconomicself-determinationalso
contributetothisspecialrelationship,andthattheconnectionbetween
economicfreedomandhappinessintheDeclarationofIndependenceunderlines
thisconnection.ThissituatesEgan’sworkinthecontextofAmerican
exceptionalism,whichIbelieveisapersistentprobleminherwork.
IhighlighttherelativepaucityofcriticalworkonEgan,whichIbelieveisdue
inparttothewayheruseofliterarytheorytendstoenactasortofauto-
criticism.Thisauto-criticismworksasaformofdisavowal,complicatingefforts
tolocateherworkpolitically.However,IsuggestthattheissuesEgandealswith
inherwork–whichincludeterrorism,precariouslabour,attemptedrape–are
unavoidablypoliticallycharged.Ibelievethatherworkmaybebetter
categorisedasbetrayingneoliberalanxietythanexploringit;thisleadsmeto
suggestthatherworkoperatesinthemodeofthe‘neoliberalgothic,’evenwhen
itisnotexplicitlywritteninthegothicform.IconnectthistoNilges’saccountof
the‘neoliberalnovel,’aswellastheconceptofhauntology.Irecognisethatpart
ofthisisEgan’s‘writingout’ofherpostmoderninheritance,anddrawonwork
byAdamKellytoelaborateonthis.Iaminterestedhereinexpandinganaccount
ofthecapacityofthenovelisticform,againstwhichIcometoweighEgan’s
accountoftheroleofliterature.IalsorecognisetentativeeffortstosituateEgan
againstthecriticalbackdropofNewSincerity,andIseektoexploreher
relationshiptothisschool.
MyclosereadingofEgan’sworkis,again,chronological,andbeginswith
herfirstnovel,TheInvisibleCircus.ThisnovelissetinSanFranciscoin1978–a
significantdateinthehistoryofneoliberalism,asIexplain.Itsstructureis
somewherebetweenthatofthedetectivenovelandabildungsroman.Ittellsthe
storyofPhoebeO’Connor,whosesisterFaithkilledherselfinItalytenyears
earlier.Faithwasinvolvedinthehippiemovement,andeventuallywiththeRed
55
ArmyFactionandothermilitantEuropeangroups.Herinvolvementwiththese
groupsledhertoparticipateintheplantingofabombthatkilledaman,andshe
wasunabletolivewiththeguiltofhisdeath.Phoebediscoversthiswhenshe
undertakesajourneytoEurope,followinginhersister’sfootsteps.
ThisnovelintroducesseveralmotifsthatrecurthroughoutEgan’swork,most
notablythebildungsromanstructure.Theprocessofgrowththatoccursin
Egan’snovelsis,Isuggest,verydistinctlyaprocessof‘becomingneoliberal’–of
acceptingtheconditionsoftheworldastheyareandacquiescingtothesortof
privatehappinessthatunderliesthemiddle-classneoliberalaccountof
happinesswithoutinclinationorobligation.Inreadingthisnovel,Ihighlight
Egan’sproblematictendencytodepictpoliticalengagementasareactionary
emotionalstate.ThisisparticularlyevidentinTheInvisibleCircus,Isuggest,
becausesolittleattentionispaidtothematerialgainswroughtbyactivistsinthe
nineteensixties.Itisalsorelatedtothedepictionofclassinherwork,which
tendstofocusonwealthywhiteAmericans–thosecharacterswhodonotfitthis
descriptionusuallyperishbytheendofthenovel(withthenotableexception,I
argue,ofScottyinAVisitFromtheGoonSquad).IrecognisetheutilityofEgan’s
connectionbetweentheindividualismofsixtiescountercultureandthe
emergenceofflexible,orneoliberal,capitalism,butsuggestthatherstrategyof
disavowalmakesitverydifficulttotellifherworkisseekingtodismantlethe
efficacyofartisticcritiqueorifitfindsitselfcaughtinitsbind.Inseekingto
resolvethis,IsuggestthatspecialattentionmustbepaidtotheendingsofEgan’s
novels,whichcompelareadingthatseesherworkasimbricatedbyneoliberal
happinessdiscourse,ratherthanimaginingoppositiontoit.Attheendofthis
novel,Phoebegivesupontheideaoftranscendingtheeveryday.Hersubmission
totheadventofneoliberalism,andthetransformationofSanFranciscotoatech
hub,seesherreintegratedintotheworldvirtuallyseamlessly,unlikeher
doomedsister.Isuggestthatthisisapessimisticaccount,andasoptothereader
thateffectivelyseekstofunctionasanotherwayofregulatingdistress–which,in
myreading,canonlyexacerbatesuchdistressinthelongerterm.
InexploringEgan’snextnovel,LookatMe,IwrestlewithEgan’sdense
theoreticallayering,andseektoteaseouthowitworksan‘insulating
framework’inhernovels,andwhatthismeansforcriticalapproachestoher
56
work.IdrawonDavidFosterWallace’saccountof“imagefiction,”inwhichhe
suggestedthatfictionrespondingtotelevisualculturesoughtto“imposesome
sortofaccountabilityonastateofaffairsinwhichmoreAmericansgettheir
newsfromtelevisionthanfromnewspapers...”123WhenitcomestoEgan’s
work,Isuggestthereisatendencytocommentarywithoutcritiquethatrenders
anyefforttoimposeaccountabilitytoothless,becauseitpresentsneoliberal
realityasnaturalandinevitable.
Inthissection,IintroducetheworkofJimMcGuiganandAngelaMcRobbieto
lookatimmaterialeconomies,affectivelabour,andgender.Iseetheelisionof
genderissuesinEgan’sworkasacleardemonstrationoftheproblematic
manifestationofpoliticaldisavowal;thisisanovelaboutawomaninthe
modellingindustry,wherethereaderisdirectedtothinkoftheprotagonistas,“a
moreexaggeratedversionofeveryone’spositioninavisuallybased,media-
drivenculture,”asthoughthegenderedaspectsofthisformofidentity
performancecanbeglossedover.124Itentativelysuggestthatthismightbe
relatedtoEgan’sanxietyaroundbeingperceivedasa‘femalewriter,’areading
whichwouldbearfurtherexplorationinthefuture.
AlthoughImovetowardsreadingEgan’sworkinthecontextofsocialmedia
andothernewtechnologiesoftheself,Irecognisethatthefoundationofthis
novelisdrawnfromtheriseofthe‘realitygenre,’andseektolinkthistothe
proliferationofthesenewtechnologiesoftheself;asortofemergenttimelineof
theimperativetoself-objectify.Thisself-objectificationrendersthesubject
visibleinnewways,andassuchinstitutesnewmodesofidentityperformance,
whichIsuggestarecloselyrelatedtoneoliberalhappinessdiscourseandcometo
operatearegulatoryfunctionthroughtheiruse.Thisisconnectedtothe
recuperationofsufferingasproductive,andtheemergenceofnewformsof
socialcapital.Isuggestthatthisisalsorelatedtothetransformationof
confession,inboththe‘realitygenre’andthesenewtechnologies.
TheKeepisEgan’sonlynovelexplicitlywritteninthegothicform,whichEgan
usestoexplorevirtualidentity,immateriallabour,andthefunctionofwriting,
123DavidFosterWallace.‘EUnibusPluram:TelevisionandU.S.Fiction,’ReviewofContemporaryFiction,13:2,1993,pp.151-194,p.172.124JenniferEgan.LookatMe.2001London:Corsair,2011,201,p.92.
57
again.Inreadingit,IlookatEgan’suseoftheformaspartofaposthuman
gothic,invokingDonnaHaraway’sworkinmyreading.IsuggestthatEgan’s
worktendstoinsistonacentralrationalitythatisbeliedbytheanxietiesthat
haunthertexts,oratleast,thesefirstthreenovels–GoonSquadseemstolargely
exorcisethesedemons,bymyreading.TheKeepposesitselfasaninvestigation
intothenatureofreality,whichseeksatthesametimetorenderthatquestion
irrelevant,byEgan’sownaccount.IuseHaraway’swork,again,tosuggestthat
thisapproachdrasticallymisrepresentsthematerialimpactoftheemergenceof
newrealities.
Throughoutthisreading,Iexplorethewayinwhichpsychotherapeutic
rationalesareutilisedasmodelsofcharacterdevelopmentinEgan’swork.I
explorethisthroughlookingatEgan’sdepictionofRay,amurderer,prisoner,
writer,andfinally,escapee.Iquestionthenovel’spurportedexaminationof
power,andcompareitseffectivenessinexposingwiderpowerstructurestothe
workofearliergothicauthors,suchasMaryWollstonecraft.IsuggestthatEgan’s
reluctancetoengagepoliticallyresultsinamischaracterisationofhowpoweris
atworkinwidersociety.Insteadofmaterialdisadvantagecausedbysystemic
discriminationandaneconomythatfavoursonlythealreadywealthy,Egan
identifiespervasivecelebritycultureastheprimarythreattotheimaginative
potentialofthe‘essentialself.’IseethisasmostapparentinherwritingofHolly,
Ray’screativewritingteacher,forwhomdruguse,relativepoverty,andeventhe
lossofachild,areallfiguredaspartofaseriesofbadpersonalchoices,echoing
thelogicofresponsibilisationthatseesindividualsasliableforallandany
misfortunetheyencounter.Inclosing,IsuggestthatEgan’sdepictionofwriting
andimaginationinherworkrendersliteratureasanartisticformdisconnected
fromreallife,whichdrasticallylimitswhatitcanorshouldbeabletodo.
ThelastpartofmyclosereadingofEganfocusesonherPulitzer-winning
novel,AVisitFromtheGoonSquad.IuseAnisShivani’saccountof‘plastic
realism’toframemyreadingofthisnovel,andtoconsiderhowitscommercial
andcriticalsuccessnecessitatesareconceptualizationoftheculturalpositionof
Egan’swork–withwhich,shehassuggested,shewasmorethanpleased.Thisis
incontrasttoBallard’seffortstoresistthesubsumptionofhisworkbythe
cultureindustry,asdemonstratedbyMillenniumPeople.Thisraisesquestions,
58
again,regardingwhatwereadandwhy,andwhattypeofbooksareseenas
‘good,’andpubliclyrewardedassuch.MuchofmyreadingofGoonSquadlooks
atits‘hollowingout’ofthepunkmusicscenearoundwhichitislooselybased,
andIseektodrawattentiontothewayinwhichconventionalgenderrolesare
covertlyre-inscribedthroughoutthenovel,whichItakeassymptomaticofa
widerconservatismatworkinEgan’swriting.
IcontinuemyinvestigationoftherelationshipbetweenJenniferEganand
NewSincerity,andNewSincerityandpoliticalcritique,withaclosereadingof
herpasticheofDavidFosterWallaceandWallace’s‘Briefinterviewswith
HideousMen#20.’Forthis,IuseRachelHaleyHimmelheber’sworktoilluminate
thepoliticalpotentialofNewSincerity.IhighlightareasinwhichEgan’s
engagementwithrealityistoodetachedtofunctionascritique(includingher
chapter,‘SellingtheGeneral)andpaycloseattentiontohertreatmentof
‘aberrant’characters.Thisculminatesinadetailedaccountofthecharacterof
Scotty,whosepathepitomisessomeofthemostchallengingaspectsofEgan’s
work.Iseektodemonstratethat,despitetheallegedlyunconventionalformof
thisnovel,itsoffersnothingthatisactuallysubversive,andmightevenbeseen
toplacatethereaderinitsinsistenceonthecyclicalrecurrenceoftheworldand
thesuggestionthatwemusttakeourprivatepleasureswherewecan.
InSummation
Inshort,then,themethodologicalbasisofmyworkisliteraryanalysiswitha
looselyFoucauldianframework,withaninsistenceonunderstandingthereal
materialconditionsandwaysinwhichpeoplearelivingandareconstructing
livesatthismoment.Myaccountsofsubjectivityandsubjectificationare
developedfromtheworkofNikolasRose,althoughIhavesoughttoexpandand
refinethesethroughlookingatmorerecenttechnologiesoftheselfthanare
coveredinhiswork.Inunderstandingthesetechnologies,theworkofJaron
LanierandSherryTurklehasbeeninvaluable,althoughmyworkhasaclear
politicaldimensionlargelylackingfromtheirwork.Ihavealsolocatedthe
workplace,andthechangingnatureofwork,asaprivilegedsiteof
subjectification.Iseektoexplorehowthesenewsitesofworkemployandare
complicitinthedeploymentofaspectsofneoliberalhappinessdiscourse,and
59
howthisformsandinformsnewsitesandmodesofsubjectification.Inlookingat
thesenewsites,myworkbuildsoncontemporaryfeministcriticismthatseeksto
challengetheFordistpreconceptionsbuiltintotheapproachoftheoristssuchas
HardtandNegri,suchasMcRobbie’swork,outlinedabove.However,Ihave
soughttoretainafocusonworking-classsubjectsthroughoutthisthesis,in
keepingwithmysuggestionthatneoliberalhappinessdiscourseworksto
marginaliseanddis-incentiviseworking-classidentityaspartofitswiderproject
ofdepoliticisiation.
MyfocusonhappinesscanbesupportedbywhatAhmedhascharacterisedas
the‘happinessturn,’whichshehassituatedasbeginningaround2005,inits
contemporarymanifestation.125Inawiderhistoricalcontext,thereiscertainly
nothingnewaboutdiscussinghappiness,butformyself,Ahmed,Cederströmand
Spicer,andothersworkinginthecontemporarymoment,thereisadistinct
discourseofhappinessthathasemergedinthispastdecadeorso,andcometo
dominatenotjustpersonalbeliefsorpractices,butstateprocesses,political
rhetoric,theworldofwork,andbeyond.UnderMartinSeligman,positive
psychologyhasseengrowthandlegitimationasapsychologicalfield.
Positivepsychologyisamovementorschoolthatseekstotransformthefocusof
psychologicalpracticefrom“thestatesthatmakelifemiserable”(depression,
schizophreniaandalcoholismaregivenasexamples)to“thestatesthatmake
lifeworthliving.”126Thisframeworkseesthefunctionofpsychologicalsciences
asadditive,ratherthanasaformofrestorativetreatmentorholdingground.
Indeed,itisusuallytruethatwelearnthroughdamage:wedonotgenerally
examinehealthybrainsandbodies,andsoourframeworkofmedicalknowledge
isbuiltondisease,impairment,injury.Seligmanandotheradvocatesofpositive
psychologyseethefieldasofferingachancetotreatthewell,ineffect:toshift
frommanagingdistresstomaximisinghappiness(authentichappiness,at
that).127
125Ahmed.ThePromiseofHappiness,p.3-12.126MartinSeligman.AuthenticHappiness.London:BrealeyPublishing,2003.p.xi.127Thislanguageof“maximization”hasechoesinFoucault’sworkregarding“themovefromlifeassomethingthatcouldbetakenbythesovereigntosomethingthatmustinsteadbemaximisedbygovernance,”asabove(seep13).
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Seligmanwrites,“Thetimehasfinallyarrivedforasciencethatseeksto
understandpositiveemotion,buildstrengthandvirtue,andprovideguideposts
forfindingwhatAristotlecalledthe“goodlife.””128Thisaccountof“thegoodlife”
is,forSeligman,connectedtostrengthsandvirtues,ratherthanpleasure:
happinessthatcomesfromorisbuiltonthese“strengthsandvirtues”is
authentic;thingswhichgiveuspleasureareshortcuts,andthissenseof
happinessisinauthentic.129Seligman’saccountofthegoodlifeisaprofoundly
normativeonewhichpretendstobeneutral;thisisthecruxofSaraAhmed’s
rebuttalinThePromiseofHappiness,whichlooksatthosefigureswhoare
excludedorabsentfromthestructuresofhappinessSeligmanandothersrely
on.130Positivepsychologyhasthreestrands,or“pillars”:
Firstisthestudyofpositiveemotion.Secondisthestudyofthe
positivetraits,foremostamongstthemthestrengthsandvirtues,but
alsothe“abilities”suchasintelligenceandathleticism[forSeligman’s
versionofhappinessalsobelievesweshouldacceptcertain
limitationsandadjustourdesireforhappinesstofallwithinthe
upperendofourowncapacityforhappiness,inthesamewaywe
mightresignourselvestonevermakinganOlympicteamorjoining
Mensa].Thirdisthestudyofthepositiveinstitutions,suchas
democracy[whatistheinstitutionofdemocracy,though?],strong
families[whatconstitutesastrongfamily?Wemayassumeitisa
128Seligman.AuthenticHappiness,p.xi.129IwillconfesstostrugglingwithSeligman’swork,notleasthisaccountofhowpsychologistscaninstantlytella‘real’smile(Duchenne,inhisterminology)froma‘fake’(PanAmerican)one–thisseemsimportanttomegiventhevalueattributedtosmilinginaffectiveeconomies,particularlytheserviceindustry.Further,thesmileisnotaneutralsocialgood:muchrecentfeministconversationhasraisedthequestionofwhymensofrequentlytellwomentosmile–seeErikaHardison,‘It’sImportantforMentoUnderstandTheyNeedToStopTellingWomentoSmile,’HuffingtonPost,11April2016https://www.huffingtonpost.com/erika-hardison/its-important-for-men-to-stop-telling-women-to-smile_b_9655246.html;or‘RosieInocencioSmith,‘TheSexismofTellingWomentoSmile:YourStories,’TheAtlantic,27October2016https://www.theatlantic.com/notes/all/2016/10/the-sexism-of-telling-women-to-smile-your-stories/503309/;andelsewhere.Indeed,Seligmanseemsoblivioustothisaspectofsmiling,recountinganexperimentbyDacherKeltnerandLeeAnneHarkerinwhichthe‘realness’ofthesmilesinphotographsofsenior-classwomenfromUniversityofCalifornia,anddescribingasectionofthisexperimentwheretheinvestigatorsratedtheattractivenessofthewomeninthephotographs(bywhatscaleitisunclear),positingaconnectionbetweenprettinessandhappiness.Thisconnectionwasdisproven;instead,Seligmanwrites,“Agenuinelysmilingwoman,itturnedout,wassimplymorelikelytobewell-wedandhappy.”p.5.130Feministkilljoys,unhappyqueers,andmelancholicmigrants;alltheserevealandundosomeofthenormativeassumptionsunderlyingSeligman’saccountof“virtuesandstrengths.”
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familyinwhichSeligman’sdirectivesforparentingarefollowed],and
freeinquiry,thatsupportthevirtues,whichinturnsupportthe
positiveemotions.131
Indeed,inhisefforttosituatepositivepsychologyintheboundsofempirical
scientificdiscourse–anattemptwhichhascolouredmuchotherwritingon
happinessanditsutilityorpracticabilityinbothpopularscienceandpublic
policy–Seligmanhimselfabandoned‘happiness’ashisprimaryreferent,shifting
tothelanguageof“flourishing,”whichis(apparently)moreeasilymeasurablein
materialterms.132FlourishingallowsSeligmantotalkaboutaccomplishmentas
wellasfeeling,althoughthisformulationtendstothesamepresumptionsofhis
accountofhappiness:howdowedecidewhatmakesaccomplishmentvaluable?
RichardLayardaskedthisveryquestioninareviewofSeligman’sFlourish,which
succinctlyexpressedthetensionsbetweenSeligman’sindividualisticconception
ofpositivepsychology(inwhich,again,democracyisapparentlyimportant
primarilybecauseitoffersaframeworkforprivatehappiness)againstLayard’s
staunchlyutilitarianapproach,whichIdiscusslaterinthisthesis.133Whatboth
thesetheoristshaveincommon,andwhatrepresentsthegreatestdifficultyfor
positivepsychology,isitsrefusaltowrestlewiththetransformationofsocial
institutionsandpublicconversationundertheriseofmarketlogic,andto
acknowledgeandaddressthewaysinwhichthatlogicreshapesthequestionof
valueinlifethroughtheimplementationofthis‘businessontology’oreconomic
framework.134
Elsewhere,workplacesandstatesalikehaveadoptedhappinessasa
productivitymeasure,asdemonstratedbyWilliamDaviesinTheHappiness
Industry(2015),andOliverJamesinAffluenza(2007).Scientificmodelsof
happiness,suchasthoseproposedinRichardLayard’swork,havesoughtto131Seligman.AuthenticHappiness,p.xiii.132Measurabilityis,asIhavesuggested,acoreelementofneoliberalhappinessdiscourse.133RichardLayard,‘FlourishReview,’TheObserver,15May2011,https://www.theguardian.com/science/2011/may/15/flourish-science-of-happiness-psychology-review134AsIhavewrittenelsewhereinthisthesis,Ibelievethereisastrongclassbiasinpositivepsychology,orany‘maximisation’approach,anassumptionthatameasureofhappinessexiststhatcanbemaximized,andfurther,thatthesubjecthasthetimeandresourcestodevotetothismaximisation.IalsotakeissuewithLayard’sapproach,however,whichemphasizestheneedforalleviatingsufferingusingpsychologicalstrategiesthatdonotandcannotaddressthematerialcontextofsuffering,thoughIacknowledgetheimmediateutilityofsuchstrategies.
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rationalisetheelevationofhappinessinpublicdiscourse,andtoestablishnew
methodsoftreatmentandintervention.135Thesemodelshaveacknowledgedthe
riseinconditionsofdistressandsoughttoestablishpracticalwaystoalleviate
thiswithinthefieldofpsysciences.Layard’sconclusionattheendofhis2005
work,Happiness:LessonsfromaNewScience,soundsnottoofarfromsomeofmy
reasoninginthesectionbeforethis,whenheemphasisestheneedforacommon
good,andwrites,“Thesecret[ofhappiness]iscompassiontowardsoneselfand
others,andtheprincipleofGreatestHappinessisessentiallytheexpressionof
thatidea.”136Ourworksdiverges,however,initsconcernregardingthe
frameworkinwhichsufferingoccurs.
Layard,Ithink,seeshismissionasremovingsufferingasitexists.In
suggesting,afterMarkFisher,thatstatesofaffectivedistressshouldbe
politicisedinsteadofpathologised,IseeLayard’slogic,well-meaningasitis,as
servingtonaturaliseandperpetuatethissuffering.WhenLayardwritesthat,“A
societycannotflourishwithoutsomesortofsharedpurpose,”heseemsto
overlooktheimpossibilityofsuchasenseofpurposeinourcurrentsociety.137
Thisisduenotonlytothevastwealthinequalitiesthatexist,butalsomore
mundanefacts,suchastheinabilityofsustainingsubstantiveintimate
relationshipswhenonemustmoveconstantlyforwork,orworkunsociableand
irregularhoursunderazero-hourscontract,ortheimpossibilityofsecuring
affordablehousingandbuildingarobustfamilylife(whateverformthatfamily
maytake).Inaddition,theapparentimpossibilityofthinkingpastthese
problems–ofimaginingnewwaysofworkingandlivingthatrespectthebasic
dignityofpeople–isattherootofthefeelingofpowerlessnessIsuggestforms
thebasisofmuchaffectivedistress.138Compassioniscoldcomfortifitcannot
135Layard’sworkhashadsignificantimpactongovernmentpolicy,particularlyunderthelastLabourgovernment,whenhebecameknownasa‘happinesstsar.’136RichardLayard.Happiness:LessonsfromaNewScience.London:Penguin,2005,p.235.137Layard.Happiness:LessonsfromaNewScience,p.234.138Imightalsoadd,here,thewayinwhichpoliticalresentmentsarestirredupandenflamedbythesametechnologiesoftheselfIexploreinmywork,particularlyina‘post-truth’landscape,wherepoliticalallegianceoftenbecomesamatterofpersonalidentitywithoutanytheoreticalobjectiveimaginary–apoliticsforone,ifyoulike.Thisisexemplified,Ithink,inthe‘alt-right’useofmemesasapoliticaltool.See‘Forgetfakenews–alt-rightmemescoulddomoredamagetodemocracy,’Salon,8July2017.http://www.salon.com/2017/07/08/forget-fake-news-alt-right-memes-could-do-more-damage-to-democracy/.
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moveusbeyondastateofbeinginwhichsufferingissonaturalisedwebuilditin
toourpublichealthpolicies.
Inthis,myworkagreeswithAhmedandBerlant,inrecognisingnotjustthe
inadequacyofthose‘positive’formsofhappinesspromotedbySeligmanorthe
medicalisedaccountsofLayardetal,butalsoinadvocatingforcloseattentionto
thewayinwhichhappinessispromotedasanapparentlyneutralgood,whenit
isinfactacomplexandmultifaceteddiscoursethatcreatesandlegitimises
normativeideasofthegoodlifeunderitsauspices,inaccordancewithneoliberal
‘values.’ModifyingBerlantandAhmed’sapproach,Ifocusontwopopular
mainstreamauthors,asopposedtochartingthenarrativesofthoseovertly
outsideoforinoppositiontothishappinessdiscourse.139Inselectingtwowidely
readandculturallyinfluentialauthors,Ihopetodemonstratetheculturalvitality
ofliterature.Iamalsoexploringthewayinwhichthisinfluenceisaccruedand
deployed;again,thisoccurswithabroadercontextinlookingatEgan’swork
thanBallard’s.PartofmythesisinreadingBallard’slatenovelsis,asstated,that
theymarkadeliberateshiftinhiswork,movingtoamoreovertlypolitical
positionthanisseeninhisearlynovels.Thisis,Ibelieve,tiedtotheaccrualof
culturalcapitalthroughouthiscareer,andhisuseofthosetropesandtechniques
forwhichhisworkisbestknown–forinstance,hisaffectlessnarrativestyle–
workstodrawattentiontotheinsidiousnessofneoliberalpower,andto
motivatethereadertoact‘offthepage.’Thefinalnovelofthisquartet,Kingdom
Come,makesplainthismove,aswewillsee.
Egan’sworkself-consciouslyemploysamuchgreaterrangeofliteraryforms
thanBallard’s,whichallowsmetoexplorehowthesedifferentformsworkin
relationtoneoliberalism.Ifocusontheneoliberalgothic,Egan’spostmodern
inheritance,andthenovelformitself.AsIhavesuggested,Egan’sworkoperates
underadifferentrubrictoBallard’s–itisdeliberatelyapolitical.Inmy
investigation,Iseektoexploretheimpactofthisapproach–whetheritmeans
139IfeelconfidentindescribingEganintheseterms,particularlyfollowingherreceiptofthePulitzerPrizeforAVisitfromtheGoonSquad,whichIdiscussinlookingatthatnovel.IthinktheculturalimpactofBallard’sworkingeneraljustifiesthischaracterisationtoo;think,forinstance,oftheinclusionof‘Ballardian’asatermintheCollinsEnglishDictionary-www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/ballardian.
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thatEgan’sworkreplicatesandrepeatsneoliberallogics,orwhetherformitself
stillofferssomeresistance,regardlessofcontentorauthorialintention.
Thecontrastbetweentheseauthorsisalsothereasonforthedesignofmy
thesis,whichisdividedintotwopartstoemphasisethecontrastbetweenBallard
andEgan.IlookatfournovelsbyBallardandfourbyEgan,analysingeachwork
individuallywhilstalsoseekingtoestablishanoverarchingframeworkformy
readingofeachauthor,asjustoutlined.Asmentionedearlier,mywork
acknowledgesandexploresthedistinctrelationshipbetweenneoliberalismand
Americanculturalvalues.Ihavesoughttoavoidmakinggeneralisationswith
regardtothis,andwouldbekeeninthefuturetoexplorethishypothesis
throughlookingatarangeofglobalauthors.Forthetimebeing,myworkaimsto
elucidatethoseconceptionsofhappinessthatflourishunderneoliberalism,to
sketcharoughoutlineofwhatconstitutes‘neoliberalhappinessdiscourse’in
theoryandpractice,toexplorehowcontemporaryliteratureintheU.S.andU.K.,
representedbytheworkofBallardandEgan,rebuts,repeats,orresiststhese
conceptions,andtoconsiderwhatthismightmeanforreaders.
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OnBallard
J.G.Ballard’sworkhasdemonstratedacovertpreoccupationwiththeriseof
neoliberalismanditsimpactonthesubjectificationoftheindividualsincethe
publicationofTheAtrocityExhibitionin1970.Theformofthistext–aseriesof
looselyconnectedchaptersthatroughlycharttheprotagonist’sbreakdown–
distortsconventionalnarrativestructure.Itsthematicpreoccupations–
celebrity,massmedia,makingstrangethepresentthrough‘futurising’it,
fragmentationoftheselfinthefaceofrapidculturalchange–havebecome
standardsincontemporaryliterature,particularlyliteraturethatworksinan
experimentalmode.ItisnothardtoseeBallardasaforebeartoauthorslike
GeorgeSaundersorDavidFosterWallace-indeed,theannotatededitionofThe
AtrocityExhibitionpublishedin2001couldnearlybeaDavidFosterWallace
collection.Thatthistextwaspublishedattheverybeginningofthe
contemporaryneoliberalturn,aswemightdescribeit,showstheuncanny
prescienceofBallard’swork,whichisanotablefeaturethroughouthisoeuvre.1
ThepublicationofTheAtrocityExhibitionmarkedadistinctshiftinBallard’s
work.Hisearlynovels-TheWindfromNowhere(1961),TheDrownedWorld
(1962),TheBurningWorld(1964),TheCrystalWorld(1966)–existcomfortably
inthesciencefictiongenre,inthesubsetofecologicalsciencefiction,oreco-
fiction.From1970,however,hisworklargelyconcentratedonunpackingthe
ideasthatinformedTheAtrocityExhibition(notableexceptionsareEmpireofthe
Sun(1984)anditssequelTheKindnessofWomen(1991),whichofferasemi-
autobiographicalaccountofBallard’slife).Theincreasingsenseofencroachment
feltbytheindividualunderthetotalisingeffortsofneoliberalismisattheheart
ofmostofBallard’swork.Inexploringthecentralideaofthisthesis-that
happinesshasbeentransformedfromafieldofsubstantivephilosophical
enquiryintoaregulatorydiscoursedesignedtopropagateneoliberalidealsand
closespacesofalterity.Theideaofhappinessasafieldofenquiryisthe
connectedtothedifficultyofhappiness–tothewranglingsanduncertainties
1Ballardisfamouslyreportedasdescribinghisprimaryinterest,whenwriting,as“thenextfiveminutes.”Generallythisisunattributed,butseemstohavecomefromalongprosepoementitledWhatIBelieve,originallypublishedinFrenchinajournalcalledScienceFictioninJanuary1984,republishedinEnglishthesameyearinInterzone:www.jgballard.ca/uncollected_work/what_i_believe.html.Thepoemissomethingofaprofessionoffaith,andtheactuallineis,“Ibelieveinthenextfiveminutes.”
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aroundwhathappinessis.Theseuncertaintiesarethemeat,ifyoulike,of
philosophiesofhappiness:thequestionofwhatconstitutesthegoodlife,after
Aristotle.2Iamnotsuggestingthatnoonediscusseswhathappinessisanymore
–thatwouldbefacile.WhatIamsuggestingisthatstate-centricandpublic
conversationsaroundhappinessassumethedesirabilityandneutralityof
happinesswhileatthesametimeobscuringtheinnateconnectionbetweenthe
riseofneoliberalismandtheriseofstatesofaffectivedistress:thatinsteadof
acknowledginganddiscussingthisconnectionandwhatitmeans,wetakethe
problemtobethepresenceofsuffering,andtheanswerorobjecttobeanendto
suffering,wheresufferingisatthesametimemeasuredaseconomic
malfunction.3Thisformulaobscurestheneedtolookattheformorcontentof
sufferingandaskhowitrelatestotheformof‘goodness’thatproliferates.4This
‘goodness,’byneoliberallogic,isrenderedineconomicterms,whereour
freedomtochooseexistswithintheboundariesandlogicofmarketchoice,
whichcannotnecessarilycontainordescribethoseimmaterialfacetsof
happiness.Thisisconnectedtothewiderframeworkofresponsibilisation
identifiedaspartofneoliberalgovernmentality,whichseesthesubjectas
responsibleforconstructingtheirlifethroughaseriesofrationalchoices–
where,onceagain,rationalityremainstiedtoeconomicfunctionality.
SaraAhmedwrites,“Happinessisconsistentlydescribedastheobjectof
humandesire,asbeingwhatweaimfor,asbeingwhatgivespurpose,meaning
andordertohumanlife.”5Ahmedsaysexplicitlythatherbookisnotdesignedto
offeranaccountofwhathappinessis,buttolookatwhatitdoes:thisistrue,too,
ofmywork.LaurenBerlantsays,“theaffectivestructureofanoptimistic
attachmentinvolvesasustaininginclinationtoreturntothesceneofthefantasy
thatenablesyoutoexpectthatthistime,nearnesstothisthingwillhelpyouor
2Mostoftheliteratureinthefieldof‘happinessstudies’takesAristotleasthefoundationalthinkerofthediscipline,asSisselaBokdiscussesinExploringHappiness:FromAristotletoBrainScience,Cambridge,MA:YaleUniversityPress,2010.3Thisisconnected,too,tothetotalisingeffortsofneoliberalism;theinsistence,perThatcher,thatthereisnoalternative–sowhyshouldorcouldweseektoformulatesomeotherideaofhowtolive?4Thatis,toconductanyphilosophicalenquiryintotheframeworkofoursociety.5Ahmed,ThePromiseofHappiness.p.1.
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theworldtobecomedifferentinjusttherightway.”6Inmyaccount,happiness
underneoliberalismbecomesoneofthese‘goodobjects,’anditscomplexityor
uncertaintyisremovedinthistransformationfromconceptto‘thing.’7
InAffluenza,OliverJamessoughttoseparatehimselffromthegrowingmass
ofpopular‘happinesstheorists’:
SincethepublicationofBritainontheCouch,manyAmericanauthors
–andmorerecently,Britishones–havefollowedmeintoits
worryingterrain,nearlyallofthemconcentratingonhappiness.I
wouldliketostressthatwhatIhavetosayisquitedifferent.Typical
ofourtimeinhistory,ratherthanfacingthefactthatwearetrulyinn
abadway,emotionally,thefactsofourdespair,frustrationandanger
arespun,andinplaceofitsrealcausecomeendlesstreatisesonhow
tohavepositivepsychologyandbehappy.8
Jamesalsosaysthat“theevidenceregardinghappiness,ratherthanemotional
distress,isanywaynotverysound”–howwouldweofferevidencefora
philosophicalconcept?9Therenderingofhappinessasmeasurablecastsitas
distancefromdistressorsufferingwhichisnot,exceptinthepoorest
imagination,whatwewouldhopeforinhappiness.Ineffect,Iamdiscussinga
happinessdiscoursethatseekstoremovethequestionofwhathappinessis
–undertheneoliberalrhetoricofchoice,itiswhatyouchooseittobe,afterall.
Instead,Ipositthisasapublicdiscourseinwhichhappinessistranslatedintoan
object–tohave,topursue,tomeasure.Thisemptiesoutpublicconversation
aroundwhathappinessis,turningitinsteadintoaquestionofhowwecangetor
obtainhappiness.10Thisyear(2018)hasseentherisetoprominenceof
6Berlant.CruelOptimism,p.2.7Thisalsoenablestheexpansionofhappinessdiscourseintounhappiness,wherethenearnesstohappinessbecomesanimplicitcomponentofthe‘happinessjourney’narrativeIdiscussasoneofthewaysinwhichsufferingisrecuperatedasproductive.8OliverJames,Affluenzap.xvii.IamnotsurehowfarJamessucceedshere,orwhetherheisquiteasinfluentialashesuggests;thatis,however,aquestionforanothertime.James’sworkmixesinstitutionalcritiquesthatfocusesoneconomicreformwithanecdotalevidenceintendedtosupporthisargumentsaroundinnatedesireandneed.Thistechniqueiscommontomany‘happinessexperts’andresultsinasomewhatstrangemixofstorytellingandsciencethatisagenreallitsown.9Asabove.10Atthemoment,asimilarshiftisoccurringaroundtheideaof“loneliness,”withtheappointmentofa‘ministerforloneliness’intheUKandabarrageofarticlesdescribingtheexperiencesofvariouspeoplewhoare“sufferingfromloneliness”who,oncloserinspection,
69
CanadianacademicJordanB.Peterson,whopublisheda(controversially
received)bookcalled12RulesforLife:AnAntidotetoChaos.Oneofthecore
tenetsofPeterson’sworkisthatweshouldacceptinequalityandsufferingas
partoflife;thismightbetheclosestthingtoaphilosophicaldefenceofneoliberal
happinessdiscoursewehaveseenyet.11
Toexploremycontentionthatpublicdiscoursearoundhappinesshas
become‘hollowedout’inaneoliberalframework,Ihavechosentofocuson
Ballard’slastfournovels:CocaineNights(1996),Super-Cannes(2000),
MillenniumPeople(2003)andKingdomCome(2006).Thisworkfollowsasimilar
thematicveintotherestofBallard’soeuvre,outlinedabove,butthesefourlate
novelsworktogethermorecloselythanhisothertexts.Ibelievetheyconstitute
anextendedthesisontheexperienceofthesubjectunderneoliberalism,andthat
thetransformationofhappinessisacentralpartofthisexperience.12
MyreadingofBallarddepartsfromthosecriticalapproachesthatemphasis
the‘unreadability’ordifficultyofBallard’swork,suchasRogerLuckhurst’sThe
AngleBetweenTwoWalls,inwhichthatwriterpositedthelureofBallard’swork
as“generatedbyanirreduciblecoreofunreadability.”13Isuggestthat,if
Ballard’slatetextsseemsomehowunsatisfying–thecharactersrepetitive,the
plotsthin,climaxesinconclusive–itisbecausetheyaredesignedtobe.Theyare
unsatisfyingbecausetheywarnhowunsatisfyingthemodesoflifetheydepict
oftenturnouttobesufferingfromunemployment,socialandgeographicalisolation,andsoon.See,forinstance:MoyaSarner,‘Fellinglonely?Meetthepeoplewhosufferedextremeisolation–thenfoundhappiness,’TheGuardian,18January2018.https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2018/jan/18/feeling-lonely-meet-people-extreme-isolation-found-happiness.Thisisrelatedtothe‘psychologisationoflife’exploredelsewhereinthisthesistoo.11Althoughheisaclinicalpsychologist,Peterson’sworkdrawsonanumberofliterarytexts,andisheavilyinfluencedbyhisinterpretationofNietzscheanphilosophy.Hisinclusioninthisthesisisbynomeansanendorsementofthiswork,whichasIhaveassertsanarrativeofindividualresponsibilitythataccordsneatlywithneoliberallogic.Indeed,eventhetitleofhisbook–AnAntidotetoChaos–echoesthe“chaosofchoice”Ihavesuggestedisakeycomponentinstatesofaffectivedistress.Iamseekingtohighlight,here,thetimelinessofmyresearchinterests,andacknowledgingthatevennowashiftmaybeunderwayinhowwediscussorthinkabouthappiness:ashiftthatmayeveninvolvetheemergenceofacontemporaryphilosophyofhappiness(orunhappiness,orsuffering),asfarasPeterson’sworkgoes.12Iamnotthefirstcritictothinkthesenovelsconstituteadistinctthesis.InSamuelFrancis’ThePsychologicalFictionsofJ.G.BallardLondon:Bloomsbury,2013,thefourarelinkedinachapterentitledContemporaryPsychopathies,pp.155–83;SimonSellersalsorecognisesthemaspartofasubsetofBallard’soeuvreinhisintroductiontoExtremeMetaphors,FourthEstate:London,2012.13RogerLuckhurst,TheAngleBetweenTwoWalls.Liverpool:LiverpoolUniversityPress,1997.p.180.
70
are.Theformalspaceofanovel,Ballardseemstobesaying,constrainsthe
imaginationtoo.Throughthis,heimplicateshisownworkindiscoursesof
control,withtheintentionofhighlightingthiscomplicityand,insodoing,
seekingtopushagainstit.IfreaderslikeLuckhurstseeksomerewardin
Ballard’sobscurity,hereheconfoundsthem:bythetimeofthelastnovelinthis
quartet,KingdomCome,hehastrulybecomevirtuallyunreadable,practically
parodyinghisownwork.14Thisisadeliberatepushingbackagainsthisposition
intheculturalcanon.AndrzejGasiorekreadsthisasadeclarationof
hopelessness:
Inasmuchasdeterministicsystemshavealwaysfiguredprominently
inBallard’stexts,intheselateworksthepowerofsuchsystems
appearstobeall-embracing.Thebelatedlyawakenedsubject
becomesawareofthesystem’scriminalitybutispowerlesstodo
anythingaboutit;thispersonalknowledge,inshort,makesno
difference,preciselybecausethesubjectisfiguredasapunyentity
whoseinterventionshavenocapacitytodisturbtheflowsand
exchangesofglobalisedmultinationalnetworksofpower.15
Itakeissuewiththisreading,andseektodemonstratethattheselatenovelsare
infactpoliticallyengaged,andthattheyurgethereadertoengageimaginatively
withtheworldoffthepage:thepenultimatechapterofKingdomComeiscalled
‘ExitStrategies,’anditseemstomethisiswhatBallardisurginghisreaderto
formulate.IftheprotagonistsofBallard’snovelsarepowerless(whichisnot,I
suggest,alwaysthecase),thereaderisnot.InaninterviewaboutKingdomCome,
TobyLittaskedBallardifhesawthingsasgettingexponentiallyworse(forthe
worldatlarge),towhichBallardreplied:“No,Idon’t.”16Hegoesontosaythatall
theformertotemsofpower–thechurch,theearliercapitalistsystem,the
monarchy–createdasortofplayofpowerthat“kepttheshowontheroad,”but
thattheseforcesnolongerexerciseanyrealpower,orinspireloyalty.Hesays
14SimonSellersalsonotedthisinconversationwithBallard,whoownedthecharge.pp.431-2ExtremeMetaphors.15AndrzejGasiorek,J.G.Ballard.Manchester:ManchesterUniversityPress,2005.p.174–itmustbehighlightedherethatGasiorek’sanalysiswasformulatedpriortothepublicationofKingdomCome.16ExtremeMetaphors.p.420.
71
theonlyrealforcethatcontinuestoexercisepowerisconsumerism–theneedto
engageproductivelyinthemarket.
Forconsumerismtocontinuetoflourish,Ballardsuggests,weneedto
inventnewwaystospendmoney,totransformnewareasintomarkets.For
Ballard,thiscanonlymovehumanityintotherealmofthepsychopathic.Hesays,
“Wewantmoreexcitinglives.TherearelimitstothenumberofTVsetsyoucan
haveathome.Therearelimitstothenumberofcarsyoucanown.Onceyou’ve
gotallthosethings,whathappensnext?”17Ballardincipientlyrecognisesthe
innatetruthofneoliberalism,thatthemarkethasfarexceededitsfunctionasa
mechanismofsupply,andbecomeuntetheredfromthatprospectoffreedom
outlinedbyitsearlytheorists.18Althoughtheselatenovelspre-datetheriseof
socialmediaandthesmartphone,whenaskedtoselectakeyimagethatwould
representthetwenty-firstcenturyinthesamewaythecarhadthetwentieth,
Ballardsays,“It’shardtotell–it’ssoearly.IfIhadtopickanimagenow,it’d
probablybeaninternetscreen.”19Ballarddiedin2009,soonecanonlyspeculate
ontheinternetnovelhemighthavewrittenhadhelived–andtheimaginative
outstrippingevenhemightfeelatthewayinwhichnewtechnologieshave
becometechnologiesoftheself,andenabledtheopeningupofallpartsoflifeto
marketisation.
Inthissameinterview,LittasksBallardwhatadvicehewouldgivetopeople,
howhemightsuggesttheychange.TowhichBallardreplied,
WhatwouldIsaytothesepeoplethere[theinhabitantsofreal–life
motorwaytowns]?Quiteaquestion,becausetheobviousansweris:
‘Stopbuyingthings.’Youknow,thewholeeconomyisgoingto
collapse[whichitdid,tosomedegree,twoyearslater].Thisispartof
theproblem,ofcourse.Theengineisnowrevvingsofastthatyou
can’tapplythebreaks.You’djusttearoffthebrakedrumsandhurl
thewholevehicleintotheditch.20
17ExtremeMetaphors.p.420.18Hesays,inwhatwemightnowseeasaseriousunderstatement,“Marketsarenolongercontributingmuchtosocialcohesion.”ExtremeMetaphors,p.424.19ExtremeMetaphors.p.436.20ExtremeMetaphors.p.423.
72
Ballardis,ashesaysexplicitly,issuingwarnings.Hegoessofarastodescribe
KingdomComeas“afull-frontalattackonEnglandtoday,”acountryhethinks
“haslostitsdirection.”21Despitethis,hesaysthathisworkisintendedtobe
affirmative,ratherthanbleaklydystopian:“Ithinkmyworkissuperficially
dystopian,insomerespects,butI’mtryingto,asyousay,affirmamorepositive
world-view.”22Hementionshisdesiretowritecharactersthatfindawayto
“makesomethingpositiveoutofthechaosthatsurrounds[them].”23Healso,as
statedelsewhere,statesthathehasbecomemoreleft-wingashehasgotten
older.24Thishasbeenrelativelyoverlooked,eveninrecentBallardscholarship,
suchasthe2008collectionofcriticismeditedbyJeanetteBaxter.Inamore
recentcollection,DavidJamesturnshisattentiontoBallard’slateworkwithan
emphasisonstyle,inachaptertitled‘LateBallard.’JakeHuntleyoffereda
readingofthedesignoftheclosedcommunitiesinthelatenovels,SimonSellars
lookedat‘non-place’and‘micronationalism’inBallard’sfiction.Noneofthese
readings,however,gosofarastotakeuptheexplicitlypoliticalcritiqueBallard
himselfacknowledgesasatworkintheselatenovels–acritiquethat,although
theauthordidnotusethetermhimself,Iwilldemonstratemustbereadinlight
oftheriseofneoliberalismandtheconcomitantmarketisationofalloflife.AsW.
WarrenWagar,whoalsorefusedthereadingofBallard’sworkashopeless,
wrote,“thewholepointof[Ballard’s]writingistoinvestigatehowthe
“hardware”ofobjectsandenvironmentsaffectsthe“software”ofhuman
psyches.”25Ourcurrent“hardware”isthecommon-senseofneoliberalism,and
Ballard’sworkbothdepictsandseekstoresistitseffects.
21ExtremeMetaphors.p.433.22ExtremeMetaphors.p.438.23ExtremeMetaphors.p.438.Theoriginalquotesays“he,”becauseBallard’sprotagonistsareinvariablymale.24ExtremeMetaphors.p.441.25W.WarrenWagar.‘J.G.BallardandtheTransvaluationofUtopia(J.G.Ballardetlatransvaluationdel'utopie),’ScienceFictionStudies18:1,1991,pp.53-70p.53.Inthissamearticle,WagarnotesBallard’ssuggestionina1983interviewwithGraemeRevellthatfewcriticsorreadershavenoticed“thegreatthreadofidealismrunningthroughmostofmyfiction”(p.55)andtheassociatedsuggestionofhisheroesasdrivenbytheideaofaworldwherethingsmakesense–considerthisincontrasttothe‘chaosofchoice’Ihavesuggestedproliferatesunderneoliberalism.IalsoacknowledgethatattimestheymayleadBallard’swritingintowhatseemlikeconservativeorretrogressivepositions–therepeatedmotifofthe1960sasakindof‘goldenera’inCocaineNights,forinstance–butthatthesepositionsaregenerallyunpickedorunderminedashiswritinggoeson–here,inthedeconstructionoftheculture
73
WhereWagarreadsBallard’soptimisminautopianveinoftranscendence,I
connecthisemphasisontheimaginationtocallsbycontemporarycriticssuchas
LaurenBerlantandMarkFisher,whoemphasisethepoliticalpotentialof
fantasy,andofthehumanimagination,inconceptualisingnewworldsornew
waystoliveintheworld.Inseekingtowarnusoftheunsustainabilityoflife
underneoliberalcapitalism,intermsofboththeabsurdityofimaginingever-
increasingmarketsinaworldoffiniteresourcesandthedamagemarketisation
doestosubjectsininstitutingachaosofchoicethatIconnecttothestatesof
affectivedistressdescribedelsewhereinthisthesis,Ballardisaskingthereader
toimaginesomethingelse,someotherway.26Wagaraddressesseveralother
criticswhohavebemoanedBallard’slackofpoliticalengagement(with
reference,itshouldbenoted,tohisearlierfiction):H.BruceFranklin,Peter
Fitting,BrianAldiss.Hesuggeststhattheircriticismmaybewellgrounded;that
Ballarddoesnot“preachresistance”intermsofclearlyadvocatingforthe
overthrowofcapitalism,thewarfarestate,andsoon.Intheselatenovels,
however,Ballarddoesmovetowardsthis,highlightingtheviolenceandsuffering
endemictolatecapitalism(inSuper-CannesandKingdomComeparticularly)and
raisingquestionsabouttheefficacyofresistanceasitiscurrentlyimagined(in
MillenniumPeople).IfWagar’sreadingreliesonseeingpoliticalpotentialinthe
avant-garde,theselatenovelspushpasteventhat,asIhavesuggested,intheir
escalatingnonsensicality.This,asIarguethroughout,isaclearmovetoshiftthe
imaginativeactionawayfromthetextandontothereader–torequirearevision
oftheworld“offthepage”andtoworkoutsideofthemarketisationthatdictates
political,social,andculturallife.InKingdomCome,themostexcessiveand
pointedofthesenovels(Iseeitasakindofunderliningofthethesisoftheother
three),Ballardgivesthereaderwhoseeksdifficultyandunreadabilityexactly
whattheywant,andinsodoingconfoundstheveryformofpleasuretheyseek.
Thisformalapproachisechoedinthethemeofthenovel,andreturnsustoan
industryandthepost-’68generationinMillenniumPeople.26HeremyreadingdivergesfromWagar’s,whosuggeststhatBallard’sEmpireoftheSun(1984)is“notsomuchautopiaasakitofbuildingmaterialsfortheconstructionoffutureutopias.”(p.60)GiventhatthekindsofdangersWagaridentifiesasemancipatoryinthatnovelhave,bythetimeoftheselatenovels,becomecodifiedandinSuper-Cannesliterallyprescribed,theynolongerofferawaytoescape“ordinarybourgeoisexistence.”Theselatenovelsarenottoolkitsforescape,butmapstoshowuswhatwemustescape,ifyoulike.
74
earlierquote,“TherearelimitstothenumberofTVsetsyoucanhaveathome.
Therearelimitstothenumberofcarsyoucanown.Onceyou’vegotallthose
things,whathappensnext?”27Inreferencetotheselatetexts,thisisnota
rhetoricaldevice–itistheveryrealquestiontheyaskthereadertoanswer.
ThePoliticsofPsychopathology?
Inconsideringtheselatenovelsasanextendedcritiqueofneoliberalism,Iam
seekingtoascribeanovertlypoliticalmotivationtoBallard.Thishasbeena
challengingareaformostcritics;despitetheeco-criticismofhisearlynovels,his
controversialpamphletWhyIWantToFuckRonaldReagan(1968,latercollected
inTheAtrocityExhibition)andhisscepticismabouttheimpactoftechnologyon
humanlife(oftencloselyalignedwithcriticismofadvertisingandconsumerism,
voicedinvariousinterviewsandstoriessuchasTheatreofWarandTheIntensive
CareUnit,bothofwhichappearinMythsoftheNearFuture(1994)),ithas
provendifficulttocategoriseBallardasapoliticalauthor.28Muchofthisisdueto
hisstatedambivalenceregardingpolitics.Ballardtendedtocharacterisepolitics
notastheprimaryframeworkfororganisinghumanlife,butasoneofanumber
ofdiscoursesactinguponsubjectsinthecontemporarymoment.29Throughhis
career,Ballardincreasinglysawpoliticsasfunctioninginthesamesphereas
advertising,markedfromthemomentofReagan’sascensionanddrivenhomeby
theBlairyearsintheU.K.Inacareerfilledwithexamplesofuncannyprescience
-thestoryof‘howJ.G.Ballardpredictedsocialmedia’hasbeenanonlinestaple
sinceitspublicationonBuzzfeedin2013-perhapsthemoststrikingistheway
inwhichBallard’sworkhasalwaysseemedtounderstandthemechanismsof
27ExtremeMetaphors.p.420.28MuchdiscomforthasbeenexpressedoverhisvocaladmirationforMargaretThatcher,forwhomheseemedtocarrysomethingofatorch.Inoneinterview,hecalledher“apublic-spiritedpsychopath”andinthenextbreathdeclaredthathe“foundherwonderfullyattractive.”J.G.BallardinterviewedbyDamienLove.‘1996:KafkawithunlimitedChickenKiev,’ExtremeMetaphors,pp.320-327,p.327.29Thisiswellexpressed,Ithink,ina1968interview,inwhichBallardtalksabouttheimportanceofsciencefictionasaliteraryform,basedonitsabilityto“interpretthepresentdayintermsofthefuture,ratherthanthepast.Itusesavocabularythatisonthewholeexclusivelyorientedtowardstheworldoftomorrow,withallitsscience,itstechnology,andwithallitsdevelopmentsinpolitics,sociology,advertisingandsoforth.”‘1968:UncreditedMunichRoundUpinterview,’ExtremeMetaphors,pp.10-21,p.11.
75
neoliberalismthathaveledtothecurrentpoliticalmoment.30In1998,
commentingonthefallofcommunistRussia,Ballardclarifiedhisfeelings
towardsMargaretThatcher,sayingthatheadmired“herattempttoAmericanise
theBritishpeople.”31This‘Americanisation’refersinfacttoThatcher’s
neoliberalpolicies:heremphasisonentrepreneurship;herinsistenceonthe
primacyoftheindividual;andhercurbingoflabourpower,allaccomplished,as
DavidHarveypointsout,withpopularsupportgarneredthroughthe
constructionofmiddle-classconsent.32Inthissameinterview,Ballardwentonto
say:
Bourgeoislifehastriumphed,andthesuburbanisationoftheplanet
anduniversalacceptanceoftheshoppingmallhavenowvirtuallyput
anendtopolitics.Whatwehaveisthecommodificationofeverything,
includingideologies,andgovernmentbyadvertisingagency–asin
Blair’snewBritain.
Ithinkwe’vegonebeyondpoliticsnowandintoanewand
potentiallymoredangerousrealmwherenon-politicalfactorswill
pulltheleversofpower–thesemaybevastconsumertrends,strange
surgesintheentertainmentculturethatdominatestheplanet,quasi-
religiouseruptionsofthekindwesawatDiana’sdeath,mass
paranoiaaboutnewdiseases,aberrantmovementsinpopularised
mysticism,andthegrowingdominanceoftheaesthetic....Theonly
ballotboxcommontoalloftheseisthecashregister,anextremely
accurategaugeofconsumerpreferenceintheveryshorttermbut
uselessbeyondthenextfiveminutes.33
Ballard’sworkisaboutdiffusemanifestationsofpowerandthewayinwhich
subjectsseektoestablishsomesenseofpersonalsovereigntyinresponseto
thesemachinations.WhenBallardreferstotheendofpolitics,hemeanstheend
30LukeLewis.‘J.G.BallardPredictedSocialMediain1977’,BuzzFeed,June252013www.buzzfeed.com/lukelewis/jg-ballard-predicted-social-media-in-1977?utm_term=.rl4QM8ewZN#.fiW7BYP90d.31J.G.BallardinterviewedbyZinovyZinik,‘1998:RussiaonMyMind,’inExtremeMetaphors,pp.356-363,p.357.32DavidHarvey.ABriefHistoryofNeoliberalismOxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2008,p.57–63.33Ballard,‘1998:RussiaonMyMind.’ExtremeMetaphors,p.357.
76
ofasubstantivepublicdiscourseaboutconstructionofthe‘goodlife’andthe
weakeninginfluenceoftraditionalpolitics,withaclearphilosophicalfoundation
anddiscernibleideologicaldifferencesbetweenbranches.Thislatter
circumstanceisduetothelarge-scalemovetotherightbyleftistpoliticiansin
theneoliberalera(Blair,again)andthefracturesinthecollectivistbaseofleft
wingpolitics–thesefracturesareimplementeddeliberatelythroughthe
decimationofcollectiverightsinthepublicsphere.Thisisthebasisofthe
‘common-sense’politicsthathascometodominatetheneoliberalera.This
understandingofcommonsenseisderivedfromGramsci’stheoryofcultural
hegemony.34
StuartHallandAlanO’Sheaofferacompellingreadingofthisphenomenonin
‘Common-senseneoliberalism.’WecanconnectthistoBallard’saccountofa
world‘beyondpolitics’wherethe‘non-politicalfactors’heenumeratesare
vehiclesforthetransmissionofcommonsenseand,afterFoucault,distinct
discoursesandrealmsofknowledge(andcontrol)themselves.HallandO’Shea
linkthesedisparatediscoursesthroughtheirrelianceonaffectivedimensions.
Theirworkaccordswiththecorebeliefofthisthesis,whentheysay,“Tofallill
withanxietyisitselfasymptomthatsomepeoplearefindingitdifficulttolive
withneoliberalculture.”35Theirreadingreliesonarecuperationofaffectasa
politicalrealm–theybelievethat,“Weneedtoacknowledgetheseaffective
dimensionsthatareinplay,andwhichunderpincommonsense.”36Thisisthe
clarioncallofthecontemporaryleft,andtheneedtocontroltheaffectiverealm
isoneofthecentralreasonsfortheconstructionofaregulatorydiscourseof
happinessunderneoliberalism(theother,whichwewillcometoshortly,isto
ensuretheproductivecapacityoflabour,particularlyinimmaterialeconomies).
ThepoliticsofaffectmightplayapartinconstructingabridgebetweenMarxist
andFoucauldianconceptionsofpower,connectingbodilyknowledgeand
34SeeAntonioGramsci.SelectionsfromthePrisonNotebooks,translatedbyQuentinHoareandGeoffreyNowellSmith.London:Lawrence&Wishart.1971.35StuartHallandAlanO’Shea.‘Common-senseneoliberalism,’Soundings,55,2013,pp.8-24,p.13.36HallandO’Shea.‘Common-senseneoliberalism,’p.12.
77
materialconditionsinawaythatprivilegesexperiencewithoutsubstitutingitfor
expertise.37
LaurenBerlant’sreadingof‘affect’inadistinctlypoliticalcontextalso
supportsthesuggestionthataffectivestateshavepoliticalimplications,andthat
thisisakeyreasonwhyneoliberalismseekstodesignandpromoteaparticular
discourseofhappiness–inordertomanageandsubduetheconsequencesof
thesestates.38EarlyinCruelOptimism,BerlantreferencesBadiou’sconceptionof
theEvent,whichshepositsasdistinctfromthe‘situation,’whichisdescribedas,
“astateofthingsinwhichsomethingthatwillperhapsmatterisunfoldingamid
theusualactivityoflife.”39TheEvent,incontrast,constitutestheruptureof
normalitythroughtheappearanceoftheexcludedpart(ofsociety)–a“drama
thatshocksbeingintoradicallyopensituations.”40InBallard’sdeploymentofthe
Event,nonewrepresentationsareunfolded.TheEventinBallard’swork
precipitatestheexcluded,ratherthantheotherwayround–itisonlythrough
theirirruption,whichmostusuallytakestheformofsomeviolent
psychopathology,thatthesubjectsinBallard’sworksbecometheexcluded.As
such,theygeneratenothingthatwasnotalreadyimmanenttothedominant
system.Ballard’sdisruptionscannotberupturesbecausetheydonotdestroythe
dominantstateofthesituation;instead,theyaffirmitscentraltenetsbyre-
inscribingthemintheirownpatternsandbyreturningtoastateofstatusquo,
generallythroughthesacrificeofanindividualactor(anoutsider)whocanthen
37ThisisdemonstratedinLaurenBerlant’sreadingofJohnAshberythroughthelensofwhatwemightcallsensoryMarxism,basedonanexcerptfromtheEconomicandPhilosophicalPapers:“Theabolitionofprivatepropertyisthereforethecompleteemancipationofallhumansensesandqualities,butitisthisemancipationpreciselybecausethesesensesandattributeshavebecome,subjectivelyandobjectively,human.Theeyehasbecomeahumaneye,justasitsobjecthasbecomeasocial,humanobject–anobjectmadebymanforman.Thesenseshavethereforebecomedirectlyintheirpracticetheoreticians.”CruelOptimism,Durham,NC:DurhamUniversityPress,p.31.38Ibelievethereisworkyettobedoneonthewayinwhichthe‘altright’havecometousethetendencyofthelefttovocaliseemotionalinvestmentinpoliticalpositionsasapointofridicule.SeeNickPell,‘Thealt-rightmovement:everythingyouneedtoknow,’January42017,TheIrishTimeshttp://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/the-alt-right-movement-everything-you-need-to-know-1.2924658;AngelaNagle,‘WhattheAlt-rightisallabout,’TheIrishTimes,January62017http://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/angela-nagle-what-the-alt-right-is-really-all-about-1.2926929.39Berlant.CruelOptimism,p.5.40Berlant.CruelOptimism,p.5.
78
bescapegoatedforthewiderunrest.41Anydisruptionoccursnotwithinthe
eventsofthebooks,butinthewayinwhichtheirnarrativeitselfworkstorefuse
theformsofpowerthecharacterscannot.
Thisrefusalfunctionsthroughthechallengeissuedtothereaderinforcing
themtoconfronttheimmanenceofrebelliontopowerandtorecognisetheway
inwhichthelimitationofimaginationunderneoliberalismhasservedtoneuter
thepossibilityofconstructingspacesofradicaldifference-spacesthatmight
resistmarketlogic.Ballard’sworklocatestheEventwithinthehorizonofcrisis
ordinarinessinordertodemonstratehowthepossibilitiesforscenesofradical
changeareminimisedunderthetotalisingnormativeforcesofneoliberalism,
whilstatthesametimeseekingtoestablishapossiblespacefortheEvent
beyondthetext.AlthoughBallardconcentrateson(literally)‘imagined
communities,’hisworkisgroundedinreality.Frequently,hisborrowingsfrom
realitytaketheformofechoingcrises:murders,riots,massshootings.42Ballard
seekstoexplorewhatitisaboutthecontemporarymomentthatprecipitates
thesecalamities,anddrawsthismomentasonemarkedbycrisis–though
notably,notnecessarilybyanyattendantsenseoftrauma.Ballard’sworkoffers
somethingofabridgebetweentheextremityofthesecrisesandthekindof
‘crisisordinariness’describedbyBerlant.Berlantusesthistermasarefutation
oftheideathatthecontemporarymomentshouldbereadintermsoftrauma
theory,whichunderstandstraumaorcrisisasashatteringoforder,abreakfrom
theordinary.Instead,sheposits‘crisisordinariness’asawayofrefusingthe
“exceptionalityofthetraumaticevent”and“betterkeep[ing]opentheproblem
oftheformheightenedthreatcantakeasitismanagedinthecontextofliving.”43
Followingthis,wecanconceptualiseBallard’saffectlessworldsasastylistic
commentonthe‘crisisordinariness’thatpervadestheeveryday,andthe
hyperbolisedviolenceandcriminalityofhis‘ordinary’subjectsasasatiric
readingoftheideaofadjustmenttothisstateofaffairs.
41AstowhyBallardchoosestoreturntopsychopathologyasthelocusofthenear-eventineachtext,abriefglossisthatitrepresentsbothafundamentallyalienandunknowablepartoftheselfandthatthisspeakstotheunintelligibilityofthemultipleformsofpoweractingonthesubject.42Forexample,themurderofJillDandoandthe1987HungerfordmassacrebothloomlargeinMillenniumPeople,whichalsoseemedtoanticipatethe2011riotsthatrockedLondon.43Berlant.CruelOptimism,pp.73,101.
79
AfewfinalnotesonreadingBallard’sworkpolitically.Returningtohis
professedadmirationforThatcher’s‘Americanisation’ofBritain;thisisnota
wholesalesanctioningofneoliberalpolitics.Itis,primarily,themythologyof
ThatcherthatBallardadmires,thefigureshestrikes,disconnectedfromher
actionsintheformalrealmofpolitics:Thatcherassignifier.Ballardhas
describedherasa“public-spiritedpsychopath”andcomparedhertothe
charismaticbutinsanecommunityleadershedepictsintheselatetexts.44
However,hehasstatedhishistoricsupportforThatcher’seconomicpolicies,
thoughnotwhathecallsher“socialpolicies,”andrefusedtoidentifyas
straightforwardlyanti-capitalist.45Atthesametime,Ballardrebuffedthe
stereotypethatpeoplebecomemoreconservativewithage,sayingthathehadin
factbecomemoreleftwingashehadgottenolder.46Discussingtheexperienceof
thecurrenthistoricalmomentwithChrisHallin2003,Ballardsaid:
Attimes,Ithinkwe’regoingthroughquiteacriticalperiod.Idon’t
meanSeptember11,Iraq–they’reapartofit–Imeanwhatwehave
is…aresigns,Ithink,thatpeoplearen’tsatisfiedbyconsumerism
that…Peopleresentthefactthatthemostmoraldecisionintheir
livesischoosingwhatcolourtheirnextcarwillbe.47
IntheinterviewwithTobyLitt,mentionedearlier,Ballardtalkedatlengthabout
thedeclineincommunityincivicsociety,linkingittothedeclineofthe
traditionalforcesofdomination-specifically,traditionalpolitics,orParliament;
thearmedforces,andtheBritishEmpiretheysoughttoprotect;religion(the
ChurchofEngland);andpost-warcapitalism.Ballardsuggeststhattheseforces
providedsomemeasureofsocialcohesionthroughtheirinteractionsandtheir
impactonsubjects.48ThecentralconcernsmotivatingBallard’smovetoamore
politicallyengagedposition,then,areatleastvaguelyleftist.Theseconcerns
revolvearoundthedeclineofthecivicrealmasaspaceofsocialsolidarity,the
bankruptcyofformalpoliticsasatruthdiscourse,andthemoralvacuum
44Ballard.‘1996:KafkawithunlimitedChicken,’ExtremeMetaphors,p.327.45J.G.BallardinterviewedbyTobyLitt.‘2006:DangerousBendsAhead.SlowDown.’ExtremeMetaphors,pp.415-430,p.419.46J.G.BallardinterviewedbyChrisHall.‘2003:Allwe’vegotleftisourownpsychopathology,’ExtremeMetaphors,pp.396-406,p.399.47Ballard.‘2003:Allwe’vegotleftisourownpsychopathology,’ExtremeMetaphors,p.399.48Ballard.‘2006:DangerousBendsAhead.SlowDown.’ExtremeMetaphors,p.420.
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occasionedbyaconsumeristormarketisedsocietywhichplacesnoworthon
anyintangibleconstructofgoodnessorhappiness,andisinsteadonlyconcerned
withmaterialpossessions.Ballard’swork,aswewillsee,depictseruptionsof
psychopathologyasaresultoftheatomisationandpressureexperiencedasa
resultofthestructuralconsequencesofneoliberalism,perHallandO’Shea.
Frequentlyabsurdandoftenmeaningless,violenceinBallard’snovelsisafoilto
theboredom,anxietyanddepressionincurredbythevacuumofmeaningatthe
heartofneoliberalismandtheinsubstantialityoftheeconomicasaframework
ofsubjectification.
‘InnerSpace’:Ballard,ScienceFictionandthe‘Psy’Sciences
IfwefollowHall,O’Shea,andBerlantinreadingaffectasapoliticallysignificant
realm,andacceptBallard’sownstatements,andthethematicevidenceofhis
shifttotheleft,wemustbewillingtomovebeyondthegeneralpsychoanalytic
approachthathasconstitutedmuchcriticalworkonBallard.Ballardiswell
knownforhisengagementwithpsydiscourses,notablypsychoanalytic
discourse.Theterm‘psy’hereistakenfromtheworkofNikolasRose,whouses
ittoreferto“thehumansciences,inparticularpsychologyanditsaffiliates.”49
Rose’sworkexploreshowpsydisciplineshavecometoshapethewayinwhich
subjectsconceiveofthemselves,withanemphasisonhowtheseknowledge
formscometorendersubjectsgovernable,inaccordancewithliberaldemocratic
principles-Rosedescribesthisasbearingtheburdenofliberty.50Rose,writing
fromaFoucauldianperspective,suggeststhat,“[t]hepsyscienceshaveplayeda
keyroleintherationalitiesandtechniquesofgovernment,”impactingnotjust
theframeworkofgovernmentalknowledgebutalsolegitimisingtheexertionof
powerandauthorityataparticularhistoricalmoment.Thisapproachunderpins
theworkofthisthesis,althoughthepsysciencesasadisciplineconstituteonly
onepartoftheneoliberalhappinessdiscourseIseektoexplorehere.51Ballard
49NikolasRose.GoverningTheSoul.1989London:FreeAssociationBooks,1999.p.vii50Rose.GoverningTheSoul,p.viii.51Whilstthepsysciencesareahugepartofthisdiscourse,giventheirroleincreatingandperpetuatingnormativeunderstandingsofemotionalstates,Ibelievethatother,lessformal,movementshaveanimportantroletoo:the‘wellness’industry,forexample.Iamalsocommentingonahappinessdiscoursethatworksintheculturalarena,lookingatfactorssuchas
81
wenttogreatlengthstoleave‘mentaldistress’uncategorisedinhiswork,in
ordertoavoidtyinghischaracterisationtonarrowlydefinedandchangeable
‘definitions’,ashestatedinhis2006interviewwithTobyLitt.52
So,whilstIacknowledgetheimportanceofthepsychoanalyticinsituating
Ballard’sworkinacriticallandscape,itisnotmyintentiontounpackor
delineatehispreciseengagementwithpsysciences.SamuelFrancis’swork
rendersthatlargelyunnecessary,unpackingthespecificengagementsof
Ballard’sworkwithpsyframeworksquitecomprehensively.Rather,Iam
interestedintheintersectionbetweenFrancis’workandRogerLuckhurst’s
readingofBallard,inwhichhedescribesBallard’sworkasescapinganalysis,
althoughIprefertheterm‘resistinganalysis’,suggestingasitdoesamore
deliberatefunction.53Thisescape,orresistance,servestodisruptthe
“overdeterminedframes”ofreferencethatconstitutethe“dominantcritical
approachtoBallard.”54ThisdisruptionisimportanttomyreadingofBallard–I
believethatoneofBallard’scentralargumentsreliesontheimportanceof
imaginationasaformofresistanceinthefaceoftotalisingsystems,andthat,on
thetermsjustdescribed,hisworkpracticallydemonstrateshowliteraryfiction
canenactsuchadisruption.Thisunderstandingoftheredemptivepowerof
imaginationmaysoundabstract,butitisthefoundationofconstructingan
alternativetothetotalisingforceofneoliberalism.Neoliberalismrelieson
constructingconsentthroughthereiterationofthecommonsensebeliefthat,
perThatcher,“thereisnoalternative.”ThisisthesubjectofMarkFisher’s
CapitalistRealism,inwhichFishersuggeststhatthevitalityoftheculturalsphere
isnecessarytoexpandthe“horizonsofpossibility”underneoliberalism.55
Ballard’sworkbothexploresandenactsthisidea;thevirtuallyinterchangeable
theriseofimmaterialindustryandchangingattitudestoandtypesofwork,especiallyincreativeindustries.52LittaskedBallard:“Youhaveaclinicalbackgroundinunderstandinginsanityorpsychopathology-or,atleast,morethanthelaymandoes.Butwhenyousay'mad'or'insane'youdon'treallydiagnoseveryoften.Youwouldn'tsaythatoneofyourcharacterswasparanoidschizophrenicor,morerecently,bipolar.Yousaythattheywere'mad'or'insane'.Whyisthat?”Ballard’sresponseclearlylaidouthisoppositionto‘diagnostic’writing,sayinghepreferredto“leaveitopen.Becausethesepsychiatricdefinitionsseemtoshiftaround.”‘2003:DangerousBendsAhead:SlowDown,’ExtremeMetaphors,pp.417-8. 53Luckhurst.TheAngleBetweenTwoWalls.p.xix.54LuckhurstTheAngleBetweenTwoWalls,p.48.55MarkFisher.CapitalistRealism.London:ZeroBooks,2009,p.81.
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charactersandplotsoftheselatenovelsplaywiththeideaofsterility,ofsurface,
ofculturalrepetition,whileatthesametimeinterrogatingtheculturalspherein-
text.AnaccountofBallard’s‘innerspace’isusefulheretoo,inunderstandingthe
movefromstrictpsychoanalyticreadingsofhiswork.‘Innerspace’hasoften
beenusedtodenotethewaysinwhichBallard’sworkconfoundsthegeneric
conventionsofsciencefiction;insteadoffocusingonalieninvaders,futuristic
technologyorspaceexploration,Ballard’sworkturnstothenow,tothe
human.56TheclosedcommunitiesofBallard’sworkreflecttheclosingofspaces
underlatecapitalismandtheprivatisationofthecommons,theindividualisation
ofspace,inkeepingwiththeatomisticlogicofneoliberalism.
Inassessingthis‘inner-space’,wemustalsoattendtothesurface/depth
dichotomythatmarksmostpsychoanalyticreadingsofBallard.Suchreadings
oftenserveassomethingofanapologyfortherepetitiveaffectlessnessof
Ballard’swork,orasaneutralisationoftheextremityofhiswork,achieved
throughrenderingitrepresentativeratherthanactual.InStephenBestand
SharonMarcus’s‘SurfaceReading:AnIntroduction’,theauthorsofferaccountsof
variousmethodsof‘surfacereading’,throughwhichtheyhopetogenerate
discussiononthepedagogyofreadingandtheworkofliterarycriticism.57
Lookingattheconceptof‘surfaceasliteralmeaning,’evacuatingcritical
assumptionsthatmaydeformtheactualcontentofthetext,theyquoteFoucault
onhisrelationshiptoarchives:
…ratherthandigfor“relationsthataresecret,hidden,moresilentor
deeperthan...consciousness,”hedescribedhimselfasseeking“to
definetherelationsontheverysurfaceofdiscourse”andto“make
visiblewhatisinvisibleonlybecauseit’stoomuchonthesurfaceof
things.”58
56ThisisonereasonIprefertheterm‘speculativefiction’whendiscussingBallard’swork–itmoreaccuratelycapturesthefocusofhiswriting.Thisisnottosubscribetoanypejorativeorlimitingreadingofgenre,butsimplytoattempttoofferaclearerpictureofBallardasanauthor.57StephenBestandSharonMarcus.‘SurfaceReading:AnIntroduction,’Representations,108:1,2009,pp.1-21.58BestandMarcus.“SurfaceReading:AnIntroduction.’p.13.WhilstIappreciatethelargerconversationaroundsurfacereading,reparativereading,etc.inthecontextofseekingtoestablishthecontemporaryroleofthehumanitiesandtounpacktheepistemologicalprejudicesofthehermeneuticsofsuspicion,myuseofthisconstructdoesnotendorseonespecificcourseofreading.However,inasmuchastheoriesofaffectaretiedtosurfacereading(anditseemstome,
83
ThisistheoperatinglogicofBallard’slatenovels,andtheveryreasonfortheir
insistenceontheobvious,thehyperbolicandevenontheabsurd.Ballard’s
depthlessspacesofferusaFoucauldianvisionofaworldinwhichtheconditions
ofoppressionanddominationexistontheverysurfaceoftheeverydayandare
renderedinvisiblebytheirveryvisibility.Thelogicof‘noalternative’isinscribed
intheclosenessoftheseconditionstoourexperienceassubjects.Work,leisure,
travel,consumerism,andsoonareall‘natural’totemsofcontemporarylife,in
thecommonsenseunderstandingoftheword.Thisisnottodenyinterpretive
readingoftheselatenovels,buttohighlightthewayinwhichtheirthematic
interestsalsoconstituteastructureinthemselves,andthewayinwhichthis
structuremimicsthespaceoftheworldbeyondthetext.Ballard’sworkis
immediatelyconcernedwiththematerialcircumstanceoftheworld,andthe
impactthishasonthehorizonsofpossibilityforindividualsubjects,ashe
confirmedinaninterviewinTheGuardianin2008:
WithallduerespecttoKingsleyAmisandothers,Ididn'tfeelthatthe
angryyoungmenwererespondingtowhatwasreallyimportant
aboutsociety.ThesamegoesforJohnOsborne'splays.Thelaying
downoftheM1wasmuchmoreimportantthananythingJimmy
Porter'sfather-in-lawthoughtaboutthisorthat.Themotorway
systemhadamuchbiggerinfluenceonfreedomandpossibility.59
Thephysicalspacesofthesenovelsdrawthematerialparametersofpossibility.
EvenMillenniumPeople,whichlargelyconcentratesonacritiqueofthecultural
sphere,situatesthiscritiqueinanactualspace,anelitegatedcommunitywhich
physicallyseparatesthemiddle-classresidentsfromtherestofLondon–the
bourgeoissettingofthenovellogicallyrulesthatitconcentratesonthecultural
sector.Thereisanobviouscontrast,too,betweentherationalityofthesespaces
andtheescalatingirrationalityoftheactorsinthesenovels,fromCocaineNights
toKingdomCome.Thatspacesofcapitalaredesignedtorationalisethesubject
andtocontaindesire-ormanufacturean‘acceptable’formofdesire-isnewsto
thetwoarelargelyinextricable,aseachseekstodescribeorallowforformsofknowledgethatdonotrelyontheassumptionsofformaldiscoursesofknowledge),Iacknowledgetheimportanceofbothtomycriticalefforts,particularlywhenitcomestoexploringthecommonsenseemotivedimensionofcontemporary(bourgeois)happinessdiscourse.59J.G.BallardinterviewedbyJamesCampbell.‘StrangeFiction’June142008.TheGuardian.www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jun/14/saturdayreviewsfeatres.guardianreview10.
84
noone;inBallard’swork,however,thesespacesaredestinedtorevealthe
limitationsofhumanrationalitythroughtheirfailuretoanticipatethescopeof
theselimitations.Therationalisingforceofcontemporaryhappinessdiscourseis
amarkerofthesespaces,aswewillsee.
85
BetterOffTogether:Leisure,Criminality,andtheConstructionof
CommunityinCocaineNights
CocaineNightsisthefirstofthesenovels,andlaysoutmanyofthemotifsthat
recurthroughoutthequartet-deterritorializedcitizens,extremeviolenceand
closedsocieties.SetontheCostadelSol,ittellsthestoryofCharlesPrentice,a
travelwriterwhosebrotherFrankhasbeenimprisonedforarsonandmurder.
FormerlythemanagerofapopularsocialclubinatowncalledEstrelladeMar,
Frankfindsfewallieswhenheisimprisoned,andhisbrotherfliesintoofferhim
support.DespiteFrank’sguiltyplea,Charlesdoesnotbelievethatheis
responsibleforthefire,ortheresultantdeaths-neitherdomostofthe
charactersinthenovel.60Charlesisdeterminedtouncoverthe‘truth,’andthe
novelfollowshisattemptstodoso.Itsform,then,isdrawnfromdetective
fiction.Thisstructureiscommontoallfouroftheselatenovels.InCocaine
Nights,Francisseesthisformassituated“withinabroadernarrativeaboutthe
psychologyofthesocial,underlinedas[Charles]Prentice’sattemptstounravel
hisbrother’sallegedcrime[arson,resultinginfivedeaths]areincreasinglyside-
linedbyhisfascinationwiththestrangepsychologicalclimateofBallard’sCosta
DelSol.”61Theconnectionbetweenthedetectivenovelandthepsychoanalytic
processisapparent–usingaprocessofreasoninginordertorevealacentral
truth,resolveuncertainty,andreturnorder.However,whereFrancisfollowsthis
logicthroughapplyingaFreudianframeworkthatseesthecentralcrimeasa
sociallybinding(andnecessary)momentofcollectiveguilt,areadingwhichhas
meritonhisterms,myinterpretationofthedetectiveframeworkhereisthatitis
partofadeliberatedétournementofnarrativeconventionandadestabilisingof
thelogicofpower.Thedetectiveformisnotastand-inforthepsychoanalytic
processhere,butisdeployedinsteadtosubverttheassumptionsoftheform,
particularlyitsemphasisonahomogenisedconstructofstatepower,andthe
centralityofrevelatorytruth.62
60Infact,ittranspiresthatFrankisguilty,butthatheisnotaloneinthisguilt;thefireandresultantdeathsaretheworkofacoregroupofallegedlyupstandingcitizens,dupedintotheircrimesbythecharismatictennispro(and“public-spiritedpsychopath”)BobbyCrawford.61Francis.ThePsychologicalFictionsofJ.G.Ballard,p.157.62SeeAndrewPepper,UnwillingExecutioner:CrimeFictionandtheState.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2016,foramoredetailedunsettlingofthepresumptionsofcrimefiction-inparticular,thereadingcontraFoucaultpp.5-6.
86
The“strangepsychologicalclimate”oftheCostadelSolrevealsitselffirstwhen
CharlesPrenticearrivesinGibraltar.Prenticeisatravelwriter,andmuchis
madeofhisprofessioninthenovel.Thisisarecurrentfeatureoftheselate
novels,wherethejoboftheprotagonistsignifiessomeessentialpartoftheir
identity.Prenticecharacteriseshimselfasa“professionaltourist”withadriving
fearofpsychologicalexposure:“Asthecustomsofficialsrummagethroughmy
suitcasesIsensethemtryingtounpackmymindandrevealacontrabandof
forbiddendreamsandmemories.”63If,asUlrikeBrissonhasasserted,spacesof
travelarespacesofpoliticalagency,wecanreadintothesefearsapolitical
dimension;acommentaryontheassessmentofintentionthataccompanies
bordercrossings,nowcommonplaceafterthe9/11attacksonAmerica,butnota
newphenomenonanymorethanairpiracyitself.64Theopennessofglobal
boundariesreliesonthecorrectnessofasubject’sintentions,orrather,onthe
perceptionofthecorrectnessoftheseintentions.Travelwritingandtourismalso
underpinthenarrativesofSuper-CannesandMillenniumPeople.InKingdom
Come,theairportfeaturesinthesettingofBrooklands,aflyovertown,andinthe
figureofStuartPearson,aretiredpilotandthefatherofprotagonistRichard
Pearson.Airports,accordingtoBallard,representthe“truecityofthetwenty
firstcentury.…Airtravelmaywellbethemostimportantcivicdutythatwe
dischargetoday,erasingclassandnationaldistinctionsandsubsumingthem
withintheunitaryglobalcultureofthedeparturelounge.”65Thespacesof
discontinuitythatmakeupthegeographyofcontemporarylifeareeradicatedby
thenon-spaceoftheairport,inthisaccount.Ofcourse,thiscouldbetrueonlyin
thespaceoftheairportitself,asBallardshowsusinhiswork;the‘globalcitizen’
ceasestoexistatcustoms,anddespitetherhetoricofglobalisation,the
differentialweightofcitizenshipisstronglyfeltatthelevelofstatelines.66The
neoliberalsubjectexperiencestravelasbothaspaceofinfinitepossibilityanda
curtailingofthispossibility;thepotentialityofglobalidentityisdeniedbythe
63J.G.Ballard.CocaineNights.London:Flamingo,1996.p.9.64UlrikeBrisson.‘Naked’PoliticsofTravelWriting,’1-17inNotSoInnocentAbroad,editedbyBrissonandBernardSchwizer.NewcastleUponTyne:CambridgeScholars,2009,p.1.65J.G.Ballard.‘Airports:TheTrueCitiesofthe21stCentury,’Blueprint,1997.UTNEReader.www.utne.com/politics/homeiswherethehangaris.66BallardreturnstothisthesisinKingdomCome,aswewillsee.
87
realityofnationalborders.Ballarddepictsairtravelasoneofthegreatillusions
oftheneoliberalera;theideathathappinessliesjustajourneyaway,andthata
differentplacemightofferusadifferentlife,wheninfactalllifeissubsumed
underthegenericisinglogicofglobalcapitalanddemarcatedbylinesof
economicpropriety.CharlesPrenticesays,
IpreferlonghaulflightstoJakartaandPapeete,thosehoursofclub-
classair-timethatstillgivemethesenseofhavingarealdestination,
thegreatundyingillusionofairtravel.Infactwesitinasmallcinema,
watchingfilmsasblurredasourhopesofdiscoveringsomewhere
new.Wearriveatanairportidenticaltotheoneweleft,withthe
samecar-rentalagenciesandhotelroomswiththeiradultmovie
channelsanddeodorizedbathrooms,side-chapelsofthatlayreligion,
masstourism.67
Althoughthisreadingofcitizenshipinsistsonthecentralityofthestate,and
maythusseemcontradictorytotheFoucauldianfoundationsofmyapproach,
theconceptionofthestateinuseherestillrefersprimarilytothecontrolof
economicborders.Underneoliberallogic,thestatelargelydivestsitselfofother
responsibilitiesofnationhood.68Thus,thediffusenatureofpowerandthe
conditionsbywhichitcirculatesmaystillbereadinanextra-statecontext.
Tourismisalsoakindofeconomiccolonialism,andBallardleansheavilyonthis
uncomfortableunderstanding.Notonlydoesherepresenttheresidentialspaces
oftheCostadelSolasself-containedcolonies,lateoninthenovel,weseeCharles
Prenticebeginworkonabookentitled,‘MarcoPolo:theWorld’sFirstTourist?’
Prenticedescribeshisagentas“bombardinghimwithfaxes”abouttheproject,
whichseemsasunlikelyasitdoesoutdated.69ThisisjustoneofBallard’ssly
critiquesofthebanalityofthemiddleclasscultureindustry.Inanother
uncomfortableanalogy,andindictmentoftheself-centerednessofthemiddle
classandcolonisingimpulseofthebourgeoisie,Prenticealsolikensthe
deadenedResidenciaCostasoltothe‘ThirdWorld’:“Refugees?Yes…insome
waystheplaceremindsmeoftheThirdWorld.It’slikeaveryup-marketfavela67CocaineNights,p.10.68Whichisnottosaythatsuchconceptsautomaticallybecomepoliticallyredundant,asweseeintheriseofnationalistpoliticalrhetoricdiscussedelsewhereinthisthesis.69CocaineNights,p.289.
88
inRio,oraluxurybidonvilleoutsideAlgiers.”BobbyCrawfordcorrectshim,
however:“It’sthefourthworld,Charles.Theonewaitingtotakeover
everything.”70
ThecentralpreoccupationofCocaineNights,however,isnotjusttourism,but
leisuremoregenerally.Ballardseekstoexploretheconditionofsubjectstrapped
inthenon-placeofindefiniteleisure,consumersofthepromisethat‘getting
awayfromitall’(namely,work)isthe‘truemeaning’ofhappiness.Wemustlook
carefullyatthenuancesofBallard’saccountofleisureinthenoveltounderstand
itsrelationshiptothecontemporaryneoliberaldiscourseofhappinessandtrace
thewaysinwhichthemarketisinglogicofneoliberalismrevealsitselftobeat
workinthisdiscourse.Thespecialplaceofworkinunderstandingtheneoliberal
discourseofhappinesswasexploredinmyintroduction,whereIsuggestedthe
workplacehasadistinctroleasasiteofsubjectification.Thisisframedwith
regardtotheriseofimmateriallabourthatreliesonandcommodifies
intangiblessuchasknowledge,personalityandexperience,andtheshifting
conceptualisationofwork,inwhich:
Theworkerisanindividualinsearchofmeaning,responsibility,a
senseofpersonalachievement,amaximised‘qualityoflife’,and
henceofwork.Thustheindividualisnottobeemancipatedfrom
work,perceivedasmerelyataskorameanstoanend,buttobe
fulfilledinwork,nowconstructedasanactivitythroughwhichwe
produce,discoverandexperienceourselves.71
Thedefinitionofsicknessundercapitalismreliesonfitnesstowork,asper
Harvey’sdefinition,andalsoextensivelydemonstratedinRose’swork,aswellas
WilliamDavies’sTheHappinessIndustry(2015).72Thisresultsininvestmentin
‘happiness’thatreliesonmaximisingeconomicutility.Rosecategorisesthis
workerasan‘entrepreneurofthemselves.’Developingthis,LoisMcNay’s
definitionof‘selfasenterprise’encapsulatesthewayinwhichrelationships
70CocaineNights,p.216.71Rose.GoverningtheSoul,p.104.NotehowneatlythisalignswithSeligman’spositivepsychologyPERMAmodel(Positiveemotions,Engagement,Relationships,MeaningandAchievement):MarianaPascha.‘ThePERMAModel:YourScientificTheoryofHappiness,’PositivePsychologyProgram,24February2017.positivepsychologyprogram.com/perma-model/.72SeeinparticularChapter4,‘ThePsychosomaticWorker,’pp.105-39.
89
betweensubjectsarealsotransformedanddictatedbythistransformation.73
Rosedescribesleisureas,“thedomainoffreechoiceparexcellence”–thatis,the
ultimatedomainoftheconsumingsubject(whohasreplacedthe‘doing’subject
asthedefinitionoftheproductivesubject).74Ballard,however,offersamore
complicatedreadingofleisureunderneoliberalism,inwhichwebegintosee
howtheconflictbetweentheprimacyofleisureunderneoliberalismandthe
traditionalworkethicofcapitalismcontributestotheaffectivedistressof
subjects.
CocaineNightsissetinaleisuresociety,aninter-zonefilledwithex-patsand
blow-ins.Withinthisbroadsetting,therearetwosettlementsonwhichthestory
isfocused.TheimmediatelocusisEstrelladeMar,hometoFrankPrentice
beforehisarrestandthesettingformuchoftheactioninthetext.Thesecondary
settingis,broadlyspeaking,thecommunitiesoutsideofEstrelladeMar,focusing
onanewerdevelopmentcalledResidenciaCostasol.TheResidenciaisinthe
processofbecominganotherEstrella.Bothareownedbylocalentrepreneur
BettyShand.Throughoutthenovel,EstrelladeMarisdescribedasathrivinghub
ofcommunity,organisedaroundClubNautico,undertheunofficialleadershipof
BobbyCrawford.Thevibrancyofthiscommunityisusuallydescribedintermsof
itslivelycultureindustry.Thisiscontrastedwiththestasisoflifeoutsideofthe
community,asinthisdescriptionbyCharlesPrenticeonhisfirstapproach:
EstrelladeMar,Idecided,possessedfarmoreattractionsthanIhad
guessedwhenFrankfirstarrivedtomanagetheClubNautico.The
monocultureofsunandsangriathatbecalmedthepuebloresidents
hadnoplaceinthisvibrantlittleenclave,whichseemedtocombine
thebestfeaturesofBelAirandtheLeftBank.75
Fromtheoutset,leisureandboredomareconnectedinthenovel.Boredomis
characterisedasaconstantspectreloominglargeoverlifeoutsideofEstrellade
73Rose.GoverningtheSoul,p.230.LoisMcNay‘SelfAsEnterprise:DilemmasofControlandResistanceinFoucault’sTheBirthofBiopolitics,’Theory,CultureandPolitics,26:6,2009,pp.55-77.74Rose.GoverningtheSoul,p.231.75CocaineNights,p.37.
90
Mar,asasicknessorevenatypeofdeath.76Theanomieofthisleisuresociety
resultsinanexistentialennuithatreducessuffererstothestatusofanhedonic
spectators,disengagedanduninterestedintheirownlives.Theyare
dehumanised,notbywork,butbyleisure,withtheirveryrighttopersonhood
calledintoquestion.If,asRosesuggests,theneoliberalleisurezoneisthe
domainoffreechoiceparexcellence,thesesubjectsareincapableof
participatinginitassuch.Theirstatemightseemtobematchedbythecondition
of“affluenza”describedbyOliverJames,CliveHamilton,RichardDennissetal,in
thattheyareallaffluentmembersofacapitalistsociety,sufferingdespitetheir
plenty.77However,CocaineNightsisnotoperatingasacritiqueofmaterialismor
evenofconsumerculture-thatoccurslater,inKingdomCome.Themostnotable
characteristicofthesepueblo-dwellersisnottheirwealthassuch,butrather
theirprofounddisconnectionfromtheproductiveworld.
Ifworkistheactivitythroughwhichthesubjectgivesmeaningtotheirlife,not,
perMarx,inthesenseofbeingtheactivitywhichrealisesormatchestheessence
oflife,butinsteadfollowingRose’sdefinitionabove,inaneoliberalframework
theabsenceofworkremovesthecapacityofthesubjecttoparticipateinany
productivesearchformeaning.InChapterNineteen,‘TheCostasolComplex’,
BobbyCrawfordtakesCharlesPrenticeonatouroftheResidencia.Bythisstage,
PrenticehasdiscoveredtheflagrantcriminalitythatliesattheheartofEstrella
deMar.Incontrast,theResidenciaisstultifying;therearenovisiblesignsoflife,
barafewshoppersintheofflicence,seekinganaesthesiafortheirmisery:
Tothesouthoftheplazalayamarinafilledwithyachtsand
powerboats,mooredtogetherlikeamothballedfleet.Anaccesscanal
ledtotheopensea,passingacantileverbridgethatcarriedthecoast
road.Ahandsomeclubhousepresidedoverthemarinaandits
boatyard,butitsterracewasdeserted,awningsflaredovertheempty
tables.Thenearbysportsclubwasequallyunpopular,itstennis
courtsdustyinthesun,theswimmingpooldrainedandforgotten.
76Specifically,“brain-death”,asEstrelladeMarresidentsaystoCharlesPrenticeearlyon,“Thepeopleofthepueblos...Brain-deathdisguisedasahundredmilesofwhitecement.”CocaineNights,p.43.77SeeOliverJames.Affluenza,London:Vermillion,2007andCliveHamiltonandRichardDenniss,Affluenza:WhenTooMuchisNeverEnough,CrowsNest,AUS:Australia,2005.
91
Asupermarketstoodinsidetheentrancetotheshoppingmall,next
toabeautysalonwithshuttereddoorsandwindows.Crawford
parkednearasportsequipmentstorefilledwithexercyclesand
weightliftingcontraptions,computerizedheartmonitorsand
respirationcounters,arrangedinawelcomingifsteelytableau.78
Thedeathlessunhappinessofthiscommunity,castadriftfromtheframeworkof
meaningimposedbywork,resultsintotalcessationofproductiveactivity.
Travelissuspended,horizonsarenarrowed:noneedfortheaccesscanalorthe
coastroad.Thefleetispowerless,thecantileversunopened.Theneoliberal
imperativetoself-careembeddedinthewellnessdiscourseofhappiness
discoursegoesunheeded–subjectsdonotattempttokeepfit,ortomake
themselves‘presentable’inthebeautysalon.Thesesubjectsnolongerperceive
themselvesasintheworld,duetotheirimmediatedisplacementfromthe
activityofwork.Ratherthanalienationoflabourtheysufferalienationofleisure,
whereleisureisprivatisedinextremis:inCrawford’swords,“Spaceistotally
internalized….”79Thespaceofsociality,ofpossibility,ofdesireisturnedinwards
andneutralisedthroughtheinabilityofsubjectstoanchorasenseofselfinthe
worldbeyondworkandtheabsenceofanyeffectivestimulustoconsume.Even
thenascentleisureindustryoftheResidenciacannotoffersufficient
reorientationoftheself–therearelimits,itseems,tothelengthstowhich
subjectscanbecompelledtoconsume.Someaffectivemalaiserendersthese
subjectsuntouchable.Thiscrisisofstasisisthegreatfearofneoliberalism,anda
centralreasonitmustevolveastrategytomanagetheproductiveenergiesof
subjectsthroughhappinessdiscourse.Alittledepressionmaybegoodfor
business,spurringsuffererstoconsumemore,inlinewiththemarketlogicthat
offersmaterialismasthecureforallthatails,buttoomuchofitrenderssubjects
useless,unfitforthelogicofcompetitionandaccumulationthatunderpins
neoliberalisedsociety.80Theregulatoryfunctionofneoliberalhappiness
discourseisdesignednotjusttoperpetuateaparticularideaofhappiness,but
morecrucially,toguidethesubjecttothe‘correctform’ofunhappiness,as78CocaineNights,p.214.79CocaineNights,p.210.80Wemightdrawaparallelwiththeneedtomanagethosewhoareunemployed(andinmaterialneedofemployment)inneoliberalisedsocieties.
92
toucheduponearlierinlookingataffecttheory.Ballard’svisionofthisinCocaine
Nightsisstillinitsearlystages,butisfleshedoutconsiderablyinSuperCannes,
withitsprecisefocusontheculturesofmanagementthatinformandshapethe
neoliberaldiscourseofhappiness,asweshallsee.81
Theeradicationoftheselfasproductivesubjectbasedonabsenceofworkasa
frameworkformeaning,andtheattendantsocialdisconnectionthatremovesthe
imperativetomaintainthe‘selfasenterprise,’areattheheartofthefailing
societyoftheResidenciaCostasol.What,then,ofthethrivingEstrelladeMar?
Afterall,ittooisaleisurecommunity,arationalandwell-managedspace:
Purposebuiltinthe1970sbyaconsortiumofAnglo-Dutch
developers,[it]wasaresidentialretreatfortheprofessionalclasses
ofnorthernEurope.Theresorthadturneditsbackonmasstourism,
andtherewerenoneoftheskyscraperblocksthatrosefromthe
water’sedgeatBenalmadenaandTorremolinos.Theoldtownbythe
harborhadbeenpleasantlybijouized,andthefishermen’scottages
convertedtowinebarsandantiqueshops.82
Intheapportionmentoftheresidencesofworkersandtheirtransformationinto
consumeroutlets,weseethecoloniallogicoftourismatwork.Furthertothis,it
showsanostalgisingimpulsepresentthroughoutthenovelwithregardtothe
culturallifeofEstrelladeMar.83Affirminghisdesiretobuypropertyinthetown
-andpointingtothecapitalistethicunderlyingthisapparentlybohemian
wonderland,whereentranceisreliantonmeansandownership-Prenticesays:
InmanywaysEstrelladeMarwasthehalcyoncountry-townEngland
ofthemythical1930s,broughtbacktolifeandmovedsouthintothe
sun.Heretherewerenogangsofboredteenagers,noderacinated
suburbswhereneighboursscarcelykneweachotherandtheironly
civicloyaltiesweretothenearesthypermarketandtheDIYstore.As
everyonewasnevertiredofsaying,EstrelladeMarwasatrue
81Theriseof‘managementculture’aspartofthechangingconceptionof‘happinessstrategies’isaddressedbyRose,James,Davies,andmanyothertheorists.82CocaineNights,p.34.83Theuseoftheterm‘nostalgising’hereisemployedinthesenseexploredbySedikidesetalin‘ToNostalgize:MixingMemorywithAffectandDesire’,AdvancesinExperimentalSocialPsychology,51,2015,pp.189–273.Thisaccounttakesintoconsiderationtheutilityofnostalgiaasasocialforce.
93
community,withschoolsfortheFrenchandBritishchildren,a
thrivingAnglicanchurchandalocalcouncilofelectedmembers
whichmetattheClubNautico.Howevermodestly,ahappier
twentiethcenturyhadrediscovereditselfinthiscorneroftheCosta
delSol.84
AsPrentice’spersonalinterest(andfinancialstake)inEstrelladeMargrows,so
toodoeshistendencytomythologiseboththeplace,andtheidyllicpastit
represents.Initiallycontentwithseeingthetownastherebirthofthesixties,
withallthepromisesofthatdecademadegood,helikensitnowtothe“mythical
1930s,”inapassagethatdripswithirony.85The1930sinBritainaremost
notableasatimeofeconomiccrisis,withtheeffectsoftheGreatDepressionfelt
inforceacrossthecountry,includinghighunemployment,frequentmarchesand
protests,andincreasedrelianceongovernmentsupport.Althoughthedecade
alsosawthearrivalofrapidtechnologicaladvances,theimpactofthiswasnot
fullyfeltuntilthepost-waryears.86Thegovernmentofthe1930scomprised
membersofallparties,knownastheNationalGovernment,whowerebrought
togetherinanefforttomanagethesecrises.Politically,thisgovernment,under
Chamberlain,isrememberedforpursuingthepolicyofappeasementpriortothe
outbreakofworldwartwo.Thefascistmovementfoundahome-grownleaderin
OswaldMosley,whoformedtheBritishUnionofFascistsin1932,bringingthe
movementtothemainstream.87Prentice’swordsevokethegreatdisparitiesof
1930sBritain,noddingtothefactthatareasoftheU.K.suchastheSouthEast
andtheMidlandswerelargelyunaffectedbytheDepression,andthattheseeds
ofconsumerculturewerebeingplantedwherethesoilwasfertile.88Thisis
broughtbacktoustowardstheendofthenovel,inadiscussionbetweenCharles
PrenticeandBobbyCrawford,whenPrenticelikensthecommunityspiritof84CocaineNights,p.66.85Thefrequencywithwhichtheidealised1960sareinvokedinBallard’sworkisconnectedtothepreoccupationoftheontemporarymomentwiththesixtiesasbothpre-neoliberalandprototypicallyneoliberal,whichistosay,themomentthatcontainedalltheingredientsfortheincipientneoliberalisationofsociety.Thisisexploredindetailelsewhereinthisthesis.86‘ThirtiesBritain:TheDepressedDecade?’TheNationalArchives,www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/thirties-britain/87AndrewThorpe.Britaininthe1930s:ADeceptiveDecade.London:JohnWylieandSons,1992.88BretRubin.’TheRiseandFallofBritishFascism:SirOswaldMosleyandtheBritishUnionofFascists,’intersections11:2,2010,pp.323-80;JulietGardinerTheThirties:AnIntimateHistoryHarperPressLondon2011.
94
EstrelladeMar(and,bythisstage,eventheResidenciaCostasol)to,“Londoners
intheBlitz...Wartimecamaraderie.”89Crawfordinsiststhatsubjectsneeda
stimulus:anaffectiveshocktospurthemintocreative(productive)action.There
aretwoimportantstrandstothistheory:thefirstisthenatureoftheshock-
widespreadcriminality,oftenintheformofattacksonproperty,theftanddrug
use.Thesecondisthemeasureofthesuccessofhistheory,countedasthe
developmentofa‘civicallyminded,’sociallyengagedandartisticallyproductive
community.90Thisassociationcontainstheembryoniccritiqueoftheculture
industrythatisgivenfullvoiceinMillenniumPeople.Inmanyways,Cocaine
Nightsisatravelguidetotheselaternovels,signpostingtheturnsthatareyetto
comeor,asBallardmightsay,the‘dangerousbendsahead.’
Sowhathascriminalitygottodowithhappiness?Aswithsomuchinthe
Ballardianworld,theanswer,itseems,liesinthepoweroftransgression.To
explorethis,letuslookattherulesbywhichEstrelladeMarisbound.Thesocial
lifeofthesettlementisstructuredaroundtheClubNautico,ostensiblyorganised
bythepsychopathicBobbyCrawford(forsomeonewhoprofessedtoavoid
diagnosesinhiswork,Ballardwascertainlyfondofusingpsyterminologyin
theselatenovels,albeitthroughthediscussionsbetweencharactersaboutwhat
constitutesorjustifiessuchdefinitions).91Crawford’sformulationoftheworld
seesitas‘allagame,’asweseefromhisownframinginthenovel.92Prentice’s
firstsightingofthislocalheroisatthetennisclub,whereCrawfordispracticing
againstatennismachine:
Watchinghim,Irealisedthathewasurgingonthemachine,willingit
tobeathim,beamingwithpleasurewhenanaceknockedtheracket
fromhishand.YetIfeltthattherealdueltakingplacewasnot
89CocaineNights,p.260.90SomeallowancemustbemadeforBallard’sdefinitionof‘civicmindedness,’whichincludesexcretinginyourneighbour’sswimmingpooltosavehimfromhistorpor.91ThereareseveralsuchdiscussionsinCocaineNights:seepp.176-9,271,280.92WhenPrenticefollowshimonhis‘crimespree’throughEstrelladeMar,itisadepictedasaspreeinthetruestsenseoftheword;alightheartedandcarefreelark,ofwhichPrenticesays,“…Iassumedthatthiswhirlwindcruisewasprimarilyinspirational,anextensionofhischeerleader’sroleattheClubNautico.”CocaineNights,p.165.WelaterseeCrawfordasanactualcheerleader,trainingateamofswimmers,“asifhegenuinelybelievedthateveryoneofhispupilshadtheabilitytobecomeanOlympicgoldmedallist.”CocaineNights,p.166.
95
betweenthemanandthemachine,butbetweenrivalfactionswithin
hisownhead.93
Crawfordisrepeatedlyfiguredinrelationtothistennismachine:“Crawford
wouldhavefoundthismoodyandsharp-tongueddoctorevenmoredifficultto
playthanhistennismachine”;“Justashehadwilledthetennismachinetobeat
him,henowurgedtheCostasolcomplextorallyitselfagainstthesecretenemy
withinitswalls.”94Attheendofthenovel,Crawfordismurdered.Themostlikely
suspectsarepsychiatristDrSangerorgeneralpractitionerPaulaHamilton,both
ofwhomdisapproveofCrawford’s‘techniques,’pittingCrawfordagainstthe
normativeconventionsofmedicine/biologyandpsychology.ItisCharles
Prenticewhofindshimandwho,likehisbrotherbeforehim,assumestheguilt
foracrimethatisnothisown.Duetomeetthetennisproforagameatthe
sportsclubinthenewlyinvigoratedResidenciaCostasol,Prenticefindsthe
tennismachineerraticallyfiringshots,theballslandinginapoolofCrawford’s
bloodasheliesdeadbesideit.Crawford’sgamesaredeadlyandheis,intheend,
theghostinthemachine,recallingtheworkofGilbertRyleandArthurKoestler.
Ryle’sTheConceptofMind(1949)critiquesCartesiandualism.Koestlerbuilton
thiscritiqueinTheGhostintheMachine(1967)whichsoughttoexplainthe
irrationalityofthehumanmind–violenturges,paranoia,insanity:Ballard’s
workingpalette.
ThegamestructureofCrawford’sCostadelSolkingdomalsorecallsgame
theory,abranchofappliedmathematicsthathasbeenusedtoexplorebiological
andeconomicpatterns,seekingtomakesenseofhumanbehaviours.Cocaine
Nightshasitsowngametheory,anasymmetricone,wherestrategiesare
constantlychangingandwheretheultimateoutcomeiszero-sum.Thezero-sum
outcomeofthegamerelatestotheeconomicbackgroundofthenovel,whichis
subtlybutpersistentlyfiguredthroughoutinthecharacterofclubownerand
entrepreneurBettyShand.InkeepingwithBallard’spenchantforsymbolic
names,‘Shand’apparentlymeans“ignomity,shame,disgrace”,or“acounterfeit
93CocaineNights,p.40.94CocaineNights,pp.120,254.
96
coin.”95ItisBetty’shand,too,thatguidestheschemesofeconomicdevelopment
inEstrelladeMarandtheResidenciaCostasolandbeyond.96Weseethiswhen
PaulaHamiltonexplainstheeconomicsofEstrelladeMar’sdrugstradeto
CharlesPrentice,intendingtodisillusionhimofhisbeliefthatCrawfordis
‘callingtheshots’:
[BobbyCrawford]isn’ttryingtomakemoneyfromdrugs-Betty
Shandtakesalltheprofits.Medicinal-qualityheroinandcocaineare
Crawford’sanswertothebenzo-diazapineswedoctorslovesomuch.
HeoncetoldmeIwasputtingpeopleunderhousearrestintheirown
heads.97
Crawforddisdainstheeconomicsofcriminality.Hepubliclyreturnsthesmall
thingshesteals,leavingthemwheretheprivatesecuritystaffwhopolicethe
residencieswillfindthem,abandonsorsetsfiretothecarshetakes,and
vandalisesproperty,destroyingitsvalue.98HeseesShand’scapitalistturnas
limited,andhisown‘work’asa“largerhorizon.”99
CrawfordexplainsthismissiontoCharlesPrenticeatlength,whenPrentice
saysthatifhewereburgled,hewouldjustcallthepolice.Crawfordinvokesthe
ineptitudeofthepolice,andsaysthatfollow-upcrimesproduceaheightened
needforsecurity–andan‘awakening’:
Thebreak-insarelikethedevoutCatholic’swristletthatchafesthe
skinandsharpensthemoralsensibility.Thenextburglaryfillsyou
withanger,evenaself-righteousrage.Thepoliceareuseless,fobbing
youoffwithvaguepromises,andthatgeneratesasenseofinjustice,a
feelingthatyou’resurroundedbyaworldwithoutshame.Everything
aroundyou,thepaintingsandthesilverwareyou’vealwaystakenfor
granted,fitintothisnewmoralframework.You’remoreawareof
95SeeDictionary.comwww.dictionary.com/browse/shand;CollinsDictionaryOnlinewww.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/shand.96CocaineNights,p.63.97CocaineNights,p.19998CocaineNights,p.236-24.99CocaineNights,pp.240.
97
yourself.Dormantareasofyourmindthatyouhaven’tvisitedfor
yearsbecomeimportantagain.Youbegintoreassessyourself....100
Thisreassessment,accordingtoCrawford,leadstoarecommitmenttoart,
beauty,andcommunity:
Crimeandvandalismareeverywhere.Youhavetoriseabovethese
mindlessthugsandtheoafishworldtheyinhabit.Insecurityforces
youtocherishwhatevermoralstrengthsyouhave,justaspolitical
prisonersmemorizeDostoyevsky’sHouseoftheDead,thedyingplay
Bachandrediscovertheirfaith,parentsmourningadeadchilddo
voluntaryworkatahospice.101
Crime,apparently,isthespurtoactionbecauseitistheonlyspaceof
“possibility”left–politicsisover,religionisdead.102Crawfordbelievesthat
peopleneedtotransgressrulesaround“sexandpropertyandself-control”–the
dictatesofproprietyundercapitalism,andtheverydisciplinarydiscourses
outlinedbyFoucault,where“propertyandself-control”areunderstoodas
referringtothebodyasmuchasanyexternalproperty.103Theculturalrealm
representsaspaceofimaginativeproductionthatCrawforddepictsasbeyond
thebaseinstinctsofcapitalism.Thisignoresthewayculturalproductionitself
functionstoinstituteandtransmitparticularnormativeandeconomicvalue(s).
Ballardhighlightsthisomissionthroughhisfrequent‘branding’ofculturein
CocaineNights.TheopenaircinemaPrenticeseesonhisfirstapproach
advertises,“aseasonofKatherineHepburnandSpencerTracyfilms,thevery
heightofintellectualchicofacertainkind”;aftertheformationofatheatre
groupinthereinvigoratedResidenciaCostasol,wehear,“TheMarinaPlayers
wereabouttolaunchtheirfirstproduction,aperformanceofTheImportanceof
BeingEarnest,whichwouldalternatewithWho’sAfraidofVirginiaWoolf?”104
Thespurofcrimecontributestothecreationofasolidmiddleclass.Forallthe
potentialCrawfordimagines,itisdifficulttodiscernanythingrevolutionaryin
thisrecyclingofmodernistclassics,ortoseehowthisrepetitiveandreferential
100CocaineNights,p.244.101CocaineNights,p.244.102CocaineNights,p.245.103CocaineNightsp.245.104CocaineNights,pp.37,43,251.
98
formofself-expressionservestoalleviatethediscontentofthepueblodwellers
(again,wewillseethiscritiquemadeexplicitinMillenniumPeople).Instead,it
showsagainthenostalgicimpulseatworkinCrawford’sutopianism,which,
despiteitsmiddle-classtrappings,iseffectivelyatabloidutopianism.Likethe
‘imaginedcommunities’oftabloidnewspaperreaders,whoareunitedunderthe
languageofthreatandstronglynationalisticrhetoric,thesubjectsoftheCosta
delSolareencouragedtoharkenbacktoafictive‘simplertime’,likePrentice’s
accountof“mythical1930s”where,onceagain,“…therewerenogangsofbored
teenagers,noderacinatedsuburbswhereneighboursscarcelykneweachother
andtheironlycivicloyaltiesweretothenearesthypermarketandtheDIY
store.”105Thepurportedsimplicityofthishalcyonpastmarksadesirefora
returntoaworldinwhichpowerseemedintelligible,knowableandthuscapable
ofbeingresisted–atimeoutsideofthe‘chaosofchoice’ofneoliberalism.After
allthat,BobbyCrawford’srevolutionturnsouttobedeeplyconservative–and
this,intheend,isitsappeal.106
ThisisalsotrueofthewayinwhichBallardshowsushowthepowerof
‘transgression’isunderminedbyitseconomicutility.AlthoughDrSanger’s
understandingoftransgressivebehaviourasthatwhichcan,“provokeusandtap
intoourneedforstrongemotion,quickenthenervoussystemandjumpthe
synapsesdeadenedbyleisureandinaction”seemstolocateitintheaffective
realm,andthereforetoascribeatruesenseofpotentialtoit,thispotential
cannotberealised.107BettyShand’sneoliberalismrecuperatesanydangerous
elementsthroughmakingthemsubjecttomarketlogic,remindingusagainof
neoliberalism’sremarkablecapacityfortoleranceintheprivatesphere.Shand
makesmoneyfromthesaleofdrugs,asseenabove;sheownstheclubsaround
whichthesociallivesofEstrelladeMarandtheResdienciaCostasolare
organised(ofwhichonemustbeamembertoparticipate–communityonthese
105CocaineNights,p.66.Formoreonthis‘tabloidutopianism’seePaulGilroy,ThereAin’tNoBlackintheUnionJack.London:Routledge,1987;MartinConboy,TabloidBritain:ConstructingaCommunityThroughLanguage.London:Routledge,2006;SofiaJohansson,ReadingTabloids:TabloidNewspapersandTheirReaders,Södertön:SödertönAcademicStudies,2007.106WemightcomparethistothestruggletorestoreclasspowerthatHarveyseesasthecruxofneoliberalism:aconservativeaimforaradicallydestabilisingproject.107CocaineNights,p.180.Sanger’saccountseemstofollowintheveinofMassumi’saccountof“intensities”inParablesfortheVirtual:Movement,Affect,Sensation.Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress,2002.
99
termsisworthlessifitisnotbasedonexclusion);sheoperatesthebarsand
restaurantstowhichpeopleflockoncetheir‘appetiteforlife’hasbeen
stimulatedbyCrawford’s‘treatment.’CharlesPrenticeisinstinctivelyawareof
thiscontradiction:hesaystoCrawford,“Youcan’tplaytenniswithoutobserving
therules.”108Theimmanenceoftransgressiontothesystemittransgresses
followsFoucault’sexplanationofcounter-conductintheTheBirthofBiopolitics,
andiscontainedherebythemutuallyconstitutiverelationshipbetweenthis
conductandcounter-conduct-afterall,thelawsCrawfordtransgressesare
mostlythoseofproperty.109Crawfordthinkshis‘mission’isprimary,andfailsto
seethatShandetalareexploitinghim.Hisunwittingroleistorestoresubjectsto
productiveactionandreinsertthemintonetworksofcapital,tomakepossible
theneoliberalisationoflifeontheCostadelSol.Undertheguidanceofthe
capitalistclass,thesystemseekstomakesureofitself-notfornothingisthe
mottooftheResidenciaCostasol,“Investment,Freedom,Security”.110Crawford
turnsouttobenotahappinessmessiah,buta“publicspiritedpsychopath”inthe
spiritofBallard’sThatcher-as-signifiercharacter.Hissystemoftransgressions,
intheend,resemblesthe‘shockdoctrine’of‘disastercapitalism’,asidentifiedby
NaomiKlein.111KleinidentifiesMiltonFriedman,oneofthefoundational
thinkersofneoliberaleconomics,asaleadingproponentofthis‘disaster
capitalism’,referencinghisinfluentialworkCapitalismandFreedom(1962),in
whichhewrote,“Onlyacrisisactualorperceivedproducesrealchange.”112
Crawford’sprogrammeescalatesthemomentofcrisisnecessaryforthe
economictransformationoftheCostadelSol.
Crawfordisapparentlyseentoinsistonthe“freedomtobeunhappy”,indirect
contraventionoftheneoliberaldiscourseofhappinesswhichseesunhappiness-
stress,depression,anxiety-asastatesubjectsshouldchoosetoovercome.113We
seethisthroughoutthenovelinvariousways:earlyon,CharlesPrenticedecides
totakeupsmokingagain,afterhavingquitsometimebefore,violatingthe108CocaineNights,p.245.109MichelFoucault.TheBirthofBiopolitics:LecturesattheCollègedeFrance,1978-1979,translatedbyGrahamBurchell.London:Palgrave,2008,pp.256–283.110CocaineNights,p.211.111NaomiKlein.TheShockDoctrine,London:PenguinBooks,2007.112MiltonFreidman.CapitalismandFreedom,Chicago:ChicagoUniversityPress,1962.p.3.113CocaineNights,p.283.
100
wellnessimperativeofneoliberalhappinessdiscourse.114Thereisafemale
character,LoriAnderson,introducedtowardstheendofthenovel.Whenshe
firstappears,sheisunderthecareofpsychiatristDrSangerandrecoveringfrom
adrugaddiction.Crawfordencourageshertorunaway,feedsherdrugs,enlists
hertomakepornographyandeggsheronwhensherepeatedlyinjuresorhurts
herself.115Despitethis,andtheaffectivepotentialrousedbycriminalbehaviour,
thesubjectsoftheCostadelSol-Crawfordincluded-aretoodeeplyenmeshed
intheculturallogicofneoliberalismtoresistthenormativeimperativesof
productiveengagement.Intheend,Crawfordperpetuatestheregulatory
functionofneoliberalhappinessdiscourse,duetothelimitationsofhisutopian
vision.Thecycleofcapitalcontinues,justasthenovelclosesasitbegan,witha
Prenticebrotherassumingaguiltthatisnotis.BobbyCrawfordnevergetsthe
chancetoimagineaworldbeyondthedictatesofproductiveimperatives,andso
diesamartyroftheneoliberalisedconceptionofhappiness.Afterall,inhis
words,“Oneneedsagreatdealofidletimetofeelreallysorryforoneself.”116
114See‘WhyEveryoneLovestoHateSmokers’inCarlCederströmandAndréSpicer,TheWellnessSyndrome.Cambridge:Polity,2015,pp.26–31.115CocaineNights,pp.286-96.Iwillexpandonthefiguringofself-destructivebehaviourinrelationtoneoliberalismlaterinthethesis.116CocaineNights,p.176.
101
AllWorkandNoPlay:GlobalElitesandtheHappinessImperativeinSuper-
Cannes(AnEdenFullofSnakes)
AfterCocaineNights’sustainedfocusontheleisuresocietiesofneoliberalism,
Ballardmakesavolte-faceinSuperCannes.Thisnovelfocusesontheworldof
work,atitshighestlevel-the‘executiveclass.’Continuinghisemphasison
materialcircumstance,Ballard’ssettingthistimeistheexclusivebusinesspark
ofEden-Olympia,modelledonthereallifeSophia-Antipolis,whichmakes
frequentappearancesinthenovelasacontemporaryofthefictivepark.Itis
evenmentionedseveraltimesinthenovelthatthetwoparksaretobelinkedin
aprojectdesignedtocapturethebiometricinformationofallresidents.117
Sophia-Antipolisisatech-focusedbusinesspark,completewithacademic
campus.Itswebsitedescribesitas“anecosystemdevotedtoinnovation.”118Its
primaryreasonforexistingisexplicitlyeconomic,tostrengthencommercial
innovationandencourage“cross-pollination”betweenindustries,althoughthe
websitealsofocusesemphaticallyontheuniquequalityoflifeoffered:asection
ofthewebsiteentitled‘Highlife’tellsthereader,“Allthosewhomoveheresay
thesamething:peoplegladlymovetotheCôted’Azurandtheyneverwantto
leave.”119Althoughtheslightlythreateningtoneofthisstatementmaybedueto
thevagariesoftranslation,itaccordsneatlywithBallard’sfictionalaccountof
lifeatEden-Olympia.
TheprotagonistofthisnovelisPaulSinclair,aformerpilotwhosuffereda
planecrashthatlefthimgrounded,andseriouslyinjured,ashorttimebeforethe
beginningofthenovel,hissubsequenthospitalisationintroducinghimtohis
now-wife,youngdoctorJane.120TheimpetusfortheirmovetoEden-Olympiais
Jane’scareer:thereisanopeningforapaediatricianatthepark,asDavid
Greenwood,thepreviousincumbentandanoldfriendofJane’s,recently
embarkedonamurderousrampage,endinginhisownsuicide–orsotheofficial
117J.G.Ballard.Super-Cannes2000,London:HarperPerennial,2006,pp.168,277.118OverviewofSophiaAntipolis,TeamCôteD’Azurwww.investincotedazur.com/en/sophia-antipolis/.119LivingontheFrenchRiviera,TeamCôteD’Azurwww.investincotedazur.com/en/highlife/living-on-the-french-riviera/.120MuchismadeofJane’syouthinthenovel,wherecharactersfrequentlyrefertothefactshelookslikeateenager.SeeSuper-Cannes,pp.11,34,228,andelsewhere.Thespectreofpaedophiliahauntsthenovel,althoughPaulSinclairturnsouttobeinnocentofanysuchpredilection.
102
storygoes.Asinalltheselatenovels,thetruthturnsouttobemorecomplicated:
criminalityis,onceagain,the‘darkheart’ofthissociety,anditisPaulSinclair
whomustuncoverit.Thistime,theringleaderisWilderPenrose,resident
psychiatristofEden-Olympia,whooverseestheinstitutionofaprogrammeof
prescribedpsychopathology,encouragingresidentstotakepartindrugdealing,
prostitution,andracistassaults.Theimpulsebehindthistreatmentisfinancial:
whenEden-Olympiafirstbegan,itsinhabitantsfoundthemselvesplaguedby
illnessandexhaustion,aproductivemalaisethatthreatenedtheefficiencyofthe
park.Afteranalysingthedesperatedreamsofthisprofessionalclass,Penrose
cametobelievethata“carefullymeteredmeasureofpsychopathy”couldprovide
thevitalstimulustojumpstartEden-Olympia.121
Greenwoodwasonamissiontoexposethiscriminalitywhenhewaskilled–
not,asittranspires,byhisownhand,butbyathen-rookiesecurityguard,Frank
Halder.Hisspurwasself-loathing.Hewasapaedophile,involvedinexploiting
vulnerableyounggirlsinapaedophileringorganisedthroughaLewisCarroll
lendinglibrary.122Theheavy-handednessofthesereferencesisadeliberate
technique,occurringaspartofBallard’sframingofEden-Olympiaasa
Baudrillardianhyperreality.Thenovelwearsthisonitssleeve–orrather,onits
shirt,whenPaulSinclairtellsus,“Isatdownandorderedavinblancfromthe
youngFrenchwaitress,whoworejeansandawhitevestprintedwitha
quotationfromBaudrillard.”123TheBaudrillardianframeworkofthenovel
reflectsthehyperrealityoffinancecapitalandriseofinformationeconomies.
ThisisfiguredeventhroughtheAlicebooksinthenovel:itisnotAlicein
WonderlandthatGreenwoodgivestothegirls,butAliceThroughtheLooking
Glass.124UpondiscoveringthetruthaboutEden-Olympia,PaulSinclairsaysto
WilderPenrose,“It’sanotherAliceworld–corporateprofitsarehigherthan121Super-Cannes,p.259.122Super-Cannes,p.347.123Super-Cannes,p.88124LookatEmilRøyrvikandMarianneBlomBroderson’sdescriptionoftheattitudeoftheChinesegovernmenttotheworldofdervatives:“AtthebeginningofthemillenniumZhuRongji,thenChina’spremier,hostedasecretmeetingoftopCommunistofficials.Senioracademicsandfinanceofficialswereinvitedtoteachthetopbrassesacrashcourseoncomplexfinancialinstruments.Thebestexplanationoffinancialderivativestheexpertscouldsummonthatday,wastodescribeitas‘likeputtingamirrorinfrontofanothermirror,allowingaphysicalobjecttobereflectedintoinfinity.’”‘RealVirtuality:PowerandSimulationintheAgeofNeoliberalCrisis’,CultureUnbound,4,2012,pp.637-659,p.638.
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anywhereinEuropeandthepeopleearningthemaregoingmadtogether.”125
Referencestomirrorsaboundinthenovel,reflectinganddistortingwherever
theyarefound.
Withregardtothisinformationeconomy,PenrosetellsPaulSinclair,
“Companiesherearen’tinvolvedwiththeThirdWorld.Noneofthemare
sweatingrubberorbauxiteoutofacoolieworkforce.Therawmaterial
processedatEden-Olympiaishighgradeinformation.”126Penrosedeliberately
ignoresthewayinwhichthisinformational,orimmaterial,labourprocess
exploitstheworker.Inexploringthecollapseoftheproductivesphereintothe
sphereofconsumption,whichfunctionsinthesameveinasRose’saccountofthe
movefrom‘doing’subjectto‘consuming’subject,Baurdillardwritesofthe
wastefulnessoftheunmanagedimagination:“Theimaginationshouldbe
realisedasaforceofproduction,itshouldbeinvested.Thesloganofthe
technocracyis:‘PowertotheImagination!’”127Inanaffectiveeconomy,this
captureismadereal:theactualimagination(alsointellectualproperty)ofthe
workerbelongstotheprocessesofcapital.128ThisunderlinesBallard’s
insistenceontheimaginationasapotentiallydisruptivespace.Thisis
representedherebyPaulSinclair,throughhisstatusasex-pilot-flightisclosely
linkedtotheimaginativerealm-andhisroleasoutsiderinEden-Olympia.
Sinclairisanoutsiderbecausehisinjurymeanshedoesnotwork,andthisplaces
himoutsidethenetworksofproductivitythatdefineidentityinthebusiness
park.WemightnoteheretoothatthenatureofSinclair’sinjury,whilst
125Super-Cannes,p.250.126Super-Cannes,p.29–theword‘coolie’isusedonafewoccasionsinthenovel,andisintendedasanindictmentofthecasualracismofEden-Olympia,andthesystemitrepresents.127JeanBaudrillard,SymbolicExchangeandDeathtranslatedbyMikeGaneLondon:SagePublications,1993,p.36.128Thisisastrueintheneoliberalisedacademyasitisintheworkplace:atthebeginningofmyPhD,Iwasrequiredtosignacontractassertingtherightsoftheuniversitytotheintellectualpropertyproducedbymyresearch(thisdespitethefactIwasnotinfactanemployeeoftheuniversity:myfundingcamefromtheAHRC).Asahumanitiesstudent,thisseemsparticularlynebulous(itislucky,perhaps,thatIamunlikelytoproduceworkofanycommercialvalue!).Thisispartofapolicyof‘commercialisation’thathasbecomewidespreadthroughoutHigherEd.institutions–Queen’sproudlyannouncedits‘achievement’inplacingfirstintheU.K.forintellectualpropertycommercialisationinApril2016–seewww.qub.ac.uk/Business/News/Queensplaced1stintheUKforintellectualpropertycommercialisation.html.Introducingthissystemof‘commercialisation’encouragesstudentstoseethemselvesasproto-workersevenbeforetheyentertheworkplace,andtoframeanyintellectualendeavoursprimarilyintheserviceofthemarket.Investtheimagination,indeed.
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undoubtedlyphysicalinorigin,seemstohaveapsychosomaticorpsychological
component,whichaffectsitshealing.Theco-optionoftheimaginationinSuper-
Canneshasthreeprimarystrands.Thefirstistheinstitutionofworkasprimary
siteofsubjectification;thesecondisthedelineationofahyperrealspace,based
onthe‘simulatedviolence’ofsecurity;thethirdistherationalisationand
managementofthesubjectthroughtheinterventionofauthority,primarily
figuredintermsofmedicaldiscourse,withanemphasisonpsysciences.These
strandsworktogethertoeffectivelyremovetheconceptoftheprivatesphere,
demonstratingBallard’scontinuedpreoccupationwiththedisappearanceofcivil
society.Runningthrougheachofthesestrands,too,isasatiriccommentaryon
theriseofmanagementcapitalism,theverystrainofneoliberalthinkingthathas
organisedandshapedmuchoftheneoliberal(re)conceptualisationofhappiness
Iamcritiquinginthisthesis.129
TheBaudrillardianframingofthenovelbeginswithBallard’sintroductory
foreword,wherehelaysoutthe(real)geographyofSuper-Cannesand
acknowledgesSophia-AntipolisastheinspirationforEden-Olympia.Sophia-
AntipolisisafinancialDisneyland.Earlyinthenovel,Ballardmakesitclearthat,
asDisneylandisthe“objectiveprofileofAmerica,”Eden-Olympiaisthe
“objectiveprofile”of‘new’France,asPaulSinclairtellsus:
...theFranceofthe1960s,withitsRoutierlunches,anti-CRSslogans
andtheCitroënDS,hadbeenlargelyreplacedbyanewFranceof
high-speedmonorails,MacDo’s,andthelavishair-showsthatmy
cousinCharlesandIwouldvisitinourrentedCessnawhenwe
foundedourfirmofaviationpublishers.AndEden-Olympiawasthe
newestofthenewFrance.130
Eden-OlympiaisasimulacrumofSophia-Antipolis,creatingaframeworkof
hyperrealitywithintheworldofthenovelitselfthroughthisreflexivity.Thefact
thatSophia-AntipolisalsofeaturesinthenovelensuresthatEden-Olympiaisnot
129WilliamDaviesoffersaloosehistoricalaccountoftheriseofthismanagementculture,exploringhowthescientificmanagementtechniquesofTaylorismhavemorphedandbeenadaptedinaneraofaffectiveorimmateriallabour.TheHappinessIndustry.LondonandNewYork:Verso,2015,pp.115-37.130JeanBaudrillardSimulacraandSimulation,translatedbySheilaGlaser.Michigan:UniversityofMichiganPress,1994.p.14.Super-Cannes,p.5.‘MacDo’s”–theFrenchslangforMcDonald’s,supremesignifierofsimulation–underlinesBallard’semphasisontheBaudrillardianhyperreal.
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simplyadoubleofthatplace;Ballardaimstomakeplainthedistinctionbetween
thetwo.Insodoing,hehighlightsthewayinwhichhisnovelsworktoproduce
reality,partofhisobliquestrategyofresistingincorporationintorational
productivelogicthroughemphasisingthedisruptivepotentialoftheimaginative
realmandhisownimbricationinmodesofcultural(re)production.
ThenameofEden-Olympiaextendsthisapproach,institutingitsown
symbolicorder.Sophia-AntipolisdrawsitsnamefromtheGreekwordfor
wisdom,Sophia,andtheancientGreeknameforAntibes,Antipolis,the‘opposite’
(anti)city,socalledbecauseitwasgeographicallyoppositeNice.Thenameisapt
inotherways,whichfeedintoBallard’sconstructionofEden-Olympia:the
businessparkistheanti-city,acarefullyplannedandmanagedspacewherethe
contingentisoutlawed.AsJaneSinclairsaysuponarrivalinEden-Olympia,“It’s
allverycivilizedhere,inaEurokindofway.Notadriftingleafinsight.”131This
aversiontocontingencyisechoedbypsychiatristPenroseshortlyafter,upon
seeinga“trioofSenegalesetrinketsalesmen”whohavebreachedthebordersof
thepark;hesays,“it’sirritatingtoberemindedofthecontingentworld.”132The
sightingofthistrioisourfirstencounterwiththeregulationofbordersinEden-
Olympia.PaulSinclairasksPenroseabouttheincidenceofcriminalityinthe
park,saying,“Itlooksasifsecuritymightbeaproblem.”Penrosereplies,
“Securityisfirstclass.Orshouldbe…Wehaveourownpoliceforce.”133Policing
inEden-Olympiarefersnotjusttothecontrolofbordersbutalsotothepolicing
ofaffect.Afterwitnessingthedeath(murder)ofPascalZander,Eden-Olympia’s
chiefofpolice,PaulSinclairreflects,“…IrealisedthatonceagainIhadyieldedto
thegreaterstatusquothatwasEden-Olympia.Thebusinessparksetitsown
rules,andhadeffectivelyswitchedoffouremotions.“134Thisispartofasystem
ofcontrolthatmirrorstheregulatorystrategiesofneoliberalhappiness
discourse.
Penrose’sstrategyhighlightstheworstpartsofneoliberalism,relyingon,“…
increasedclassdivision,intensifiedpolicing,increasedsurveillance,and
131Super-Cannes,p.9.132Super-Cannes,p.19.133Super-Cannes,p.19.134Super-Cannes,p.306.
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heightenedsecuritymeasures,whichinevitablyarisefromstrainedrelations.”135
PaulSinclairglimpsesthisearlyoninthenovel,whenhewitnessestwomen
beingbrutallybeatenbyEden-Olympiasecurityinthecar-parkoftheclinic
wherehiswifeworks.OneofthemenisanotherSenegalesetrinketsalesman,
theotheraRussian–neitherbelonginEden-Olympia.Severalmembersofthe
Eden-Olympiaelitekeenlyobservethisbeating,includingaccountantAlain
Delage,aprotégéofPenrose’s,wholatergoesontobecomechiefofsecurity.At
thisstage,PaulSinclairdoesnotfullyunderstandthesignificanceofwhathe
sees.Likealltheprotagonistsoftheselatenovels,hemustactasdetectiveto
piecetogetherwhatishappening.Hemistakenlybelievesthesecurityforcesare
attackingtheRussianmanbecausetheyhavetakenhimforadifferentRussian,
withwhomhehadaconfrontationearlierintheday.136Whenheattemptsto
imparttheseconcernstoHalder,theguardresponds,“OneRussian,another
Russian...exampleshavetobemade.Wecan’tbeeverywhere.Thisisthedark
sideofEden-Olympia.WeworkhardsoyouandDr.Janecanenjoythesun.”137
WecanreadthisinteractionintermsofSpringer’saccountofthewayinwhich
theOtheringofneoliberalviolenceenablesexclusionsthatserveto‘normalize’
exceptionalviolence:
Exceptionalviolencealwaysrunstheriskofbecomingexemplary,or
soroutinized,quotidian,ordinary,andbanalthatwenolongerfeelan
emotionalresponsetoitsappearancepreciselybecauseitisthenorm.
Wemayrecogniseitasviolence,butweremainindifferent.138
Springersuggests,“…itisthroughtheconstructionofanewneoliberalnormative
frame–whereinmaliceandmalevolencebecomethenewrule–thatthe
exceptionalviolenceofneoliberalismistransformedintoexemplaryviolence.”139
Ballard’sworkliteralisesthis–Penrosemakesmaliceandmalevolencetherule,
throughassertionofhismedicalauthorityandtheclosingdownofimaginative,
135SimonSpringer.‘TheViolenceofNeoliberalism,’inTheHandbookofNeoliberalism,editedbySpringeretal.NewYork:Routledge,2016,pp.153-64,p.159.136ThefirstRussian(whoSinclaircalls‘Alexi’,confusedbytheman’seffortstosay‘Alice’)ispartofacrimesyndicatewhowereinleaguewithGreenwood’spaedophilering.Super-Cannespp.57-9.137Super-Cannes,p.73.138Springer.‘TheViolenceofNeoliberalism,’p.158.139Springer.‘TheViolenceofNeoliberalism,’p.158.
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oraffective,space.Thistakesplaceinthenameofrevitalisingtheexecutiveclass
–ensuringtheir‘happiness,’wherehappinessisreadasproductivity.Eden-
Olympiaresidentsbecomeprogrammaticallyindifferenttothesufferingof
othersundertheguidanceofPenrose,whoensuresthattheirempathetic
capacityisundonethroughtheirimaginativestasis.
Inthefinalchapterofthenovel,asheisonhiswaytofinishDavidGreenwood’s
missionandexposethehorrorsofEden-Olympia,PaulSinclairobserves:
FlightwasanelementmissingfromEden-Olympia,thecertaintiesof
wind-speed,gravityandlife.Absent,too,wastheneedtoexploreany
interiorspace,topioneerthemailroutesinsideourheads.Only
WilderPenrosehadfurnisheduswithanatlasofdestinations,ablack
geographysketchedonhisprescriptionpads…140
Penrose’s“atlasofdestinations”hereissurelyareferencetotheDiagnosticand
StatisticalManualofMentalDisorders,theclinicalhandbookofthepsysciences.
InRose’saccountofthefunctionsoftheDSM,hewritesoftheattitudeofBritish
psychiatricclinicians:
Adiagnosticmanualinpsychiatry,theysay,isjustaprovisionalmap
oftheterritory...AmanuallikeDSMisakindofroughguidethatwill
helpthepractitionergetoriented,maybetoreadontheplanebut
bestputtoonesidewhenoneisactuallyontheground....141
Rose’simageryechoesthatofthenovel,suggestingBallardmayhavebeeneven
closertothelanguageofpsythanherealised.Inwiderpractice,however,the
DSMtoooftenfailstofunctionasaroughguideorprovisionalmap.Itsdiagnoses
havematerialconsequence:theyactonsubjectsinawaythatisundeniablyreal.
Rosehighlightsthewayinwhichdiagnosis,
isalsoapsychological,social,economic,politicalreality,heldinplace
bymanysocialpractices.Doctors,researchers,patients,pressure
groupsandbureaucratsbecomeattachedtothesecategories,shaped
140Super-Cannes,p.387.141NikolasRose.‘WhatIsDiagnosisFor?,’InstituteofPsychiatryConferenceonDSM-5andtheFutureofDiagnosis,June2013,King’sCollegeLondon.http://nikolasrose.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Rose-2013-What-is-diagnosis-for-IoP-revised-July-2013.pdf,p.1.RosealsoidentifiesadistinctlyBritishattitudetotheDSM,incontrasttotheAmericanapproach:thedifferencesbetweentheculturalattitudesofpractitionersofpsysciencehaveimportantimpactsonthoseundertheircontrol(orcare,asneoliberalhappinessdiscoursewouldpreferit).
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bythem,sometimesdependentuponthemfinancially,professionally,
politically,morally.Psychiatriccategoriespartakeofthisreality,
despitethedisputabledefinitionsandfuzzybordersthatframeso
manydiagnoses.142
Thisillustratesthewaysinwhichpsyscienceisenmeshedinnetworksof
subjectification,control,andnormativepractice.Ofinteresthereisnottheway
inwhichthesediagnosesimposeidentityonsubjects,butthewayinwhich
subjectsthemselvescometotakethemasidentityreferents,andtousethemas
frameworksforconstructingconceptionsofselfhood–thisispartoftheself-
regulatorydimensionofthepsy.143Thisisalsolinkedtounderstandingsof
sufferingassiteofidentity,mentionedearlierinrelationtoWendyBrown’s
work,andparodiedbytheperverseidentitiesascribedtosubjectsinEden-
OlympiabyPenrose’sprogramme.Charactersinthenovelfrequentlyasserttheir
happinessevenastheyparticipateinandendurebehavioursthatareclearly
distressing.JaneSinclair,druggedanddistant,isbadlybeatenbyPascalZander,
afterhetriestorapeherbutistoodrunktomaintainanerection.Immediately
after,sheavowsherdesiretostayinEden-Olympia,sayingtoherhusband,“I’m
reallyhappyhere.Aren’tyou?”144
Itseemstomethatthisisalsoaclearreferencetothecognitivedissonanceof
neoliberalsubjects,adissonancethatisdeliberatelypromotedbytheneoliberal
programme.PhilipMirowskilaysthisoutatpaceinhisaccountofhow
neoliberalismsurvivedthefinancialcrashof2007/8:
...peoplereacttopotentialdisconfirmationofstronglyheldviewsby
adjustingtheirownunderstandingsofthedoctrineinquestionto
accommodatecontraryevidence;thishasbeendiscussedinthesocial
142Rose.‘WhatisDiagnosisFor?’p.4.143Whenitcomestodiagnosis,thisself-shapingmaybeatwowaystreet,asisshownbyRose’sdiscussionsofadvocacygroups.Infact,thebest-knownexampleofthismaybethemodificationandeventualremovalofhomosexualityfromtheDSM(in1973),whichDavieschartsinacompellingaccountofthejointhistoryoftheDSMandtheriseofneoliberalism,TheHappinessIndustry,pp.167-79.144Super-Cannes,p.302.
109
psychologyliteratureundertherubricof“cognitivedissonance,”and
inthephilosophyliteratureasDuhem’sThesis.145
Mirowskialsoreferstothesocialdimensionofthispractice,suggestingthat,
“peoplecannotvetandvalidateevenasmallproportionofknowledgetowhich
theysubscribe,andsomustofnecessitydependheavilyuponotherssuchas
teachersandexpertsandpeerstounderwritemuchoftheirbeliefs.”146Itis
usefultoreflectonthiswhenconsideringthepervasiveriseofemotivepolitical
discourseoutlinedintheintroductiontothisthesis.Ishouldsay,too,thatI
recognisethattheremaybesometensionbetweenMirowski’srelativedismissal
ofgovernmentalityasunhelpfulandmyeffortstotracehappinessdiscourseasa
formofneoliberalgovernmentality.Toanswerthis,Istressthespecificremitof
thisthesis–Iamnotseekingto‘explain’neoliberalism,asMirowski(valiantly)
attemptsto,butinsteadtofocusononesmallpartofthewayinwhichits‘values’
havecometobetransmittedas‘normal’andapparentlywillinglyadoptedby
subjects,throughaninvestigationofcontemporaryliterature.Iamnotan
economist(if,perMirowski,theyevenexist),butsomethingmorelikeamember
ofthe“motleyclique”hedescribes,whoseektoexplore“neoliberal
consciousness.”147
MirowskigoesontoquotepsychologistLeonFestinger,originatorofthe
theoryofcognitivedissonance,whoassertsthatthosewhofaceamajor
challengetotheirbeliefsystemsmayinfactbecomeincreasinglyattachedto
thosebeliefs,evangelicaleven.ThisiscertainlythecaseinSuper-Cannes,where
evenwaryPaulSinclairisdrawnintoWilderPenrose’spsychopathological
underworld.TheonlythingthatdrawshimoutisthemurderofFrancesBaring,
andhisrealisationthatheisbeingsetupto‘takethefall’forit.148Unlikethe
figureofBobbyCrawfordinCocaineNights,itisnotPenrose’spersonalcharisma
thatdrawsdisciplestohim:infact,heisfrequentlydescribedbyother
145PhilipMirowski,NeverLetASeriousCrisisGoToWaste,LondonandBrooklyn,NY:Verso,2014,p.33.146Mirowski,NeverLetaSeriousCrisisGoToWaste,p.34.147Mirowski,NeverLetaSeriousCrisisGoToWaste,p.91.148Super-Cannes,p.371-5.
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charactersinunpleasantterms,vergingonthegrotesque.149Instead,itisthe
comprehensivenessofhisvision,andthewayinwhichheencouragessubjectsto
actonthemselvesinitsconstruction,implicatingthementirelyinthemicrocosm
ofviolenceandexploitationofwhichheseeshimselfasarchitect.
Returningtothequestionofpsyscienceanddiagnosis,RosereferencesCharles
Rosenberg’swork,whereRosenbergsays,
Wehaveneverbeenmoreawareofthearbitraryandconstructed
qualityofpsychiatricdiagnoses,yetinaneracharacterizedbythe
increasinglybureaucraticmanagementofhealthcareandan
increasinglypervasivereductionismintheexplanationofnormalas
wellaspathologicalbehavior,wehaveneverbeenmoredependent
onthem.150
Bureaucratisationisafeaturenotjustofhealthcareunderneoliberalismbutof
lifeasawhole.Ihavepreviouslyintimatedthewayinwhichneoliberal
happinessdiscoursetendstoconnectthebiologicalandthepsychological,asis
evidentinthelanguageof‘wellness’or‘holistichappiness’seeninCederström
andSpicer’swork.InSuper-Cannes,thismanifestsinJaneSinclair’sprojectof
accumulatingthemedicaldataofthepark’sresidents.Shedescribestheproject
toherhusbandearlyinthenovel,withahintofincredulity:
“Everymorningwhentheygetuppeoplewilldialtheclinicandlogin
theirhealthdata:pulse,bloodpressure,weightandsoon.Oneprick
ofthefingeronasmallscannerandthecomputersherewillanalyse
everything:liverenzymes,cholesterol,prostatemarkers,thelot.”
“Alcohollevels,recreationaldrugs…?”
“Everything.It’ssototalitarianonlyEden-Olympiacouldeventhink
aboutitandnotrealisewhatitmeans.”151
Later,whenJanebecomesfully‘integrated’intoEden-Olympia,theprojecttakes
onadifferentsignification:PaulSinclairsays,“shehadfoundprofessional
successatEden-Olympia.ShehadbeenprofiledintheLondonmedicalpress,and149PaulSinclaircallshim,variously,a“psychopomp”(p.3),“almostobsequious”(p.30),an“amiablebully’(p.279),andmakesreferencetohis“badlybittenfingernails”(avisiblebreachofthewellnessimperative!)(p.244),andhis“hugebody”(p.295).150CharlesRosenberg.‘ContestedBoundaries:Psychiatry,Disease,andDiagnosis’,PerspectivesinBiologyandMedicine49:3,2006,pp.407-424,p.417.151Super-Cannes,p.67.Wealsoseereferencestothisprojectpp.98,122,25,67,154.
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wascompletingdiagnosticteststhatwouldlinkeveryemployeeinEden-
OlympiaandSophia-Antipolis.”152Somefifteenyearsaftertheoriginal
publicationofSuper-Cannes,wemightseeJane’sprojectasdated–whoneedsa
doctortomonitorandrecordtheirmedicaldatawhenwecanbuyaFitbitand
paytodoitourselves?Evenbetter,ouremployermightgiveusone,allowingus
tomeasureourownwellnessandassessitincomparisontoourfellow
employees,asweourselvesareassessed,combiningworkplaceprimacy,
competitionandself-regulationinoneneatneoliberalpackage.153Whilstthisis
trueinsomerespects,Rose’swritingonbiologicalcitizenshipmightgiveus
pause,consideringtheprojectofbelongingthatexistsatthecoreofPenrose’s
effortsandthecoreofBallard’sthematicconcerns.Giventhattheexpress
purposeofEden-Olympia’sOther,Sophia-Antipolis,isthe“crosspollination”of
ideas,andthepreviouslystatedinterestofthisworkintheco-optionofthe
imagination,thepassagebelowontheeffortsofstatestomanagethe‘resource’
ofthe“specifichereditarystockoftheirpopulation”isstriking:
[Techniquesofmanagingthehereditarystockofpopulations]are
groundedinthehopethatspecificcharacteristicsofthegenesof
groupsoftheircitizensmaypotentiallyprovideavaluableresource
forthegenerationofintellectualpropertyrights,forbiotechnological
innovationandthecreationofwhatwewillterm…biovalue.154
ThisexpandsourunderstandingoftheimplicationsofJane’sproject,andallows
ustoenvisionthescopeofpracticesintendedtoproduceself-regulatingsubjects
–evendowntothelevelofgenetics.155Althoughthisgeneticapplicationisnot
explicitinthenovel,wecanseehowtheunderpinningsofbiologicalcitizenship
152Super-Cannes,p.227.153ChristinaFarr.‘HowFitBitBecametheNextBigThinginCorporateWellness,’FastCompany,18April2016.www.fastcompany.com/3058462/how-fitbit-became-the-next-big-thing-in-corporate-wellness.Daviesdescribessimilarinterventionsin‘Taylor’sRevenge’,pp.134-7inTheHappinessIndustry.154NikolasRoseandCarlosNovas,‘BiologicalCitizenship’GlobalAssemblages:Technology,Politics,andEthicsasAnthropologicalProblems,editedbyAihwaOngandStephenJ.Collier.OxfordandMalden,MA:BlackwellPublishing,2005,pp.439-463,pp.440-1.155Interestingly,RoseandNovasalsodescribehowtheriseofgenomicsasafieldinwhich‘disorders’likemanicdepressioncanbe‘explained’throughgeneticreasoninghasledto‘genehunting’andalsogivesvaluetothosewith‘badgenes’(thoughthisvaluecan,byitsnature,beonlytemporary.)Neoliberalhappinessdiscourseapparentlyfindsawaytomakeasilkpurseofasow’sear,again.
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mightliebeneathJane’swork,alertingustotheever-moreinsidiousworkingsof
theneoliberalhappinessagenda.
IfsisterparkSophia-Antipoliscontainsthepossibilityofitsownoppositein
itsownname,likethesecretsofhappinesspotentiallyhiddeninourgenes,
BallardmakessureofitinnamingEden-Olympia.Thesignificanceof‘Eden’is
obviousinitsbiblicalsense;incaseweareunsureaboutthis,aconversation
betweenPaulSinclairandWilderPenroseabouttheinitialillnessandapathyof
thefirstparkresidentsilluminatesitforus:PaulSinclairsays,“They’dforgotten
theywerelivinginparadise?”Penrosetellshim,“ThiswasEdenwithouta
snake.”156PenroseseeshimselfasthesnakeinEden,embodyingthetwofold
meaningoftheserpent,asymbolofhealingandevil,chaosandfertility,and
raisingtheimageoftheouroborosofcapitalism.The‘Olympia’inthepark’s
namelinkstheresidentsofthepark,thosemembersoftheeliteprofessional
class,totheOlympiangods,aswellasinvokingtheOlympicGames,linkingthis
noveltothegamesofCocaineNights.ThereareseveraloccasionsinSuper-
CanneswhentheperversepursuitsofEden-Olympiaresidentsarereferredtoas
games.ThecharacterofFrancesBaring,apropertymanageratEden-Olympia
withwhomDavidGreenwoodwasromanticallyinvolved(andwithwhomPaul
Sinclairhasanaffair)isconnectedtotheterm,describing,“thegameswe[she
andGreenwood]played”andtellingSinclair,“Soonerorlater,though,allgames
becomeserious.”157Baringisalsoconnectedtothemotifofflyinginthenovel,
anditsassociatedthemeofresistance.Atthestartofchaptertwenty-five,
Sinclairsays,“NowFrancesBaringhaddealtherselfbackintothegame,playing
withhermarkedcardsandherriggedshoe.”158Thislanguageforeshadows
Baring’slaterroleinresistingthewellbeingimperativesofEden-Olympia(ifwe
canrefertoprescribedpsychopathologyassuch),andremindsusthat,asin
CocaineNights,thesegamesareneverfair.
WilderPenrosecontinuesthisassociativereference,likeninghistreatmentto
“agameoftouchrugby.”159Thosewhoparticipateinthetreatmenthaveevolved
intoakindofalternativesportinggroup,onewhosemaininterestisviolent156Super-Cannes,258157Super-Cannes,218.158Super-Cannes,213.159Super-Cannes,259.
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ratissages.Theword‘ratissage’isdeliberatelychosenhere:originatinginthe
1950s,itreferstoamilitarysweeporraid,particularlyusedfortheactionsof
theFrenchinAlgeria.Itssecondarymeaningiseconomic,referringtothegiving
upofnationalresourcestoacentralbank.160Ratissageisaloadedword,with
distinctlyracistovertones–overtonesthatripplethroughthenovel,asthe
racismofpurportedlyneutralEden-Olympia,andtheneoliberalcapitalistsystem
thatshapesthepark,isexposed.Attheirfirstmeeting,duringtheirexchangeon
thestateofsecurityatEden-Olympia,WilderPenrosetellsPaulSinclair:
“There’snothingracist,bytheway.We’retrulymultinational–
Americans,French,Japanese.EvenRussiansandeastEuropeans.”
‘BlackAfrica?”
“Attheseniorlevel.We’reameltingpot,astheRivieraalwayshas
been.Thesolventnowistalent,notwealthorglamour.Forgetabout
crime.”161
Thisistheneoliberalargument:freemarket‘equality’fostersacosmopolitan
multiculturalismthatprecludesracism.JodiMelamedcallsattentiontotheway
inwhichneoliberalism’suniversalism,“remakescategoriesofracialprivilege
andstigmabeyondcolourlinesbyrepresentingtheadvantagesthatareenjoyed
byneoliberalism’swinnersasthejustdessertsofglobalmulticultural
citizens.”162Ballardrevealstheanti-racistrhetoricofneoliberalismtobeno
morethanaweakposture.Penrosecontinuestoinsistontheanti-racismof
Eden-Olympia,defendingtheracistselectionofthevictimsoftheratissages
throughtheinvocationoftrickle-downeconomics.WhenSinclairsuggeststheir
racialprofilingis,“ToughontheArabs,”Penrosereplies,“True.Butonthewhole
theimmigrantcommunitybenefits.Eden-Olympiaisascrupulousequal-
160AngusMaddison,EconomicGrowthintheWest:ComparativeExperienceinEuropeandNorthAmerica,London:Routledge,1964;AlistairHorne,ASavageWarofPeace:Algeria1954-1962.NewYork:NewYorkReviewofBooks,1977.161Super-Cannes,p.19-20.ThemythoftheRivieraas‘meltingpot’isparodiedinthenoveltoo,withmultiplereferencestoF.ScottFitzgerald’sRiviera–shortlyafterthisexchange,Halder(whoisblack)isrevealedtokeepacopyofTenderistheNight(1934)onhispassengerseat.PascalZander’sdeathinacaraccidentfollowsaGatsby-esqueparty,thekindthat“doesn’thavehosts.”p.291.162JodiMelamed,RepresentandDestroy:RationalizingViolenceintheNewRacialCapitalism,Minnesota:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,2011,pp.139-40.
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opportunitiesemployer,withnoracialbias.Wehireadisproportionatenumber
ofnorthAfricansasgardenersandroadsweepers.”163
Theperpetratorsoftheseratissagesarereferredtoasabowlingclub
throughoutthenovel,firstmentionedbyPaulSinclairduringtheattackonthe
Russianinthecarpark:“[AlainDelage]andtheotherexecutivesweredressedin
leatherjacketszippedtotheneck,likemembersofanEden-Olympiabowling
club.”164Theimageofthe‘bowlingclub’callstomindRobertPutnam’sinfluential
study,BowlingAlone(2000),inwhichthetheoristimaginesthedeclinein
bowlingleaguesintheUnitedStatesassymbolicofthedeclineofcivicsociety.In
contrasttothevibrantEstrelladeMarofCocaineNights,Eden-Olympiahasno
civilsociety–bydesign:“CivilityandpolityweredesignedintoEden-Olympia,in
thesamewaythatmathematics,aestheticsandtheentiregeopoliticalworldview
weredesignedintotheParthenonandtheBoeing747.”165Thisisconnectedto
thepark’sintentiontomaketheworkplacetheprimarysceneoflifeitself,as
PenroseexplainstoPaulSinclair:“AtEden-Olympiaworkistheultimateplay,
andplaytheultimatework.”166Thisprimacyofworkislinkedtoanabdicationof
morality,orrather,asubmissiontothemoralityofthemarket:
AgiantmultinationallikeFujiorGeneralMotorssetsitsown
morality.Thecompanydefinestherulesthatgovernhowyoutreat
yourspouse,whereyoueducateyourchildren,thesensiblelimitsto
stockmarketinvestment.Thebankdecideshowbigamortgageyou
canhandle,therightamountofhealthinsurancetobuy.Thereareno
moremoraldecisionsthanthereareonanewsuperhighway.Unless
youownaFerrari,pressingtheacceleratorisnotamoraldecision.
FordandFiatandToyotahaveengineeredinasensibleresponse
curve.Wecanrelyontheirjudgment,andthatleavestherestofus
freetogetonwiththerestofourlives.We’veachievedrealfreedom,
freedomfrommorality.167
163CocaineNights,p.260.164Super-Cannes,p.72.165Super-Cannes,p.38.166Super-Cannes,p.94,Seealsop.264.167Super-Cannes,p.95.
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Thisphilosophyisatoddswiththeconventionalwisdomofpopularneoliberal
rhetoric:thatchoicewillsetyoufree,orrather,thatitisonlythroughchoosing
thatthesubjectcanconstructanyideaoffreedom.InThatcher’swords,“Choice
istheessenceofethics:iftherewerenochoice,therewouldbenoethics,no
good,noevil;goodandevilhavemeaningonlyinsofarasmanisfreeto
choose.”168(Althoughremember,please,whenitcomestothemarketeconomy,
“thereisnoalternative”tochoose.)PaulSinclairhighlightsthetensionbetween
Penrose’sthesisandtheprimacyofindividualchoiceinneoliberalrhetoric,
saying,“Ithoughttheorganizationmandiedoutinthe1960s.”169The
OrganizationManreferstoWilliamH.Whyte’s1956managementguide,which
promotedthecreativityoftheindividualovercollectivistactionanddecision-
makingintheworkplace,andsuggestedthatrelianceongrouplogicmade
executivestimidandunadventurousintheirwork.PenroseagreeswithSinclair,
andclaimsthatthe‘newbreed’ofworkerisquitedistinct:forthese,the
abdicationofchoiceintheprivatesphereallowstheworkplacetotakeits
rightfulplaceasthelocusofself-construction,whichistosay,therealmof
choice.
Thereareechoes,too,ofWhyte’sroughcontemporary,HerbertMarcuse,
whoseOneDimensionalMan(1964)critiquestheauthoritarianismofconsumer
capitalism,andtheunfreedomofchoiceinthissystem,anticipatingtheriseof
neoliberalismandtheonedimensionalityoftotalmarketlogic.Marcuse’swriting
onconscienceseemsapthere,andcontributestooutlininghowsubjectscometo
accepttheradicalinequalitiesoflifeinEden-Olympiaandlifeunder
neoliberalism.Hesays,“Conversely,lossofconscienceduetothesatisfactory
libertiesgrantedbyanunfreesocietymakesforahappyconsciousnesswhich
facilitatesacceptanceofthemisdeedsofthissociety.”170Marcuseseesthis
acceptanceassignallingdecliningautonomy,counteringPenrose’sassertionthat
theself-motivatedprofessionalsoftodayaresomehowmoreliberatedthanthe
“earlyofficedwellinghominid,acorporateversionofDawnmanwhoassumeda
168MargaretThatcher.SpeechtoZurichEconomicSociety(‘TheNewRenaissance”),March1977.MargaretThatcherFoundation.www.margaretthatcher.org/document/103336.169Super-Cannes,p.95170HerbertMarcuse.OneDimensionalMan.London:RoutledgeandKeganPaulLtd,1964,p.76.
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sedentarypostureinordertosurvive.”171Notethedoublemeaningof‘self-
motivated’here,referringtoapparentlyintrinsicmotivation,butalsotothe
motivationofselfhood,definingtheparametersofidentitythroughproductive
engagementwiththeworldofwork.Marcuse’stheoryof“institutionalized
desublimation”isineffectanaccountofPenrose’sprogramme:
Institutionalizeddesublimationthusappearstobeanaspectofthe
‘conquestoftranscendence’achievedbytheone-dimensionalsociety.
Justasthissocietytendstoreduce,andevenabsorbopposition(the
qualitativedifference!)intherealmofpoliticsandhigherculture,soit
doesintheinstinctualsphere.Theresultistheatrophyofthemental
organsforgraspingthecontradictionsandthealternativesand,inthe
oneremainingdimensionoftechnologicalrationality,theHappy
Consciousnesscomestoprevail.172
Theabsorptionofoppositionistheprimarytechniqueofneoliberalcontrol,asI
havepreviouslystated:thesubsumptionofallintomarketlogic.The‘instinctual
sphere’herereferstotherealmofaffect,notexplicitlydescribedassuchin
Ballard’sworkbutclearlyrecognisable,aswesawfirstinBobbyCrawford’s
proclamationsinCocaineNights.The“atrophyofmentalorgans”canbeseento
refertotheclosingdownofspacesofimaginativepotential,astrackedinthis
studyandtheworkofothers-Fisher,HardtandNegri,Sennett.
DespitePenrose’sassertions,then,hisownprogrammeatteststothepaucity
ofhisprofessedworldview,highlightingasitdoestheaffectivedeadnessofthe
contemporaryworker.AsBallardsaid,quotedatthestartofthischapter,
“Peopleresentthefactthatthemostmoraldecisionintheirlivesischoosing
whatcolourtheirnextcarwillbe.”173Withnocivicorprivatesphereinwhichto
giveventtoself-expression,theexecutivesofEden-Olympiaatfirstfellvictimto
the‘malaise’mentionedearlier;a‘bluntingofthecreativeedge,’inPenrose’s
terminology.174Thesubsumptionofsubjectivitybytheproductiveimperative
171Super-Cannes,p.96.172Marcuse.One-DimensionalMan,p.79.MyreadinghereismoregenerousthanFoucault’s,whosawMarcuseasplacingtoomuchemphasisonrepression.Iwouldarguewithsuchareadingofthequotedpassage:the‘absorption’Marcusetheorisesisnotthesameas‘simple’repression.173Ballard.‘2003:Allwe’vegotleftisourownpsychopathology,’ExtremeMetaphors,p.399.174Super-Cannes,p.257.
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leadstoaspacewherenothingis‘outsideof’work,andsothereisnospacein
whichexecutivescanconceptualisea‘realself,’asdictatedbythenormative
imperativesofpsyrationales.Penroserecognisesthis:“AtEden-Olympia,there’s
nointerplayofanykind,noneoftheemotionaltrade-offsthatgiveusasenseof
whoweare.”175TheworkperformedbytheresidentsofEden-Olympia,despite
Penrose’sassertionstothecontrary,doesnot–andcannot-representcomplete
‘self-actualisation’.Atthesametime,thedrivetolocatetheselfinworkisso
completethatsubjectshavenoalternativeframeworkinwhichtoconstruct
identity.Anytimethatisnotproductiveisseenastheft,inthelanguageofthe
businesspark,asPaulSinclairrecognisesofhiscovertrelationshipwithFrances
Baring:“Wehadstartedanaffair,butourtimetogetherhadbeenstolenfrom
Eden-Olympiaandwouldhavetobereturned.”176Thustheideaoffinding
reprieveinleisurebecomesunthinkable,thespectreofthedeathlessleisureof
thepueblosofCocaineNightshauntingthesehigh-poweredexecutives.Penrose
saystoSinclair,“Ifyoudon’tkeepbusy,it’seasytofindyourselfinastateclose
tosensorydeprivation.”177Asitturnsout,thisismorethanjustfriendlyadvice.
PaulSinclair’sabundanceoffreetimemakeshimatargetofsuspicioninEden-
Olympia,andleaveshimwiththetimetoinvestigateitsdarkunderbelly.Asa
resultofhissleuthing,hisleginjuryisslowtoheal,oratleastheclaimsitis;as
mentionedearlier,theinjuryseemstohavesomevaguepsychological
component.178Hiswifebeginstogivehimmedicineforthepain,whichturnsout
tobeeighty-fivepercentamitriptyline,adrugusedasalong-termsedativein
mentalhospitals.179Whenobediencecannotbewon,itisadministered
intravenously,andfailuretoadheretotheproductiveimperativeresultsin
permanentexclusion.
Despitethis,Super-CannesismoreexplicitlyoptimisticthanCocaineNights
whenitcomestothepossibilityofresistingneoliberalisation,andtheneoliberal
175Super-Cannes,p.255.176Super-Cannes,p.332.177Super-Cannes,p.246.178ItissuggestedthatitisthisvulnerabilitythatleaveshimopentoPenrose’sinsaneseductions:“Ifanyoneneededmenow,itwasPenroseandhisfalteringdreamofsocialmadness,alargerversionofthatplanecrashfromwhosewreckage,asJanehadsaid,Ihadyettofreemyself.”Super-Cannes,p.304.179Super-Cannes,p.327.
118
happinessimperative.Thefiguringofflightasanextendedmetaphorthroughout
thenovelcreatesaliteralspaceofpotential,outsidethebordersofEden-
Olympia,asthespacebeyondthepagemayrepresentarealmofpotentialforthe
reader.FromthemomentofPaulSinclair’sentryintoEden-Olympia,heislinked
toAntoinedeSaint-Exupéry,pilot,warheroandauthoroftheclassicchildren’s
book,TheLittlePrince(1943).TheLittlePrincetellsthestoryofapilotwhohas
crashedandisintentonrebuildinghisengine,andthetitularlittleprincehe
meets,whoregaleshimwithstoriesofhisinterplanetarytravels.Itisastory
aboutthepoweroftheimagination.Thenoveldrawsadistinctionbetweenthe
capacityofchildrenandadultstoseetheworld,whereitsnarratorfears
becomingreallyadult.ThisremindsusofthefrequentreferencestoAlicein
Super-Cannes,andthedestructionofchildhoodenactedbytheresidentsofEden-
Olympia,Greenwoodinparticular.Thepilotsaysheiswritingthestoryofthe
littleprincesohedoesnotforgethim:“AndifIforgethim,Imaybecomelikethe
grown-upswhoarenolongerinterestedinanythingbutfigures…”180Theprince
recountsthestoriesofmenhehasmetwhoaredefinedbytheirfunction:
geographer,lamplighter,businessman–asthoseinEden-Olympiaaredefinedby
theirs.Theirviewoftheworldhasbeennarrowedbythisidentity,blindingthem
topossibility–thegeographercannotseethemountainsherecords,becausehe
isboundtohisdesk;thelamplighterissointentonfollowingordersthathe
cannotseethereisnoneedforhimtolightthelamp,ashisworldissosmallitis
possibletoexistinperpetualdaylight;thebusinessmanspendsallhistime
countingthestarstoasserthisownershipofthem,andcannotseetheirbeauty.
PaulSinclairmustlookbeyondtheofficialnarrativetouncoverwhatreally
happenedtoDavidGreenwood,aswereadersmustlookbeyondtheostensibly
conventionaldetectivenarrativeofSuper-Cannestounderstandhowthenovel
impelsusto(re)discoverrealspacesofpotential,andtoresistthecommon-
sensecalltoindividualisedhappiness.
AsthecontingentworldbeginstocreepintoEden-Olympiathrough
campaignsofdisruptionstagedbyFrankHalderandFrancesBaring,thelimitsof
Penrose’scontrolarestretched.Inthefinalchapterofthenovel,Sinclaircomes
180AntoinedeSaint-Exupéry,TheLittlePrincetranslatedbyKatherineWoods,1943NewYork:Harcourt,BraceandWorld,1960,p.12.
119
tofillGreenwood’srole,puttingintoactionhisoriginalplottorevealEden-
Olympia’sheartofdarkness.Thisplotinvolvesroundingupthosewhoarekeyto
Penrose’sprogrammeandforcingthemtoparticipateinalivebroadcastfrom
thepark’sTVcentre–atrulyBaudrillardianexposé.Beforeembarkingonthis
plan,SinclairenliststhehelpofthebrotherofoneofGreenwood’saccomplices,
onePhilippeBourget.TheymeetoutsidetheshowroomofNostalgicAviation,a
shopdedicatedtotherelicsofflighthistory.Thisshopisinfactreal,asBallard
notesinhisforeword:“NostalgicAviation,acheerfulmuseumofaircraft
memorabilia,standsattheentrancetoCannes-MandelieuAirport,andisahaven
forflyingbuffs.OnthenewRiviera,evenaviationisnowconsignedtoafondly
rememberedpast.”181Sinclairsays,“Twentyyardsawaywastheshowroomof
NostalgicAviation,withitscollectionofmemorabilia,ejectionseatsandradial
engines,anAladdin’sCaveofpossibilitiesfarmorepotentandenduringthan
anythingWilderPenrosecouldoffer.”182Ballardseemstounderlinehisown
tendencytonostalgiseinthisscene,althoughhealsointimatesthattheremaybe
somethingusefulindoingso,despitetheconcernshedisplayselsewhere.This
explorationisdevelopedinthefollowingnovels,too,whereBallardofferssome
depictionofhowboththerightandtheleftfallvictimtopoliticalnostalgising,
andhowthiscanproblematicallylimitthepoliticalimagination,aswellasthe
personal.183
Here,however,Sinclair’sconnectionbetweenmemorabiliaandejectorseats
signalssomepotentialityinthepast–aglimpseofawayoutofthetotalising
systematworkinEden-Olympia.ThismightremindusagainofMarcuse’swork,
whereheunpicksthe‘marchofrationality’thatunderpinstheadvanceof
technologicalcapitalistsociety,andthewayinwhichthisseeksto“exorcize”the
ghostsofthemetaphysical,whichwemighthereunderstandastheimaginative,
orthehorizonsofpossibility.184WecanfollowthisthroughinreadingMarcuse
181Super-Cannes,p.1.182Super-Cannes,p.390.183Again,theuseoftheterm‘nostalgising’hereisemployedinthesenseexploredbySedikidesetalin‘ToNostalgize:MixingMemorywithAffectandDesire.’184Marcuse.One-DimensionalMan,p.203“Contemporaryanalyticphilosophyisouttoexorcizesuch‘myths’ormetaphysical‘ghosts’asMind,Consciousness,Will,Soul,Self,bydissolvingtheintentoftheseconceptsintostatementsonparticularidentifiableoperations,performances,powers,dispositions,propensities,skills,etc.”
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onthe“chanceofalternatives,”ashisfinalchapterisentitled.Marcusewrites
prescientlyonthewayinwhichprotestisrenderedineffectivethroughits
absorption.Thisisareadingwemightextendinacontemporarycontext,
returningagaintothe‘siteofsuffering’asbasisforpoliticalidentityandtheway
inwhichinscriptionoftheseidentitiesinlawminimisesthepossibilityfor
collectivistaction,inaccordancewiththeindividualisingthrustofneoliberalism.
Marcusewritesthat:
...underneaththeconservativepopularbaseisasubstratumofthe
outcastsandoutsiders,theexploitedandpersecutedandofother
racesandothercolours,theunemployedandtheunemployable.They
existoutsidethedemocraticprocess[or,inSuper-Cannes,outsidethe
productiveprocesswhichhassupplantedpoliticaldemocracy];their
lifeisthemostimmediateandthemostrealneedforending
intolerableconditionsandinstitutions.Thustheiroppositionis
revolutionaryeveniftheirconsciousnessisnot.Theiroppositionhits
thesystemfromwithoutandisthereforenotdeflectedbythesystem;
itisanelementaryforcewhichviolatestherulesofthegameand,in
doingso,revealsitasariggedgame.185
TheconnectiontoSuper-Cannesisclearinboththefigureofspeechandintentof
thispassage:unemployedandunemployable,PaulSinclairremainsanoutsider,
andachampionofthecontingentworldofOthers.Thefinalimagewehaveisof
hisembarkationonthejourneybacktoEden-Olympia.Heremains,inclosing,
outsidethepark,connectedtothecontingentworldbeyonditsrational(ising)
borders.Thesearethefinalsentencesofthenovel:
Thebeachesbesidethecoastalroadwerelitteredwithforgottenfilm
magazinesandemptybottlesofsuntancream,thedebrisofadream
washedashoreamongthedriftwood.Idroveon,thinkingofJaneand
FrancesBaringandWilderPenrose,readytofinishthetaskthat
DavidGreenwoodhadbegun.
Thenovelendsinaspaceof(tentative)hope,asdoesMarcuse’swork,which
finisheswithaquotefromWalterBenjamin:”Itisonlyforthesakeofthose
185Marcuse.One-DimensionalMan,p.257.Emphasismine.
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withouthopethathopeisgiventous.”186Hopeisfiguredasaresponsibilityhere,
asitisinSinclair’smission,whichechoesBallard’sartisticenactmentofwhat
MarcusemightcallaGreatRefusal.UnlikeCocaineNights,whichemployeda
pessimisticcircularity,thisnovelleavesspacetobelievethataradicalbreakmay
occur,asPaulSinclairremainsoutsideoftheproductivesystemandPenrose’s
programme,throughhisownliminalposition:anti-racist,unemployed,capable
ofsomedegreeof‘freethought.’
Ballard’soptimism,however,isqualified.Wecloseonasceneinwhichthe
revolutionhasyettotakeplace,andweknowthatthelasteffortfailed,andwas
co-optedintoPenrose’snarrativequiteneatly.Earlierinthechapter,Penrose
describeshowtheresidentsofEden-OlympiafailedtoreacttoDavid
Greenwood’sattackinatimelyorappropriateway:“Theirmoralperceptionof
evilwassoerodedthatitfailedtowarnthemofdanger…TheAdolfHitlersand
PolPotsofthefuturewon’twalkoutofthedesert.They’llemergefromshopping
mallsandbusinessparks.”187ThisisacommonthemeofBallard’s–thatthe
primacyofself-interestblindsustothewaysinwhichwearemanipulatedby
andbecomecomplicitinsystemsofinjusticeandexploitation.Springerwrites,
History’sprofoundestmomentsofinquiryarenotperformedby
extremistsorpsychopaths,butbyordinarypeople–potentiallyyou
andme–aswecometoacceptthepremisesoftheexistingorder.The
banalityofevilisthusanerasurethatdeprivesusofourabilityto
recognizeviolenceasamomentthatisatoncebothexceptionaland
exemplary.188
AsPaulSinclairfindshimselffinallyrecognisingthecorruptandderangedreality
oftheexistingorderofEden-Olympia,thereaderismovedwithhim,to
recognisethewayinwhichthisreflectsandrepeatsthosesamecorruptionsin
theeconomicsystemthatgivesshapetooureverydaylives.ViolenceinBallard’s
novelsissocommonplacebecauseitremindsusoftheexceptionaland
exemplarypracticeofviolencethatconstituteseverydayrelations,ourstateof
unexceptionalcrisis.Atthesametime,Ballardclearlydirectsthereader,through
186Marcuse.One-DimensionalMan,p.257.187Super-Cannes,p.256.188Springer.‘TheViolenceofNeoliberalism,’p.158.
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Sinclair’sjourney,torefusethepalliativeofpersonalhappiness,thecomplacency
ofmaterialcomfort,andtherationalisationofindividualismthatserveto
enmeshusintheexistingneoliberalorder.AsPaulSinclairsetsoutat6.45am,
wemustdetectsometraceofhopeforanewdawn.Thegivingofhope,following
Marcuse’sreading,comeswithresponsibility.Ballardoffersthereaderthis
glimmerofpotential–butleavesthefuture,asyet,unwritten.
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MillenniumPeople:TheCultureIndustry,ClassandPrecarity
Inthethirdoftheselatenovels,MillenniumPeople(2003),Ballard’seffortto
“makevisiblewhatisinvisibleonlybecauseit’stoomuchonthesurfaceof
things”seeshimturnhisattentiontotheclassofcharacterswhopopulatenot
justtheselatenovels,buthisentirebodyofwork.Thistime,ourmystery-solving
protagonistisDavidMarkham,whointroduceshimselfthusatthebeginningof
thenovel:“EvenI,DavidMarkham,atrainedpsychologistinfiltratedintoChelsea
Marinaasapolicespy–adeceptionIwaslasttodiscover–failedtoseewhat
wasgoingon.”189ChelseaMarinaisthesettingfortheriseofamiddle-class
rebellionthatbothabsurdlyandprescientlyoffersavisionofthebourgeoisieas
the‘newproletariat.’Markham’sinvolvementwiththeMarinaset,anunlikely
allianceofpriests,lecturers,artsfundraisersandex-MoDbombmakers,is
occasionedbythedeathofhisex-wife,killedasaresultofabombonabaggage
carouselatHeathrowairport.Itlatertranspiresthatthiswasnotexactlyan
accident.Thisnovel’s‘public-spiritedpsychopath,’DrRichardGould,choseto
placethebombnexttoasuitcaselabelledwithMarkham’sname(arelicofhis
firstmarriage).Markhamwastargetedforhissemi-celebritystatus,having
participatedinaBBCprogrammecalled‘ANeuroscientistLooksatGod’,which
alsospawnedabook,givinghimamodestpublicprofile.Althoughthisis
ostensiblythemysteryonwhichtheplothinges,asintheseotherlatenovels,
thismysteryismoreorlesssubterfuge,acoverfortherealworkofthenovel,
whichinthisinstanceistheunravellingofthemythofthemiddle-classgoodlife,
theprecarityoflifeunderneoliberalismandthewayinwhichtheculture
industryisinvolvedinconstructingconsentandcontainingdissatisfaction.
Thisframeworkisintimatelyconnectedtomythesis:thenormativevaluesof
themythicalmiddleclassaretheoptimal‘wellness’pointofcontemporary
neoliberalhappinessdiscourse.Themiddleclassareidealisedbecausetheyare
interpellatedasself-governingsubjects,asRoseelaboratesinpartfourof
GoverningtheSoul,undertheheading‘ObligedtobeFree’:“thelater
developmentofmoderndemocracyisdependentupontheexistenceofcertain
typesofsubjects,whodidnotrequireacontinualexternalpolicing.”190Rose
189J.G.Ballard.MillenniumPeople2003London:HarperPerennial,2004,p.3.190Rose.GoverningtheSoul,p.227.
124
exploresvarioustechnologiesofcontrolinthisassessment.Mostpertinentlyto
thisdiscussion,helooksatthosefoundedonthedriveforself-improvement:
[Theinjunctiontoself-government]wasembeddedinthecivilizing
projectsofurbanphilanthropists,theestablishmentofmuseumsand
exhibitions,thedesignofshopsandstreetsandother‘public’places
wherestandardsofdressandconductwereexpected.Notonlycould
authoritiesinspectandjudgecitizens,butparentscouldscrutinize
andcriticizechildrenandfamiliescouldevaluateeachother.191
ThislogicechoesthroughoutMillenniumPeople,andisrepeatedlyespousedby
KayChurchill,thepublicfigureheadoftheMarinarebellion.RichardGould,its
firstanimus,hashisownagenda,andpreferstoworkasthemanbehindthe
curtain.Fairlyearlyinthenovel,ChurchilltakesMarkhamonatriptoconductan
entirelyfictivemarketresearchsurveydoor-to-door,designedtounsettle
middle-classTwickenhamresidents,featuringquestionssuchas“Wouldyou
considerwashinglessfrequently?”and“Soyou’dsignapetitiontorevokelaws
againstsexualintercoursewithanimals?”192Duringthis,shesays:
…themiddleclasshavetobekeptundercontrol.Theyunderstand
that,andpolicethemselves.Notwithgunsandgulags,butwithsocial
codes.Therightwaytohavesex,treatyourwife,flirtattennisparties
orstartanaffair.Thereareunspokenrulesweallhavetolearn.193
Thisalsodemonstratesthewayinwhichbehaviourandtastearelinkedasclass
markers,arecurrentconcernintraditionaldebateaboutconceptionsof
happiness,asSaraAhmedrecogniseswhenshediscusses‘goodtaste’in
Bourdieusiantermsandseekstoproblematiseattachmentsto‘goodobjects’that
relyon“afantasyofamoralandmiddleclasssubjectastheonewhoiswithout
habit,whowillandcanchoseinsofarastheyareimaginedfreefrom
inclination.”194
IshouldsayherethatwhilstIappreciateAhmed’swork,Ithinkitsfocuson
unhappinessandondissentersfromthenormative(liberal)conceptionofthe
191Rose.GoverningtheSoul,p.227-8.192MillenniumPeople,pp.88,92.193MillenniumPeople,p.89.194SaraAhmed.ThePromiseofHappiness,Durham,NCandLondon:DukeUniversityPress,2010,p.35.
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goodlifepaystoolittleattentiontothewayinwhichthe‘goodobjects’she
frames(e.g.secureintimaterelationships,personalsafety,fulfillingwork)may
actuallybeusefulinestablishingsubstantiveframeworksoftheselfandare
objectswhichareconstantly,ifcovertly,underattackintherubricof
neoliberalism.InframingtheseobjectsaspositiveIamreferringnottoany
specificfiguringofeach–forexample,Idonotmeanthatintimatepersonal
relationshipsmusttaketheformoftheheteronormativemarriagecontract.
RatherIamdrawingonSennett’swork,andhissuggestionthatpeopleneeda
“sustaininglifenarrative.”195Take,forexample,Ahmed’saccountofthe
characterPoppyinMikeLeigh’sfilmHappy-go-Lucky.Ahmedassertsthatthis
character’slifeisnotshapedby‘happyobjects’:“shedoesnotownherhouse,
sheisnotmarried,andshedoesnothavechildren.”196Shortlyafter,however,
shequotesPoppyassaying,“Ilovemylife.Yeh,itcanbetoughattimes,that’s
partofit.I’vegotagreatjob,brilliantkids[sheisaprimaryschoolteacher],got
lovelyflat,gother[afriend]tolookat,gotamazingfriends.Ilovemy
freedom.”197DespiteAhmed’sassertionstothecontrary,Poppy’sloveoflifeis
facilitatedbythetypeofgoodobjectssheispresentedasdisdaining:astablejob,
asettledhome,secureintimaterelationships(withfriends).Infact,inthisscene,
Poppy’sfriendsuggeststhattheyrentbecausethey“don’twantthehassle”of
buyinghomes:eventhis‘rejection’isachoice,andachoiceshapedbythekindof
neoliberal‘flexibility’thatSennettpresentsasultimatelydamaging.198Ithink
Ahmed’sworkfailstoaccountforthewaysinwhich‘dissenting’figuresare
subsumedbyneoliberalism,duelargelytohersustainedfocusonakindof
personal-functionalaccountofhappiness,whichfailstofullyinterrogatethe
subsumptionofhappinessdiscourseunderneoliberalism.Ithinkthiscanbe
buttressedthroughconsideringBerlant’swork.Theconceptof‘crueloptimism’
speakstothedistressofdesiringthesegoodobjectsevenwhilstrecognising
theirstructuralimpossibility,andthedifficultyofconstructingnewconceptsof
195RichardSennett.TheCultureoftheNewCapitalism.NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,2006,p.5.196Ahmed.ThePromiseofHappiness,p.221.Sic.197Ahmed.ThePromiseofHappiness,p.221.Sic.198‘SallyHawkinsinHappy-Go-Lucky(2008)sceneatHelen’shouse,’YouTube,uploadedbySallyHawkinsfan,October62016www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pqj6w0yW_Xc.
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thegoodwhilstretainingsuchanattachment.Iwillreturntothisthroughoutmy
discussioninthisthesis.
ThroughKayChurchill’sinterventions,Ballarddemonstratestheobviousand
invisibletruththatthemiddleclassarenotfreefrominclination,butrather
conditionedtoproprietythroughself-regulatorysocialcodes,organised
accordingtotheneoliberaldiscourseofhappinessIamtracinginthisstudy.This
isalsolinkedtothewayinwhichtheidealneoliberalselfiscompelledto
accumulatesocialcapital,asintimatedinRose’saccountabove.Thisisechoedin
variouscriticalapproaches,includingMcNay’sconceptof‘self-as-enterprise’and
Brown’saccountofthetransformationfromhumanbeingto‘humancapital’
underneoliberalisminUndoingtheDemos(2015).KayChurchillrailsagainst
this,too:
Thisisn’tthegoodlife,fullofpossibility.Yousooncomeupagainst
thebarrierssetoutbythesystem.Trygettingdrunkataschool
speechday,ormakingamildlyracistjokeatacharitydinner.Try
lettingyourlawngrowandnotpaintingyourhouseforafewyears.
Trylivingwithateenagegirlorhavingsexwithyourstepson.Try
sayingyoubelieveinGodandtheHolyTrinity,orgivingafreeroom
toarefugeefamilyfromblackAfrica.Trytakingaholidayin
Benidorm,ordrivingabrand-newCadillacwithzebraupholstery.Try
badtaste.199
Kay’s‘trybadtaste’monologuerecallsRenton’s‘chooselife’passagefromIrvine
Welsh’sTrainspotting(1993),whichalsounpacksthenormativeframeworkof
middle-classvalues,asfiltereddowntotheworkingclass:“Chooseus.Choose
life.Choosemortgagepayments;choosewashingmachines;choosecars;choose
sittingoanacouchwatchingmind-numbingandspirit-crushinggameshows,
stuffingfuckinjunkfoodintaeyirmooth.”200Thisinvectiveagainstlifeis
promptedbyRentonreflectingonasessionofcourt-mandated
“therapy/counsellingshite”–‘rehabilitation’-toaddresshisdrugaddiction;psy
interventionatapointofcrisis.201
199MillenniumPeople,p.86.200IrvineWelsh.Trainspotting,London:MartinSecker&Warburg,1993,p.187.201Welsh.Trainspotting,p.187.
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SuchinterventionisdescribedinSallySayles’silluminatingarticle,‘The
MakingofDocileWorkingClassSubjects’(2011),whereshedemonstratesthat
animportantdistinctionbetweenthemiddleclassandtheworkingclassisthat,
incontrasttothismiddle-classself-regulation,theworkingclassaregovernedby
“outsideinterventions.”202ThisisalsoexposedinBallard’sworkhere.Onthe
secondpageofthenovel,DavidMarkhamtellsusthatthe‘newproletariat’ofthe
Marinaaresubjecttothesesameinterventions:
Theconstableswereunmoved,refusingtoletthedriverintothe
estate.Theysensedsomethingdeeplysuspecthadtakenplaceinthis
oncelaw-abidingcommunity,aneventthatrequiredthepresence
[intervention]ofacabinetministerandhisretinueofworthies.The
visitors–HomeOfficeadvisors,concernedchurchmen,seniorsocial
workersandpsychologists,includingmyself–wouldbegintheirtour
atnoon,inanhour’stime.203
Sayleswrites:
Whilstmiddleclasssubjectsmaychoosetogototherapytofurther
theirselfformation,workingclasssubjectsaremorelikelytogo
eitherunderconditionsofenforcement–viasocialservices,
probation,childguidance–orasaneffectoftheirinevitablefailures
withinasystemthathasremainedirreduciblymiddleclassinterms
ofitssystemsofadvancementandprivilege.204
ThesectioninTrainspottingtheaboveexcerptistakenfromisironicallytitled
‘SearchingfortheInnerMan’andexcludesanextendedtranscriptofRenton’s
sessionwithhispsychiatrist,DrForbes,inwhichthetragediesofRenton’slife
(includingthedeathofhisdisabledbrother)arerevealed,althoughRenton
professesheis,“Fuckedifahcouldseetheconnectionbetweenanyaythatand
metakinsmack,but.”205WelshinterweavesRenton’snarrativevoicewiththe
languageofwellness,usingthepsyframeworkofdruguseasselfharmandthus
202SallySayles.‘TheMakingoftheDocileWorkingClassSubject,’JournalofPsycho-SocialStudies,5:1,January2011,pp.126-138,p.128.203MillenniumPeople,p.4.204Sayles.‘TheMakingoftheDocileWorkingClassSubject,’p.128cont.“Ofcourse,thisisnottooverlooktheregimesofself-formationthatoperateinandacrossworkingclasslife.However,theseregimesareincreasinglymodelledonanimitationofthemiddle-class‘norm’.”205Welsh.Trainspotting,p.184.
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aformofsocialdeviancewhichmustbecorrected.206Renton’schoice“notae
chooselife”isarefusalofthesamepervasiveimperativetoproductivitythatwe
sawinSuper-Cannes,parsedinthe“immediateandreal”termsofMarcuse’s
“substratumoftheoutcastsandoutsiders”anddemonstratingthenascent
revolutionaryconsciousnesstowhichtheMarinasetseekaccess.207The
obstaclestothisconsciousnessareprimarilydepictedasthediversionary
outputsofthecultureindustry,asweshallseeshortly.Inthisreading,Iam
seekingtodrawattentiontothemostobviouspartofBallard’swriting–his
sustainedfocusonthemiddleclass–andtounderstandthistooasatechnique,
asadeliberatecriticalframeworkthat,asIhavesaid,seekstohighlightthe
relationsonthesurfaceofdiscourse.
ItispatentlyabsurdwhenVeraBlackburn,Marinaresidentandexplosives
expert,says,
Myneighboursarethenewpoor.Thesearen’tCityhigh-flyers,or
surgeonswiththeirownclinicsandrichArabpatientsflyinginfrom
theGulf.Veryfewareself-employed.They’remiddlemanagers,
journalists,lecturerslikeKay,architectsworkingforbigpractices.
Thepoorbloodyfootsoldierintheprofessionalarmy.208
Despitethisabsurdity,intheeraofzero-hourscontractsandthe‘gigeconomy,’
theseprofessionals,whoconstituteanincreasinglylargesectoroftheworkforce,
aresubjecttothetypesofconcernstypicallyassociatedwiththeworkingclass–
rampantexploitationintheworkplace,poorlabourprotection,inabilityto
dictatethedirectionoftheirworkinglifeand,subsequently,oftheirprivate
206Theactuallogicbehindinterventionindruguseismuchmorecomplex,butpublicdiscussionofinterventiontendstofigureitineconomicterms,likethementalhealthinterventionsintheworkplacewehaveseenpreviously.ThebranchoftheNHSthatpreviouslymanagedintervention,theNationalTreatmentAgencyforSubstanceMisuse,wassubsumedbyPublicHealthEnglandin2013/14,butthelanguagearoundinterventionfordrugusehasremainedlargelythesame,withanemphasisonreducingthecostofcrimeandpublicbenefitsbill.Thejustificationforinterventionisframedintheterms‘WhyInvest?’asseeninthe2014PublicHealthEnglandreportofthesamename,accessibleat:www.nta.nhs.uk/uploads/why-invest-2014-alcohol-and-drugs.pdf.Notestatisticssuchas:‘Atypicalheroinuserspendsaround£1,400permonthondrugs(2.5timestheaveragemortgage)”(p.11,p.10),andpage15,onwhichthereisalistofthebenefitsof‘investing’intreatment–thirdis“Ithelpsdrugusersovercomeaddiction”,justedging“Ithaspublicsupport”asarationale.207Marcuse.One-DimensionalMan,p.203.Thisrecalls,too,the‘prescribed’transgressionsofEden-Olympia,andhighlightstheabsurdityofPenrose’sprogramme,andthewayinwhichitcovertlyreliedonthefetishisationofthe(working-class)Other.208MillenniumPeople,p.78.
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lives.209Ballardmayhavebeenhalf-jokingwhenheincludedtheline,
“Knowledge-basedprofessionsarejustanotherextractiveindustry,”butithas
turnedouttobemoretruethanhemighthaverealised.210Evenmorestrikingis
thatthisnovelwaswrittenandpublishedbeforethebankingcollapseof2008,
which,occasionedbythesubprimemortgagecrisisintheU.S.,destabilisedthe
conventionallogicofmiddle-classresponsibility,tiedtototemssuchashome
ownershipandpersonalsavings.Lateoninthenovel,Markhamdescribesthe
plightoftheTurners:
oneofthemanyfamilieswhorefusedtopaytheirmaintenance
charges,defaultedontheirmortgageandignoredalldemandsfrom
theutilitycompaniesandthelocalcouncil.TheTurnerswerenowa
testcase,andaformidablecoalitionofbanksandbuildingsocieties,
councilofficialsandpropertyexecutivesweredeterminedtomakean
exampleofthem.211
JustfouryearsafterBallardwrotethis,thespectacleofmiddle-classfamilies
defaultingontheirmortgagehadceasedtoberidiculous;by2008,then-Prime
MinisterGordonBrownhadannouncedspeciallegalmeasuresforfamilies
unabletomaintainmortgagepayments.212Therecessionthatbeganatthattime
sawawidespreadincreaseinrealconditionsofprecarity,intermsof
unemployment,fallinginterestrates,andausteritypoliciesacrosstheU.K.213
Variousreportsalsoconnectedtherecessionwithconcernsaboutrisingmental
209Thereisawealthofliteratureonthis,asaglobalcondition.See,forexample:NewLabourinNewYork,editedbyRuthMilkmanandEdOtt,CornellUniversityPress:IthacaandLondon,2014;AntonioAloisi,‘CommoditizedWorkers:CaseStudyResearchonLabourLawIssuesArisingfromaSeton‘OnDemand/GigEconomy’Platforms,’ComparativeLabourLaw&PolicyJournal,37:3,2016,pp.653-690;InterrogatingtheNewEconomy:RestructuringWorkinthe21stCenturyeditedbyNorenePupo,MarkPrestonThomas,Toronto:UniversityofTorontoPress,2010.210MillenniumPeople,p.79-80.211MillenniumPeople,p.197.212MatthewWatson.‘HeadlongintothePolanyianDilemma:TheImpactofMiddle-ClassMoralPanicontheGovernment’sResponsetotheSub-primeCrisis,’TheBritishJournalofPoliticsandInternationalRelations,11:3,2009,pp.422-37,p.422.Watson’saccountofthe‘culturalpolitics’surroundingthesub-primecrisismakesforinterestingreadingalongsideMillenniumPeople,notleastforhisassertionthatitwas“sub-primeborrowersandnotthebanksthatcametoformthesociallyexcludedgroup”(p.435)–thisshows,onceagain,therecuperativepowerofneoliberalism,inherentlyrecognisedinBallard’swork.213SherVerickandIyanatulIslam.‘TheGreatRecessionof2008–2009:Causes,ConsequencesandPolicyResponses,’IZADiscussionPaper4943,May2010;RomeshVaitilingam,‘RecessionBritain,’EconomicandSocialResearchCouncil,2009,www.esrc.ac.uk/files/news-events-and-publications/publications/themed-publications/recession-britain/.
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healthdisorders,asrecognisedbytheFacultyofPublicHealth(thestandard-
settingbodyforpublichealthintheU.K.),whowriteontheirwebsitethat“There
isevidencetosuggestthattheU.K.recessionmayresultinanincreaseinmental
healthproblemsandlowerlevelsofwellbeing,withawideningof
inequalities.”214Thisisonlyoneoftheirkeyfindings,andmanyoftheir
recommendationsseememinentlysensible,despitetheirpredilectionforcasting
allsufferingintermsofmentalhealth–forexample,“Livinginacold,damp
homeleadstohigherriskofpoormentalhealthinallagegroups.”215Despite
theserecommendations,however,andpromisesthatNHSfundingwouldbe
ring-fencedeveninaneraofgovernmentspendingcuts,undertheausterity
measuresoftheConservativegovernmentsince2010theU.K.recessionhas
enabledtheriseofneoliberalpoliciesofprivatisationandwelfarecutsthathave
activelyharmedthemostvulnerableinsociety.216Meanwhile,in2009theFirst
WorldCongressonPositivePsychologywasheld,andtheNHScontinuestogrow
itsrangeof‘lifecoaching’treatments,suchasthe‘Certificateincoachingfor
DevelopingPsychologicalResilienceandEnhancingPerformance’,whichtakesa
meresixdaystoearn.217
Thisconditionofeconomicprecarityhasresultedinablurringofboundaries
betweenthemiddleclassandworkingclassinrealterms.WendyBrown
recognisesthisshift,describingthefirsteffectofneoliberalismasanintensified
inequality:
214BetterMentalHealthForAll,‘TheimpactoftheU.K.recessionandwelfarereformonmentalhealth,’TheU.K.’sFacultyofPublicHealth,www.fph.org.uk/the_impact_of_the_uk_recession_and_welfare_reform_on_mental_health.215Theverypervasivenessofthisterminologyisanexampleofthewidespreadrhetoricofneoliberalhappinessdiscourse.216PatrickButler.‘Thousandshavediedafterbeingfoundfitforwork,DWPfiguresshow,’TheGuardian,27August2015.www.theguardian.com/society/2015/aug/27/thousands-died-after-fit-for-work-assessment-dwp-figuresThereissubstantialevidenceofthenegativeimpactoftherecessiononpeople’slives,generallyparsedintermsofthekindof‘mentalhealthissues’thatIseektorecastinanovertlypoliticallight.See,forexample,DavidGunnelletal,‘The2008GlobalFinancialCrisis:effectsonmentalhealthandsuicide,’PolicyBristol,2015.www.bris.ac.uk/media-library/sites/policybristol/documents/PolicyReport-3-Suicide-recession.pdf?_ga=2.18921786.347650579.1503490811-663049441.1503490811;BrianCooper,‘EconomicRecessionandMentalHealth:anOverview,’Neuropsychiatr.25:3,2011,pp.113-7.217‘NHSCoachTraining,’CentresofExpertisehttp://centresofexpertise.com/page_1211906889836.html.
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…inwhichthetopstrataacquiresandretainsevermorewealth,the
verybottomisliterallyturnedoutontothestreetsorintothe
growingurbanandsuburbanslumsoftheworld,whilethemiddle
strataworksmorehoursforlesspay,fewerbenefits,lesssecurity,
andlesspromiseofretirementorupwardmobilitythanatanytimein
thepasthalfcentury.218
Brown’suseoftheterm‘strata’maybeausefulwaytoconceptualisethe
collapseofdistancebetweentheworkingandmiddleclasses,alsopointedtoin
theriseofdescriptorssuchas‘precariat’or‘salariat’.219Thiscollapsewas
undoubtedlytotheforefrontofBallard’smindwhenwritingthisnovel;ina2003
interview,heassertedthatthemiddleclass“includesaboutninetypercentof
thepopulation.”220Whilstthisisclearlyuntrueintermsofself-identification,
traditionalclassmarkers,andpoliticalidentification,itspeakstotheriseofthe
idealneoliberalsubject,constructedasapparently‘neutral’,butinfactrelyingon
thekindofmiddle-classnormsKayChurchillevisceratesinheroutburst–the
kindofself-regulatorycontrolsinstitutedbypsypractices.221Sayles’spaper
specificallylooksatthewayinwhichthewidespreaduseofCognitive
BehaviouralTherapy(CBT)intheU.K.hasenactedan“injuriousinterpellation”
ofworkingclassidentity,throughitsatomisticandindividualisticapproachto
narrativisingselfhood.222In2007,Ballardtoldaninterviewer,“Idon’tknowif
economicsliesattheheartofeverything–sometimesIthinkitdoes–butasthe
workingclassbecamebetterpaid,theybecamefreer.”223Inthelanguageof
neoliberalism,economicfreedommeanstherighttomakechoicesinamarket
framework.Italsomeansthefreedomtoimitatethematerialcircumstanceofthe
middleclass,whoare,asthisnovelpointsout,farfromfreeand,morethanthis,
actuallycomplicitintheirownunfreedom:“TherearenoMr.Bigs.Thesystemis
218WendyBrown.UndoingtheDemos:Neoliberalism’sStealthRevolution.NewYork:ZoneBooks,2015,p.28.219See,forexample,GuyStanding’sThePrecariat:TheNewDangerousClass.London:Bloomsbury,2014.‘Salariat’isusedbyBallard,p.216.220Ballard,‘2003:Allwe’vegotleftisourownpsychopathology,’ExtremeMetaphors,p.397.221PaulKellner,‘TheChangingPoliticsofSocialClass,’YouGov,June92014,yougov.co.uk/news/2014/06/09/changing-politics-social-class/222Sayles.‘TheMakingoftheDocileWorkingClassSubject,’p.131.223J.G.BallardinterviewedbyHariKunzru.‘2007:HistorianoftheFuture,’ExtremeMetaphors,pp.463-472,p.466.
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self-regulating.Itreliesonoursenseof[depoliticised]civicresponsibility.”224
Here,wemaybegintomapthewayinwhichneoliberalhappinessdiscourse
operatesdistinctlyaccordingtoclass,andtoseehowtheideaoftheclassneutral
neoliberalsubjectisasmuchamythaspost-racialcapitalismwasexposedtobe
inSuper-Cannes.
Theimprintofthisclass-stratifiedselfinpsychologicaltermscanalsobeseen
inthenovel’sfrequentreferencestotheself,andmorepointedlythe‘quest’for
‘true’selfhood–acoremotifofneoliberalhappinessdiscourse,asparodiedin
thetitleoftheTrainspottingexcerptabove.Referencestoself-loathing,orlossof
the‘realself’,aboundinthenovel:“The‘you’you’vebecomeisn’tyourrealself”;
“Butthentheselikeableandover-educatedrevolutionarieswererebelling
againstthemselves”;“Wedon’tlikethekindofpeoplewe’vebecome.”225The
compulsiontoknowoneselfistheatomisticcryofpositivepsychology,awayto
divertthepossibilityofwidersolidaritythroughrephrasingeverythinginthe
languageoftheself.ThisreturnsustoNguyen’saccountofthe‘politicsof
intimacy’asaforminwhichtheimperativetoself-knowledgesupplantsthe
imaginaryofanobjectivesphereofpoliticallife.Howeverimpossiblesuchan
imaginarymayseem,itisdoubtlessnecessaryforanytheoreticalbasisof
solidaritytoemerge.Self-knowledgeis,however,unfeasibleunderthestructures
Ballarddepicts.Alltheselatenovelsdepictanimpossibilityofintimacy;the
prohibitivedifficultyofsustainedrelationshipsandother-knowledgethatleaves
protagonistswithnointimateprivatespaceinwhichtoconstructselfthrough
processessuchasprojection,transference,recognition(ironically,perhaps,
processesassociatedwithpsychoanalysis).Otherfactorsfeedintothis,too,in
theprecariousnessoflifeunderneoliberalism,suchasthereductionoftime
outsideofproductivefunctioninwhichtoestablishandtendtopersonal
relationships;theimperativetocompetewithotherhuman‘capitals’for
economicreward;theproductionofindividualisingnicheidentities,whichare
sometimestiedtositesofsuffering,aswehaveseen,butalsoparsedintermsof
competingpersonal‘truth’:‘findyourtruth’,etc.
224VeraBlackburntoDavidMarkham,MillenniumPeople,p.104.225MillenniumPeople,pp.138,3,154.
133
WemightalsotraceBallard’spsyscepticisminDavidMarkham’sprofession–
Markham’sbrandofpsychologyistheveryonegesturedtowardsinSuper-
Cannes,thatofcapitalistmanagement:“AsamemberoftheAdlerInstitute,
whichspecializedinindustrialrelationsandthepsychologyoftheworkplace,I
wasnominallyanexpertontheemotionallifeoftheofficeandthemental
problemsofmiddlemanagers.”226Despite-orperhapsbecauseof-his
profession,Markhamisobtuse,failinguntilthelastpossiblemomenttoseethat
Gouldwasbehindhisex-wife’sdeath–lookagainatMarkham’sintroduction:
“EvenI,DavidMarkham,atrainedpsychologistinfiltratedintoChelseaMarinaas
apolicespy–adeceptionIwasthelasttodiscover–failedtoseewhatwasgoing
on.”227Heconfessestobeingdoublydeceived–unawarefirstofhisown
complicitywiththepolice,andthenagainofthetruenatureoftheMarina
revolution-thatis,ofRichardGould’sdeepcommitmenttoactsofmeaningless
violence.Itisthisdisconnectionfromanysubstantiveandsustainingconception
ofselfhood,andblindnesstothematerialrealitiesoftheworldthatattracts
MarkhamtoGould,anddrawshimintotheworldoftheMarina.Hiscurrentwife,
Sally,encourageshiminthis,saying,“Followthetrail.GuildfordtoTerminal2.
Somewherealongthewayyou’llmeetyourself…”228
RichardGouldcouchesthisuneasytorelationshiptotheselfinthekindof
cognitivedissonancereasoningseenearlierwhenlookingatSuper-Cannes:
Peopledon’tlikethemselvestoday.We’rearentierclassleftover
fromthelastcentury.Wetolerateeverything,butweknowthat
liberalvaluesaredesignedtomakeuspassive.Wethinkwebelievein
Godbutwe’reterrifiedbythemysteriesoflifeanddeath.We’re
deeplyself-centredbutcan’tcopewiththeideaofourfiniteselves.
Webelieveinprogressandthepowerofreason,butarehauntedby
thedarkersidesofhumannature.We’reobsessedwithsex,butfear
thesexualimaginationandhavetobeprotectedbyhugetaboos.We
believeinequalitybuthatetheunderclass.Wefearourbodiesand,226MillenniumPeople,p.8.227MillenniumPeople,p.3.Markham’sprofessionisonlyhalfthisstoryinthisnovel:heandhiswifealsorelyheavilyonpatronagefromherfathertosupporttheirlifestyle,frequentlyreferencedinthenovel,whereMarkhamisfrequentlyreminded,“oftherolethatmoneyplayedinmylife,otherpeople’smoney”p.110.228MillenniumPeople,p.115.
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aboveall,wefeardeath.We’reanaccidentofnature,butwethink
we’reatthecentreoftheuniverse.We’reafewstepsfromoblivion,
butwehopewe’resomehowimmortal...229
Gould,inthenovel,offersacounterpointtoChurchill’sbadtasterevolution:an
efforttoforgeanoutsidetothetotalisingsystemthrougharebellionthatisnot
immanenttothatsystem,whichheseesasachievableonlythroughmeaningless
actsofviolence.Thequestionofmeaningreverberatesthroughoutthenovel,not
justintermsofpersonalmeaningorselfhood,butalsoineffortstoconstruct
somelargersocialmeaninginaworldwheretheindividualissubjectto
immenseglobalforcesthatactbeyondtheirimmediatecomprehensionand
renderpowerunintelligibleevenasitactsandisenacted.Gould’sunderlying
suggestionisthatthereissomeanswertothisinarefusalofself,intheveinof
Foucault’ssuggestion,“Maybethetargetnowadaysisnottodiscoverwhatwe
arebuttorefusewhatweare.”230
Earlyinthenovel,DavidMarkhambeginstoinfiltratevariousprotestgroups
aspartofhisefforttodiscoverwhokilledhiswife,touncovermeaninginthe
seeminglyrandom.Hesays,“Protestmeetings,saneandinsane,sensibleand
absurd,touchedalmosteveryaspectoflifeinLondon,avastwebof
demonstrationsthattappedadesperateneedforamoremeaningfulworld.”231
Thedisparatenatureoftheseprotestsparodiesthefracturedidentityofthe
contemporaryleft,andofasearchformeaninginopposition.Itseemstomethis
followsfromAhmed’ssuggestion,followingLocke,thatwemayidentifysome
formofhappinessinattachmenttogoodobjectsandthatthoseoutsideofthis
attachmentmayofferaspaceofalteritythatrefusesthenormativeimperatives
oftheseobjects.Ahmeddescribeshowourlikes“mightevenestablishwhatwe
arelike.”232Ouroppositions,then,mighttakethesameform,atleastasfaras
theyremainattachedtothesystemthatprecipitatesthem.
ThisisthemotivationbehindKayChurchill’sattackonthecultureindustry,
whichimplicatesbothBritishmiddle-classculture-theBBC,theNationalFilm
Theatre,andtheTateModernarealltargetsofhercampaign-andtheinfluxof229MillenniumPeoplep.139.230MichelFoucault.‘TheSubjectandPower,’CriticalEnquiry,8:4,1982,pp.777-795,p.785.231MillenniumPeople,p.37.232Ahmed.ThePromiseofHappiness,p.24.
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Americanculture:“Americainventedthemoviessoitwouldneverneedtogrow
up.Wehaveangst,depressionandmiddle-agedregret.TheyhaveHollywood.”233
Thegoodobjectsofmiddle-classattachmentareseentoensuretheircomplicity
intheirownoppression,throughcloakingthewiderrealityoflife,andoffering
somespaceofconsolationthatdis-incentivisessubjectsfromdetachingfrom
theseobjects.Thisconstitutestheoperatingfieldofneoliberalcognitive
dissonance.ThisispartofthefunctionalityofneoliberalhappinessdiscourseI
amtrackinginthisthesis,andreturnstoBallard’scovertcritiqueoftheculture
industryinCocaineNights,andhisstatementearlieraboutthefrequentfailureof
thecultureindustrytoaccountforthereal,orthematerialsubstanceoflife:“The
layingdownoftheM1wasmuchmoreimportantthananythingJimmyPorter's
father-in-lawthoughtaboutthisorthat.”234Churchill’simpetusisthattheseare
nolonger,andperhapsneverwere,culturalspaces;rather,theyarespacesof
production.Othertargetsinclude:
aPretaMangerintheKing’sroad,TateModern,aConranrestaurant
scheduledfortheBritishmuseum,thePromenadeConcerts,
Waterstone’sbookshops,allofthemexploitersofmiddle-class
credulity.Theircorruptingfantasieshaddeludedtheentireeducated
caste,providingadangerouspabulumthathadpoisonedaspoon-fed
intelligentsia.Fromsandwichtosummerschool,theywerethe
symbolsofsubservienceandtheenemiesoffreedom.235
Inlifeunderneoliberalism,itisnolongernecessarytocritiquesomecovert
“marketorientedrationality”ofthecultureindustry;marketisationisvisiblein
theproliferationofmuseumrestaurants,gallerygiftshopsandchainbookshops
thatliterallytransformspacesofculturalproductionintothoseofeconomic
productivity.236
Churchillgoesfurtherthanthis,however.Duringtheplantingofabombinthe
NFT,Markhamasksiftheyreallyneedtodestroytheentirebuilding:
233MillenniumPeople,p.53.234Ballard.‘StrangeFiction.’www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jun/14/saturdayreviewsfeatres.guardianreview10235MillenniumPeople,p.120.236GeneRay.‘CultureIndustryandtheAdministrationofTerror,’pp.167-182inCritiqueofCreativity,Precarity,SubjectivityandResistanceinthe‘CreativeIndustries,’editedbyGeneRayandUlfWuggenig.London:MayflyBooks,2011.p.170.
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“Thisplaceholdsalotofmemories.”
“Starttoforgetthem.Inanhourthey’llbeash.”
“Doweneedtogothatfar?BurtLancaster,Bogart,Lauren
Bacall…they’rejustmovieactors.”
“Just?Theypoisonedawholecentury.Theyrottedyourmind,David.
Wehavetomakeastand,buildasanerEngland...”237
ThisattitudeistypicaloftheMarinarebels,whoseethecultureindustryas
deliberatelycolonisingtheimaginative/affectiverealmofmiddle-classsubjects.
Oneoftheset,JoanChang,whodiesattemptingtopreventanexplosioninthe
Tategiftshop,worksasafundraiserfortheRoyalAcademy.ShetellsMarkham,
“It’saneasyjob.AllthoseCEOsthinkartisgoodfortheirsouls.”Whenheasksif
thisistrue,shereplies,“Itrotstheirbrains.TateModern,theRoyalAcademy,the
Hayward...they’reWaltDisneyforthemiddleclasses.”238Tourismfacessimilar
criticismfromChurchill,whodenouncestouristswhothinktheyarehappybut
remain,“salaryslaves,withheadsfullofAmericanrubbish.”Shecontinues,
“Travelisthelastfantasythe20thCenturyleftus,thedelusionthatgoing
somewherehelpsyoureinventyourself.”239Despitethesomewhatoptimistic
endingofSuper-Cannes,theimaginativerealmhereappearsasonewhichmust
befoughtforifitistohaveanyvalueasaspaceofalterity.Eventhisfightis
fraughtwithdifficulty,giventheimmanenceofoppositionalidentitiestothe
systemtheyoppose.
InMillenniumPeople,flightisagainafrequentmotif.LapsedpriestStephen
Dexterisalsoapilot,onewhohas“groundedhimself”followinghislossof
faith.240Thissymbolisestheinabilityofreligiontoaddressthespiritualmalaise
oftheneoliberalsubject.Laterinthenovel,afterthefailureoftheMarina
revolutionandthedeathofhislover,welearnthatDexterisflyingagain,
rebuildinganoldTigerMothandconstructingarunwayinhisnewparish–
nodding,again,toBallard’ssuggestionthatwemayyethavesomethingtolearn
237MillenniumPeoplep.118.238MillenniumPeoplep.61.239MillenniumPeople,pp.54-5“Tourismisthegreatsoporific.It’sahugeconfidencetrick,andgivespeoplethedangerousideathatthere’ssomethinginterestingintheirlives.…Travelisthelastfantasythe20thCenturyleftus,thedelusionthatgoingsomewherehelpsyoureinventyourself.”240MillenniumPeople,p.57.
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fromthepast,despitethelimitationsofnostalgicattachment.However,muchof
thesignificationofflightinthisnovelispessimistic,writtenasitwasafterthe
attackontheWorldTradecentrein2001,whichtransformedpublicimagination
and,forBallard,complicatedthefiguringofflightasrepresentativeof
imaginativepotential.Itismycontention,too,thattheshiftinpublicdiscourse
after9/11toanemphasisonsafety–bothpersonallyandculturally–istiedinto
theriseofcontemporaryneoliberalconceptionsofhappiness,andthe
depoliticisationofstatesofsuffering.Thisislinkedtootothere-emergenceof
nationalismasapoliticalforce,regardingthepolicingofbordersandthe
invocationofnarrativesofsuspicionregardingthosewhoareperceivedas
Other.BallardexploresthismorecomprehensivelyinKingdomCome,asweshall
see.
RichardGould,messiahofmeaninglessness,takesflyinglessonsinthenovel,
learningtopilotaglider.Asanenginelessplane,thegliderisremovedfrom
modernpoweredflight,whichhecharacterisesas,“Theworldturnedintonoise;
lifeanddeathmeasuredbylegroom.”241Heseesflightas,“partofthegreat
search,”whichforhimconstitutesaquestnottofinda‘true’self,assuch,butto
connecttothatimaginativerealmbeyondtheforcesofproductionthatdictate
everypartoflifeunderneoliberalism.Tothisend,Gould,apaediatricianlike
DavidGreenwood,isconnectedtothefigureofPeterPanthroughoutthenovel.
Gouldworkedwithbrain-damagedchildren,thosewithwhom,“Socialservices
didn’twanttocope.”242Markhamsays,“GouldwasPeterPan,mentally
maroonedonhisasylumisland,searchingforhislostboysasrealitymoved
241MillenniumPeople,p.175.242MillenniumPeople,p.131.Gouldwassuspendedfromhisworkongroundsofsanctioningimpropriety;oneofthenursesunderhismanagementwasmolestingthechildren,onthebasisthatitgavethempleasuretheymightneverexperienceotherwise.ItislatersuggestedthatGouldtoomayhavebeeninvolvedinthis,andthereisanambiguousscenewherehemayormaynotmasturbateathreeyearold(p.173).Heinsiststhatthiskindofmoralityisirrelevant,amattertobetakenupwithStephenDexter–inshort,betweenoneandone’sGod.Moregenerally,thisseemstobepartofadisturbing–anddisturbed–naivetydisplayedbyGould.Whetherthisisaffectedornotisneverreallyclearinthenovel.BallardseemstobeparallelingMichaelJackson,theinternationalpopstarwholivedonaDisney-likeranchcalledNeverland,whoserelationshipswithyoungboyswereoftensubjecttospeculation.Thereismorethatcouldbeexploredhere,intermsofBallard’srepresentationsofthecorruptionofchildhoodundercapitalism,astoucheduponwhenlookingatSuper-Cannes.
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towardshiminthemenacingformofathousandstarterhomes.”243PeterPanas
culturalreferentdoesnotescapetheattentionoftheMarinaprotestors,who
blowupastatueofPeterPan:“J.M.Barrie,A.A.Milne,brain-rotting
sentimentalitythatsapsthemiddle-classwill.We’retryingtodosomething
aboutit.”244Gouldaimstobethegreatrefusenikofthesevalues,withhis
Baudrillardianinsistenceonmeaninglessviolenceastheonlywaytocounterthe
neoliberalproductiveimperativeandtheimpositionofadiversionaryhappiness
discourse.Hesays,“…killsomeoneatrandom,firearevolverintoaMcDonald’s–
theuniversestandsbackandholdsitsbreath.Betterstill,killfifteenpeopleat
random.”245Despitehisassertionthatpoliticalviolenceisuselessbecauseits
motivationiseasilyascribedandthuseasilyreincorporated,Gouldseesthe
spectacleof9/11asanexampleofmeaninglessviolence:“Somehowwehaveto
breakfree.TheattackontheWorldTradeCenterin2001wasabraveattemptto
freeAmericafromthe20thCentury.”246Gouldexplicitlydescribestheattackasa
meaninglessact,bywhichheseemstomeananactofdisruptionwithnodirectly
discernabledemands–anactofaffectiveterrorism.Contrastthistothebombing
campaignsoftheIRAduringtheNorthernIrishTroubles,whicharefrequently
obliquelyreferencedinthenovel,suchasMarkhamtellingKayChurchillthatthe
policewon’tattackciviliansintheMarina:“Kay,don’texpecttoomuch.Thisisn’t
NorthernIreland.”247DespitethebrutalityoftheconflictinNorthernIreland,the
aimsoftheIRAwerealwaysdefinedinoppositiontotheBritishstate-thatis,
againstavisibleandintelligiblepower.Theirdisruptiveactionswereintendedto
achieveadistinctsetofaimswithapoliticaldimension,whichmeantthattheir
integrationintothesystemtheyopposedthroughtheGoodFridayAgreement,in
243MillenniumPeople,p.166Thesestarterhomesrepresenttheintrusionofthenormativevaluesofthemiddle-classgoodlife.244DavidMarkhamtohiswife,MillenniumPeople,p.220.245MillenniumPeople,p.176–fullquote:“Absolutely.Killapoliticianandyou’retiedtothemotivethatmadeyoupullthetrigger.OswaldandKennedy,PrincipandtheArchduke.Butkillsomeoneatrandom,firearevolverintoaMcDonald’s–theuniversestandsbackandholdsitsbreath.Betterstill,killfifteenpeopleatrandom.”cfBaudrillardinSymbolicExchangeandDeath,“Wewillnotdestroythesystembyadirect,dialecticalrevolutionoftheeconomicorpoliticalinfrastructure.Everythingproducedbycontradiction,bytherelationofforces,orbyenergyingeneral,willonlyfeedbackintothemechanismandgiveitimpetus,followingacirculardistortionsimilartoaMoebiusstrip.Wewillneverdefeatitbyfollowingitsownlogicofenergy,calculation,reasonandrevolution,historyandpower,orsomefinalityorcounter-finality.“p.36.246MillenniumPeoplep.139.247MillenniumPeople,p.224.
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1998,wasultimatelypossible.Thissameimmanencetosystemsofcontrolis
depictedasthedownfalloftheMarinarebellion,whichfailsatthepointof
violentaction,whenthepolicestormtheMarina.
Gould’semphasisontheneedformeaninglessprotestalsoseeshimshoota
minortelevisioncelebrityonherdoorstep,anechooftheJillDandomurder,
downtothewrongfularrest.Markhamsaysthatthisdeath,“promptedan
outpouringofgriefthatremindedmeofPrincessDiana.”248Diana’sdeath,
althoughanaccident,registersonthesameaffectiveplaneasthe9/11attacks.
The‘outpouring’ofpublicmourningfollowingthedeathcertainlyimpacted
publicdiscoursearoundemotioninBritain,starklycontrastingthe‘stiffupper
lip’generallyascribedaspartofBritishnationalcharacter.249Itmaybethatwe
cantracetheriseofemotivepublic/politicaldiscourse,connectedtoneoliberal
happinessdiscoursethroughthemanipulationofaffectcommontoboth,
throughthesekindofaffectivespectacles.TheHungerfordmassacreof1987is
alsoreferencedinthenovelafterGouldmakesashortvisittothetown,wherehe
accomplisheshisfirstsoloflight,whereMarkhamsays:“Anewkindofviolence
hadbeenborn,springingfromnothing.”250
AttheendofMillenniumPeople,violentstateinterventioncontainsthe
rebellion,andlifeintheMarinareturnstothestatusquo,thankstotheprimacy
ofeconomiclogic:“Money,alwaysharder-wearingthanasphalt,helpedtorepave
thestreets.”251Ballard’sclosingextendshisparodyofoptimisticliberalleftist
attachments.Hewrites,“Publicconcernthatlower-paidworkerswerebeing
pricedoutoftheLondonpropertymarketshelvedallplansforacomplexof
luxuryapartments.Likenurses,busdriversandtrafficwardens,themiddle-class
professionalsofChelseaMarinawerenowseenaspoorlypaidbutvital
contributorstothelifeofthecity.”252OfallBallard’swildimaginings,thisisthe
mostunlikelybyneoliberallogic–theprotectionofpeopleagainsttheinterests248MillenniumPeople,p.209.249Beyondeventhis,thesymbolismofDianaherselfmightbeseenasacontributoryfactor,notablyherinfamousPanoramainterviewwithMartinBashir,inwhichshepubliclyaddressedherhusband’sinfidelity,herownaffair,andherpost-nataldepression.Thedeploymentofemotional‘truth’asastrategyforaccumulating‘personalcapital’fallswellwithintheremitofneoliberalhappinessdiscourse.250MillenniumPeople,p.279.251MillenniumPeople,p.290.252MillenniumPeople,p.290.
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ofprofit–andthisunderlinestherealhopelessnessofaleftistcritiquethat
cannotovercomeitsdamagingattachments.ThisisWendyBrown’sconcernin
‘ResistingLeftMelancholy’(1999)towhichIwillreturnwhenlookingatEgan’s
work.Thiscritiqueoftheleftcontinues,asMarkhamaddressesthequestionof
whytheMarinaresidentswouldreturntothingsastheywere,despitethe
upheavaloftheirrebellion.Heconcludesthattheirreturnmustbeseenasan
inevitablepartoftherebellion,astheveryjustificatorylogicforit,even:
ChelseaMarinawastheblueprintforthesocialprotestsofthefuture,
forpointlessarmeduprisingsanddoomedrevolutions,for
unmotivatedviolenceandsenselessdemonstrations.Violence,as
RichardGouldoncesaid,shouldalwaysbegratuitous,andnoserious
revolutionshouldeverachieveitsaims.253
Gould’sWildeanstatementisanotherofthenovel’sabsurdities,butitservesto
highlightBallard’seviscerationoftheimaginativefailingsoftheleft.Without
movingtowardssomemoreconcretevisionofalterity,resistanceremainstiedto
thatwhichitseekstoresist.Violenceisnotgenerative,andthesenselessnessof
reactionaryoppositionalpoliticscannotpresentachallengetodominantsystems
ofpower.TheChelsearebelsneverdetachfromthoselimitedandlimitingideas
ofthegoodlifethatkeepthemtiedtothesystemtheyoppose;the
commodificationofprotestistoopervasive,asweseewhenKayChurchill
becomesa“successfulcolumnistandTVpundit”offthebackofherpartinthe
rebellion.254Bythispoint,theresidentsofChelseaMarinaaremovingtowards
thelifestyledepictedinCocaineNights–Markhamtellshiswife,“They’vebuilta
sportsclubandenlargedthemarina.There’salmosteverythingyouwant
here.”255
Ballardrecognisesthathisworkhasthepotentialtobeabsorbedintoextant
frameworksofpower,andtobesubsumedasasalvetothesocialconscience–to
become,itself,acomfortinggoodobject,throughwhichsubjectsmaysignaltheir
dissatisfactionwiththestatusquowithoutactuallydoinganythingtochangeit.
ThisisattheheartofMillenniumPeople,andthegrowingpoliticisationof
253MillenniumPeople,p.290.254MillenniumPeople,p.290.255MillenniumPeople,p.291.
141
Ballard’sworkIhavemarkedintheselatenovels.Byforcingthereaderto
confrontthispossibility,IthinkBallardisseekingtoincitesomemore
substantivepoliticalaction.AsIhavemaintainedthroughoutmyexplorationof
hiswork,heseemstoseethisaspossibleonlywhenweliberateour(personal
andpolitical)imaginariesfromtheapparentlytotalisingneoliberalframeworkin
whichtheycurrentlyoperate.Thislatequartetofnovelspushesthereaderever
hardertoconfronttherealitiesofneoliberalcapitalism,andtodosomething
aboutit,beyondthetext.
142
KingdomCome:‘LostintheSupermarket’256
ThelastnovelinthisquartetisKingdomCome,publishedin2006.Ittellsthe
storyofRichardPearson,aformeradvertisingexecutivewhohasrecentlylost
hisjob,throughthemachinationsofhisex-wife.HisfatherwasStuartPearson,a
retiredpilotwhomovedtothe‘motorwaytown’ofBrooklandstoseeouthis
twilightyears.ThemotorwayinquestionistheM25,althoughtheconceptofthe
‘motorwaytown’refersmoregenerallytothesuburbansprawlbeyondLondon.
Muchoftheactionofthenoveltakesplacein,around,orbecauseof,ashopping
centre–a‘supermall’calledtheMetro-Centre,whichdominatesBrooklandsand
seemstolurkinthebackgroundofeveryscene.Asitsnameimplies,the
shoppingcentreisseenasanewciviccentreforthedisconnectedcitizensofthe
motorwaytowns.ThelocalBrooklandsresidentsareunhappyattheinfluxof
outsidersthisbringsintotheirtown,construingtheirrampantconsumerismas
anattackonthe“realcommunity”ofthetown.GeoffreyFairfax,StuartPearson’s
solicitorandtheexecutorofhiswill,explainsthistoRichardearlyoninthe
novel:
HereinBrooklandswehadarealcommunity,notjustapopulationof
cashtills.Nowit’sgone,vanishedovernightwhenthatmoney-factory
opened.We’reswampedbyoutsiders,thousandsofthemwith
nothinglargerontheirmindsthanthenextbargainsale.Forthem,
Brooklandsislittlemorethanacarpark.Ourschoolsareplaguedby
truancy,hundredsofchildrenhauntingtheMetro-Centreeveryday.
Theonehospitalwhichshouldbecaringforlocalresidentsis
overwhelmedbydrivingaccidentscausedbyvisitors.Neverfallill
neartheM25.257
Fearofthedestructionofcommunityisattheheartoftheconspiracythatdrives
theactionofthenovel.Fairfaxandseveralotherupstandingcitizens,including
doctorJuliaGoodwin,psychiatristTonyMaxted,andheadmasterWilliam
Sangster,colludetohavelocal‘misfit’DuncanChristiestageanassassination.
ChristieisanavowedenemyofallthingsconsumeristandMetro-Centre,
especiallysincehisyoungdaughterwasinjuredduringtheconstructionofthe
256TheClash.‘LostintheSupermarket,’LondonCalling,CBS,1979.257J.G.Ballard.KingdomCome,2006London:HarperPerennial,2007,p.32.
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centre.ThetargetoftheirplotisDavidCruise,presenteroftheMetro-CentreTV
channel.Duringtheassassinationattempt,Cruisefailstoappear,andChristie
releaseshisfrustrationsbyfiringatastatueofthreefairytalebearsthatsitsat
thecentreofthemall.Intheensuingchaos,StuartPearsonisfatallywounded,
anditishisdeaththatbringshissontoBrooklands.Aswiththeseotherlate
novels,theplotlooselyfollowsthedetectiveform,withPearsonJr.vowingto
avengehisfatheranddiscoverthereasonforhisdeath.Onceagain,this
investigationbecomesincreasinglysuperfluousasourprotagonistfindshimself
willinglydrawnintotheclosedcommunityhesoughttoinfiltrate.
Theconceptofcommunityhasbeenattheheartoftheselatenovelsinvarious
guises,usuallyevidentintheirsettings:theclosedandrationalspacesofthe
leisureresort,thebusinesspark,andthegatedcommunity.InKingdomCome,
thespaceswherepeoplelivearesubjugatedtothenon-spaceoftheMetro-
Centre,whichrecallsthedepictionofthenon-spaceoftheairportinBallard’s
earlierwork,andhisassertionthatairportsrepresent,“thetruecitiesofthe21st
century.”258Ballardsuggestedthattheout-of-place-nessofairportsmight
constitutetheidealspaceinwhichthepostmodernsubjectcouldenjoy
somethinglikeafeelingofhappiness.InlookingatCocaineNights,wesawhow
Ballard’sworkmovedtoexposethemateriallimitationsofthesespaces.The
hijackingsof9/11alsochangedthecharacterofairportsandairtravelmore
generally:itwouldbeimpossibletodaytodescribea“unitaryglobalcultureof
thedeparturelounge,”eveninjest.259Wemightalsoinferthattheincreased
emphasisonrecognisingdifference,throughsecuritymeasuressuchasracial
profiling,materiallyunderminedthefigureofthecosmopolitanpostmodern
‘worldcitizen,’aboutwhomBallard’sworkhasalreadyexpresseditsdoubts,in
bothCocaineNightsandSuper-Cannes.
RepresentationsofflightarenottotallyabsentinKingdomCome,andtheir
figuringoftenhighlightstheincreasedsecuritisationofairtravel,asinascene
wheretheprotagonistencounterspoliceandarmyonthedisusedBrooklands258Ballard,‘Airports:TheTrueCitiesofthe21stCentury.’259Seethe2014IATAreport,‘TheImpactofSeptember112001onAviation’www.iata.org/pressroom/Documents/impact-9-11-aviation.pdf;alsotheACLUreport‘SanctionedBias:RacialProfilingSince9/11’(2004).Althoughvolumeofairtraffichassubstantiallyrecoveredsince2001,securitymeasurescontinuetobeimpacted,andhavebeeninfluencedbysubsequentterroristicattacks.
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racingtrackandassumestheyarerehearsingtheirresponsetoaterroristattack
onHeathrow.260Fromthisfiguring,wemayrecogniseacertainanxietyaboutthe
waysinwhichtheseprocessesofsecuritisationco-optandrestrictthe
imaginativepotentialwithwhichBallard’sworkisconcerned.Whereairports
andflightpreviouslyrepresentedanimaginativerealmthatmightallowsubjects
totranscendtherepressiveandoppressivepowerstructuresinwhichtheywere
enmeshed,thecentralityoftheshoppingmallinthisnovelrepresentsBallard’s
fearthatconsumerismhasco-optedthisimaginativerealmentirely,in
conjunctionwiththoseprocessesofsecuritisationwhichhaveredrawnnational
boundarieswithunanticipatedforce.Thenovelisalsoanexaminationoftheway
inwhichconsumeristdesireconstructsconsent:asRosehighlightsinhiswork,
thechoosingsubjectofneoliberalismcolludesintheirownun-freedom.Ballard
linksthis,too,tothefascisticdesirefordominationFoucaultdescribedas“the
majorenemy,”inhisintroductiontoAnti-Oedipus(1972):
themajorenemy,thestrategicadversaryisfascism…Andnotonly
historicalfascism,thefascismofHitlerandMussolini–whichwas
abletomobilizeandusethedesireofthemassessoeffectively–but
alsothefascisminusall.Inourheadsandinoureverydaybehavior,
thefascismthatcausesustolovepower,todesiretheverythingthat
dominatesandexploitsus.261
Ballard’srepresentationofthisloveofdominationandthecollusionof
subjectsinconsumeristsystemsisfiguredthroughtheovertlyfascistic
tendenciesofMetro-Centre‘supporters.’Thisframesthenovelfromits
beginning;thefirstchapter,inwhichRichardPearsonrecountshisjourneyto
Brooklandsthroughthemotorwaytownshecharacterisesas“theempiresof
consumerism,”iscalled‘TheStGeorge’sCross.’262Pearsongetslostalmost
immediatelyonthisjourney,facedwithnear-identicalnondescripttownsanda
260KingdomCome,p.200.261MichelFoucault.PrefaceinGilesDeleuzeandFelixGuattari,Anti-Oedipus,1972,translatedbyRobertHurley,MarkSeemandHelen.R.Lane.Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress.1983,pp.xi-xv,p.xiii.Theideaofthisoccurring‘naturally’mustbeseeninthesamewayasanyoftheformsofaffectivedistressdiscussedinthisthesisareseentobe‘natural’-asFisherhasit,inthesamewayweatherisnolongeranaturalfactsomuchasitisapolitical-economiceffect.CapitalistRealism,p.19.262KingdomCome,p.3.
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barrenlandscapeofroadsignstonowhere,emphasisingtheblandemptinessof
suburbanexistence.StoppingatanIndianrestauranttoascertainhis
whereabouts,Pearsonwatchesthetownheisinthroughtherestaurant’ssemi-
shatteredwindow,observingitscleanlinessandorderliness(despitethecracked
window)andfeeling“acertainpridethat[he]hadhelpedtosetitsvalues,”asan
advertisingexecutive.263Pearsonseesconsumerismasaplacidend-state,in
whichdesiremaybeartificial,butisatleasteasilysatisfied.Consumercitizens
are,hebelieves,asrationalandorderlyasthemarketsbywhichtheirlivesare
decided.Heobserves,“Historyandtradition,theslowdeathbysuffocationofan
olderBritain,playednopartin[these]people’slives.”264Almostimmediately,
thissenseofpeaceisshattered.Observingsomedisruptionafoot,Pearson
followsafireenginethroughagatheredcrowd.Itleadshimtothegardenofa
councilestate,inwhichaVolvohasbeensetalight.ThreemeninStGeorge’s
shirtsseemtobetheleadersofthegatheredcrowd,andPearsonthinksatfirst
thisisanattackonarehousedcriminal.Itsoontranspires,however,thatthe
houseisinfactasmallmosque;thisisa“religiouscleansing.”265ThisisPearson’s
firstintimationofthefascisticviolencethathauntsthesemotorwaytowns.
Hisnextencounterwiththese‘supporters’clubs’occurswhenhetakes
possessionofhisfather’sflatwhichlikemostofthebuildingsinBrooklands
offersanexcellentviewoftheMetro-Centre.ThisviewleadsPearsontoreflect
onhowhegrewupafterhisfatherlefthismother.Pearson’schildhoodwas
middleclass-adjacent;therewasrarelyanythingnewinhismother’slarge
house,andhebelievesthattheabsenceofconsumergoodshas“inoculatedhim
againsttheconsumerworld[he]longedforsoeagerly”asachild.266Welearn
thatPearsonwasnotclosetothisfather,ashesearchesthroughtheolderman’s
belongingsforsomesenseofwhohewas.Tohissurprise,hediscoversastashof
FascistliteratureandStGeorge’sparaphernalia,includingpicturesofhisfather
atsportingclubdinners,inwhichpresenterDavidCruisefeaturesprominently.
InthissectionBallardinvokesthelooselyNietzscheanunderpinningsofthe
novel,asPearsonmodelshisfather’sStGeorge’sshirtagainstthebackdropofa263KingdomCome,p.8.264KingdomCome,p.8.265KingdomCome,p.11.266KingdomCome,p.54.
146
BrooklandsEaglesfootballflag.Lookingathisreflection,heruminatesonthe
psychopathologyofHitler’s“elitecorps”:
Forthem,theblackuniformsanddeath’s-heademblemsrepresented
aviolenceofthemind,whereaggressionandcrueltywerepartofa
radicalcodethatdeniedgoodandevilinfavourofanembraced
pathology.Moralitygavewaytowill,andwilldeferredtomadness.267
Theconceptofwillishintedatbythenovel’stitle,too,whichisborrowedfrom
theLord’sprayer:“ThyKingdomcome,thywillbedone.”268Whosewillisbeing
doneisacentralquestionofthenovel,whichposestheparodicNietzscheanwill
topowerwehaveseeninBallard’sotherpublic-spiritedpsychopathsagainstthe
willtoconsumepropagatedbythemarketrationalesoftheneoliberalsubject.269
IntheNaziappropriationofNietzsche’sphilosophy,thewilltopowerbecamea
rationalebywhichdominationwasjustifiedandevenframedasnatural.Inthe
Metro-Centresupporters’vision,thelogicofconsumerismsupplantsany
conceptionofindividualwill,embeddingself-regulationinserviceofmaterial
consumptionasanaturalpartof(neoliberalised)existence.Thisisemphasised
byaconversationbetweenRichardPearsonandDavidCruise,whichoccursafter
Pearsonhasdecidedtoinfiltratethesupporters’clubsinthehopeoffindingout
moreabouthisfather,unawarethathisfatherwasinfiltratingthemhimself,in
thehopeofstemmingtheemergenttideofviolence.Duringthisconversation,
Pearsonmakesaspeech,attemptingtopersuadeCruisetotakeonthemantleof
leadershipfortheMetro-Centresupporters;persuasionis,afterall,hisstockin
trade.Hesuggeststhatconsumerismisthe“greatestdeviceanyonehasinvented
forcontrollingpeople,”insistingthatshoppinghasreplacedpolitics.270
267KingdomCome,p.56.268Ballardhighlightedthisinhis2006interviewwithTobyLitt,‘2003:DangerousBendsAhead.SlowDown.’:“IquotetheLord’sPrayer.”ExtremeMetaphors,p.421.269IidentifythisapplicationofNietzscheanphilosophyasparodicbecauseinterpretingthewilltopowerassimplyaliteraldesiretowieldpoweroverothersdeliberatelytakestheideaoutofitslargerphilosophicalcontext,whereitissomethingmorelikeaforcethatallowsabeingtoexertitselfonlifeandmaybereadmetaphysically,organically,orpsychologically.270KingdomCome,p.191.
147
Pearson’sNietzsche-inspiredspeechsuggestsnotjustthatshoppinghas
supplantedpoliticalinterestinthepublicsphere,butthattheprimacyof
consumerismhasdrasticallyreshapedtheconceptofthepolitical:
Thenewpoliticsisaboutpeople’sdreamsandneeds,theirhopesand
fears.Yourroleistoempowerthem.Youdon’ttellyouraudiences
whattothink.Youdrawthemout,urgethemtoopenupandsaywhat
theyfeel…Noslogans,nomessages.Newpolitics.Nomanifestos,no
commitments.Noeasyanswers.Theydecidewhattheywant…You
steerthembysensingtheirmood.Thinkofaherdofwildebeeston
theAfricanplain.Theydecidewheretheywanttogo.271
HerePearson’svisionrevealsitselftodivergefromthehistoricalformof
Fascism,whichisgenerallycharacterisedastheimpositionofadespoticvision
onthemasses,throughtheexerciseofdictatorialpowerandsuppressionof
opposition.AlthoughtheseelementsgoontobecomefeaturesofCruise’sregime,
Pearson’soriginalconceptionofthis‘newpolitics’substitutesFoucault’s(and
DeleuzeandGuattari’s)modelofeverydayfascismforthemodelofimposed
domination.ThedescriptionoftheherdofwildebeestinvokesNietzsche’s
accountofherdmorality,wherethemoralfrailtyofthesesubjectsisduetothe
‘newreligion’ofconsumerism.KingdomComemarksBallard’smostdirect
explorationofthequestionofhowwecomenotjusttotoleratetheconditionsof
oursuffering,butalsotoactivelyparticipateinperpetuatingandsustaining
them.AsBallardseesit,consumergoodsarenotinthemselvesstand-insfor
community,orsubstantiveintimaterelationships,orpoliticalaction,but
processesofconsumptionmaybeseentobe.AsDavidCruisesaysinoneofhisTV
addresses,“consumerismisaboutalotmorethanbuyingthings…It’sourmain
wayofexpressingourtribalvalues,ofengagingwitheachother’shopesand
ambitions.”272Ballarddepictsanascentneoliberalconsumeristhyperrealityin
KingdomCome,groundedinhistoricalandsocialrealities.Thebandoflocalswho
opposetheMetro-Centredoitonthegroundsthatithasdestroyedthe“real
community”thatexistedbeforeitsopening,aswesawinearlierinsolicitor
GeoffreyFairfax’sspeech.Ballard’sunderlyingsuggestionisthatthis“real
271KingdomCome,p.146.272KingdomCome,p.78.
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community”alsoreliesonexclusionandinequality.Thisisthesameindictment
oftabloidutopianismwesawinMillenniumPeople,areminderthatthe
“communities”ofupperandmiddleclassEnglandhaveinformalborderstoentry
thatareasrigidasthefinancialdemandsofmembershipoftheMetro-Centre
community.273
DavidCruiseplaysonthisinarantheembarksonafterassuminghisroleas
leaderoftheMetro-Centresupporters,duringwhichhederidestheinsistenceon
communityaspositive:“Community?IknowwhatanAsiancommunityis.I
knowwhataMuslimcommunityis.…Yes...Ihatecommunity.Forme,theonly
realcommunityistheonewe’vebuilthereattheMetro-Centre.”274Cruise’s
racismaccordswithexistingstrainsintheStGeorge’sshirt-wearingsupporters’
clubs,whosedisregardforthoseseentobeOtherwasglimpsedintheattackon
themosquedescribedearlier.FortheMetro-Centresupporters,theseOther
communitiesrepresentathreatbecausetheyareinvestedinopposingbelief
systems–thisisanotherreasonwhythemosquebecomesatargetofviolence.
Asasystemofbeliefamongstothersystemsofbelief,theconsumerismof
KingdomComelackstheabilitytosubsumeanddétournétheseothersystems
thatneoliberallogicallowsforinitsvalorisationofchoice.Neoliberalismasks
subjectsnottobelieveinit,buttoreframeallotherbeliefsinitsapparently
irresistibleeconomiclogics.
Thenovelmovestowardsthispositionasitprogressestowardstheannexing
oftheMetro-Centre,whicheffectivelyconstitutesaneffortbysupportersto
establishanewstate,makingrealtheMetro-Centre’stransformationintoa
symbolofnation.Justbeforethis,PearsonasksCruisetotonedownhis
virulence,apleaCruiseallbutignores,saying:“They[theMetro-Centre
supporters]believeintheMetro-Centre,andtheAsiansdon’tcomehere.They
haveaparalleleconomy.They’veexcludedthemselves,andthey’repayingthe
price.”275Usingeconomiclogic,CruiselaysouttherealsenseofOtherness
behindtheressentimentoftheMetro-Centresupporters:the‘paralleleconomy’
ofthesecommunitiesidentifiestheminoppositiontotheWest,withitshistory273ThiscanalsobeconnectedtothepolicingofbordersexploredinSuper-Cannesandelsewhere.274KingdomCome,p.176.275KingdomCome,p.179.
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ofcolonialismandcommodification.Theseare‘real’communities,boundedby
substantiveaffectivebondsnotyetsubsumedbytheendlessappetitesof
consumerism.276ForMetro-Centresupporters,theirimaginations,their
relationshipsandtheiractionsareincreasinglycircumscribedbyeconomic
logics.Theyarecapableoffeelingonlythroughconsuming,itseems.
ThisisincipientlyrecognisedinPearson’sdescriptionofthenewpolitics,
concernedwith“people’sdreamsandneeds,theirhopesandfears.”277Thisisa
politicsoffeeling,inwhicheventheoreticalobjectivityisdispensedwithin
favourofanindividualistic,subjective,emotionallybasedpolitics;Ihave
elsewhereidentifiedthisasade-radicalisedpoliticsofintimacy.InBallard’s
work,theendresultoftheprimacyofconsumerismisseentobeeruptionsof
destructivepsychopathologythatseektodisrupttheboredomofexistence.
PsychiatristTonyMaxtedtellsPearson:“Peoplearedeliberatelyre-primitivizing
themselves.Theyyearnformagicandunreason,whichservedthemwellinthe
past,andmighthelpthemagain.They’rekeentoenteranewDarkAge.”278In
manyways,thisseemstoforeshadowtheriseofright-wingpopulismacross
EuropeandtheU.S.A,whichhasspawnedaconcomitantriseinracistviolence.279
However,therootsofthisriseareconnectednottoadesirefor“magicand
unreason,”buttothereassertionofworking-classidentitiesthatrelyonthe
samestrandoftabloidutopianismBallardcritiquesinhiswork.AsIhave
mentionedelsewhere,working-classcharactersrarelyfeatureinBallard’swork,
atechniquebywhichtheauthorillustratesthewidermarginalityoftheworking
classinsociety,andparticularlyinthecontemporarycultureindustry.This
marginalitywasexacerbatedduringthe2008financialcrisis,whenthecollapse
ofthesub-primemortgagesectordisproportionatelyaffectedlow-income
276Itisapparentthattheremaybesomeelementofidealisationinthisrepresentation:Idonotdenythis,buttheconstraintsofmywordcountprecludealongjourneydownthatrabbithole.IhavesoughttoshowthatBallarddoeshisbesttoexposetheinvisibleracismofneoliberalismelsewhereinthisthesis(seemyreadingofSuper-Cannes),butnotethatanotheravenueofstudymightbetoinvestigatetheserepresentationsmorethoroughly.277KingdomCome,p.146.278KingdomCome,p.105.279See,forexample,Slate.com’srunninglistofhatecrimesintheU.S.A.sincetheelectionofDonaldTrump,‘HateinAmerica,’ortheincreaseinhatecrimesaroundtheE.U.referendum:eseeKatieForester,‘Hatecrimessoaredby41%afterBrexitvote,officialfiguresreveal,’TheIndependent13October2016www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/brexit-hate-crimes-racism-eu-referendum-vote-attacks-increase-police-figures-official-a7358866.html.
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households,whofurthersufferedduetosubsequentstate-mandatedausterity
measures.280InKingdomCome,theresidentsofthemotorwaytownsarecloser
toworking-classfiguresthanmostofBallard’scharacters,althoughthey
generallyappeartoberelativelyaffluent.TheinclusionofDuncanChristieasa
characterisonesuchexample,ayoungmanwithahistoryof“[p]ublicmischief
cases[and]antisocialbehaviourorders.”281Ballard’saccountofthesesubjects’
distress,then,isclosertoanaccountofworkingclassresentment;ressentiment,
inNietzscheanterms.282
InStatesofInjury(1995),WendyBrownsuggeststhecontemporarysubject’s
experienceofapparentlytotalisingcapitalistpower,inconjunctionwiththe
neoliberalimperativetoindividuationandresponsibilisation,constitutesan
“incitementtoressentimentthatmighthavestunnedeventhefinestphilosopher
ofitsoccasionsandlogics.Starklyaccountableyetdramaticallyimpotent,the
latemodernliberalsubjectquiteliterallyseetheswithressentiment.”283In
Brown’saccount,theexperienceofressentimentgivesrisetoidentitypolitics,an
efforttoovercomeordisplacethesufferingthatistheessentialconditionoflife,
inaccordancewithNietzsche’swork.Thisdisplacementisaformofrevenge,
achieved,inBrown’sconception,throughtheproductionofguiltandthe
“establishmentofsufferingasameasureofsocialvirtue.”284Brownillustrates
thattheinscriptionofidentityinastate-centricsystemoflawfailstocritiquethe
frameworkinwhichitisinscribed,andsosuchanidentitymaybeincorporated
intothatframeworkofdominationwithease.Themostrecentmanifestationsof
right-wingpopulismhaveinvokedidentitypolitics,inaninversionofleftist
politicalstrategy,particularlyundertheleadershipofRichardSpencerin
America.285InconservativespokespersonMiloYiannopoulos’saccountofthis
280AlexCallinicos.‘Conditionsofausterity,’CambridgeJournalofEconomics,36:1,2012,pp.65-77.281KingdomCome,p.31.282Thisis,ofcourse,notanewphenomenon.See,forexample,Hans-GeorgeBetz,‘TheNewPoliticsofResentment:RadicalRight-WingPopulistPartiesinWesternEurope,’ComparativePolitics,25:4,1993,4pp.13-427.283WendyBrown.StatesofInjury.Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,1995,p.69.284Brown.StatesofInjury,p.71.285ShujaHaider,SafetyPinsandSwastikas,’TheJacobin1May2017www.jacobinmag.com/2017/01/safety-pin-box-richard-spencer-neo-nazis-alt-right-identity-politics/.
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appropriationofidentitypolitics,the“alt-rightbelievethatsomedegreeof
separationbetweenpeoplesisnecessaryforculturetobepreserved.AMosque
nexttoanEnglishstreetfullofhousesbearingtheflagofSt.George,accordingto
alt-righters,isneitheranEnglishstreetnoraMuslimstreet….”286Thisis
Ballard’svision,legitimatedthroughthevacuityofaleft-wingpoliticsthatseeks
onlytosafeguardsuchprotectionsasarealreadypermittedbythestate,rather
thanseekingtoradicallyreformtheseprotections,oreventhestateitself.Thisis
alsowhymorerecentleftistassertionsthatpracticingaradicalpoliticsoflove
cancounterright-wingpopulismandracismareflawed.Nguyen’soriginal
conceptualisationofthepoliticsofintimacy,althoughlimitedbythespecific
contextofherwork(theriotgrrrlmovement),identifiedasoneofitscentral
characteristicsthecollapseofexpertiseandexperience.Thisisconnectedtothe
capacityforchangeimaginedbysuchapolitics,whichNguyendescribedasthe
“adjustmentoftheindividualsubject–recalibratinghercapacityforshameor
love,forinstance-tothestructuraldemandsthatconstitutethehistorical
present.”287
Theconceptofloveasradicalintheframeworkofthepoliticsofintimacy
cannothelpbutpresentopennessasapoliticalend;thatis,throughadoptingan
attitudeoflove,oneopensoneselftothepossibilityofunderstandingtheOther,
thusremovingressentiment.288Theindividualaccrualofknowledgeamounts,in
thisreasoning,tothegatheringofexpertise,withaconcessiontotherelativising
tendenciesofpostmoderndeconstructionisminitspseudo-empiricism.The
problemswiththisasapoliticalframeworkaremultiple.PerNguyen’swork,it
problematicallydemandsthattheoppressedsubjectmusteducatetheoppressor
inordertoallowthemtoaccumulatethenecessarypersonalknowledgeto
286MiloYiannopoulosandAllumBokhari,‘AnEstablishmentConservative’sGuidetotheAlt-Right,’Breitbart29March2016www.breitbart.com/tech/2016/03/29/an-establishment-conservatives-guide-to-the-alt-right/287MimiThiNguyen.‘RiotGrrrl,RaceandRevival,’Women&Performance:ajournaloffeministtheory,22:2-32012,pp.173-196.p.174.288See,forexample,TomDickinson,‘VanJones:Onlya‘LoveArmy’willConquerTrump,’RollingStoneDecember62016www.rollingstone.com/politics/features/van-jones-only-a-love-army-will-conquer-trump-w454026;AlyssaLandau,‘ThisIsWhyLoveWillAlwaysTrumpHate,’ThoughtCatalog,9November2016,thoughtcatalog.com/alyssa-landau/2016/11/this-is-why-love-will-always-trump-hate/.Thequestionofthepoliticalforceoflovehasbeenputfirmlybackontheacademicagenda,too,particularlybyMichaelHardtandAntonioNegri’swork,aswellasthatofLaurenBerlant.
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change.Itquietscritiquethroughcastingtheprocessofeducationasaprocessof
politicalimprovementthatmustnotbedenigrated,undertherubricof
individual‘understanding’asprimary.Withregardtotheright-wing
appropriationofidentitypolitics,theframeworkofthepoliticsofintimacy
reasonsthatthe‘identity’ofwhitesupremacistsandsoonisalsoonethatmust
beunderstoodtoenabletransformation-suchadaptationsforeclosethe
possibilityofobjectivecritique.Itisthisabsenceofpoliticalobjectivitythat
underminesthepoliticsofintimacymostseverely.Myargumentinthisthesisis
thatliteraturehasaroletoplayincounteringthisabsence,throughitsabilityto
offeraspaceofimaginativeempatheticunderstandingthroughwhichthe
necessityoftheobjectivepoliticalimaginarymaybeartisticallyrestatedand
enabled.Literaturealsohasadistinctroleinitsabilitytodemonstrate
consequencethroughitsnarrativeform,establishingaframeworkinwhichthe
meaningofactionsisbothsignificantandintelligible,andlocatedwithin,or
designedtoexpose,recognisablepowerstructures.Withoutthis,thepoliticsof
intimacybecomes,essentially,apersonalpoliticsofhappinesswherebythe
psychotherapeuticrationaleof‘workingontheself’becomestheguidingforceof
publiclife.Thisisincontrasttothetheoreticallyradicalpotentialofthepolitics
ofintimacy,asoutlinedbyNyugen:
Throughtheradicalreinterpretationofindividualexperiencesas
socialphenomenawithhistoriesandpoliticalconsequences,andthe
subsequentrejectionofthesestructuraldeterminations,anindividual
mightbecomearadicalobjectofknowledge,asovereignsubjectwho
tellsthe(albeitever-changing)truthaboutherselfinordertoknow
herselfandbeknownbyothers.289
Byvacatingtheobjectivepoliticaldimension,andprivilegingfeeling,the
possibilityofintimacyasanoppositionalframeworkisdrasticallylimited.Thisis
oneofthedifficultiesfacedbytheNewSinceritymovement,aswewillseein
exploringEgan’swork.
Thethemeofself-discoveryisrepresentedinKingdomComethroughRichard
Pearson’s‘journey’inthenovel.Hisfather’sdecisiontobecomeinvolvedwith
theMetro-Centresupporterswastheresultofadesiretoinfiltrateandexpose289Nguyen.‘RiotGrrrl,RaceandRevival,’p.175-6.
153
theviolenceofthemovement.Pearson’squestispersonalinhisdesireto
discoverhisfather’skiller,butalsoinhisdesiretodiscovermoreabouthis
father,whichisinturnconnectedtohisdesireforself-knowledge.Thisisparsed
intherubricofpsychoanalysisthatBallardoftenemploysasshorthandfor
characterdevelopment–anothersystem-orientedtendency.Ihavealready
mentionedthatthenarrativerevealsPearson’ssenseofdisconnectionfromhis
father,stemmingfromtheolderman’sabandonmentofhiswifeandchild.When
ourunwittingnarratorsuggestshisinoculationagainstconsumeristdesirestems
fromhisSpartanchildhood,wecansupposethatitisdue,too,totheemotional
barrennessconnectedtotheabsenceofconsumergoods,thetrappingsof
normativegoodlife.Pearsondoesnotdesirethesegoodsbecausehelives
outsideoftheemotionalspheretheysignify.Hetellsusthereader,“Iwasforever
showingmymotheradvertisementsfornewtoastersandwashingmachines,
hopingtheywouldeasethestrainofexistenceforher.”290This‘strain’isrelated
toherexistenceasasinglemother,thefinancialstrainofraisingachildona
singleincome.Hisfather’seconomicabandonmentisneverfullyexplained,butis
clearlyconnectedtoPearson’sloveofadvertising.Wecanobservethisinthe
paternalsenseofpridehefeelswhenobservinghowhisindustry,asheseesit,
hasallowedotherpeopletodiscernandfulfildesireinawayhe,withhis
emotionaldisconnection,nevercan.Thefirstresultofthisjourneyof(self)
discoveryisPearson’salliancewithCruise,andhisreinventionasa“suburbanDr
Goebbels”–thatis,theadvertisingdirectoroftheMetro-Centre.291Pearson
becomesvulnerabletotheworldofsupporters’clubswhenheallowshis
subjectivitytobecometheguidingprincipleofhislife.Hisfather’sdeathleaves
himradicallyunmoored,particularlygivenitsnearnesstotheterminationofhis
employment,andheuseshisinvestigativemissionasanexcusetoindulgehis
recently-awakenednihilistictendencies.
Thismanifestsinthedesignofaseriesofdisturbedanddisturbing
advertisementsfortheMetro-Centre,whichPearsonbelievesplayon“a
suppressedneedforthebizarreandunpredictable.”292Theseadvertisements
290KingdomCome,p.54.291KingdomCome,p.209.292KingdomCome,p.155.
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featurenonsensicalscenariosthatimplicitlyinvokeasenseofexistentialdread,
spurringthosewhoviewthemtoconsumeinorder,itseems,toasserttheir
(consumer)rationalityinthefaceofanotherwiseirrationalworld.DavidCruise
thrivesonPearson’sstrategy,givingevermoredesperateandextremeaddresses
ontheMetro-CentreTVchannel.ForCruise,thisturnsouttobetheidealwayto
ventyearsofpersonalfrustrationandunhappiness,andhisviewersseemtolove
it.Hediscussesintroducingasegmentonhisalcoholismanddrugusewith
Pearson,whoremindshimthatheisnotanalcoholicordruguser.Tothis,Cruise
replies,“‘That’snotthepoint…Alcoholism,drugaddiction.They’retoday’s
equivalentofmilitaryservice.Theygiveyouakindof…”Pearsonresponds,
“’Man-to-manauthenticity?’”293Ballardrecognisesherehowtheconfessional
cultureinstitutedbythepsychotherapeuticrationalesofneoliberalhappiness
discoursecanservetovalorisesuffering,atleastaslongasitispresentedasa
problemoftheselfandframedintermsofanindividualjourney.294Inthis,
Ballardalsogesturestothepervasivenessofproblemsofaddictionandtheway
inwhichtheyreplicateprocessesofconsumption.295
ThisexchangeseesCruisementionthathehasbeenreadingabookgivento
himbyPearson,writtenbyKrafft-Ebing.RichardvonKrafft-Ebingwasa
nineteenth-centuryscientistwhoseworkfocusedonhumansexualityand
criticisedthecriminalisationofsexual‘deviance,’givingvoicetosubjectsnot
usuallyrepresentedinscientificdiscourseatthattime.296Cruisewantstoco-opt
someofKrafft-Ebing’sideasintohisprogramme,andPearsonsuggeststhathis
“sofaladies”–theever-changingrosterofsuburbanhousewiveswhoappear
alongsideCruiseon-air–wouldhaveaheartattack.297Ihighlightthisshort
exchangebecauseIbelieveitisusefulinunderstandingBallard’sdepictionof
sexuality,whichisoverwhelminglyconstitutedbyheterosexualrelationshipsin
theselatenovels.TheinvocationofKrafft-Ebbing’sworksuggeststhatthe
293KingdomCome,p.179.294IwilldiscussthisinmoredetailinthesectiononEgan’swork.295OleBjergandothershavesuggestedthatdruguseisaproblemforcapitalismpreciselybecauseitexposesthewidervacuityofcapitalistdesire;see‘DrugAddictionandCapitalism:TooClosetotheBody,’Body&Society,14:2,2008,pp.1-22.296SeeHarryOosterhuis,‘SexualModernityintheWorksofRichardvonKrafft-EbingandAlbertMoll,’MedicalHistory,56:2,2012.pp.133-55.297KingdomCome,p.179.
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normativecompulsiontoheterosexualityisanotherofthesystemsof
subjectificationcritiquedbytheselatenovels.Ballardrecognisesthetension
betweentheneoliberalemphasisonindividualchoiceandthepersistenceof
normativeaccountsofgenderandsexuality,holdoversfromFordistcapitalism.
Thisislinkedtootoright-wingconservativemorality.DavidHarveyhas
suggestedthatthere-emergenceofsuchstrainsofpoliticalthinking,as
exemplifiedbythepost-9/11riseofneo-conservatisminAmerica,canbe
connectedtothechaosallowedbythepermissivenessofneoliberalism,andthe
problemthisposesforthestate.298HarveyspecificallyreferstoMargaret
Thatcher’sdeploymentofnationalistsentimentinsupportofherstrategiesof
neoliberalisation.299Althoughauthoritarianismistechnicallycontrarytothe
sanctityoftheself-sovereigntyneoliberalismpromotesasitsgreateststrength,it
ispossibleforthetwotoco-exist,bythisaccount,andthisconservatismmay
appearasa‘solution’totheproblemofthenon-existenceofneoliberalism’s
politicaldimension.Thissolutionislimited,however;thelimitationsofneo-
conservativepoliticaloutlooksmustbeultimatelyunacceptabletoneoliberal
subjectswhohavebeeninterpellatedtothinkofthemselvesasfreelychoosing
subjects,howevermisguidedsuchanunderstandingmightbe.
InKingdomCome,RichardPearson’sjourneyforself-discoveryis‘actualised’
throughhisinvolvementwithdoctorJuliaGoodwin.HeandJuliaembarkona
relationshipaftershegoesbacktohisfather’sflatwithhimwhenbothare
caughtinthefalloutfromabombthatkillsGeoffreyFairfax.Sheinsiststhatthey
havesexinhisfather’sbed.Pearson,likethereader,learnstowardstheendof
thenovelthatshefeelsguiltyforhavingbeeninvolvedintheoriginal
assassinationplotthatresultedinStuartPearson’sdeath;sleepingwithhisson
inhisbedisanactofself-flagellation.Despitethis,itisRichardPearson’s
relationshipwithJuliathatoffershisbestchanceatredemption,atovercoming
hisfixationonhisfatherandestablishinghisownidentity.Juliais,asher
surnamesuggests,a‘goodone.’HerinvolvementwiththeplotagainstCruisewas
minimal.ShebelievedthatChristiewouldbelettingoffasmokebomb,rather
thanshootingtokill.Asavolunteeratalocalwomen’scentre,Goodwinsawfirst-
298Harvey.ABriefHistoryofNeoliberalism,p.81-6.299Harvey.ABriefHistoryofNeoliberalism,p.86.
156
handthewayinwhichexclusionaryviolencewasinscribedonthebodiesof
women,especiallythosefromAsiancommunities,i.e.thevisibleOther.Believing
thataspectacularassaultontheMetro-Centrewoulddrawattentiontotheacts
ofviolenceperpetratedbyitssupportersinthenameof‘community,’she
acquiescedtotheplot,givingChristiebeta-blockerstocalmhimdownand
reassuringhimthathewasdoing“therightthing.”300Julia’srolehereisa
typicallyfeminineoneofcaregiver.EvenduringthesiegeoftheMetro-Centre,to
whichsheisfundamentallyopposed,shelooksafterDavidCruisewhenheis
shot,sacrificingherbeliefsforthegreatergoodofpublicorder–allthose
presentbelievetheincitementtoviolencewillbeunstoppableifChristiedies.
Thereis,however,anotherdimensiontoherworkwiththewomen’srefugein
thenovel,inwhichsheistheprotectorofthosewomen,inwhomthemale
charactersshownointerest–theywouldratherfocusontheirplantoreturn
Brooklandstoitsmiddle-class,middle-English‘glory.’
ThesiegeoftheMetro-Centreisaconvolutedclosingacttothenovel,which
seesloyaltiesandmotivationsbecomeincreasinglymurkyastheexcuseof
ideologygiveswaytothebareexerciseofpower.Previously,RichardPearson
hadrecognisedtheeffortsofthosewhosoughttounderminetheMetro-Centre,
andcharacteriseditasaresultoftheirsenseoffeelingthreatenedbythecentre.
Theirassassinationplot,andlater,Fairfax’sdoomedbombingcampaign,were
effortstoamplifytheviolencealreadyoccurringinanefforttoforcestate
interventionsothat‘order’mightberestored:
Onlyadirectattackonthegreatshoppingmallwouldrouseadeeply
sedatedpopulation.Novandalizedchurchorlibrary,noransacked
schoolorheritagesite,wouldtouchanerve.Aviolentrevolt,the
corditeofcivilstrifeinsuburbanSurrey,wouldforcethecounty
councilandtheHomeOfficetoreact.Theretailparkswouldclose,the
foxwouldreturntohishaunts,andthehuntwouldgallopagainover
abandoneddualcarriagewaysandthroughtheforecourtsofforgotten
fillingstations.301
300KingdomCome,p.260.301KingdomComep.127-8
157
Again,thisdemonstratesthelimitedconstructionofcommunityonwhichFairfax
etalrelied–theworldoffoxhuntingandpastoralidylls.Theideathatthe
spectacularviolenceofanattackontheshoppingcentrewouldeffectively‘reset’
Brooklandsandthesurroundingtownsturnsoutnottobesostraightforward.
WiththeMetro-CentrescepticsorganisingadeputationtotheHomeOffice
(stateintervention,again),asimulatedattackoccurs,withtheintentionthistime
ofallowingtheconsumeristloyaliststorallysupport.Ballard’sdepictionofthis
attackdrawsfrom9/11,asweseeinPearson’sdescriptionofit:
Likemostpeople,Ispenttheafternoonwatchingmytelevisionset.
Fromtheliving-roomwindowsIcouldseethenarrowcolumnof
whitesmokethatrosefromanemergencyventintheroofofthe
Metro-Centre.Inthestillairitclimbedvertically,trembledandthen
dispersedintothecloudcover.302
ThevisualdepictionhererecallstheimagesoftheTwinTowersthatwere
broadcastgloballyfollowingthe9/11attacks,ofwhichBaudrillardwrote,“what
stayswithus,aboveallelse,isthesightoftheimages.”303Thereferenceto9/11
iscontinuedinBallard’sdepictionofDavidCruise’sbroadcastfromtheMetro-
Centrefollowingthe(non)attack.Hegivesastirringspeechtoviewers,
beseechingthemtocomeoutandshowtheirsupportfortheCentre,and
referringtoavagueenemy:
Thepeoplewhodidthiswilltryagain.Iwantyoualltobeready.You
createdthis,don’tletthemtakeitaway.Thereareenemiesoutthere,
andyouknowwhotheyare.IfIdon’tseeyouagain,youcanbesureI
wentdownfightingfortheMetro-Centre…304
BoththetoneandcontentofthisshortspeechechoBush’sStateoftheUnion
addressafter9/11,excerptsfromwhichinclude:“Tonight,weareacountry
awakenedtodangerandcalledtodefendfreedom.Ourgriefhasturnedtoanger
andangertoresolution.Whetherwebringourenemiestojusticeorbringjustice
toourenemies,justicewillbedone,”and“[ThegoalofAlQaeda]isremakingthe
302KingdomCome,p.202.303JeanBaudrillard,TheSpiritofTerrorism2002,translatedbyChrisTurner.LondonandNewYork:VersoBooks,2012,p.20-21.304KingdomComep.203.
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world–andimposingitsradicalbeliefsonpeopleeverywhere.”305Thisis
anotherexampleofBallard’sborrowingfromreality,oreven,hisinventionofthe
real.InPearson’saccountofthereactiontoCruise’sspeech,hesuggeststhatthe
audiencepreferbeingliedtobecauseitallowsthemtobeknowinglycomplicit:
Theyknewtheywerebeingliedto,butiflieswereconsistentenough
theydefinedthemselvesasacrediblealternativetothetruth.
Emotionruledalmosteverything,andliesweredrivenbyemotions
thatwerefamiliarandsupportive,whilethetruthcamewithhard
edgesthatcutandbruised.306
Here,Ballardidentifiesthewayinwhichtheadvertisingcultureofconsumer
capitalismwouldcometofeedintotheriseof‘post-truth’neoliberalpolitics,
withitsemphasisontruthiness,inwhichthefactualcontentofastatementis
lessimportantthanthelistener’sfeelingofitstruth.Ballard’sworkquickly
exceedstherealityfromwhichitisdrawn,however,whenDuncanChristieat
lastmanagestoshootDavidCruise,duringalivebroadcastfromtheMetro-
Centre.
Bythispoint,Pearsonhasdiscoveredtherealityofhisfather’sinvolvement
withtheMetro-Centresupporters,andindoingsohasfreedhimselffromthe
obligationtorepeatthisinvolvement:“Ihadreliedonmyfathertojustifymy
supportfortheMetro-Centreanditssportingmilitias.”307Itturnsoutthathehas
beenclosertohisfatherthanheeverknew;StuartPearsonalsoupsettheplans
oftheMetro-Centreopponentsbyhiseffortsatinfiltration,thoughneveras
drasticallyashisson.Atthispoint,Pearsonbecomescapableofrecognisingthe
realdangeroftheclubs,whoaredestroyingschoolsandlibrariesanddefecating
oncricketgrounds,suchistheirdisdainforthetraditionalpillarsofBritish
community.PearsonattemptstocontactGoodwintowarnherthatthewomen’s
refugeislikelyindanger,butisinterruptedbytheshooting,whichhewitnesses
305Also:“Americansareasking,whydotheyhateus?Theyhatewhatweseerighthereinthischamber–ademocraticallyelectedgovernment.Theirleadersareself-appointed.Theyhateourfreedoms–ourfreedomofreligion,ourfreedomofspeech,ourfreedomtovoteandassembleanddisagreewitheachother.”;“Eitheryouarewithus,oryouarewiththeterrorists.”;“ThehouriscomingwhenAmericawillact,andyouwillmakeusproud.”‘TextofGeorgeBush’sspeech,’21September2001,TheGuardian,www.theguardian.com/world/2001/sep/21/september11.usa13306KingdomCome,p.205.307KingdomCome,p.197.
159
onliveTV,inanechooftheKennedy/Oswaldassassinations.Herushestothe
Metro-Centre,wherepsychiatristMaxtedupbraidshimforhisroleinfacilitating
thespreadandcohesionoftheconsumer-fascistmovement.LearningthatJulia
Goodwinisalreadyinthecentre,tendingtoDavidCruise,thetwoenter,andfind
themselvesamongstthemixofsupportersandshopperswhoaretrappedinthe
mallwhentheentrancesaresealed.Thisisthefinalstageoftransformation,
wheretheMetro-Centreostensiblymovesfromshoppingcentretosovereign
state:“TherepublicoftheMetro-Centrehadatlastestablisheditself,afaith
trappedinsideitsowntemple.”308
Thissetsthestageforachaoticendingtothenovel,astagedcrisismadereal,
whichrepeatstheworstaspectsofconsumercapitalismandfailingfascism.The
situationinsidethecentreisabsurd:despitethevastarrayoffoodandconsumer
goods,peoplebegintofallillandstarveaftertheyrunoutofmoney,fornooneis
totakeanythingtheycannotpayfor,pertherulesofcapitalism.Aswehaveseen
earlier,thosetrappedinthedomebegintoidentifywiththeconsumergoodsby
whichtheyaresurrounded,someevendrawingbarcodesontheirhands-a
parody,too,ofthedesirefordesignerclothesandgoodsthat‘brand’thewearer.
Shrinesappear,modelledonshopdisplays,underliningBallard’sthesisthat
consumerismisanewreligion.309Inachapterentitled“WorkMakesYouFree,”
hostagesarecompelledtorestoreordertothemall,whichhasbythisstage
becomeabject,anechoofNaziconcentrationcamps.310Someofthehostages
changesides,comingtoidentifywiththeircaptors.Theelderlyperish,deemed
uselessinthenewregime.311Thearmyattempttotakethecentre,butendup
killinganumberofhostages,whohavebeendressedinStGeorge’sshirtsby
theircaptors,promptingSangstertomaketheobservationthat,“Violenceisthe
truepoetryofgovernments.”312TomCarradine,theheadofPRwhohastaken
overasleaderinCruise’snecessaryabsence,decidesthattheyshouldclaim
responsibilityforthesedeathsthemselves,andspreadwordthattheyhaveshot
308KingdomCome,p.218.309KingdomCome,p.247.310KingdomCome,p.230.311KingdomCome,p.237.312KingdomCome,p.251.
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evenmore;“Astheoccupyingmilitarypower,weareentitledtoretaliate.”313
Violencebegetsviolence;or,asHannahArendtmightcorrectSangster,“Poweris
indeedtheessenceofallgovernment,butviolenceisnot.…Violencecandestroy
power;itisutterlyincapableofcreatingit.”314ThisseesBallardtakinghisown
thesistoitsfurthestpoint.Heeffectivelyshowsthereaderthelimitationofhis
ownthematicinsistenceonviolence;thisfollowsfrommyearlier
conceptualisationofBallard’sworkasfilledwithEventsthatfailtounfoldnew
representations.Therelianceonviolencetoopenspacesofpotentialisfutile,
becauseitonlyrepeatstheviolenceoftheneoliberalcapitalistsystem,and
additionally,lacksthecollusiveconsentthatlegitimatestheofficialstatesofthat
system.
Cruisedoesnotrecover,andCarradinepositionshimselftotakeover,withthe
Centresurroundedbymediawhodescribethesiegeas“apopulistuprising,the
struggleofconsumermanandhisconsumerwifeagainstthemetropolitanelites
withtheirdeeploathingofshoppingmalls,”evokingtheanti-elitistrhetoricupon
whichright-wingpopulismrelies.315Bythisstage,opponentsandsupportersare
virtuallyindistinguishable,allcaughtupinthepowerfluxesofthefaux-state,
justasfactshavebecomeindistinguishablefromfiction,aswhenCarradine
insiststheyclaimresponsibilityforthedeathsofthosehostagesshotbythestate
army.WhenCruisefinallydies,JuliaGoodwinatlastconfessestoPearsonherfull
involvementinhisfather’sdeath.Thisopensupanewspaceofhonestybetween
them,whichseemsasthoughitmightbeaspaceofaffectivepotential.Thisis
demonstratedattheliberationoftheCentre,inachaptertitled,‘ExitStrategies,’
whichbegins,“ATLASTTOGETHER,ourhandsgrippingtheheadrail,JuliaandI
propelledthebedthroughthedoorwayofthefirst-aidpostandsetoffforthe
SouthGateentrance.”316Thisuniongesturestothegenerativepossibilitiesof
intimacy,andisenabledbythatverylogicwesawinNguyen’sworkearlier,“the
radicalreinterpretationofindividualexperiencesassocialphenomenawith
historiesandpoliticalconsequences,andthesubsequentrejectionofthese
313KingdomCome,p.252.314HannahArendt.OnViolence,SanDiego:HarcourtBrace&Co,1970.p.241-242.315SeeJonathanPolkandJanRovny,‘Anti-Elite/EstablishmentRhetoricandPartyPositioningonEuropeanIntegration,’ChinesePoliticalScienceReview,2,2017,pp.356-371.316KingdomCome,p.272.
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structuraldeterminations,”whichallowsthesubjecttobecomea“radicalobject
ofknowledge.”317RichardPearsonhas,itseems,atlastseentheerrorofhis
waysandovercometheghostofhisfather.HehasrecognisedhisroleinCruise’s
rise,andwitnessedtheconsequencesoftheviolenceheinstigated,includingits
repetitionofextantpoliticalframeworksanditshistoricalprecedents.This
recastingofself-knowledge,whichunderstandsone’sselfaslocatedwithinthe
structuraldeterminationsofpowerandthusrenderstheselfabletoresistthese
determinations,issomethinglikeanethicsoftheself,intheFoucauldian
model.318Asitstands,RichardPearsonisnotnecessarilyquiteatthispoint,but
weleavehimatthepointwherehemayatlastbeabletoknowhimselfandbe
knownbyothersinaframeworkofaccountability.
Thisoptimismistempered,aseverinBallard’swork.Theredemptionofthis
onecharacterdoesnotmeanthesalvationofall.Atthecloseofthenovel,
PearsongazesoverthewreckageoftheMetro-Centre,andobserves:
Iwatchedthespectatorsaroundme,standingsilentlyattherailing.
TherewerenoStGeorge’sshirts,buttheywatchedalittletoo
intently.OnedaytherewouldbeanotherMetro-Centreandanother
desperateandderangeddream.Marcherswoulddrillandwheel
whileanothercableannouncersangoutthebeat.Intime,unlessthe
sanewokeandralliedthemselves,anevenfiercerrepublicwould
openthedoorsandspintheturnstilesofitsbeckoningparadise.319
Ballardissuesacalltothereadershere,towakeandrally,tobewaryofdanger.
Beyondthis,Ithink,isanothercall:torefusedespairandressentiment.During
thesceneinwhichJuliaGoodwinconfesses,psychiatristTonyMaxtedexplains
howeventheopponentsoftheMetro-Centrecametofeelacertainregardfor
DavidCruise’snihilisticrants,suggestingthattheyrevealedthecoreofself-
loathingattheheartofconsumeristsubjectidentity:“we’retotallydegenerate.
Welackspine,andanyfaithinourselves.Wehaveatabloidworld-view,butno
317Nguyen.‘RiotGrrrl,RaceandRevival,’pp.175-6.318SeeMichelFoucault,‘TheEthicsoftheConcernfortheSelfasaPracticeofFreedom’Ethics:SubjectivityandTruth,editedbyPaulRabinow,NewYork:TheNewPress,1997,pp.281-303.319KingdomCome,280.Readingthis,andconsideringtheconnectionIhaveposedbetweenBushandCruise,IcannothelpbutwonderwhatBallardwouldhavemadeoftheriseofDonaldTrump.
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dreamsorideas.”320SuchanaccountisechoedelsewherebyBaudrillard,who
writes:
Whatwedetestinourselves,theobscureobjectofourresentment,is
thisexcessofreality,thisexcessofpowerandcomfort,thisuniversal
availability,thisdefinitivefulfilment…Asmuchasterrorismrests,
then,onthedespairofthehumiliatedandinsulted,itrestsalsoonthe
invisibledespairoftheprivilegedbeneficiariesofglobalisation,on
ourownsubmissiontoanintegraltechnology,toacrushingvirtual
reality,tothegripofnetworksandprogrammes,whichperhaps
representstheinvolutiveprofileoftheentirespecies,ofthehuman
racebecome‘global’(doesn’tthehumanrace’ssupremacyoverthe
restoftheplanetresembletheWest’ssupremacyovertherestofthe
world?}.Andthisinvisibledespair–ourdespair–isterminal,sinceit
arisesoutofthefulfillmentofalldesires.321
IfBaudrillardandBallardarecorrect,anditisour‘true’selves,asconstructed–
ormadetrue-bytherubricofneoliberalismandthehappinessdiscourseby
whichitdisseminatesits‘commonsense,’thatwedespise,itmayagainbe
Foucaulttowhomweturn,rememberingthewordswesawearlierinthis
chapter:“Maybethetargetnowadaysisnottodiscoverwhatwearebuttorefuse
whatweare.”322Todothis,Ballardsuggests,takesbothatremendous
imaginativeeffortandanactoffaithinothers–asenseofsolidarity–thatis
madevirtuallyunthinkablebythevaluedeficitofneoliberalism.Forsucha
refusal,wemustdétournéthepsychotherapeuticneoliberalrhetoricofself-
knowledgetoinstituteasystemofself-criticismthatrecognisesourenmeshment
inpowersystemsand–crucially–seekstoresistdeterminationbythese
systems.Suchaself-critiquemustalsobeacritiqueofthesepowerstructures,
otherwiseweareleftinthesamepositionasBrowndescribesinheraccountof
identitypolitics.Toavoidthis,onemustavoidthetemptationsofressentiment,
andofthevalorisationofsufferingaspoliticalidentity.Knowingourselvesinthis
way,toputitbriefly,isthebestconditionbywhichwemayimagineourselvesas
320KingdomCome,p.263.321Baudrillard,TheSpiritofTerrorism,pp.78-9.322Foucault.‘TheSubjectandPower,’p.785.
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Other–andthisistheverycoreofimaginingasystembuiltontheidealof
equality.Itisonlyonthisbasisthataspaceofobjectivesolidaritymightbemade
possible,evenagainsttheapparentlytotalisingforceofatomisticneoliberal
accountsoftheself.
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OnEgan
If,asIstatedatthebeginningofthepreviouschapter,J.G.Ballard’sworkhas
demonstratedapreoccupationwithneoliberalismanditsimpacton
subjectificationsincetheverybeginningoftheneoliberal‘turn’,this
preoccupationhas,aswesawinthatchapter,primarilybeenexpressedthrough
explorationofthetotalisingsystems(corporate,state,psy)thatintervenein
subjectificationinordertoshapethe‘idealneoliberalsubject’,asrhetorical
device,legalfigure(citizen),andlivedexperience,concentratingparticularlyon
thepolicingofaffect.ThroughBallard’sworkwesawhowthesesystems
cooperateandcolludetoconstructaseeminglyimpenetrablenetworkof
(im)possibility,andhowlegitimatelydangerousBallardconsiderssucha
constructiontobe.462Ihavepositedneoliberalhappinessdiscourseasthe
connectingrationaleofallthesesystems–thespaceinwhichprogrammesof
subjectificationmayberenderedintothe‘commonsense’bywhich,aswehave
seen,neoliberalismseekstonormaliseandevennaturaliseitsvalues.463Ihave
suggestedthatthepraxisofneoliberalhappinessdiscourse,primarily
representedthroughthepromotionofmanagement-strategy-basedmental
healthinterventions,aswellasthrough‘commonsense’wellnessimperatives
thatcooperatewiththeneoliberalconstructionofselfas‘capital’or‘enterprise’
(cf.WendyBrownandLoisMcNay)requiressubjectstobecomecomplicitin
thesesystems,andtoperpetuatethemthroughtheirengagement.Thismaybe
bestdemonstratedbythewayinwhichwehaveseenunhappinessbuiltinto
neoliberalhappinessdiscourse–thatis,adistinctframeworkofunhappiness,
whichrequiresthesubjecttoparticipateinproductivenetworksof
individualisedchoicethatdiscourageanyefforttolocatecausesofsufferingin
structuralterms,depoliticisingtheaffectivedistressengenderedbytheinherent
462Aswesaw,Ballardisnotaloneinthisconcern.Fisher,HardtandNegri,Massumi,Berlant,andothersallpointtosimilarfearswithregardtothereductionofspacesofpotential,figuredasspacesofaffectivefreedom:generativeimaginativespacesthatresisttheproductiveimperativeandtotalisingmarketisationthroughwhichneoliberalismseekstosubsumealldifference.463AsperStuartHallandAlanO’Sheain‘Common-senseneoliberalism,’Soundings,55,8-24,2013.pp.8-24.
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inequalitiesofneoliberalismandtheattendantprecarityoflifestronglyfeltby
theneoliberalsubject.464
Inshort,myreadingsofarhasexploredthewayinwhichsystemsacton
subjectsinordertoimbricatetheminaself-regulatorydiscourseofhappiness
whichisbothdepoliticisedanddepoliticising.Whathasgoneunaddressed,so
far,isthewayinwhichcontemporarysubjectsparticipateinthisconstruction–
whatwemightcallthe‘everydaypractices’ofneoliberalhappinessdiscourse,or
the‘self’partofthisself-regulatorydiscourse,ifyoulike.Thisisthe‘inside’of
neoliberalhappinessdiscourse-anaccountofhowthesubjectactsontheir‘self.’
Itcallsforanexplorationofthose‘technologiesoftheself’notablyabsentfrom
Ballard’swork:thetoolsofvirtualidentitythathavebecomeaneverydaypartof
subjectificationandselfexpression.JenniferEgan’sworkissaturatedbythese
technologiesandourobsessionwiththem–perhapsunsurprisingly,giventhat
theauthorfamouslydatedApplefounderSteveJobswhilststillincollege,
sometimearound1984,duringwhichtimehereportedlysetherupwithoneof
theearlyMacintoshcomputers.465Egan’sownjournalisticworkhasinvolved
directexplorationsofmodesofpracticeofneoliberalhappinessdiscoursesuch
as‘mindfulness’andtheuseofpsychoactivemedicationintreatingchildreni.e.
the‘biologisation’ofanyaberranceundertherubricof‘mentalhealth.’466I
believethatexplorationofEgan’sworksupplementsthereadingofBallardthat
constitutedthefirstpartofthisthesis.Suchareadingallowsustomovefrom
‘system’orientedaccountsoftheregulatoryfunctionsofneoliberalhappiness
discoursetothe‘self’oriented.Thismovemightalsobeconstruedintermsof
nationaldifference;itiseasiertotracksystemicapproachesintheU.K.because
oftheN.H.S,whichmakesplainthepathofstateinterestandinterventionin
464N.B.Iuse“felt”heredeliberately,andthatthisshouldbeunderstoodasdistinctfrom“experienced,”incontextofthisdiscussion.465Theydatedforaboutayear,afterJobshadendedhisrelationshipwithcounterculturallegendJoanBaez.EgantoldIsaacson,Jobs’biographer,oftheir“exuberantdebates”,whereshechallengedJobstoreconcilehisprinciplesofnon-materialismtohisproductionofhighlydesirableconsumergoods–whichwemightsupposehesoughttomanageinhisminimalisticdesign(forwhichconsumershappilyforkouthundredsofdollarseverytimeanewmodelisreleased).WalterIsaacson.SteveJobs,Simon&Schuster:NewYork,2011,p.156.466Egan’sjournalisticworkiscollectedonherwebsite,www.jenniferegan.com.‘WalkingTowardsMindfulness’,NewYorkTimesMagazine,May7,2000;‘TheBipolarPuzzle’,NewYorkTimesMagazine,September14,2008.
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‘mentalhealth’(and‘wellness’)practices.467Theabsenceofanysimilarly
comprehensivesystemintheU.S.(andthecurrentuncertaintyaroundthe
replacementofthe2010PatientProtectionandAffordableCareAct)makesit
moredifficulttotrackgovernmentstrategies,asdoesthediffusenatureofU.S.
government,dividedasitisbetweenfederalandstatepowers.468Asnotedinthe
previouschapter,too,muchofthetechniqueandattitudethatinformsneoliberal
happinessdiscourseisassociatedwithacertainsenseofAmericancultural
imperialism,mostvividlydemonstratedinKingdomCome.Althoughthissection
willinvolvesomeconsiderationofsystemicframeworksofsubjectification,then,
focusontheselfseemsmostapt,aswellasallowingilluminationofaspectsof
neoliberalhappinessdiscoursenotaddressedinBallard’swork.Eganherselfhas
explicitlyrecognisedthistendencyinherwork,assheexplainedina2014
interview:“Mass-mediaasaneverevolvingmeansofself-objectificationandan
invitationtoself-objectify,issomethingthathasbeenanovertinterestofmine
rightfromthebeginning.”469This‘self-objectification’isintimatelyconnectedto
self-regulation,asweshallseethroughthecourseofthischapter.
Duringthissection,IwillexplorethefournovelsEganhaspublishedtodate:
TheInvisibleCircus(1995);LookatMe(2001);TheKeep(2006);andAVisitfrom
theGoonSquad(2010).TheserunroughlycongruouslytoBallard’slatenovels.
Assuch,wecanbroadlyassumethemtobereactingtothesameglobalevents
andculturalshifts,albeitfilteredthroughanAmericanperspectiveratherthana
Britishone.Despiteaccountsofthe‘deterritorializedsubject’or‘globalcitizen,’it
isfairtosay,asIarguedintheprevioussectionwhenlookingatCocaineNights
andKingdomCome,thattheweightofinternationalbordershasnotyetbeen
entirelynegated.Asstated,therecentriseofnationalismacrosstheU.S.,U.K.and
467Thiswasoutlinedextensivelyinthepreviouschapter,lookingattheimplementationof‘cost-effective’strategiessuchasCognitiveBehaviouralTherapy,andtheneedfortheNHStorationalisetreatmentsthroughtheuseofmarketlogic,aswellastheneoliberalrhetoricof‘patientchoice’whichhascometodeterminehealthcareintheU.K.468Thatisnottosayidentifyingsuchprogrammesisimpossible,asthewhiteHousestillhasconsiderablepowertoinfluencepublicdiscussionandpolicyaroundhealthissues,oftenthroughthe‘specialinterests’oftheFirstLady:LaurenBerlantlooksatMichelleObama’s“signatureactivistissue”ofchildhoodobesityinCruelOptimism,Durham,NC:DurhamUniversityPress,p.103;thecontinuedexistenceoftheBettyFordCentreistestamenttoFord’sawarenessraisingworkaroundaddiction.469JenniferEganinterviewedbyZaraDinnen“Thisisallartificial”Post45May202016,post45.research.yale.edu/2016/05/this-is-all-artificial-an-interview-with-jennifer-egan/.
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WesternEuropehaspromptedsuggestionsthatweareinthemidstofare-
evaluationofnationalidentity.Itiseasytoseehowwemightimaginea‘special
relationship’betweenanypurportedlyglobaldiscourseofhappinessandthe
UnitedStates,acountryfoundedonthe“self-evident”truth,“thatallmenare
createdequal,thattheyareendowedbytheirCreatorwithcertainunalienable
Rights,thatamongtheseareLife,LibertyandthepursuitofHappiness.”470Ifthe
‘invisible’idealneoliberalsubjectwasrevealedbyBallard’sworktobethe
middle-classsubject,Egan’sworkextendsthattowhichBallard’sworkhas
gestured:thatthisidealsubjectisalso‘American,’inthesensethattheyaccord
withacertainsetofvaluesheldtobecorefacetsofAmericannationalidentity-
primarilythecapacityforself-reinvention,asweshallseeineachofthese
novels,mostnotablyinLookatMe.Wecantracethiscultureofindividualismin
AmericaasfarbackasTocqueville’sanalysis,whereheunderstoodittobethe
fundamentalfactofAmericandemocracy.ForTocqueville,theconditionof
‘generalequality’uponwhichAmericawasfoundedthreatenedaninwardturn
ofeveryman;thatis,aturntoindividualism.Hebelievedthatindividualismwas
distinctfromegoism,thoughnotincompatiblewithit,andthatit“atfirst,only
sapsthevirtuesofpubliclife;but,inthelongrun,itattacksanddestroysall
others.”471Theseindividualists:
owenothingtoanyman,theyexpectnothingfromanyman;they
acquirethehabitofalwaysconsideringthemselvesasstandingalone,
andtheyareapttoimaginethattheirowndestinyisintheirown
hands.Thusnotonlydoesdemocracymakeeverymanforgethis
ancestors,butithideshisdescendants,andseparateshis
contemporariesfromhim;itthrowshimbackforeveruponhimself
alone,andthreatensintheendtoconfinehimentirelywithinthe
solitudeofhisownheart.472
ForTocqueville,thisindividualismwasmediatedbysubstantialinterestin
publicaffairs,aninterestonlysensibleinlightoftheinteractionbetween470TheDeclarationofIndependence,U.S.History.orgwww.ushistory.org/DECLARATION/document/.Asweknowbynow,neoliberalismlovesthesekindof“self-evident”truths,whichcanbeusedtohideallmannerofills.471AlexisdeTocqueville.DemocracyinAmerica1835,1840NewYork:RandomHouse,2004,p.618.472Tocqueville.DemocracyinAmerica,p.618.
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personalinterestandpublicaffairs:“Menattendtotheinterestsofthepublic,
firstbynecessity,afterwardsbychoice:whatwasintentionalbecomesan
instinct;andbydintofworkingforthegoodofone’sfellow-citizens,thehabit
andthetasteforservingthemisatlengthacquired.”473Whatweareconfronted
withnowistheriseofagovernmentalrationalitythatdiscouragesanysuch
substantiveengagementand,throughitsprivilegingoftheeconomicaboveall
else,restructuresboththeparametersofthegoodandthewayinwhich
relationshipsbetweensubjectswork(wherethesearesubjecttotherationalof
‘selfasenterprise’).Tocqueville’sindividualist,thebogeymanlurkingatthe
marginsofAmericandemocracysinceitsinception,isgivenfullflightinthe
figureoftheidealneoliberalsubject,confinedentirelywithinthesolitudeofher
owneconomicbestinterest.
Themiddle-classcodingoftheidealneoliberalsubjectrelatestothewayin
whichsubjectsareinterpellatedtobecomeself-governing,andhowneoliberal
happinessdiscoursefunctionsasaformofgovernmentality.Whilstthecitizen
subjecthasalwaysbeenexpectedtoself-regulateinaccordancewiththelawsof
thenationstateorriskpunishment,themovetoself-maximiseasaformofself
governanceisrelativelynew,asRosehastracedinGoverningtheSoul(1989).
Thishasoccasionedthedevelopmentofacitizenwhosebelongingisnot
dependentonthedirectinterventionorshapingofthestate,althoughthe
pervasivepowerofnationalmythhasnotbeendiscardedorrenderedirrelevant
bythismove.After9/11,thefigureoftheAmericancitizenwasthrustbackinto
thepublicimaginationwithavengeance,asbothstateandsubjectssoughtaway
tocontainthepsychicshockofthespectacularbreachofnationalspecialty.474
Thereis,clearly,aninherenttensionbetweenthecitizensubjectasonewith
rightsanddutiesandtheidealneoliberalsubjectasonewhochoosesfreefrom
inclination.475ForAmericansubjects,thistensionissomewhatmediatedbythe
473Tocqueville.DemocracyinAmerica,p.627.Thisis,inshort,the“principleofinterestrightlyunderstood.”474MichaelSilkgivesaconvincingaccountofthisinTheCulturalPoliticsofPost-9/11AmericanSport,LondonandNewYork:Routledge,2012.475Asimilartensionmaybetracedinthepersistenceofworking-classidentity,wherecircumstancesofmateriallimitationcircumscribechoice.Furthertothis,thestrongbondsofcommunitiesbasedonclasssolidaritystandinoppositiontothechameleonselfofneoliberalism,whoseskillsareendlesslyadaptableandwhoseverylifeisflexible.
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distinctwayinwhichfreedomtochooseisinscribedasafoundationalcitizen
right.Furthermore,theconceptualspaceoccupiedbyAmericaastheprimary
consumeristnation,landofCocaColaandDisneyland,meansthatthereisless
dissonancebetweentheseaccountsofselfhoodthaninanationsuchas
Britain.476WemightsaythattheAmericancitizenhasalwaysbeenthe
economisedcitizen;thatis,accountsoffreedominAmericahavealwaysbeen
connectedtoeconomicpotential.WecanseethisinJ.HectorSt.Jeande
Crèvecoeur’saccountofAmericainLettersFromanAmericanFarmer(1782),
whichconcentratesonthewaysinwhichthisnewnationdiffersfromtheOld
WorldofEurope:
WhatattachmentcanapoorEuropeanemigranthaveforacountry
wherehehadnothing?Theknowledgeofthelanguage,theloveofa
fewkindredaspoorashimself,weretheonlycordsthattiedhim:his
countryisnowthatwhichgiveshimland,bread,protection,and
consequence...TheAmericanisanewman,whoactsuponnew
principles;hemustthereforeentertainnewideas,andformnew
opinions.Frominvoluntaryidleness,serviledependence,penury,and
uselesslabour,hehaspassedtotoilsofaverydifferentnature,
rewardedbyamplesubsistence.ThisisanAmerican.477
TobeAmerican,then,istobefreeofobligationexceptperhapsthatfeltas
gratitudetothelargesseofthelandthatenables(whiteEuropean)newcomers
toreinventthemselvesaseconomicallyfreemen.Theselfwhomayimagine
himselffreeisthefoundationalAmericansubject.Morethanthis,theinscription
ofthisfreedominthelanguageofhappiness,pertheDeclarationof
independence,suggeststhattobeanAmericanistoimagineoneselfasasubject
withthepotentialtobehappy.AnAmericansubjectshouldbeself-governing
becausetheyarefreefrominclination,andimaginedinessenceasfreefromthe
weightyemotionalandeconomicbondsoftheOldWorld.Theinterventionofthe
statetoshapeaparticularkindofcitizenisapparentprimarilyatmomentsof
476Wemightconsiderthisinlightoftheconsumeristunderpinningsoftheschismbetweenthetwocountries,andthefoundationalnatureoffreetradeinAmerica’snationalself-conception.477J.HectorSt.JeandeCrèvecoeurinLettersFromanAmericanFarmer1782J.M.DentandsonsLtd:LondonandNewYork,1926,pp.43-44.CrèvecoeurwasaFrenchnative,whodidnotvisitAmericauntilhewastwenty.
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crisis,althoughitisalwaysworkingthroughbiopoliticalgovernance,asFoucault
illustrated.Theprimacyof‘beingAmerican’inthepopularimaginationisinitself
astrategyofgovernance,wherethis‘ideal’orabstractidentitycomestobear
materiallyonsubjectsinregulatingandmanagingtheirbehaviour.Althoughthis
istruetogreaterandlesserextentsinothernations,theself-consciousmyth-
makingofAmericaelevatesthisdiscourseofindividualself-creationtoa
foundationalpositionnotnecessarilypresentinmostEuropeancountries.
ContemporaryAmericanLiteraryCulture:NewTimes,NewSelves,New
Sincerity?
This,then,iswherewebegininsituatingEgan’swork:asAmerican.Inthe
previoussection,Istartedbyofferingsomeaccountofthecriticallandscape
surroundingBallard’swork,inordertoexplainbothwhatisuniqueinmy
readingofhiswork,andhowItrackBallard’sengagementwiththediscourseI
amoutlininginthisthesis.ThebodyofcriticalworkonEganis,asonemight
imagine,considerablysmallerthanthatonBallard.ThefournovelsIsurveyhere
(alongwithone‘Twitfic,’BlackBox(2012),andacollectionofshortstoriesIwill
notbeexploring)accountforherentireliteraryoeuvre;Ballard’squartet
compriseaboutafifthofhis,nottomentionthenumerousshortstorycollections
publishedduringhislifetime.ThesubstantialityofBallard’sbackcatalogue,as
wellashisrevisitingofthemes,characters,andmotifsthroughouthisoeuvre,
createsadistinctfictionalworld–theBallardian–thatinformsreader
expectation,interpretationandanalysis.Thisisunderlinedbytheselatenovels
which,asIhavesoughttoshow,seemtobedesignedtoworktogethertooffer
thereaderawarning:“DangerousbendsRIGHTNOW.”AlthoughIwouldargue
thatEgan’sworkalsodemonstratesthesamerevisitingofthemesandmotifs,
thereisnocomparable‘Eganian’universe,duebothtothenewnessofherwork
andtherelativelackofscholarshiponitthusfar.
Anotherimportantdifferenceinsituatingtheworkoftheseauthorsistheir
distinctculturalheritage.Aswesawinthepreviouschapter,Ballard’sworkis
stagedglobally,althoughitsfocustendstobeona‘typicallyBritish’middleclass,
representationofwhichmaybeextendedtoaglobalbourgeois,asinSuper-
Cannes,reflectinghisconcernsregardingthe‘bourgeoisation’oflifemore
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generally.BallardalsoseekstotracetheinfluenceofAmericancultureon
WesternEurope,whilstatthesametimerecognisingthattraditionalideasof
bordersandnationalitymaystillholdweight,despitetheneoliberalrubricof
‘globalcitizens.’Incontrasttothis,Egan’sworkisfirmlysituatedasAmerican,
althoughittooutilisesglobalstaging,acrossEurope,AfricaandSouthAmerica.
Americanliteraturehas,asisfrequentlynoted,beenheavilyinvolvedintheself-
consciouscreationofanationalidentity.AsGreilMarcusandWernerSollorsput
itintheirintroductiontoANewLiteraryHistoryofAmerica(2009),“thisisthe
storyofamade-upnationthatinmanywaysprecededitssociety.Itsliterature
wasnotinheritedbutinvented,asifitwereatooloramachine,anddiscovered,
asifitwereagoldstrikeorthenextwonderoftheLouisianaPurchase.”478
Americanidentity,initsearliestincarnation,waspredicatedondenyingthe
socio-politicalsystemsthatgaveshapetoEurope,particularlyBritainand
France.479TobeAmerican,accordingtoitsnationalmythology,istobeaself-
determiningindividual,evenaspartofthewhole(epluribusunum,indeed).This
individualisingtendencyofAmericanidentityaccordsneatlywiththeatomistic
agendaofneoliberalism,andisexploredextensivelythroughoutEgan’swork-
thisisanexplicitthemeofLookatMe,thoughitrecurstosomeextentineachof
hernovels.InseekingtolocateEganinamorespecificcontemporarycritical
framework,Iwilllookbrieflyatthewayinwhichherworkhasbeententatively
situatedinthecontextofpostmodernity,NewSincerity,andthe‘neoliberal
novel,’inordertoteaseoutthemostusefulcriticalstartingpointfor
understandingwhatEgan’sworkistryingtodo–oreven,whatishappeningin
478GreilMarcusandWernerSollorseditors.ANewLiteraryHistoryofAmericaBelknapPress:Cambridge,Ma,London:2009.’Introduction’pp.xxi–xxvii,p.xxiii.Ifeelsafeinsayingtheseassertionsarefairlyuncontroversial,formingastheydothebasisonmostintroductoryAmericanliteraturecoursesand,likewise,theframeworkformostliteraryanthologies,eventhosethatseektowrestlewiththeartificialityofthisnationhoodandthehistoricallyexclusionarynatureoftheAmericanliterarycanon,asMarcusandSollors’workdoes.479AsisevidentinJ.HectorSt.JeandeCrèvecoeur’sdescriptionsofthearrivalofanEnglishmantonewAmerica.Crèvecoeurwrites:“Whatatrainofpleasingideasthisfairspectaclemustsuggest;itisaprospectwhichmustinspireanewcitizenwiththemostheartfeltpleasure.Thedifficultyconsistsinthemannerofviewingsoextensiveascene.Heisarrivedonanewcontinent;amodernsocietyoffersitselftohiscontemplation,differentfromwhathehadhithertoseen.Itisnotcomposed,asinEurope,ofgreatlordswhopossesseverything,andofaherdofpeoplewhohavenothing.Herearenoaristocraticalfamilies,nocourts,nokings,nobishops,noecclesiasticaldominion,noinvisiblepowergivingtoafewaveryvisibleone;nogreatmanufacturersemployingthousands,nogreatrefinementsofluxury.”LettersFromanAmericanFarmer,p.39-40.
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Egan’swork,whichmightnotbebestdescribedinthelanguageofintentionality,
aswewillsee.
Therangeoftermsgivenaboveasastartingpointsignalsoneofthe
foremostdifficultiesofdiscussingEgan’swork,whichisitsvery
contemporaneity.Thatis,itispossibletoregardBallard’sworkinsomesortof
historicalcontext,becausethemomentonwhichitcommented,therealityit
invented,hassincepassed.Ballard’sworkisboundedbyitsinscriptionand
immanencetothematerialcircumstanceinwhichitwaswritten,evenasit
pushestowardsthe‘nextfiveminutes.’Egan’sworkoccupiesadifferent
temporalmodality,whichIwillseektooutlinehereandexplainthroughclose
readingofherworkbelow.Thisisalsopartofamoregeneraldifficultyin
categorisingcontemporaryliteratureafterpostmodernity,whichhasbeenthe
subjectofconsiderablediscussionamongstliteraryscholars,someofwhom,
suchasMarkMcGurlandMathiasNilges,informmyeffortstosituateEgan’s
work.Tostart,then,wewillbeginatthebeginning–thatis,AdamKelly’s
accountofEgan’swork,in‘BeginningwithPostmodernism’(2011).Thisessay
concentratesonunpackingtherelationshipbetweenEgan’sLookatMeandher
postmodernliteraryinheritance.Kellyusesthisasanexemplaryreadingwith
whichtomakeaseriesoflargerpointsaboutthewayinwhichwedoormight
‘beginwith’postmodernisminoureffortstooffercriticalaccountsofboth
contemporaryfiction,broadlyspeaking,andindividualcontemporaryfictions.480
Inalaterpieceofwork,Kellycontinuesonfromthisbeginning,tentatively
claimingEganfor‘NewSincerity,’thecriticalschooldescribedinhisessay,
‘DavidFosterWallaceandtheNewSincerityinAmericanFiction’(2010).WhatI
wanttodohereistodrawalinefromthesereadingsthroughtoNilges’s
invocationofAVisitFromtheGoonSquadasa‘neoliberalnovel,’inorderto
connecttheextantcriticaldotsonreadingEgan.Thisisalsoanefforttoworkout
thegroundingforreadingEgan’sworkinapoliticalcontext,asanyapproachthat
connectsittoneoliberalismmustinevitablyseekto.Thisexamination,then,is
twofold:whatisthisworktryingtodo?Andthen,whatdoesthisworkdo?
480Inaway,LookatMeistheexemplaryproblematicofEgan’snovelstoo,initsovertuseoftheformsandtechniquesofpostmodernliteratureandfrequentandintrusiveinsistenceonforegroundingitsowntextuality(aswewillseeinclosereading).
174
Egan’sworkisdifficulttosituatebecauseitenactsarepeateddisavowalof
seriousnessinitsconstantrecoursetoirony–typicallypostmodern-butalso
demonstratesasustainedengagementwiththewayinwhichpeopleliveunder
neoliberalism–apparentlysincere,andalso,perhaps,incipientlypolitical.Here
tooliesthecruxofthedifferencebetweenBallard’sworkandEgan’s.Where
Ballardfocusesonoutsiders,onthosewhostruggleagainsttheapparently
totalisingsystemsofneoliberalism,Egan’sworkconcentratesoninsiders–on
thestruggletoliveinsideofthesesystemsandofthewayinwhich,as‘insiders,’
thesecharactersareoftencomplicitintheirownimbricationinneoliberalism,
andtheneoliberalhappinessdiscourseIamtracinginthisthesis.Eganalso
continuestheextensivethematisationofimaginationmarkedinBallard’swork,
categorisedinmyreadingofhisworkasaspaceofaffectivepotential(after
Massumi).
Themoststraightforwardwaytobeginto‘drawaline’betweenthesecritical
accountsofEganis,Ithink,toconcentrateonthetemporalmodeinwhichher
novelsoperate.In‘BeginningwithPostmodernism,’Kellycharacterisesthe
relationshipbetweenEgan’snovelsandthepostmoderntraditionasbest
describedasgothic.481Towit,hesuggeststhatthewayinwhichEgan’swork
invokesthetropesandtechniquesofthegothicproducesasenseoftheuncanny,
whichreintroduces“resonancesandspectersofhistoryintothenovel’sformas
wellasinitscontent.”482Thisis,infact,commontoEgan’snovels,almostallof
whichoperateinwhatIwillcallherethe‘neoliberalgothic’anddemonstratea
similarpreoccupationwithtimeandhistory,expressedthrough‘haunted’
narrativesinwhichtemporalityisconstantlyuncertain.Forexample,inThe
InvisibleCircus,towhichwewillcomeshortly,theprimarynarrativeofPhoebe
O’Connorisconstantlyshaped,underpinned,andinterruptedbythatofherlong-
deceasedsister,Faith;thisispartofalargerthemenegotiatingthetransition
fromthenineteensixtiestothenineteenseventiesinAmerica.Novels
demonstratingthisformalpreoccupationwithtimearedescribedbyNilgesas
Zeitroman,andheincludesAVisitFromtheGoonSquadasanexampleofthe
481AdamKelly.‘BeginningwithPostmodernism,’Twentieth-CenturyLiterature57.3&57.4,2011,pp.391-422,p.394.482Kelly.‘BeginningwithPostmodernism,’p.394.
175
genre.483Thisisafeatureofwhathecallsthe‘neoliberalnovel’becauseofthe
changingnatureoftimeunderneoliberalism,describedasa“temporal
immediacy,”referringtothecontractionoftherelationshipbetweenworkerand
capital(nolongermediatedthroughthesalaryrelationship),afterMarazzi.484
Thisisalsoconnectedtothe‘paceoflife’enabledbynewtechnologies:
“Neoliberalismproducesandrequiresanewformoftimeandtemporalitythatis
moredirectlytiedtoactivitiesthatwerepreviouslyindependentofthe
productionprocess[includingintellectualandemotionalactivity].”485Nilges
continues,suggestingthatneoliberalismrequires“astructuralliteralisationof
temporalimmediacy,thatis,forinstance,connectedtothespeedoftradeand
communicationinthecontextofwhichwewitnessthecontractionoftimeinto
instantaneity.”486NilgesfollowsthiswithFrancoBerardi’sconceptof
‘hypercomplexity,’whichexpressesthebombardmentofinformation
experiencedbytheneoliberalsubjectandthedifficultyofprocessingthis
informationduetoitsrateofarrivalandstructuralcomplexity.487Nilgesis
seekingtore-establishtheantagonisticfunctionofliteraturewithinculture,
throughemphasisingitsabilitytocreateaspaceinwhichthefuturemaybe
imaginedasdifference:thisismyfundamentalapproachtoo.488Partofthis,
Nilgessuggests,istodowiththeformofthenovel.Thisformcanresistthe
immediacyofotherartforms,suchascinemaandphotographyand,
unmentioned,butimplicit,andimportant,allandanyartmadeonline,onemust
assume.Thisoccurs,Nilgessuggests,throughthenovel’s,
483MathiasNilges.‘Neoliberalismandthetimeofthenovel,’TextualPractice,29:2,2015,pp.357-377,p.372.484Nilges.‘Neoliberalismandthetimeofthenovel,’p.368-9.ItisMarazzi’sterm,“newtimes,”thatIhaveborrowedforthetitleofthissection.485Nilges‘Neoliberalismandthetimeofthenovel,’p.368.486Nilges‘Neoliberalismandthetimeofthenovel,’p.368.487Thereismoretobesaidhere,Ithink,asregardsthewayinwhichinformationisreceivedasamassornetworkduetotheaccessibilityofallinformation(theoreticallyatleast),butformycurrentpurpose,thespecificsofthisoperationarelessimportantthantheimpactithasonsubjects–engenderingakindofinformation‘daze,’ifyoulike,thatreplicatesthesamechaosofchoicebywhichsubjectsareobligedtoimbricatethemselvesinneoliberalnetworksofproductionandconsumption.488Iwillexplorethespecific‘case’forliterature,andthenovelinparticular,astheidealvehicleforthis(and,indeed,forthekindofcriticalapproachIamtakinginthisthesisasthebestwaytounderstandthispotential),intheintroduction/conclusion.
176
reconfigurationofthetemporallimitofneoliberalismasahistorically
specifictemporalimaginary,onethatisdirectlyrelatedtospecific
historicalconditionsandthatassuchdoesnotmarktheendoftime
itselfbutratherthecrisisofoneofneoliberalism’sconstitutive
dimensions.489
Theoppositionalformoftheneoliberalnovelisseenheretolieinthenovel’s
processualaccountoftherelationshipbetweensubjectandworld,which
demonstratesaresistancetothetemporalimmediacycharacterisedaboveasa
constituentfeatureofneoliberalismandanabilitytoworkthrough(orwrite
through)temporalcrises.490Thisoppositionalfunctionrevealsthatsame
contradictionattheheartofneoliberalismthatIhaveoutlinedthroughoutthis
thesis:theneedforfuturity-toguaranteecontinuedproductiveparticipation-
andtheforeclosureofitspossibilitygiventhelimitationsofconstantimmediacy
-shortterm,orprecarious,lifenarratives.Wecanseethis,too,inNilges’s
accountofwhatheidentifiesasthetwotypesofneoliberalnovel,distinguishing
betweennovelsthat“reproducethesymptom(alackoftimeandfuturity,
seekingrefugeinthepastintheabsenceofbeingabletoimaginethefutureas
difference)andthosethatengagewithneoliberalismasboundupwiththe
questionofthenovel’spossibilityasanartform.”491Thenovelcaninventour
ownrealityandthusforceustoconfrontit,oritcanattemptanimaginative
investigationoftheconditionsofthisreality.AlthoughIfindNilges’sworkvery
useful,Iamnotsosurethatthereisaharddistinctionbetweenthesetwo‘types’:
infact,myreadingofBallardsuggestedthatthefirstmightactuallyenablethe
second,whereBallarddesignedthisconfrontationinordertopushthereader
towardsexploringtheirownimaginativecapacity,oraffectivepotential.Wewill
seehowthisworksinEgan’snovels.
Egan’sinterest,asIhopetodemonstratethroughoutthissection,liesfirstand
foremostinthenovelasform.Kellyhassuggestedthatherworknegotiatesthe
largerquestionsofsincerityhehasidentifiedasshapingtheworkofDavid489Nilges‘Neoliberalismandthetimeofthenovel,’p.372.490Thisunderstandingalsodemonstrateswhyapocalypticnovelsmayhavelimitedutilityinrepresentingneoliberalism,underpinningtheemergenceofthis‘newspeculativefiction,’asIhavetentativelydescribedtheworkofBallardandEgan,aswellasothers,suchasMichelHouellebecq.491Nilges‘Neoliberalismandthetimeofthenovel,’p.372.
177
FosterWallace,whicharethequestionsofhowtherelationshipbetweenauthor
andreadermightbesincere,inaroughlypostmodernframework-thatis,how
doesthereflexivelyself-awareauthorwritetheirwayoutofthedoublebindof
postmodernirony?Whileacknowledgingthatthisisthecontextfromwhich
Egan’sworkemerges,Iamnotconvincedthatthisiswhatisactuallyatstakein
herwork;infact,asIintendtodemonstrate,thepreoccupationofherworkis
thefunctionoffictionforfiction’ssake.Thus,positinganintendedrelationship
withthereader,sincereorotherwise,overlooksherowndisavowals,bothwithin
hernovelsandininterviews,etc.492Iamuneasyaboutendorsingthepolitical
potentialofliteratureconceivedundertheheadingof‘NewSincerity’becauseit
seemstomeitmightaccordtooneatlywiththede-radicalisedpoliticsof
intimacyIhaveelsewheresuggestedbridgesthewayforpost-truthpolitics
throughitsequivalencebetweenfactandfeeling.493Nilges’saccountofthe
functionoftheneoliberalnovelallowsawaytoreadEgan’sworkinapolitical
contextwhilststillacknowledgingthatthismaybeunintentional–itoccursdue
toapreoccupationwithform,andthepotentialofthisform,ratherthanasan
extendedthematicexploration,perBallard’swork.Inthisway,Eganherselfcan
dodgeattemptstogeta‘criticalhandle’onherwork(whichshefrequentlydoes),
but,atthesametime,theworkmaystillhaveapoliticalfunction.Thisisthe
backdropagainstwhichIamstartingmyexplorationofneoliberalhappiness
discourseinEgan’snovels-withadisavowalofmyown.Weshouldbecareful,I
think,inattributingtoomuchtowhatEganistryingtomakehappenoffthepage,
492JenniferEganinterviewedbyChristopherCox.TheParisReviewJune252010,www.theparisreview.org/blog/2010/06/25/qa-jennifer-egan/-here,Egandiscusseshowhernovelsareoftena‘workingout’ofliterarytheory;JenniferEganinterviewedbyHeidiJulavits,Bomb,112,2010.bombmagazine.org/article/3524/jennifer-egan-thesamepointemergeshere.493Thisisnotintendedtodismisstheutilityofthetermentirely,butIthinkmyscepticismissupportedbythewayinwhichithasbeenappropriatedasacommercialform;see,forexample,thefilmsofWesAnderson,orthemusicofVampireWeekend,towhomthelabelhasbeenapplied.Greaterconsiderationisrequiredoftheutilityoftheformagainsttheuncertainboundariesofthepersonalandpolitical,particularlywhenitcomestodefiningselfhoodthroughpreference.Ithinkthesekindofpreferencesalsohaveimplicationsforshapingsubjectagencyinapoliticalsense,asIhaveintimatedelsewhereinthisthesis(“it’swhatyoulike,notwhatyouarelike”).Theunderlyinglogicofvulnerabilitythatshapespopularunderstandingoftheconceptneedstobeinterrogatedinthissamevein,andattendedtothroughconsideringhowthe‘middleclassification’Ihavepointedtoelsewhereisplayedoutintheseattachmentsoridentifications.
178
toparaphraseZadieSmith,asquotedbyKelly.494Despitethis,itmaystillbethat,
againstallintention,somethingdoeshappen.ThisistheframeworkinwhichI
willexplorehowEgan’sworkwrestleswithconceptionsofhappinessunder
neoliberalism.
494OriginallytakenfromSmith’sintroductiontoashortstorycollectioncalledTheBurnedChildrenofAmericaeditedbyMarcoCassiniandMartinaTesta,LondonandNewYork:HamishHamilton,2003,pp.xi-xxii,p.xx.
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TheInvisibleCircus:PromisesWeCouldn’tKeep
JenniferEgan’sfirstnovel,TheInvisibleCircus,waspublishedin1995,andtells
thestoryofPhoebeO’Connor,aneighteenyear-oldAmericanwhoembarksona
pilgrimagetoEurope,retracingajourneymadebyhersister,Faith,whokilled
herselfinasmalltowninItalyadecadeearlier.LikeBallard’snovels,theplot
seemstolooselyfollowtheconventionsofthedetectiveform.Phoebeuses
postcardssentbyhersisterasclues,followingherjourneyinaneffortto
discoverthereasonforherdeath.Wemightalsoreadthesepostcardsasakind
ofgothicepistolaryframing,permysuggestionthatmuchofEgan’swork
operatesinthemodeoftheneoliberalgothic.ThenovelissetinSanFranciscoin
1978,alandmarkyearintheriseofneoliberalism,accordingtoDavidHarvey:
“Futurehistoriansmaywelllookupontheyears1978-80asarevolutionary
turning-pointintheworld’ssocialandeconomichistory.”495IfBallard’swork
demonstratedanawarenessofthe‘neoliberalturn’fromitsveryinception,Egan
takesitasherfictionalstartingpoint,situatingthereaderattheprecipiceofthe
seismicchangeaboutto“remaketheworldaroundusinatotallydifferent
image.”496Morethanthis,inTheInvisibleCircus,Eganexpandsonthe
relationshipbetweentheculturalrupturesofthenineteensixtiesandthe
evolutionofneoliberalismandits‘new’subject,alsotoucheduponinBallard’s
work.Eganplacesemphasisontheideaof‘self-objectification’andthewayin
whichthisisrootedintheriseofmediatedselfhoodemergentinthesixties,as
wewillsee.Eventheprimarysettingofthenovel–seventiesSanFrancisco–is
involvedintheseculturalshifts.Oncetheholygrailofhippyculture,thelocation
oftheSummerofLove,SanFranciscoisnowwidelygentrified,thankstothetech
industryofSiliconValley,withincomeinequalityandhousingscarcityrising
yearonyear.497ThereisanodtothisinthefigureofBarryO’Connor,Phoebe’s
495DavidHarvey.ABriefHistoryofNeoliberalismOxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2008,p.1.496Harvey.ABriefHistoryofNeoliberalism,p.1.Theword“image”isimportanthere,too,reflectingasitdoesboththedeliberatevisionofneoliberalismandanemphasisonappearance;anemphasisthatinformsmuchofEgan’swriting,which,aswewillsee,returnsagainandagaintothespectacle,theaudience,andthewaysinwhichself-perceptionismediatedandshapedbyother-perceptionengenderedbynewtechnologiesoftheselfwhichrenderthesubjectatoncecentralandperipheral,performerandobserver.497MariaLLaGanga.‘Ordinarypeoplecan’taffordahomeinSanFrancisco.Howdiditcometothis?’TheGuardian5August2016www.theguardian.com/business/2016/aug/05/high-house-prices-san-francisco-tech-boom-inequalityThereisastrongrelationshipbetweenhippieculture
180
brother,anewlyrichSiliconValleyentrepreneur,andintheshiftingmoodofthe
cityEgantracesinthenovel.
Thisistheleast‘experimental’ofEgan’snovels,operatingmoreorlessina
straightforwardlyrealistmode.Nevertheless,asIhavesuggested,itoffersan
uncertaintemporalitythroughitsconstantnarrativenegotiationbetweenFaith
andPhoebe-betweenthesixtiesandtheseventies,even-atypicallygothic
doubling.MyreadingofEgan’sworkasneoliberalgothictiesintoNilges’s
readingoftheneoliberalnovelbutreachesformorespecificityregardinghow
neoliberalinfluenceoperatesinEgan’searlynovels.EmilyJohansenoffersa
compellingaccountoftheneoliberalgothicinwhichsherecognisesthe
narrowingofhorizonsofpossibilityasstructurallyessentialtosucha
conception:“iftraditionalgothicnarrativesworkedtoobscureandexorcisethe
crueltiesofliberalcapitalism,inneoliberalgothicnarrativesthecrueltiesare
recognizedasinevitableandinescapable.”498Thisreadingrecognisesthesame
foreclosureoffuturityIhavetracedasthedominantfeatureoflifeunder
neoliberalism.Thisowesmuchtotherhetoricof‘noalternative,’thesource,by
myaccount,ofmuchoftheaffectivedistressneoliberalhappinessdiscourse
seekstomanageandcontain.Thereareotherfeaturesofthegothicthatinflect
TheInvisibleCircusandEgan’slaternovels:thefrequentappearanceofcastles,
andruins;thenarrativeencroachmentoftheOldWorldofEurope;theparanoia
thatinfectsbothnarrativesandcharacters;andthepreoccupationwiththe
fragmentedsubject.AsJoelFaflakandJasonHaslamputit,“thegothicexpresses
paranoiathatreasonmightbeasvolatileoranachronisticasthehistoriesand
customsitforcedunderground,whichiswhythegothicitselfappearsatonce
anachronisticandfreakishlynovel.”499ThissupportsmycontentionthatEgan’s
novelsmaybedoingmorethantheyareostensiblyintendedto,andmoves
andthetechindustry,too,asexploredbyFredTurnerinFromCounterculturetoCyberculture:StewartBrand,theWholeEarthNetwork,andtheRiseofDigitalUtopianism,Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2006.498EmilyJohansen.‘TheNeoliberalGothic:GoneGirl,BrokenHarbor,andtheTerrorofEverydayLife,’ContemporaryLiterature,57:1,2016.pp.30-55.p.30.Myemphasis.Iwillalsonoteherethattheverylanguageofthissentence–theterm“recognized”–demonstratestheexacttotalisinghorizonofhopelessnessneoliberalismseekstoenact,andbetraysthenaturalisationofthisinevitability,evenasJohansenworkstounpackhowliteraturemayseektodestabilisethese‘inevitabilities.’499JoelFaflakandJasonHaslam.AmericanGothicCulture,Edinburgh:EdinburghUniversityPress,2016,p.5.
181
towardsaddressingKelly’sassertionthat“itcanbedifficulttoidentifyexactly
whatEgan’sworkbringstothepostmoderntablethatwehaven’tseen
before.”500
The“anachronisticandfreakishlynovel”seemstomeagooddescriptionof
theeffectofEgan’sformstraddling.FaflakandHaslam’sdescriptionalso
demonstrateshowtheneoliberalgothicworksasanexemplarygenrewithinthe
morebroadneoliberalnovelformoutlinedbyNilges.Iftheparanoidturnin
gothicliteratureexpressesfearattheinadequacyofreason,itspeaksperfectlyto
thedistressofsubjectswhoareinterpellatedto(re)makethemselvesaccording
tothepurportedlyrational‘businessontology’ofneoliberalismandfindthat
theycannot.Thisisthedisjuncturebetweentheoriesof‘marketlogic’andthe
experienceofthe‘chaosofchoice,’theparanoidtoneofthegothicexpressingthe
unspeakableexperienceofbecomingneoliberal,asitwere.Althoughnoneof
thesenovels,barTheKeep,aredeliberatelywrittenasgothic,therecurrenceof
gothicfeaturesbetraysthisdistinctlyneoliberalanxiety,perJohansen’swork.In
fact,itmaybethattheunintentionalgothicismofthenovelsenactsan
expressionofthisanxietythatisnotovertlydealtwithintheirtext.Johansen
alsoassertsthatitisnotnecessarilythe‘typicallygothic’thatmakeswork
operatinginthismodegrotesque,butinstead,“thewaythedemandsof
neoliberalsubject-formationcannothelpbutcreatemonstersorasenseof
decline,despitearhetoricofcontinuousevolutionaryimprovement.”501Again,
thisgoestotheheartofmyaccountofthewayinwhichthefigureoftheideal
neoliberalsubjectisonewhomostpeoplearenotlike,perRichardSennett.This
willberevisitedextensivelyinexploringLookatMe,whichexplicitlythematises
thisdisjuncture.
ThegothicdoublingsanduncertaintemporalmodalitiesofTheInvisibleCircus
areapparentfromitsbeginning.Phoebearrivesattheadvertisedsiteofthe
‘RevivalofMoons,’aneventmarkingtenyearssincea‘FestivalofMoons.’Half
thepostersadvertisingtheeventwereprintedwiththewrongdate,andasa
result,shehasmissedit.Theseuncertaintextualartefactsaretypicallygothic,
too.Atthesite,sheencountersKyle,orCatnip,whowasafriendofhersister’s.
500Kelly.‘BeginningwithPostmodernism’p.392.501Johansen.‘TheNeoliberalGothic,’p.31.
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Almostimmediately,hesaystoher,“Man...youlookalotlikethisgirlIusedto
know.”502EvenPhoebe’snameconsignshertoasecondaryposition,emphasised
bythenameofthefestival:thegoddessPhoebe(alsoArtemis)isassociatedwith
themoon,alight-borrower.Phoebe’snamingalsoplacesherintheliterary
lineageoflittlesisters,linkinghertoHoldenCaulfield’sroller-skatingkidsister,
Phoebe,oneofthefewpeoplethedisaffectednarratorofJ.D.Salinger’sThe
CatcherintheRye(1951)canstand.ItistoPhoebethatHoldenrecountsthe
titularfantasyofthatnovel,hisdreamofkeepinglittlechildrenplayinginafield
ofryefromrunningofftheedgeofanearbycliff,inspiredbyamisremembered
RobertBurnspoem.Holden’sfantasyrepresentsadreamofpreserving
innocence,ofkeepingsafetheincorruptibilityofchildhood,inthesameway
Saint-Exupéry’snarratorinTheLittlePrincesoughttoresistthestricturesof
adulthood.InTheInvisibleCircus,Phoebehasbecometrappedinakindof
perpetualpre-adolescence,afraidtoparticipateintheteenageritesofpassage
intowhichhersistersorecklesslythrewherself-sex,drugs,rebellion.Her
brothercriticisesthedomesticsituationenjoyedbysheandhermother:“Imean,
Jesus,Phoebe,it’sbeenyearsandnothing’schanged;it’slikeGreat
Expectations.”503Phoebe’sliminalselfhoodistiedtotheuncertaintyofAmerican
identityasawholeinthenineteenseventies,throughthe‘hangover’ofthe
sixties.Acommoncharacterisationofthesixtiesisasthedecadethatsawthe
‘endofinnocence’inAmerica,oftenlinkedtotheassassinationofPresidentJohn
F.Kennedy.504Theassassinationisdirectlyreferencedinthenovel,whenPhoebe
ispackingupsomeofhersister’sbelongingsandcomesacrossamagazine
spreadfeaturing,“JohnF.Kennedy’sshootinginaseriesoffreeze-frames–Jackie
holdingthePresident’shead,thencrawlinginhershortskirtoverthebackofthe
movingcar–eachmomentsostill,sodeeplyfamiliar,likeimagesfromPhoebe’s
owndreams.”505ThefrozenmomentofdisasterechoestheshapeofPhoebe’s
502JenniferEgan.TheInvisibleCircus1995London:Corsair,2012,p.4.503TheInvisibleCircus,p.23.504ThereisextensiveliteratureavailableontheupheavalsofthesixtiesandthewayinwhichthisreshapedAmericaandtheAmericansenseofself.See,forexample,DavidFarber’sTheAgeofGreatDreams:Americainthe1960s,NewYork:HillandWang,1994,orToddGitlin,TheSixties:YearsofHope,DaysofRage,NewYork:Bantam,1989.505TheInvisibleCircus,p.83.
183
ownlife,andthedream-likequalityoftheimagesspeakstothewayinwhichthe
assassinationisetchedintheAmericanpublicimagination.
Thismomentisrepresentativeofthewidercharacterisationofthenineteen
sixtiesasamomentofhistoricalruptureinAmericanculture,particularlyinthe
popularconservativeimagination,asThomasFrankdescribesinTheConquestof
Cool(1997).506Frank’sworkhighlightstheriseofyouthcultureasaconsumer
demographicduringthisperiod,intimatingtheriseofmediatedidentityfor
thosecomingofageduringtheseupheavals.Thiswasreflectedinmediacontent
too,whichgavesubstantial(oftendisapproving)coveragetothemovement,as
JohnAnthonyMorettadescribesinTheHippies:A1960sHistory(2017),andas
gesturedtowardsearlyinthenovel:
InthepubliclibraryPhoebehadspenthoursporingoveroldOracles,
leafingthroughscholarlyandjournalisticaccountsofthe‘Love
Generation’.Butshereadwitharestless,uneasysuspicionthatthese
analyseswereleadingherfurtherfromthemystery’score,not
towardit.507
InTheInvisibleCircus,Egandrawsaparallelbetweenthehippieexperienceof
mediaattentionandthecurrentconditionshebroadlyreferstoas‘self-
objectification,’whichisinpracticeconnectedtonewformsofselfhoodenabled
(orrequired)bycontemporarytechnologiessuchasrealitytelevisionandonline
socialmedias.ThiscomparisonisevidentwhenFaith’sex-boyfriend,Wolf,
describestheInvisibleCircuseventtoPhoebe:
Theideawasforeveryonetoliveouttheircraziestfantasiesatonce.
Meanwhilethese‘reporters’weretakingnotesoneverythingthat
happened,thenRichardBrautigan–nojoke,Brautiganhimself–
wouldtypeupthenotesinto‘newsbulletins’andmimeograph
hundredsofcopiesthatgotpassedaroundinstantly,sonotonlywere
peopledoingallthiscrazyshit,butalotoftimestheywerereading
aboutthemselvesdoingitbeforethey’devenfinished.508
506SeeThomasFrank.TheConquestofCool:BusinessCulture,Counterculture,andtheRiseofHipConsumerism.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1997,pp.1-5.507TheInvisibleCircus,p.31.508TheInvisibleCircus,p.194-5.
184
AfterWolfrecountsthisanecdote,Phoebesaysitsoundslikeadream,andWolf
says,“That’sexactlyhowitfelt.”509Whereshemeansthatitsoundsdreamy,
exciting,novel,hemeansitinreferencetothesensationofbeingmadeunreal
throughtheexperienceofreflexiveself-objectification.Throughthisprocess,the
subjectbecomesperipheralevenwhilstapparentlycentral,astheuncertainand
changeablerealityoftheembodiedselfisinscribedintothepermanenceoftext
andmadevisibleinthisway.510WolfandFaithareofagenerationwhoself-
consciouslysawthemselveswrittenintohistory,andWolf,likeEgan,isnotsure
thiswasapositivedevelopment.
Thisdescriptionalsolinkstheemergenceofthismediatedselftotheriseof
literarypostmodernism,invokingBrautigan,amemberoftheBeatgeneration
andanearlypostmodernist.511Egan’sobsessionwithtextualityandwiththe
literaryantecedentsofherworkisnotgivenfullexpressioninthisnovel–todo
sowhilstadheringtothebroadlyrealistmodeinwhichthenovelworkswould
straintheform,asisthecaseinherlaternovels,aswewillsee.Inthispassage,
Wolfdescribestheprocessbywhichthesixtieswerehistoricised,andbetrays
Egan’sprimarycharacterisationofsixtiescounterculture–“Theideawasfor
everyonetoliveouttheircraziestfantasiesatonce.”Egan’sdepictionofthe
nineteensixtiesemphasisesdesirefortranscendenceastheguidingaegisofthe
counterculturalmovement.Thereissomeimplicationherethatpostmodernism
emergedasaliteraryformalongsidethisdesire–notasanattempttotranscend
realityitself,butasaliteraryefforttocapturetheseeffortsattranscendence,or
todocumenttheupheavalsoftheera.Assuch,itmaybethatthisliteratureoffers
acloserencounterwiththe“mystery’score”thanthosejournalisticaccounts
Phoebemistrusts.Thelargerimplicationofthisreadingisthatliteraturehas
bothamaterialgroundingandaresponsibilityofrepresentation,bothofwhich
areproblematicareaswithinEgan’sownwriting;thisbecomesevidentasher
oeuvreprogresses,andthetensionsbetweentherealistandpostmodernist
impulsesinherworkareincreasinglyexposed.
509TheInvisibleCircus,p.195.510Thistooisconnectedtonewtechnologiesoftheself,aswillbeexploredindetailwhenlookingatLookatMeandTheKeep.511SeeBrianMcHale,PostmodernistFiction,LondonandNewYork:Routledge,1987,particularlypp.110-1,156-7.
185
Incontrasttothepassageabove,whichforegroundsself-reflexivetendencies
withincounterculturalartisticpractice,Faith’sexperienceofbecomingamedia
objectisexplicitlyconnectedtoheremergentpoliticalactivism.Amongstthe
sameclippingsfromwhichshepluckstheJFKimages,Phoebefindsothernews
stories,ontheTetOffensive,theMarchonthePentagon,andonewiththe
headline‘OAKLANDDRAFTPROTEST,ABLOODYATTACKBYPOLICE-CLUBS,
TEARGAS,BOOTS.MANYAREINJURED.20ARRESTED.’512Accompanyingthe
headlineisaphotographofFaith,takenmomentsbeforeapoliceofficerhither
overtheheadwithabillyclub.FormanyyoungAmericans,thedraftforceda
personalconfrontationwithpoliticalreality,andprotestingit,andtheVietnam
War,wasalocusofstudentactivismthroughoutthenineteensixtiesand
seventies.513ForFaith,thispoliticalactivismistiedtoamoregeneralangerat
theworldafterherfather’sdeath.ShedescribestheincidenttoPhoebeand
Barry:“’Ihardlyfeltathing,’Faithsaidfromunderherhair,andPhoebeheard
theexcitementinhervoice.‘Myteethknockedtogether.’”514LikeBallard’s
characters,violenceexcitesFaith.Inthisencounter,sherunsupagainstaforce
thatshecanrecogniseas‘bad’andactivelyresist;shehassomepowerhere.The
mediacoverageoftheeventservestounderlinethis.Phoebemarvelsatthe
minorcelebrityitbestowsonhersister:
Phoebe…foundhereyeswanderingagainandagaintothe
newspaperpicture.Faithwashereinthiskitchenbutshewasthere,
too,inthenews.Phoebestaredattheimage:protestorsandpolice,
thebillyclubdescendingtowardshersister’sheadlikeamagic
wand.515
Thishead-oncollisionwithviolenceprovestobeprophetic;whilstinEurope,
Faithbecomesinvolvedwithaterroristgroup,andparticipatesinplantinga
bombthatinadvertentlykillsaman.Phoebelearnsthislateoninthenovel,from
Wolf,whoneverreturnedtoAmerica.Itwas,ostensibly,theguiltshe
experiencedfollowingtheman’sdeaththatdroveFaithtokillherself.WhenWolf
512TheInvisibleCircus,p.84.513SeeSherryGershonGottleibHellNo,WeWon’tGo!ResistingtheDraftDuringtheVietnamWarNewYork:VikingPress,1991.514TheInvisibleCircus,p.85.515TheInvisibleCircus,p.85.
186
describesFaith’sinvolvementwiththesegroups,however,heevincesthesame
senseofenthrallmentPhoebefeelswhenshethinksofhersister:“Everything
they[theRedArmyFaction]didwentstraightintothenews–instantly,this
druggyout-of-bodything,seeingyourselffrommilesaway,knowingzillionsof
peoplewerefollowingeachlittlethingyoudid…imagineit.”516Wolf,too,is
dazzledbyFaith’snotoriety,whichinthenoveltranslateseasilytocelebrityin
counterculturalterms,likethatofthe“ultimatechiclefty,”UlrikeMeinhof.517
ThisinterestincelebrityisarecurrentthemeinEgan’swork,whereshe
tacitlylinkstheriseofcontemporarycelebrityculturetotheurgetoself-
objectify.EarlyoninTheInvisibleCircus,welearnthatPhoebehassleptinher
sister’sroomforthepastthreeyears,maintainingitinexactlythestateinwhich
Faithleftit.Forthisreason,sherarelyhasvisitorstoherhome;sheisawareof
hereccentricity,buttoherminditisstilllessstrangethantheidolatryof
celebrityculture:“howwaslivinginyoursister’sroomanycrazierthan
surroundingyourselfwithlife-sizepostersofRogerDaltrey…orfollowingthe
personallivesofStarskyandHutch…?”518Phoebetreatshersister’sroomasa
shrine,andherattachmenttoitandtothememoryofFaiththreatenstodoom
hertoapermanentliminality,asBarrysuggestsinhisimplicitconnection
betweenhissisterandDickens’sMissHavisham.UnlikeFaith,whoindeathcan
neverbedifferent,Phoebestillhasthechancetogrowup–orwouldifshecould
letgoofthepast.
‘Growingup’isanideatowhichEganreturnsthroughoutherwork,andher
accountofgrowingupisapoliticallyconsequentialone,evenifitisnotframed
assuch(perhapsevenmoresobecauseitiscovert).InEgan’snovels,growingup
meansacceptingtherealitiesoftheworldandconstructingalifeforoneselfin
whichimmediatenormativegoodobjects-family,homeownership,marriage-
offerthepossibilityofmomentsofgrace,throughwhichindividuallifeisseento
accruevalueandmeaning.ThisiswhyWolfisabletoescapefromthe‘wreckage’
ofFaith’ssuicideandhisentanglementinthecounterculturalmovement-he
realisesthis‘secret’:“maybetherealthingwasjustdoingwhathisparentshad
516TheInvisibleCircus,,p.245.517TheInvisibleCircus,p.230.518TheInvisibleCircus,p.29-30.
187
done,paytherent,readthepaper,hell,maybethatwasthedare.Tolive–dayin,
dayout.Justlive.Itfeltlikearevelation.”519Thefirstdifficultywiththis
formulationisitspoliticalquietism:inassertingtheimpossibilityofenacting
change,itacquiescestotheneoliberallogicof‘noalternative.’Thesecondisthat
itignorestheideologicalfunctionofthesegoodobjects,treatingthemas
apparentlyneutralanduniversallydesirable,andignoringthewaysinwhich
theyinterpellatesubjectsincapitalistprocessesofproductionandconsumption,
aswellascircumscribingalteritythroughtheirlimitedaccountofthe‘goodlife.’
ThisistheassumptionSaraAhmedchallengesinThePromiseofHappiness
(2010)whenshelooksatthoseexcludedfromthe‘historyofhappiness,’suchas
thefeministkilljoy,theunhappyqueer,andthemelancholymigrant.
Relyingonconstructionsofthe‘goodlife’whicharenotavailabletomany
subjectsbecauseofthefragmentingimpactofneoliberaleconomicpolicies,and
theattendantsocialandculturalchangestrackedthroughoutthisthesis,only
perpetuatesdistress.Ascribinguniversalitytothesegoalsignorestheirlimiting
functions,whichmayfurtherdamagesubjectswhodonotseethemaseither
goodordesirable.ThedamagethisinflictsisdiscernableinEgan’swork:the
characterofFaithisonlythefirstinstanceofmanyinwhichcharacterswhowill
notorcannotconformdie,oftenthroughcommittingsuicide.520Egan’swork
reproducestheconditionsofheteronormativepatriarchalcapitalistcultureas
thoughtheyarenatural.Morethanthis,throughvestinginterestinthe
protagonists’journeyto‘maturity,’Egan’snovelsbecome,ineffect,narrativesof
‘becomingneoliberal.’ThisisnotfullymanifestinTheInvisibleCircus,wherewe
leavePhoebeonthevergeofadulthood,butnotyetthere;anascentneoliberal,
likeAmericaitselfin1978.Inherlaternovels,Egandepictsaworldinwhich
neoliberalmarketlogicisalreadyprimary,anditisthiswhichdictatesthetype
519TheInvisibleCircusp.325.ThisaccordswithAnisShivani’saccountoftheprimacyoftheextraordinarymeaninggiventotheordinaryinagenrehedescribesas“plasticrealism.”Inhisview,thisinintimatelyconnectedtotheneoliberalisationofAmericanliteraryculture.IreturntohisworkinlookingatAVisitFromtheGoonSquad.SeeAnisShivani‘PartII:TheNewGenreofPlasticRealisminAmericanFiction,’HuffingtonPost.June162016www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/part-ii-the-new-genre-of-_b_7577230.html.520SeealsothecharactersofRobandRolphinAVisitFromtheGoonSquad.AlthoughRob’sdeathisnominallyaccidental,hehaspreviouslyattemptedsuicide,andtheimplicationisthathismindsetissuicidalatthetimeofhisdeath.
188
ofpersonherprotagonistsmustbecomeinordertoacceptrealityandbecome
grownup.
Letusturn,then,tonascentneoliberalPhoebeO’Connor.Towardsthe
beginningofthenovel,welearnthatPhoebehasimmensedifficultyin
understandingthewiderworld:
herownliferemainedstubbornlyapartfromtheworldofevents.
Governments,armies,networksofundergroundcrooks–theirvery
existencestruckherasimpossible,dizzying.Howhaditallbeen
organized?Whowasincharge?Shewasleftfeelingthatthenews
tookplaceinanotherworld,farfromthequietincrementalonein
whichsheledherlife.521
Phoebecannotlocateherselfinhistory;sheperceivesthepoliticalrealmas
radicallydisconnectedfromherownexperience.Wecanconnectthistothede-
radicalisedpoliticsofintimacy,inwhichsubjectsarediscouragedfromlocating
themselveswithintheframeworkofstructuraldeterminations.Inthissame
framework,theonlyhistoricaleventPhoebefeelsanyconnectiontoisonein
whichsherecognisesherself–thatis,thekidnappingofPattyHearst,which
occurswhenPhoebeisfourteen.EganexplainsPhoebe’sfascinationinhervision
ofPatty:“Patty’slateraccountofrapeandtortureandbrainwashinghaddone
littletoalterPhoebe’svisionofher:adull,privilegedgirldrawnirresistibly
towardaninvisibleborder,thencrossingitintoadark,transcendentworld.”522
PhoeberecognisesherselfinthefigureofHearst.Thisisthelimitofher
imagination.Thisrepresentsarealprobleminthisnovel,andinEgan’swriting
moregenerally–itisdifficulttotellifherworkiscritiquingorexcusingthe
limitedempatheticandimaginativefunctionsofthecharactersitportrays.In
anotherexample,whenCharlotteSwenson,thefashionmodelprotagonistof
LookatMe,istoldthatheractualfriendshipwithahomelessblackmanwould
straincredulityincontextofheronlinelifestory,werecognisethathis
appearanceinthenovellikewisestrainstheboundariesofitssemi-realistform.
Onthesurface,Phoebeappearstobeaconventionallysympathetic
protagonist.Shehaslostherfather,andhersister;sheseemsunabletomove
521TheInvisibleCircus,p.88.522TheInvisibleCircus,p.88.
189
pastthesetragediesandfindaplaceintheworld.Evenhermotherseemstobe
movingon,havingrecentlyembarkeduponarelationshipwithherboss.Itis
Phoebe’sdiscoveryofthisthatpromptsthefightduringwhichhermother
revealsthatherfather,Gene,wasneveragoodpainter,whichresultsinPhoebe
followinginFaith’sfootstepsandrunningawaytoEurope.Oncloser
examination,however,Phoebeisadecidedlyunsympatheticcharacter.Thelimit
ofherunderstandingorinterestintheworldisherself.Shehasafightwithher
mother,andvanishes.WhenshefindsWolf,Faith’sex-boyfriend,shebeginsa
sexualrelationshipwithhim,despitethefactthatheislivingwithawomanto
whomheisengaged-thatrelationshipbreaksdownoverhisinfidelity.Weare
expectedtosympathiseoridentifywithPhoebedespitethefactthatherevery
moveismotivatedbyextremeself-interest.Inthissympathy,wevalorisethe
sameselfishnessandindividualismpropagatedbythecompetitiveandatomising
ethosofneoliberalism.ForPhoebe,itseems,therereallyisnosuchthingas
society–otherpeoplematteronlyastheyrelatetoher.
Lateoninthenovel,PhoebeandWolfgotoNeuschwansteinCastle,which
sparksanuncannyfeelingofrecognitioninPhoebe.Wolfexplainsthatitserved
asthemodelforDisney’sSleepingBeauty’scastle.Besidesthegothic
significationsatworkhere,thissceneseesextensivecommentonPhoebe’s
fondnessfornostalgia,withwhichWolfhaslittletonopatience.Thisnostalgic
tendencyisthesameonetracedbyWendyBrownin‘ResistingLeftMelancholy,’
whichcontainsapithydescriptionofmelancholiathatsumsupPhoebe’s
attachmenttothepast,figuredthroughherrelationshiptohersister:“Theirony
ofmelancholia,ofcourse,isthatattachmenttotheobjectofone’ssorrowfulloss
supersedesanydesiretorecoverfromthisloss,tolivefreeofitinthepresent,to
beunburdenedbyit.”523ForBrown,thismelancholyspeakstotheLeft’sinability
tocontemporiseandunwillingnesstoletgoofitsromanticisedattachmenttothe
past.ThisissomethinglikeBerlant’s‘crueloptimism,’whereattachmenttothe
unattainablebecomesanobstacleto‘flourishing,’withthenotabledifference
thatinmelancholiatheremaybeaperversesenseofpleasureinthefutile
attachment.Whatiscrucialintheseaccountsistheirsympathyforthesubject,
andtheurgencyofformulatingnewpoliticalpraxisandpracticeinformingboth523WendyBrown.ResistingLeftMelancholy,boundary2,26:3,1999,pp.19-27,p.20.
190
critics’work.ForBrown,thisisfiguredintermsofacallforareinvigoratedLeft;
forBerlant,suchavitalisationisaboutreimaginingthepoliticalonthetermsof
theeveryday,recognisingthe“newidiomsofthepolitical.”524BothBrownand
Berlantmakethedistressengenderedbythecognitivedissonancerequiredby
neoliberalismacentralgroundofinterrogation.ThissympathyislostinEgan’s
work,wherethenaturalisationofindividualisticself-interestastheguiding
ethicalprincipleoflifecastsselfishnessascommonsense,replicatingneoliberal
logic.IdentifyingwithPhoebe,oralmostanyofEgan’scharacters,meansnot
onlyacceptingneoliberalcommonsense,butalsorecognisingthisacceptanceas
essentialforhappiness.
Returningtothesceneinthecastle,PhoebeandWolffindthemselvesunable
toagreeonhowtoseeit.Phoebe,thenostalgic,iscaptivatedbythe‘tragic’life
storyof‘mad’KingLudwig,whobuiltthecastle:“AsPhoebewanderedthe
gleamingrooms,aswellofemotionroseinher,asweetsorrow[thevery
definitionofmelancholy].Sheunderstoodhim,thatwasall.Sheunderstoodthis
sweetking.”525Phoebe’ssentimentalreactionrecallsagainthede-radicalised
politicsofintimacy.Wolf’sresponseisquitedifferent–heasksPhoebeifshe
reallythinksafairytalecastlewasworthbankruptingakingdom.WherePhoebe
says,“PoorLudwig,”Wolfreplies,“PoorBavaria.”526Thisexchangesuccinctly
demonstratesthelimitsofPhoebe’simaginativecapacity,andherinabilityto
constructaspaceofobjectiveempathy,outsidetheidiomofintimatepersonal
understanding.Thereisnoroomforstructuralcritiqueinanaccountofthe
worldbasedentirelyonpersonalfeeling.
Phoebe’ssolipsisticoutlookisemphasisedonherreturnfromEurope,when
sheanticipatesahero’swelcome,commencementatuniversity,andanewfound
respectfromothersgivenhernow-establishedindependence.Noneofthis
happens:hermotherisangryatherabruptdepartureandlackof
communication;Berkleyhavenotacceptedherrequesttodeferforayear;her
mother’sboyfriendseesherasimmatureandselfish.Noneofthisispermanent,
however,andPhoebeiseventuallyreinsertedintolifeassheimaginedit,which
524Berlant.CruelOptimism,pp.260-2.525TheInvisibleCircus,p.199.526TheInvisibleCircus,p.199.
191
sheexperiencesasasenseofherlife“right[ing]itself.”527Phoebegraciously
acceptstheeasewithwhichlifearrangesitselfifoneiswhite,wealthyand
middleclassinAmerica.Egan’sworkconcentratesfairlysolidlyonaffluent
middle-classsubjects.Anycharactersnotthusconstitutedusuallydieorgainthe
prospectofeconomicadvancement.Thispresumptionofmiddleclass-nessis
anotherinstanceofthewayinwhichEgan’snovelsreproduceneoliberallogic.It
alsocircumscribesthetypesofproblemsEgan’scharactersface.Wesawearlier
inthesectiononBallardhowpsydiscourseoperatesdifferentlyinclasscontexts.
Broadlyspeaking,self-managementforthemiddle-classsubjectispresentedas
self-maximisation;fortheworking-classsubject,itismoreoftenacorrective
interventiontorestoreproductivecapacity.528Bythislogic,suchproblemsas
thesecharactersareconfrontedwitharetobeunderstoodasproblemsofthe
self,andthereforeassolvablewithinthissameframework.529AlthoughBallard
alsofocusesonthemiddleclass,wesawinMillenniumPeopleandelsewhere
howhisworkconfrontsthe‘bourgeoisation’ofsociety,denaturalisingthe
middle-classcodingofneoliberalism.Thisdenaturalisationalsoquestionsthe
desirabilityofmiddle-classidentity,whereasEgan’sworkdepictsitas
aspirational;growingupmeansgrowingintomiddle-classidentity–andthisis
theonlywaytobehappy,asPhoebediscovers.
Phoebe’sjourneytohappinessisconnectedtoapessimisticunderstandingof
thetransformationofsixtiescounterculturethathasperhapsbeenmost
persistentlyexploredinfictioninMichelHouellebecq’sreactionaryaccountsof
thelegacyofthesoixante-huitegenerationinFrance.Inexploringhiswork,
CaroleSweeneydrawsontheworkofLucBoltanskiandEveChiapelloinThe
NewSpiritofCapitalism(2005).Thisappliesequallyhere,withregardtowhat527TheInvisibleCircus,p.354.528Thisisnotsetinstone,andinterventioncanoccurregardlessofclass.However,themiddle-classsubjectislikelytohaveaccesstopsychologicaltherapythatmaybeforeclosedtotheworking-classsubject,aswellastotheculturalcapital/emotionalvocabularyonwhichitoftenrelies.Inamiddle-classcontext,therapeutictreatmentisoftendepictedaspartofself-care,whereworkingontheselfisseenastheprimaryresponsibilityofthesubject.Thisreproducestheindividualisticlogicofneoliberalism,asdescribedintheworkofRoseandothers.SeealsoLauraSmith‘Psychotherapy,Classism,andthePoor:ConspicuousbyTheirAbsence,’AmericanPsychologist,60:7,2005,pp.687-696;HeatherKugelmass,‘”Sorry,I’mNotAcceptingNewPatients”:AnAuditStudyofAccesstoMentalHealthCare,’JournalofHealthandSocialBehavior,57:2,2016,pp.168-183.529Shivanimakesasimilarpoint,aswewillseelater,suggestingthatforprotagonistsin‘plasticrealism,’allproblemsoriginateinternally.
192
BoltanskiandChiapelloterm‘artisticcritique’andhowithascometoactasits
ownantithesis,duetothefactthat:
...manyoftheidealspromulgatedbytheartisticcritique,asopposed
tothesocialcritique,wereactuallyusedtodisarmanddiffusethe
veryoppositiontocapitalismthrownupby‘68santi-establishment
stance.Thedemandwasformorefeeling,lessstandardisationand,
aboveall,foranexpansionofindividualfreedom.530
Bythisunderstanding,theculturaldemandsofthenineteensixtieswerenot
opposedtocapitalism,butwereratherrangedagainstarestrictivehive-mind,9-
5,Fordistversionofcapitalism.ThistooisborneoutbythetriumphoftheWhole
EarthNetworkhippiesturnedtechbillionaires,suchasSteveJobs,andthose
MarkFisherhascalled‘liberalcommunists,’suchasGeorgeSorosandBill
Gates.531Byforegroundingthisartisticcritique,Iamhighlightingthetypeof
engagementEgan’snovelmakeswiththenineteensixties,whichistosay,its
moreorlesscompletedissociationfromthematerialsocialandpoliticalgainsof
theperiod,suchasthosefoughtforbytheCivilRightsMovement,orsecond
wavefeminists.Thequestionhereiswhetherthismightbecharacterisedaspart
ofanefforttoexposethelimitationsofartisticcritique,orwhetheritrepresents
aninstanceofEgan’sdisavowalofthepoliticalfunctionofthenovel–andifitis
thelatter,mightsuchadisavowallimitanyothercriticalfunction?
Confusionastowhetherthisnovelfunctionsascriticalcommentaryor
shouldbetakenas‘simple’literarydescriptionpermeatesmyreadingofThe
InvisibleCircus.Nowhereisthismorefraughtthaninthenovel’saccountof
Faith’sinvolvementwiththeRedArmyFaction,andlatertheJuneSecond
movement,underwhoseaegisshetakespartinthebombplot.Upuntilthis
point,FaithandWolf’sEuropeanodysseyischaracterisedasatrip,inthemost
sixtiessenseoftheword.Theyarelookingforaction,forsomethingtohappen,
forawayofbeingthattranscendstheeveryday–recallWolf’saccountofthe
530CaroleSweeney.MichelHouellebecqandTheLiteratureofDespair,BloomsburyAcademic:LondonandNewYork,2013.p.98.531MarkFisher.CapitalistRealism.London:ZeroBooks,2009,p.27
193
senseofpossibilityofthetime.532WhatFaithseeks,however,isdifferentfrom
Wolf’sdesire.Herattachmenttoherpersonallossfuelsherwithanangerthathe
doesnotexperienceandoftenfailstounderstand,suchasthescenewherehe
triestoproposetoherwhensheappearstobeonthevergeofabreakdown.533
Faithisarebelinsearchofacause,andwhensheandWolfgettoGermany,she
thinksshehasfinallyfoundone.WhenWolfdescribestheatmosphereinBerlin,
Phoebethrillswithrecognition,havingbeenevacuatedfromHarrodsduringher
ownrecentvisittoLondon:“Phoeberememberedthethrillofexcitementshe’d
feltinHarrodsduringthebombscare.Peopleherownagechangingtheworldby
force.Whatgutsittook.”534EganhighlightsPhoebe’snaivetyhere,aselsewhere;
thisthrillofexcitementoccursonlybecauseshehasnoconceptionofthe
consequenceofviolence.AsWolfcontinuesthestoryofFaith’srecruitment(or
application,even),hetellsPhoebe:
ShesaidthingsWolfhadneverheardbefore:howitfelttowatchher
fatherdie,howtherewasnothingshecoulddo,she’dtriedeverything
shecouldthinkof,buthediedanyway.Allherlifeshe’dbeentryingto
fightback,shesaid,allherlife,butshewasgettingsotired–you
couldn’tdoitalone,whatyoudidalonewasalwaystoosmall....Sure
enough,Eric[theRAFconnection]wasstaringatFaithasif
mesmerized,Wolfflashingonhowshemustlooktohim:apassionate
Americankid,light-yearsfromhome,who’driskanything,everything,
who’dgiveitallaway.Andsuddenlyhewasterrified.535
Faithischaracterisedasincapableofformulatingpoliticalopposition,motivated
byasenseofinjusticethatstemsnotfromangeratinequalityorabuseofpower,
butattheveryuncertaintyoflifeitself.Faith’shatredofIBMismotivatedbyher
father’shatredofhisjob,ratherthaninanyframeworkoflabourrights,or
environmentalconcern.Inthissense,Faithiscastasacautionaryfigure.Unable
to‘manage’heraffectivedistress,shedirectsitintoprotestthatisrepresentedas
532“Wewereaftersomething...wetrulywere.Inawaythat’shardtoadmit,itsoundsfoolishnowbutitdidn’tthen,that’sthedifference.Hundredsandthousandsofus,allreaching.It’sapowerfulthing,thatmanypeoplebelievinginsomethingatonce.”TheInvisibleCircus,p.226533TheInvisibleCircus,p.247.534TheInvisibleCircusp.232.535TheInvisibleCircusp.236–note,again,theemphasisonhowFaithappearstoherobserver.
194
futileandself-defeating.Thismisdirectionofanger–herinabilitytobe
recuperatedwithinnormativesocialstructures–guaranteesherself-
destruction.WhenWolftriestoproposetoher,shebeseecheshimnotto,
refusingthatpotential‘salvation.’Wolfremainsattachedtothetraditional
totemsofthegoodlife,andseekstoresolveFaith’sdistressthroughofferingher
the‘solution’ofmarriage.Faithissofarremovedfromthepossibilityofthekind
oflifeWolfimaginesforherthatshewillnotevenlistentohisproposal,saying,
“Don’t,Wolf,please,I’mgoingcrazy.There’snothingleftinme.”536Faithhas
becomeoneofAhmed’sfigures,removedfromnormativeaccountsofhappiness.
ThisislinkedtoFaith’sevasionofcapture;shenevertakespublicresponsibility
forherpartinthekillingofthejanitor,andthisrefusaltotakeresponsibility
foreclosesanypossibilityofreinsertionintonormativenetworks,whichshould,
accordingto‘commonsense,’occurthroughpunishmentandrehabilitation.
ItisinthisaccountofFaith’sradicalisation,terroristicinvolvementand
ultimatedeaththatthenovelrunsintoitsgreatestdifficulty.Asmentioned
above,thereisnosustainedengagementwiththesocialorpoliticalclimateofthe
nineteensixtiesinthenovel.Thismightbeexplainedbythepositioningof
Phoebeasprotagonist,andthesuggestionthatitisheraccountofthesixtieswe
areengagingwith,butitbecomesproblematicwhenthenovelventuresintothe
‘real’territoryoftheRedArmyFactionetal.Byscrubbingthenovelofwider
politicalreference,Eganmakesitverydifficultforthereadertogaugetheir
readingofthesefictionalisedaccountsofrealactsofviolence.AlthoughtheJune
SecondMovementbombattackinwhichthemandiesisfictional,thegroupdid
infactplantabomb,attributedasanactofassistancefortheIRA.537Bysituating
Faith’sinvolvementwiththesegroupsaspartofasearchfortranscendence,and
repeatedlyemphasisingtheconflationofherpersonalsufferingwithpolitical
intent,Egan’sworkreplicatesthisdepoliticisation.Thisreturnsustothe
questionoffunction,again.Isthisacommentonthelimitsofartisticcriticism?
Orasideeffectofartisticappropriation,whereweshouldnotseektoread
politicalintent?536TheInvisibleCircusp.247.537‘TheBaader-MeinhofGangattheDawnofTerror.’Baader-meinhof.comwww.mustardayonnaise.com/baadermeinhof/timeline/1972.html
195
Toresolvethis,inasmuchasitcanberesolved,wemightlookatthefigureof
Phoebeattheendofthenovel,andatthepromiseofhappinessthatseemsto
unfoldbeforeher.Asdiscussedearlier,whenshefirstreturnstoSanFrancisco,
sheanticipatesresumingherlifemoreorlessassheleftit;althoughthereare
someminordisruptionstoherplan,thesearesoonsmoothedover.Forthefirst
time,Phoebeseemstohavetheabilitytolocateherselfinlife,orinhistory,even,
havingfinallyletgoofheridealisedmemoryofhersister:
Somethingwasgone.Butsomethingalsowasbeginning.Phoebefelt
thismorethanunderstoodit–ajitterypulsethatseemedtoflutter
belowthecity.Anewdecadewasuponthem.InBarry’soffice[in
SiliconValley]themoodofmanicanticipationinfectedPhoebeat
timeswithawildcertaintythattheworldwasinthegripof
transformation.Everyoneseemedtofeelit–theclean,inarguable
powerofmachines,thepromiseofextraordinarywealth.Itfilled
themwithhope.Phoebewasamazedthattheworldcouldeverfeel
thiswayagain,muchlesssosoon.Yetshefeltitherself.538
Thisbuddingchange–thebeginningofthe1980s,andneoliberalisminearnest–
isalsomarkedherebywomencuttingtheirhairinto“sparser,tighter”styles:“In
frontofthemirrorPhoebewouldgatherherownreamsofhairandholdthem
behindher,awayfromherface.Theideaofcuttingitoffappealedtoher,the
lightnessofit,likesteppingoutfrombehindapairofheavydrapes.”539Faithwas
forcedtocutoffherhairbytheRedArmyFaction,andhateddoingso.Phoebe,
however,isfreetochoose,andfreetootoimagineandlookforwardtothe
future.ThiscontrastcastsFaith’sfateassomesortoffailureonherpart,linking
ittoherinabilitytoadapt.ThinkhereofJefferyEugenides’sVirginSuicides
(1993),anovelsetinasimilartimeframe,offeringamorenuancedaccountof
affectivedistress.WhendiscussingCecilia,thefirstoftheLisbonsistersto
commitsuicide,thereisatendencytocharacteriseherasa‘freakofnature’:“Mr
Hillyersummedupthemajoritysentimentatthetime:‘Thosegirlshaveabright
futureaheadofthem.Thatotheronewasjustgoingtoendupakook.’”540This
538TheInvisibleCircus,p.354.539TheInvisibleCircus,p.354.540JefferyEugenides.TheVirginSuicides.NewYork:Picador.1993,p.107.
196
seemstobethedominantattitudetoFaithinTheInvisibleCircus;sheisa“kook,”
unabletosubmittonormativeformationsofhappiness,andsodestinedtoself-
destruct.TheequivalencebetweenthefigureofFaithandthenineteensixtiesas
awholeultimatelyrendersthisaproblematicallydepoliticisedaccountofthe
decadethroughthenovel’slackofinterestincollectivepoliticalactionand
radicalpotentialofmassparticipatorypolitics–evenifthesemovementsended
infailure,inonesense.ThisisechoedinPhoebe’snewfoundsenseofeaseinlife,
too:
Nowtheloose,randomwayherlifeunfoldedseemedtooffendher
imaginationlessandless.Shestillachedtotranscendit,crossthe
invisibleboundarytothatotherplace,therealplace.Butyoucouldn’t
havethateveryday.Noonecouldsustainit.541
Phoebe’sencounterswith‘transcendence’involvedtrippingonLSD,losingher
virginity,andtheexperienceoftravellingawayfromhomeonherownforthe
firsttime.Thisistranscendenceonlyintheconditionofovercomingthe
conditionsofday-to-dayliving;thereisnospiritual,metaphysical,orpolitical
dimensiontoit.NoneoftheseexperiencesenablePhoebetolookbeyondherself.
IfFaith’sgreatproblemwasasurplusoffeeling,Phoebe’s‘strength’asincipient
neoliberalsubjectisherdetachment–recall,again,Sennett’saccountofthe
improvised,short-termneoliberalself,andthemiddle-classlogicoffreedom
frominclination.
Phoebe’sacquiescencetotheinevitabilityofthe(neoliberal)futureandthe
ultimateimpossibility–undesirability,even–ofimaginingaradicallydifficult
worldrecallsWolf’smomentofepiphanyfromearlierinthenovel,althoughit
workssomewhatdifferently.WherePhoebeseemstoeagerlyanticipateher
futurelifeandthepossibilityofthenewdecade,Wolf’srealisationwas,atbest,a
negotiationwithlife,awayofmakingitpossibletoliveinunliveableconditions.
ThisisnotacondemnationofWolf’sattitude;infact,itmaybethemost
sympatheticpositionadoptedbyacharacterinthenovel,despiteits
conservatism.Thesegoodlifefantasiesmay,asWolfimagines,makeunliveable
livesliveable,evenastheybindustotheconditionsofouroppression.In
‘ResistingLeftMelancholy,’BrownsuggeststhatthismanifestsinLeftist541TheInvisibleCircus,p.355.
197
oppositionalpoliticsastraditionalism,anattachmenttodefending“liberalNew
Dealpolitics”withoutofferingathoroughandon-goingcritiqueof“thetypesof
freedomsandentitlementsincontemporaryconfigurationsofcapitalism.”542The
problemisthatTheInvisibleCircusoffersusanaccountofoppositionthatsees
leftistcountercultureasfundamentallydetachedfromreality,ignoringeventhe
basichistoricalfactof‘actuallyexistingsocialism.’Politicalradicalsinthisnovel
arede-radicalisedbytheirinabilitytoconceiveofpoliticsasanythingbutan
outletforemotion,whichispresentedastheentiretyofpoliticalengagement
withinthenovel.Brownadvocatesforapoliticalcritiqueinwhich,
thefeelingsandsentiments–includingthoseofsorrow,rage,and
anxietyaboutbrokenpromisesandlostcompasses–thatsustainour
attachmentstoleftanalysesandleftprojects[are]tobeexaminedfor
whattheycreateinthewayofpotentiallyconservativeandevenself-
destructiveundersidesofputativelyprogressivepoliticalaims.543
Herintentionisthatsuchanexaminationwouldliberatethelefttoreimaginea
politicalfuturebasedonsubstantiveformsofsocialjusticeandmaterial
redistribution,ratherthansubsumingallundertherhetoricof‘feeling.’Thisis
evident,too,inBerlant’sgesturestowardsthepotentialofthepracticaland
processualinfindingwaystoconstructnewmodesoflivingnotbeholdento
extantfantasiesofthegoodlife,through“reinvent[ing]publicness.”544InThe
InvisibleCircus,anypoliticalcritiqueisonlypersonalunhappinesscastin
anotherform,andsoitcannotaffectanymeaningfulchange.Participatingin
counterculturaloroppositionalmovementsisanadolescentriteofpassage,
throughwhichonecomestorecognisetheexistingorderofthingsasboth
inevitableanddesirable,anunderstandingtacitlyenabledbythesubject’sown
desirabilitytothesystem(ideallywhite,affluent,middleclass).
Onbalance,Egan’snovelisitselfhamstrungbyitsdisavowalofthepolitical
andinabilitytoallowfortheexistenceofanyobjectiveimaginativesphereasthe
basisforsolidarity.Throughitselisions,itultimatelyreproducesthelogicof
neoliberalismwithoutofferingsubstantialcriticalballast.AlthoughEgan’s
542Brown.‘ResistingLeftMelancholy,’p.26.543Brown.‘ResistingLeftMelancholy,’p.27.544Berlant.CruelOptimism,p.262.
198
unpackingofthewaysinwhichthehippiemovementenabledtheatomistic
individualismthatunderpinsneoliberalismisentertainingandfrequently
accurate,thenovelasawholeseemstofallvictimtothesameproblemsof
artisticcritiquethatithighlights.WhilstIunderstandthatthismightbereadas
anotherdeliberatedemonstrationoftheselimitations,andanintentional
disavowalofanypoliticalfunctionasregardthenovel,suchadisavowalwould
itselfhavepoliticalconsequence.Eitherthenovelunintentionallyreplicatesthe
logicsofneoliberalism,oritdeliberatelyreproducestheseaspartofaneffortto
demonstratetheinadequacyofartisticcritique.Eitherway,however,itcannot
helpbutcallattentiontotheworkingsoftheselogicsinawaythatmusthave
politicalweight,particularlywhensubjecttocriticalanalysis.Thereis,Ithink,a
refusaltocommithereandelsewhereinEgan’swork,andthisisoftenfeltmost
clearlyattheendofhernovels.InmyaccountofBallard,Iexploredhisemphasis
ontheaffectivepotentialoftheimaginativerealm.Ihavealsoexpressedmy
beliefthatliteratureoffersanidealartisticforminwhichtoinstantiatean
objectivepoliticalimaginaryinwhichtheoreticalconditionsofsolidaritymay
emergebasedonother-knowledge,oreventhepossibilityofother-knowledge,
situatedintheframeworkofextantpowerstructures.545InEgan’swork,the
endingsofhernovelstendtoturntoimagination,too,butinheraccountthisis
aninwardturn,totherealmofpersonalimagination.AttheendofTheInvisible
Circus,Phoebeimaginativelyreturnstohersisterinmemory,despitehaving
apparentlyexorcisedhernostalgictendencies.Sheremembersagameofhide
andseektheyplayedaschildren,beforetheirfather’sdeath,whenshefound
Faithfirstandwasallowedtohidewithher.UnlikeBallard’sinvocationofSaint-
Exupéry,whichusesthechildren’staleofthelittleprincetoillustratehow
literaturecanofferanimaginativespaceinwhichthegivensofneoliberal
capitalismaredisrupted,Phoebe’smemoryreliesonthebeliefthat“atanytime
herplainsurroundingsmightparttorevealthisradiant,hiddenplace.”546With
onefinalslip,alastdisavowal,Eganreiteratessomefaithinimagination,but
onlyatitsmostpersonallevel.Phoebe’sfreedomtoremember,toimagine,relies
545BypossibilityImeantheideathatknowingtheotherbecomespossible,orimaginable.Thisusageisdistinctfromtheunderstandinglaidoutearlierinlookingatpossibilityandpotentialintermsofaffecttheory.546TheInvisibleCircus,p.356.
199
onherintegrationasidealneoliberalsubject,andherabilitytomoderateherself
inaccordancewithsocialnorms.This“radiantandhiddenplace”hasnorolein
everydaylife,which,accordingtothisnovel,canneverreallybetranscended.
Idealistsdie,and(neoliberal)realistsprosper,inthisstoryatleast.Thisisthe
realhorroroftheneoliberalgothic.
200
LookatMe:“LetBeBeFinaleofSeem”547
InexploringTheInvisibleCircus,Ihavelaidoutsomeofthecomplicationsin
readingEgan’swork,seekingtodemonstratetheuncertainstartingpointat
whichwebegin.Thisuncertaintyoccursbothformallyandthematically,evident
inthetensionbetweentherealistformofthatnovelanditsgothictendencies,as
wellasitsambiguousrepresentationofthelegacyofsixtiescounterculture
whichtranslatesintoanevasivenessaroundtheproblematicconflationofthe
personalandthepolitical.Thisevasivenessunderminesthepoliticalefficacyof
thenovelasawhole,leavingthereaderuncertainastoitsintention,and
conflictedatitsoutcome.LiminalitypermeatedTheInvisibleCircus,and
characteriseditsindeterminatetemporality.InLookatMeliminalstatesare
explicitly,extensively,anddirectlythematised.Ifwemaymostfruitfully
understandEgan’sworkasoperatinginthemodeofneoliberalgothic,Lookat
Mecouldbedescribedasaself-consciousengagementofthespectreof
postmodernismwhichhauntstheneoliberalnovel,andEgan’sworkatlarge.I
amadvocatingareadingthatsituatesthesegothicallyinflectednovelsas
‘hauntologies,’inwhichthesetendenciesbetrayratherthanexpress
contemporaryanxieties.Myunderstandingof‘hauntology,’atermwhichcomes
fromMarxviaDerrida,isprimarilyinfluencedbyMarkFisher’swork,inwhich
wemaydiscernboththepersistentattachmentsofcrueloptimism,andthe
contradictoryforceofthetotalisingpresumptionsofneoliberalismthrough
whichitassertsitselfasthe‘endofhistory’:
Thefirst[directionofhauntology]referstothatwhichis(inactuality
is)nolonger,butwhichisstilleffectiveasavirtuality(thetraumatic
“compulsiontorepeat,”astructurethatrepeats,afatalpattern).The
secondreferstothatwhich(inactuality)hasnotyethappened,but
whichisalreadyeffectiveinthevirtual(anattractor,ananticipation
shapingcurrentbehavior).548
547WallaceStevens.‘TheEmperorofIceCream,’Harmonium1923,London:FaberandFaber,2001,p.75.548MarkFisher.‘WhatIsHauntology?’FilmQuarterly,66:1,2012,pp.16-24,p.19.Fisherattributesthere-emergenceofthiscriticaltermtothe“culturalimpasse”occasionedbythe“failureofthefuture”underneoliberalism.
201
Ina2010interview,Eganrecognisedthedualityofherwork,andthedifficultyof
writingduringhypercomplextimes:“Iwouldhesitatetocallanythingsatirein
ourculture.Orfuturistic.IkeptsayingwhenIwasworkingonmynovelLookat
Me,“It’skindoffuturisticandit’sasatire.”Nowitreads,Iwouldimagine,as
slightlypasséverisimilitude.”549Thisacknowledgesthehypercomplexityof
informationanditsreshapingoftemporality,apparentlyrenderingalltime,all
knowledge,contemporaneous.IpositedBallard’sworkasstaginga
confrontationbetweenthestasisofneoliberalismandthe(affective)potentialof
imagination,withaconcretepoliticaldimensionintermsofallowingthe
constructionofanobjectiveimaginary.InEgan’swork,particularlyLookatMe,
weseeaconfrontationbetweenliteraryformsthatinadvertentlyenactsthe
(neoliberal)anxietiesitostensiblyseekstoexorcise.Theeffectofthisisan
omnipresentsenseoftheuncannythatunderlinesthoseothergothicaspectsI
havesuggestedareendemicinEgan’soeuvre,andthatexpressadistinctly
neoliberalanxiety,perJohansen.
Thistextualdoublingisalsoexplicitly‘writtenout’inthenovel,throughthe
figureofIreneMaitlock.Maitlockisaprofessorofcomparativeliterature,
interestedin“thewayliteraryandcinematicgenresaffectcertainkindsof
experience.”550ShemeetsLookatMe’sprotagonist,CharlotteSwenson,through
privatedetectiveAnthonyHalliday,afterinterviewinghimforapaperonthe
mediatedexperienceofbeingadetective.Later,whenCharlottejoinsawebsite
calledExtra/OrdinaryPeople,akindofsubscription-basedblogorearlysocial
medianetwork,Maitlockbecomesherghost-writer.Kellyhasdescribedtheway
inwhichthenarrativeoftheghostwriterisseentointrudeonSwenson’sown
narrativethroughtheirruptionofcompetingtypefaces,recognisingthisaspart
ofthe“senseofsplittinganddoublingthathauntsCharlotte’ssenseofself
throughoutthenovel.”551Maitlockcannothelpbutappeartobeanarrative
stand-inforherauthor.Kellypointsoutthatthisnamelinksthecharacterto
RobertMaitland,Ballard’sprotagonistinConcreteIsland(1974),andalsoto549JenniferEganinterviewedbyRobertBirnbaum.TheMorningNewsAugust182010.themorningnews.org/article/jennifer-egan.Thisinterviewitselfreadslikesomesortofsatiricalexerciseinpostmodernity,particularlyitsextendeddiscussionoftheutilityofPowerPointinAVisitFromtheGoonSquad.550JenniferEgan.LookatMe2001.London:Corsair,2011.p.345.551Kelly.‘BeginningwithPostmodernism,’p.403.
202
Matlock,theTVdetective.Hestopsshortofsuggestingthat,inthisnaming,Egan
literallyputsthe‘I’inMatlock.Thisauthorialdoublingmightexplainwhy
Maitlocksofrequentlyvocalisesthetheoreticalunderpinningsofthenovel;
whenshefirstmeetsCharlotteSwenson,forexample,sheisposingasareporter
–Egan’sdayjob.552Duringthismeeting,Maitlocksays,
I’minterestedintherelationshipbetweeninteriorandexterior...
howtheworld’sperceptionsofwomenaffectourperceptionsof
ourselves.Amodelwhoseappearancehaschangeddrasticallyisa
perfectvehicle,Ithink,forexaminingtherelationshipamongimage,
perceptionandidentity,becauseamodel’spositionasapurely
physicalobject–amediaobject,ifyouwill…isinasensejustamore
exaggeratedversionofeveryone’spositioninavisuallybased,media-
drivenculture,andsowatchingamodelrenegotiateadrasticchange
inherimagecouldprovideaperfectlensforlookingatsomeofthose
larger–553
HereCharlottecutsheroff.Thistendencyremindsmeofcriticalcommentaryon
MichelHouellebecq,whichrecognisesinhisworka“pre-emptiveclosingdown
ofthespaceofcriticaldialogue.”554Thisspeakstothedifficultyofapproaching
Egan’sworkcritically.Thereisaninsulatingframeworkinplaceinherwork,
operatingthroughself-consciousengagementwithliteraryform.Thiscreatesa
sortofdouble-crossinginherwork.WithoutwantingtoseemlikeIamover-
reachingincriticalterms,Ithinkthatthesemotivesmightbetracedtoacertain
anxietyregardingliteraryinheritanceandgender,asvoicedinaninterviewwith
LauraMillerin2011,alsocitedbyKelly:
I’mnotsureexactlywhattraditionI’mpartof.Ihateaboutmyselfthe
factthatItendtomodelmyselfconsciouslyaftermalewriters.AndI
thinkthat’sbecauseagainthere’sthisassociationthatmentakeon
thebigtopicsmorethanwomendo,whichIdon’tthinkisnecessarily
552Inthecourseofwhich,shewroteastoryforTheNewYorkTimescalled‘JamesisaGirl,’aboutmodelJamesKing,thatclearlyprovidesthebasisforLookatMe’saccountofthemodellingindustry.JenniferEgan,‘JamesisaGirl,’NewYorkTimesMagazine,February41996.553LookatMe,p.92554MartinCrowley.‘Houellebecq–TheWreckageofLiberation,’RomanceStudies,20:1,2002,pp.17-28,p.19.
203
true.ButIsometimesfallpreytothatsuppositionmyself,andI
sometimesfeelabitconfusedaboutwhatIfitinto.555
Whateverthemotivebehindtheuseofthisinsulatingframework,itbegsthe
questionastowhatsheisseekingtoinsulateherworkfrom.Isuggestedthat
Ballard’sworkoperatesatsurfacelevelinordertodemonstratetheclosenessof
oppressiveregulatorydiscoursetoeverydayexperience.Bythislogic,shouldwe
understandthatEganisseekingtodemonstratethenearnessofliterarytheory
topracticeincontemporaryfiction?ThisseemstobethegistofKelly’sreading,I
think,andfollowingthis,wemightaskquestionsabouttheutilityofcriticismin
aworkthatseemstobeperformingitsownauto-criticism.LookatIrene
Maitlock,afterall,whoofferstheexactanalysisofCharlotteSwensonthemodel
thatI,orAdamKelly,oranyacademicapproachingthisnovelmight.Byfocusing
soinsistentlyonthetextualityofhernovels,Eganforeclosesanyeffortto
institutematerial,orpolitical,criticism.Atthesametime,thetopicsshetakeson
areinherentlypolitical:LookatMe,firstpublishedinSeptember2001,featuresa
Muslim‘terrorist’(MichaelWest,Z,orAziz)andmakesreferencetothefirst
attackontheWorldTradeCentre.556Anothercharacter,MooseMetcalfe,bears
strikingresemblancetoTedKaczynski,althoughheismarginallylessreclusive
thantheUnabomber.Furthermore,theissuesEganusesasmaterialforher
novels–mediatedidentity,counterculture,theriseofimmaterialeconomies–
areallpoliticalissuesaffectingtheneoliberalsubject,nomatterhowhardshe
writestotransformthemintoliterarythemes.Inshort,theformalframeworkby
whichEgan’snovelsareself-consciouslytransformedinto‘texts’isatechnique
ofdisavowalbywhichEganseekstoexcusetheabsenceofpoliticalrealismin
workwhichotherwiseseemstostriveforverisimilitude.
Inseekingtobetterdescribeorarticulatethe‘post-post-modern’moment
fromwhichEgan’sworkemerged,DavidFosterWallaceofferedtheterm“image
fiction,”whichseemsneatlysuitedtoEgan’spreoccupationwithself-
objectification.Wallacewrote:
555JenniferEganInterviewwithLauraMiller.‘FaceValue.’Salon.com14November2001.www.salon.com/2011/04/21/jennifer_egan_interview/.556LookatMe,433.
204
thisnewsubgenreis…distinguished,notjustbyacertainneo-
postmoderntechnique,butbyagenuinesocio-artisticagenda.The
fictionofimageisnotjustauseormentionoftelevisualculturebuta
responsetoit,anefforttoimposesomesortofaccountabilityona
stateofaffairsinwhichmoreAmericansgettheirnewsfrom
televisionthanfromnewspapers...557
Myconcernisthatthisideaofaccountabilityissubsumedasanotherliterary
techniqueinEgan’swork,renderedintocommentarywithoutcontent,andthus
incapableofa“genuinesocio-artisticagenda.”Invokingactualsocialconditions
orhistoricaleventswithoutanycorrespondingaccountoftheirconsequence
evacuatesthepoliticalpotentialoftheprocessualformofthenovel.Thevalueof
literatureisthatitoffersanimaginativerealmthroughwhichthereadermaybe
impelledtoconfrontrealitiestheymightnototherwiseconsider.Thinkof
DickenswritingtorevealtheabjectconditionsoftheVictorianpoor,orBeckett
exposingtheexistentialcrisisofpost-warsubjectivity.IfEgan’swork
cannibalisesrealityonlytoreflectitbackwithnosenseofthepoliticalinterms
ofthelivedexperienceofthosewhostruggleundertheinjusticeofneoliberal
capitalism,itsutility–andinterest–is,perhaps,limited.
ThebasicnarrativestructureofLookatMeisdividedbetweentwo
Charlottes:CharlotteSwenson,amodelwhoundergoesfacialreconstructive
surgerythatleavesherunrecognizablefollowingacaraccident,andCharlotte
Hauser,thefifteenyearolddaughterofSwenson’shighschoolbestfriend,who
livesinSwenson’sformerhometownofRockford,Illinois.BothCharlottesare
liminalfigures:Swensonbecauseherphysicaltransformationforcesherto
reassesstheentirestructureofherlife,whichwasbuiltonthestructureofher
face;Hauserthroughthemorestandardteenagenegotiationsofselfhood.They
arenotaloneinexistinginthesetransitionalorin-betweenstates.Thisnovel
expandsseveralthemesfromTheInvisibleCircus,includingtheimpactof
mediationorself-objectificationontheformationofidentity.Thisisacrucial
partofunderstandinghowneoliberalsubjectsareimbricatedwithinself-
557DavidFosterWallace.‘EUnibusPluram:TelevisionandU.S.Fiction,’ReviewofContemporaryFiction,13:2,1993,pp.151-194,p.172.
205
regulatoryhappinessdiscoursethroughcontemporarytechnologiesofself.In
LookatMe,virtuallyeverycharacterisinthemidstofsomereinvention,
deliberateorotherwise.ThisincludesMooseMetcalfe,CharlotteHauser’suncle.
Anintenseacademic,Moosestrugglestoreconcilehisselfhoodwiththe
contemporary(neoliberal)ideal,and,asIhavesaid,hasmuchincommonwith
TedKaczynski,theUnabomber.Alsodepictedamidstaprocessofreinventionis
MichaelWest,whoisknownvariouslybythisname,ZandAziz.Westisawould-
beterroristwhothroughthecourseofthenovelcomestorealisethathistrue
selfis,fundamentally,American-whichistosay,neoliberal,permy
introduction.
CharlotteSwenson’sstoryrunsthus:abeautifulgirlfromasmalltown,she
grewupconsciousofbeingobservedfromanearlyage:
Asateenager,Ifirstbecameawareofpeople’seyescatchingonmeas
IwalkeddownMichiganAvenuewithmymotherandGrace[her
sister]duringshoppingtripstoChicago.Theyglanced,thenlooked–
eachtime,Ifeltaprickofsensationwithinme....Thejabsofinterest
Iprovokedinstrangersstruckmeasanunharnessedenergysource;
somehow,Iwouldconvertthemintopower.558
Swensonviewsthispowerasaccesstoa“mirroredroom,”whichrepresents
somerarefiedlife,transcendingthetediumoftheeveryday.Thistranscendence
isapparentlyavailableonlythroughtheexperienceofbeingseen.Swenson
revealsanunexpectedlyliterarybentwhenshebemoanstheinadequacyof
KeatsandPope,herfavouritepoetsasanundergraduate,todeliverhertothis
stateoftranscendence,althoughsheisunclearastowhytheyareinadequate,
citingonlyPope’suglinessandKeats’spoorhealth.559Charlottedroppedoutof
collegeoncehercareertookoff,andwithinayearwasworkingregularlyand
engagedtoahandsomelandscapearchitectcalledHansen.Sheobserves,“I’d
virtuallysteppedfrommychildhoodintothishappiness.”560Thishappiness,
however,wasnottolast.
558LookatMe,p.163.559LookatMe,p.164.560LookatMe,p.100.
206
AsIreneMaitlockhasspelledoutforus,thefigureofthemodelisa“more
exaggeratedversionofeveryone’spositioninavisuallybased,media-driven
society.”561Thefigureofthemodel–CharlotteSwenson,here–isbuiltinthe
mouldoftheexemplaryneoliberalfigure,theactualselfasenterprise.Ihave
alreadyexploredRichardSennett’saccountofthethreechallengesfacedin
becomingtheidealneoliberalsubject:time(specifically,lackoffuturity),talent
(oradaptability)andsurrender(lettinggoofthepast).562Thesearethevery
challengeswithwhichamodelisconfronted,asEgan’sownearlierarticle,‘James
IsAGirl,’demonstrated.AtthemomentofthegreathappinessCharlotte
describes,shehasbeendispatchedtoParisforwork–modelsareexpectedtogo
whereverthereiswork,andtoperformondemandforcasting.Shemisses
Hansendesperately,untiloneday,seeminglyoutofnowhere,shebeginsasexual
affairwithHenri,aFrenchartistwhospeaksnoEnglish.Thisaffairmakesher
happyintheshortterm.Shesays,“Imadeabetterimpressionatcastings,and
workbeganpickingup”–thesupremehappinessbeingmaterialsuccess,as
ever.563Ultimately,however,itleadstothebreakdownofherrelationshipwith
Hansen.Charlottedescribeswhatshecalls“shadowselves”throughoutthe
novel,basicallyreferringtothedisjuncturebetweenthepersonasubject
presentsthemselvestobe,andthepersontheyinfactare(based,variously,on
bothactionandintention):
Iclutchedatthenotionofsomelarger‘me’thatcouldcontainand
justifymycontradictorybehavior,butmoreoftenIfeltliketwo
irreconcilablevisions,twodifferentpeople,oneunerringlyloyaland
faithful,theothertreacherousandgreedy.MyaffairwithHenrihad
pushedsomethingopeninme,andnowIfeltravenous,inconstant
dangerofgoinghungry.564
Charlotte’s‘shadowself’isoneandthesamewithher‘real’self.ShetellsHansen
abouttheaffairandhebreakstheengagementoff,foreclosingthepossibilityof
anysecureintimaterelationshipasfarasCharlotteisconcerned:
561LookatMe,p.92.562RichardSennet,TheCultureoftheNewCapitalismNewHaven:Yale,p.4-5.563LookatMe,p.102.564LookatMe,p.104.
207
Myphilosophy…waseerilysuitedtowhatbecamemylife;different
citiesweektoweek,aconstantflowofsettingsandpeople;asmy
surroundingsdissolvedandreconstitutedthemselves,itseemedonly
naturalIdothesame.565
Wecansee,ataglance,howcloselythisresemblesSennett’saccount.Inher
managementoftime,talent,andsurrender,Charlotterecreatesherselfinthe
imageoftheidealneoliberalsubject.Shemanagesherselfaccordingtothe
economicdictatesofherindustry,inordertomaximisehersuccessand
minimisethecognitivedissonancesheexperiencedwhilsttryingtoholdonto
theimmaterial(non-economic)‘good’ofherrelationship.
ThewayinwhichCharlotte,asamodel,isexpectedtomaintainherselfaligns
closelywiththewayinwhichneoliberalsubjectsareinterpellatedtobecome
andpresenttheir‘bestself,’whichistosay,theirmostappealingself,ascharted
byCarlCederströmandAndréSpicerinTheWellnessSyndrome.566Throughout
herlife,Charlotte’ssenseofself–hersenseofworth–hasrestedonher
appearance:
Asamodel,ofcourse,I’dcarriedmyfacelikeasign,holdingitouta
footorsoinfrontofme–notoutofprideorvanity,Godknew;those
hadbeenstampedoutlongago,oratanyrate,disjoinedfrommy
physicalappearance.No,outofsheerpracticality:here’swhatIam.567
In‘#NoFilter:Models,GlamourLabour,andtheAgeoftheBlink’(2015),
ElizabethWissingeroffersanaccountoftheself-maintenanceworkthatmodels
do,whichsheterms“glamourlabour.”Wissingercompellinglyoutlinesthemore
generalexpansionofglamourlabour,offeringanimportantsupplementto
CederströmandSpicer’swork.Wissingeraimsforspecificityinheraccountof
glamourlabour,distinguishingitfrommoregeneralimmateriallabourorself-
maintenancebyitscentralinjunctionto“projectafashionableimage,andtobe
565LookatMe,p.106.ThereisanunderlyingsuggestionherethatitisCharlotte’snewly-awakenedsexualappetitethatcannotbecontained;thisfeedsintothewidertropeof‘good’femininitythatrecursthroughoutEgan’swork,towhichIpayparticularattentioninmyexplorationofAVisitFromtheGoonSquad.566Mostpertinentlyinthesection‘TheGuiltyPleasureofDieting,’TheWellnessSyndrome.Cambridge:Polity,2015,pp.41-9.567LookatMe,p.30.
208
thatimageintheflesh.”568Wissingerlinksglamourlabourtoone’s“coolquotient
–“howhookedup,tunedin,and“intheknow”oneis.”569ThisisCharlotte’s
stock-in-trade-andDanny’s,inTheKeep,andthatofmostofthecharactersinA
VisitFromtheGoonSquad.ThisreturnsustoBoltanskiandChiapello,andthe
spiritofsixty-eight,onceagain,althoughonthisoccasionIwanttofocusonJim
McGuigan’swork,mentionedbrieflywhenlookingatTheInvisibleCircus.
McGuiganseeksananswertothequestionofhowneoliberalcapitalism
continuestobejustified,i.e.howithas,
constructedpopularlegitimacyofsucharesilientkindthatitgoes
beyondmanagementideologyandpropagandaintothetextureand
commonsenseofeverydaylifeinspiteofsevereandrecurrent
economiccrisis;and,indeed,worseningecologicalconditionsinthe
worldtoday–allofwhichdirectlyaffectspeople’slives.570
Inthis,heismoreorlessaskingthesamequestionthatisthefoundationofthis
thesis:howarepeopleinterpellatedtothinkthemselveshappy,oreven
possessingthecapacityforhappiness,despitetheirownexperienceofsuffering
andtheineluctableevidenceofglobalsufferingonhumanandecologicalterms
(inasmuchasanydistinctionmaybemadebetweenthosetwo)?Not,hesays,
howdoescapitalismpersist,buthowisitjustified–forme,howdowejustifyitto
ourselves,oreven,howdowejustifyourneoliberalselves?ForMcGuigan,the
riseofcoolcapitalisakeypartoftheanswer.Asheexplainsit,thisisdueinpart
tothewayinwhichthisincorporatesdissentordisaffectionintocapitalismitself
–the‘conquestofcool.’Thislogicof‘coolness’canbeconnectedtomyaccountof
theprojectofmiddle-classificationenactedbyneoliberalism,wherebothrelyon
thesubject’sfreedomfromattachmentorinclination,onthe‘naturalness’ofthe
selfwhodissolvesandreconstitutesitselfaccordingtotheirsurroundings,like
CharlotteSwenson.Thisformofcoolness,asCharlotteexpressesinherpost-
Hansenphilosophy,amountstoadetachedattitudethatrepresentsaformof
self-protection,aself-inducedfogofcognitivedissonance.McGuiganfiguresthis
specificallyinregardtothoseworkinginindustriesinwhichthetraditional568ElizabethWissinger,‘#NoFilter:Models,GlamourLabour,andtheAgeoftheBlink,’TheorizingtheWeb2014specialissueofInterface,1:1:2015,pp.1-20,p.5.569Wissinger.‘#NoFilter,’p.4.570JimMcGuigan.‘TheCoolnessofCapitalismToday,’tripleC,10:2,2012.425-438.431.
209
protectionsoftradeunionshavebeendiminishedorabolished,andIwillreturn
tothisunderstanding,andmoredirectlytohisconceptionoftheneoliberalself,
inmydiscussionofTheKeep.InLookatMe,CharlotteSwenson’scoolness
ultimatelyfailstopropelhertosuccess.Therelationalnetworkssheestablishes
undertheguiseofcoolnessareinsubstantial,andafterheraccidentsheisforced
torelyonthekindnessof(near)strangers.Charlotteappearstoacceptthisas
herfate,describingafutureasa“professionalbeauty”whosebestoption,
increasingly,seemstobealovelessmarriagetoawealthypartner.571
Althoughthispathwayclearlysignalsagenderedaccountof‘utility,’inIrene
Maitlock’saccountofCharlotteSwenson-as-signifier,sheidentifiesCharlottethe
modelas“amoreexaggeratedversionofeveryone’spositioninavisuallybased,
media-drivenculture.”572Thissomewhatdisavowstheconsiderationsof
genderedexperiencethatunderpinthenovel,aproblemoutlinedelsewhere.Per
Wissinger’sarticle,andCederströmandSpicer’swork,however,wecanlookat
thebroadaccountofhowglamourlabouroverlapswithwellnessimperativesto
imbricatethegeneralpopulationinitspractice,beyondthosewhohave
traditionallymadealivingfromtheirappearance.Asmentionedearlier,once
CharlotteSwensonfindsshecannolongerworkasamodel,shedecidestosell
herstorytoThomasKeene,whorunsanearlysocialmedianetworkcalled
Extra/OrdinaryPeople.Theconceitofthisisthatpeoplewillpayforonline
accesstothelivesofothersbecause,Keenesays,
Mostofusaredesperateforrawexperience.Weworkinoffices,
dealingwithintangibles;wegotolunchandtalktootherpeople
surroundedbyintangibles.Nooneactuallymakesanythinganymore,
andourso-calledexperiencesareaboutclimbingMountKilimanjaro
onourtwo-weekvacationsorsnappingapictureoftheDalaiLamain
CentralPark.573
WhatEgan,andKeene,failedtoanticipateinapre-MySpacecontextisthatthis
desperationfor“rawexperience”wouldrequirenotjustobservation,but
interaction.Thisinteractivityhasbecomeacentralfeatureofentertainment,too,
571LookatMe,p.173-4.572LookatMe,p.92.573LookatMe,p.248.
210
whetheritisvotingonshows,usingappstointerveneinaction,orthe
personalisedrecommendationsofserviceslikeNetflix.In‘EUnibusPluram:
TelevisionandU.S.Fiction,’DavidFosterWallaceclaimedthatmetaficitonwas
“deeplyinformedbytheemergenceoftelevision,”initsformandinthe
emergenceofanaudience,orreadership.Hedescribesthisas“akindofabiding-
in-TV.”574Wemightsurmiseanewabidingemerging,connectedtothis
technologicaltransformationofmedia;IthinkAVisitfromtheGoonSquadmoves
towardssuchaposition.Inthisformulation,“lookatme”isnotapassive
position,butanactivedemand.Thisisthecommonformofcontemporarysocial
media–Facebook,Twitter,Instagram,Snapchat,etc.Alloftheserequiretheuser
toengage,toobserveothersbutalsobeobservable.575Theyareliterally
technologiesbywhichsubjectsconstructidentity,accordingtoasetof
parametersdrawnbothfromtheformofmediaandtheformofanticipated
response.
ReturningtoWissinger’swork,itisthewidespreadprevalenceofthese
technologiesoftheselfandthedialogicformoftheiruseoccurringwithinthe
contextof‘wellness’thatexpandsglamourlabourtothemoregeneral
population:
Theactionsofsomanywhonowdietorexercise,wearstepcounting
andheartmonitoringdevicestonotonlybefit,buttolooklike
modelsinpicturesandintheflesh,drivebodilyeconomies
capitalizingonthebody’scapacitytogrowsoftorbuildmuscle,
offeringupthefleshitselftogriddingformarketvalue.Tweeting
aboutorpostingone’slatestaccomplishment,postingaselfieofone’s
newlyenhancedbutt,slimmedwaist,orlatestoutfit,pullsone’s
bodilypotentialandconnectivityintometeringandregulation,an
availabilitywhichfacilitatescapital’sconstantexpansion.Atthesame
time,theveryactofpostingputsone’sglamourquotientontheline,
risingandfallingbythemetricsoflikes,hearts,influencescores,and
574Wallace.‘EUnibusPluram,’p.161.575Thishasbeendescribedbyvariousauthors,suchasSherryTurkleandJaronLanier,thelatterofwhomfocusesparticularlyonthewayinwhichthisuseprocessskewstheideaofvaluecreationonline–seeWhoOwnstheFuture?(2013)forafulldiscussion.
211
views.Keepingthequotienthighbecomesasortofcompulsion,the
glamourlabortostayvisibleandrelevant–tomatter.576
Attheheartofthisistheemphasisnotonglamour(orattractiveness,physical
perfection,etc.)asanendpoint,butontheprocessesbywhichoneworkstoattain
it-andthevisibilityoftheseprocesses.Thisrecallsandiscloselyrelatedtothe
wayinwhichwesaw‘unhappiness’recuperatedasaproductiveforceearlierin
thisthesis-thinkagainof‘WearYourLabel.’Theneoliberalsubjectdoesnot
actuallyhavetobeidealaslongastheyareinsomewayproductivelyengaged;
infact,displayingthese‘journeys’mayevenbepreferabletodisplayingsome
finishedorfinalperfectidentity.Perneoliberallogic,a‘journey,’implyingastate
thatisnotfinished,representsamoredynamicsiteofconsumptionthana
finishedorcompleteself.
This‘journey’narrative,whichisinnatelyconnectedtotheneoliberal
happinessdiscourseIamtracinginthisthesis,ispartoftheemergence,through
the1990sand2000s,ofwhatIdescribeasthe‘realitygenre.’IfWallace’svision
ofmetafictionwasconnectedtotheemergenceofaself-awareandironic
viewingsubject,thisgenremarksashiftinthisviewer.Ihavelinkedthistothe
interactivityofthegenre,butitisalsomarkedbyashiftfromunself-conscious
performers–oratleast,performerswhoappeartobeunself-conscious–to
supremelyandovertlyself-consciousperformers(whoareonlyperforming
themselves,asitwere).Thismarksashift,too,intherelationshipbetween
viewerandobject,inwhichthepossibilityofbecomingtheobject(thefigure
whoisviewed)isincreasedexponentially,asavenuesofself-displayincreaseat
pace;again,YouTube,Instagram,Snapchat.The“manwhocanstandthe
megagaze,”asWallaceputit,isnowthatsame“normal,hard-working,quietly
desperatespeciesofAmerican”hesuggestedcouldnotbearsuchscrutiny.577
576Wissinger,‘#NoFilter,’p.14.577“Onlyacertainveryrarespeciesofperson,forEmerson,is“fittostandthegazeofmillions.”Itisnotyournormal,hard-working,quietlydesperatespeciesofAmerican.Themanwhocanstandthemegagazeisawalkingimago,acertaintypeoftranscendentfreakwho,forEmerson,“carriestheholidayinhiseye.”TheEmersonianholidaytelevisionactors’eyescarryisthepotentillusionofavacationfromself-consciousness.Notworryingabouthowyoucomeacross.Atotalunallergytogazes.Itiscontemporarilyheroic.Itisfrighteningandstrong.Itisalso,ofcourse,anact,acounterfeitimpression–foryouhavetobejustabnormallyself-consciousandself-controllingtoappearunwatchedbeforelenses.Theself-consciousappearanceofunself-consciousnessisthegrandillusionbehindTV’smirror-hallofillusions;andforus,theAudience,itisbothmedicineandpoison.”‘EUnibusPluram,’p.154.
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Thisisnotbecausethatsubjecthaschanged,butbecausetherelationshiptoand
natureofscrutiny–ofappearance–has.LookatMejustprecedesthismoment,
butnonethelessanticipatesit.Althoughthenovelwaspublishedbeforethe
adventofsocialmediaasweknowitnow,itwaswritteninthewakeoftherise
ofrealityTV,mostnotablyMTV’sTheRealWorld.578Theseriesbeganin1992,
butitwasnota‘hit’until1994,whenaseasonsetinSeattlefeaturedanAIDS
activistnamedPedroZamora(alsolivingwithAIDS),whocameintofrequent
conflictwithanotherhousemate,PuckRainey.Theemotionalimpactoftheshow
–Zamora’slife-threateningmedicalcondition,combinedwiththeintense
personalityclashesofthehousemates–formedablueprintforrealitytelevision
stillverymuchinevidencetoday.579ThisformatshapesthewayinwhichEgan
describestheemergenceofafetishisationof‘realpeople,’tiedtoavalorisation
ofsufferingandashiftingconfessionalmode,asweshallsee.
LeeKonstantinoualsoaddressesWallace’sessayinhissectiononpost-irony,
whereheconceivesacharacterhecalls“thebeliever,”thearchetypalfigure
(bothreaderandwriter)ofthelooselytermed‘NewSincerity.’Konstantinou
takesWallaceandDaveEggersasthetotemsofthischaracter-type,aswriters
whobothbelieveandseektofosterbeliefinapost-ironiccontextthatattempts
toovercometheironicimpassethatimmobilisespersonalandpoliticalagency
identifiedasstemmingfrompostmodernisttheoryandwriting,aswellasthe
figureofthe‘advertisingself’withwhichthisisassociated.580Konstantinou
writes,“BothDavidFosterWallaceandDaveEggerssoughttoreconnectprivate
andpubliclife,andtheypursuedthisaimbyused[sic]techniquesassociated
withpostmodernmetaficitontoattempttogenerateformsofbelieftheoryno
longerheldtobepossible.”581Althoughthegoalofthesewritersmaybethe
578JenniferEganinterviewedbyJoshuaLukin,‘PartofUsThatCan’tBeTouched,’Guernica17June2010,www.guernicamag.com/egan_7_1_10/.579JoeReid.‘Happy20thAnniversary,Puck’sEvictionArconTheRealWorld,’TheAtlanticSeptember172014,www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2014/09/happy-20th-anniversary-pucks-eviction-arc-on-the-real-world/380370/.580Thisself,perKelly,isrecognizedinthefictionofDavidFosterWallacethroughthatauthorsinvestigationofthequestionof“whathappenswhentheanticipationofother’sreceptionofonesoutwardbehaviorbeginstotakepriorityfortheactingself,sothatinnerstateslosetheiroriginalcausalstatusandinsteadbecomeeffectsofthatanticipatorylogic.”AdamKelly,‘DavidFosterWallaceandtheNewSincerityinAmericanFiction,’inConsiderDavidFosterWallace,ed.DavidHering.LosAngeles:SideshowMediaGroup,2015.p.136581LeeKonstantinou.CoolCharacters.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.2016.p.168
213
same,Konstantinousuggestsbothpursueitthroughdifferentmeans:Eggers’s
approachisinstitutional,whereWallace’s,accordingtoKonstantinou,operates
atamorepersonallevel,usingavant-gardetechniquesasawaytoprovokesome
emotionalreactionfromthereaderandtherebyreaffirmanemphaticconnection
betweenauthorandreaderthatovercomesthedisaffectionofironyandopens
thepossibilityformoregenuinecommunion‘offthepage.’Iamnotentirelysure
howEgan’sworkistobeframedinrelationtoNewSincerity(forhispart,
KonstantinoulooksatGoonSquad,andreadsitinthecontextofacharacterhe
identifiesas“thecoolhunter”inhispenultimatechapter).Inhisreadingof
GeorgeSaunders,AdamKellyidentifiedLookatMeamongstanumberofnovels
(identifiedwithNewSincerity),allofwhichexploreorofferan“escapefrom
consciousness.”582Kellycautionsagainstreadingsuchanescapeas“apositive
recommendationorprescriptionforactioninaneoliberalworld,”suggesting
thattheyshouldinsteadbereadcriticallyanddialectically,bearinginmindthat
theymayindicateawideruncertaintyaboutthesameimaginativelimitationsI
haveidentifiedasimposedbythe“noalternative”logicofneoliberalism.583With
thisinmind,IwillseektoofferareadingofLookatMethatexploresitsposition
inrelationtothe‘realitygenre,’identifyinginparticularthe1990scultureoutof
whichitemerged,andtoconnectthistothequestionof(new)sincerityinthis
novel.Iwillconcentrateinparticularontheendingofthenovel,having
previouslysuggestedthatendingsrepresentacrucialmomentinEgan’swork
(indeed,givenmywiderframework,onemightpositthisasanunpackingof
“happyendings”).Inordertodothis,Iwilllookcloselyatthemodeandformof
confessionatworkinthisnovel,whichIbelievetobeintimatelyconnectedto
theriseofneoliberalhappinessdiscourse,andwhichcanbesituatedinawider
frameworklookingattherelationshipbetweenartandartifice.
ItwouldbehardtooverlookEggersinexploringEgan’sworkinthis
context,giventhathisbreakthroughnovelemergedfromandparticipatesinthis
samemoment:oneofthecentralconceitsofhis2000novel,AHeartbreaking
WorkofStaggeringGenius,isafictionalisedaccountofanauditionforTheReal
582AdamKelly,‘LanguageBetweenLyricismandCorporatism:GeorgeSaunders’sNewSincerity,’inGeorgeSaunders:CriticalEssays,eds.PhilipColemanandSteveGronertEllerhoff.London:PalgraveMacmillan,2017.p54.583Ibid.
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World.Theinclusionofthisinterviewbothparodiestheformatofthereality
genre–Eggersoffershimselfupand“theTragicPerson,”parodyingthetropesof
realitytelevision–andacknowledgesthedebthisworkowestoit–hisstory,
afterall,anditspointofinterestintheliterarymarket,reliesonthe
underpinningtragedyofhisparents’deaths.584Theriseinpublicappetitefor
“realpeople”–andthesufferingoftheserealpeopleinparticular–isacore
motifinLookatMe.WhenCharlottemeetshermodellingagent,Oscar,forthe
firsttimesinceheraccident,hetellsherabouthenewcrazesweepingthe
industry:
Afewmonthsago,hetoldme,abookeratElitehadsomehowspotted
abeautiful,starvingHuturefugeeinTime.Somehow…thisbooker
managedtotracktherefugeedownandflyherandhereightchildren
toNewYork,where‘Hutu’,asshewasknown(hernamehavingbeen
deemedunpronounceable)promptlyshotcoversforMarieClaireand
ItalianVogueandgarneredanavalancheofpublicityforElite.Notto
beoutdone,Laura,theCEOofFemme,noticedabeautifulNorth
Koreangirlinastoryaboutfamine.585
Theassociationbetweenbeautyandsufferingattributesaparticularvalueto
thesesubjectsbasedonactualorperceivedvulnerability.Tobettercontextualise
this,wemightlookagainattheparticularculturalmomentof1990sAmericaout
ofwhichLookatMeemerges(andwhich,asIhavesuggested,isbothexemplified
andparodiedinAHeartbreakingWorkOfStaggeringGenius).Indeed,thisisthe
samemomentthatbirthedtheriotgrrrlmovementwhosehistoriographyIhave
invokedinexpandingtheframeworkofthe“politicsofintimacy,”attributedto
themovementinMimithiNguyen’swork.Riotgrrrlexistedasasubsectionofa
widerpunkmovementthatwasbasedinandaroundOlympia,Washington,with
manyparticipantsattendingclassesatEvergreenStateCollege.Olympiawasalso
hometoKRecords,alabelwhoseinfluencefarexceededitssize.Thefounderof
KRecords,CalvinJohnson,wasamemberofabandcalledBeatHappening,anda
keyfigureinadeliberatelynaïvemusicalmovementthatborrowedtheDIYethos
584DaveEggers.AHeartbreakingWorkofStaggeringGenius.London:Picador,2000.p.204.585LookatMe,p.44.AgainweseeEgan’santicipatoryironizinghere,atoncehighlightingtheabsurdityofthefashionindustryandatthesametimerenderingcommentredundant.
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ofpunkbutsoughttoremovethemachoposturingandhardedgesthathad
markedpunkmusicinAmericathroughthe1980s.586Thebreakoutstarsofthe
Olympiasceneweretwomusicianswhowereaswellknownfortheirstruggles
withcelebrityasfortheirmusic:KurtCobainandElliottSmith.Cobain’ssuccess
camewiththebandNirvana,whospearheadedthegrungemovementthatcame
todefinethe‘90s;Smith’s‘bigbreak’wasthesoundtrackforthe1997film,Good
WillHunting,whichsawhissong‘MissMisery’nominatedforanOscar(he
performeditatthe1998Oscarceremony).587Bothartistsexistinawider
traditionoftheconfessionalthatseesthepersonalsufferingofcreators
repurposedthroughartistictransformation,oftenmarkedinliteratureas
beginningwiththepoetryofRobertLowell,JohnBerryman,SylviaPlath,Anne
Sexton,andAllenGinsberg.588MarkFishersingledCobainoutasanexemplary
figure(orvictim)ofthe“strugglebetweendetournementandrecuperation,”
writingthat,
Inhisdreadfullassitudeandobjectlessrage,Cobainseemedtogive
weariedvoicetothedespondencyofthegenerationthathadcome
afterhistory,whoseeverymovewasanticipated,tracked,boughtand
soldbeforeithadevenhappened[hownaïveeventhisseemsnow,
whenweanticipate,track,buyandsellourownmoves,thoughts,and
feelingswillinglyandalmostautomatically,thankstosocialmedia’s
expansionofsocialityintoallpartsoflife,andtheconcomitant
expansionofthemarketthataccompaniesit].589
BothElliottandCobainstruggledwithalcoholismanddruguse,self-medicating
withbothprescriptionandnon-prescriptiondrugs(mostnotably,heroin)and
documentingthisstruggleintheirmusicandintheirinterviews.590Indeed,
586SeeSteveBlush,AmericanHardcore:ATribalHistory.Washington,WA:FeralHouse,2001foranaccountofthe‘80sscene,andMichaelAzerrad,OurBandCouldbeYourLife,NewYork:BackBayPublishing,2001,Chapter13,foranaccountofBeatHappeningandKRecords.587HewasultimatelybeatenbyCelineDion’sMyHeartWillGoOn.JoeRobinson,‘TV’sMostSurrealMusicalPerformances:ElliottSmithattheOscars,’Diffuser,22May2014.http://diffuser.fm/elliott-smith-oscars/588SeeElizabethGregory,‘ConfessingtheBody,’inModernConfessionalWriting,edJoGill.LondonandNewYork:Routledge,2006,pp.33-50.p.33.589Fisher.CapitalistRealism.p.9590See,forinstance,ChrisMundy,‘MiseryLovesElliottSmith,’TheRollingStone,September31998https://www.rollingstone.com/music/features/misery-loves-elliot-19980903,orLynneHershberger’sinfamousVanityFairstoryonCourtneyLove,‘StrangeLove:TheStoryofKurt
216
Elliott’s‘heroinsong,’NeedleintheHay,madeitontothesoundtrackofWes
Anderson’sTheRoyalTenenbaums,afilmanddirectorrobustlyassociatedwith
NewSincerity.591Again,thisincorporation–ofdamageorsuffering–canbe
connectedbothtotheworkoftheconfessionalpoetsandtothetropesofthe
realitygenre;the‘TragicPerson’isalsothesufferingartist,bothobjectand
subjectinthetransformationoftheirpainintoanaestheticorcommercialmode.
Therearealsounderlyinggenderissuestothisconfessionalmode,asElizabeth
Gregoryexploresinlookingatconfessionalpoetry:
Indevelopingtheircontrastingly‘personal’approach,the1950s
confessionalpoetsutilizedthemethodsofpsychoanalysisand
psychotherapy,whichhadonlyrecentlygainedacceptanceintheUS
andwithwhichtheyallhaddirectexperience.Theirworkhasdeeply
influencedmuchpoetrysince,openingupthepossibilityofmoments
ofpersonal‘sharing’intheworkofpoetsineverymode.Atthesame
timeithasbeenlookeddownupon,forbeingtoo‘real’–asan
outpouringofunediteddatafromtheworldofexperience....Andit
hasbeendisparagedastoofeminine.Thoughthemodefirstappeared
intheworkofmalepoets,itisoftenassociatedwithitsfemale
practitioners,andcondemnedastrivialandself-indulgent....592
Theissueofgenderisalsorelevantinconsideringtheconfessionalismofthe‘90s
Iamtracinghere.Themodesofconfessionandopennessassociatedwithriot
grrrldevelopedfromandexpandedthatformof‘consciousnessraising’
associatedwiththesecond-wavefeministmovementepitomisedinCarol
Hanisch’s1969slogan,“thepersonalispolitical.”593Asmentionedearlier,this
expansionwasbornofabeliefthat“thestrategicexcavationofthetrueselfalso
becomesanethicalfoundationforcommunion.”594Thisisthesameimpulsethat
formsthebasisofunderstandingtheNewSinceritymovement,whichseeks,in
CobainandCourtneyLove,’September1992https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2016/03/love-story-of-kurt-cobain-courtney-love.591WarrenBuckland,‘WesAnderson:a‘smart’directorofthenewsincerity?’NewReviewofFilmandTelevisionStudies,10:1,2012,p.1-5.4.592Gregory,p.33.593CarolHanisch,‘ThePersonalisPolitical,’February1969http://www.carolhanisch.org/CHwritings/PIP.html594Nguyen.p.177.
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thewordsofAdamKellyonDavidFosterWallace,toretain“aloveoftruth,a
truthnowassociatedwiththepossibilityofareconceived,andrenewed,
sincerity”–anethicaltruth,thatis.595Itisinteresting,however,thatthe
mainstreamstarsofthisculturalmomentwereprimarilymale;wemightinvoke
CourtneyLove,here,buthernarrativewasneverasstraightforwardasCobain’s,
withintensesuspicionconstantlyattachedtoherbecauseshewassuspectedof
activelywantingtobefamous.InherVanityFairprofile,Hershbergerwroteof
Courtney’spoorlydyedhair:“Thedarkrootsshowonpurpose–nothingabout
Courtneyisanaccident....”596ThisexemplifiedthenarrativearoundCourtney;if
Kurtwasattimesberatedasa“sellout,”Courtneywasderidedassoldout,
alwaysalreadyrecuperated.597Thispointstothepersistenceofdiscomfort
aroundtheopennessoffemaleconfessionalismandthequestionofitsvalue
(artistically,atleast).ThiscanbeconnectedtothefigureofScottyinAVisitFrom
theGoonSquad,amalemusicianwhomanagestoturnhisalienationinto
celebritywiththehelpofrecordproducerBennySalazar,aswewillseeinthe
nextsectionofthisthesis.IsuggesttherethatScotty’ssuccesscanbeconnected
toaparticulartropeofmasculineruggedindividualismthatallowshisdifference
tobeseenasasortofheroicunconventionality;hiscritiqueofthe‘system’
(whichprimarilytakestheformofsurveillancecultureinthatnovel)isreceived
aspurebecauseofhisowndistancefromit,eveninthemidstofhis
establishmentasacommerciallypopularartist.598This,aswewillsee,standsin
contrasttothosefemalefiguresinthenovelwhodonotorcannot‘conform.’
Intracingthismoment,then,Iamseekingtoillustrateboththepopular
discourseswhichshapedLookatMeandAmericanculturemoregenerally,and
which,Isuggest,‘setthestage’fortheproliferationoftheneoliberalhappiness
discourseIamtracinginthisthesis.Therearetwoelementsofthisrealitygenre
whichIamseekingtoemphasisehere,bothofwhich,asIhavesaid,canalsobe
595Kelly,2010,146.596Hershberger,1992.597Thereismuchmoretothis,andtothefraughtrelationshipbetweenCourtneyLove’sfeminismandthefraughtrelationshipsheenjoyedwiththeOlympiasceneandriotgrrrlinparticular,butforreasonsofspaceIwillnotdelvetoodeeplyhere.598Scottyresonateswithanothercounter-culturalmusicalfigure,thefamouslyreclusiveJeffMangumofNeutralMilkHotel:seeTaylorClark,‘TheSalingerofIndieRock,’Slate,26February2008.http://www.slate.com/articles/arts/music_box/2008/02/the_salinger_of_indie_rock.htm.NeutralMilkHotelandJeffMangumweretouringasrecentlyas2015.
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connectedtotheworkofthose‘confessionalpoets’:theacceptabilityofsuffering
anditsartisticorcommercialtransformation,andthemodeofconfessionitself.
InLookatMe,then,whenOscartellsCharlotteabouttheemergenceofthesenew
‘sufferingmodels,’hecalls“therealitything”a“newlayer,”whichsheidentifies
asthe“bullshitlayer.”599Thisbullshitlayerinvolvesthespectacularsufferingof
participants,ortheknowledgethattheyhavesufferedorwillsuffer,likePedro
ZamorafromTheRealWorld,ortheinfamous2006ExtremeMakeovermemo
thatdetailedtheproducer’seagernesstofindafamilywithachildsufferingfrom
progeria,oronewhoturntragedytotriumphfollowingthedeathofachildina
drunk-drivingincident.600Sexmightsell,butsodoessuffering,atleastwhenitis
recastasacommerciallyappealingnarrative,orjourney.601Thisis,itseems,
goodnewsforCharlotte,whohasundoubtedlysufferedinhercarcrash.This,
combinedwiththemisinformationthatsheistobethesubjectofamagazine
profile,landsherajobworkingwithpaparazzo-turned-fashion-photographer,
Spiro.
Overthecourseoftheshoot,ittranspiresthatSpiro’sartisticsignatureis
cuttingthefacesofthewomenwhomodelforhimandphotographingthem
whiletheybleed.Charlotte,afraidforher“abused,still-tenderfacewithits
hiddencargooftitanium”begstousefakebloodinstead,evenofferingtobuyit
herself.602Spiroisaghastattheverysuggestion:“Theword‘fake’induceda
collectiveflinch,asifI’dusedaracialslur.‘Fakeisfake,’Spirosaid.”603He
continues,assertingthathisgoalisto‘getat’somethingpure:
‘Everythingisartifice...everythingispretending.Youopena
magazine,whatisallthatcrap?LookhowprettyIam,lookhow
perfectmylifeis.Butit’slies,nothingisreallylikethat.And
politicians,too,spinthis,spinthat,pullingsomethingoveronpeople
–I’msickofit.Itliterallymakesmenauseous.’604
599LookatMe,p.45.600‘ABC’s“Extreme”Exploitation,’TheSmokingGun,27March2006www.thesmokinggun.com/documents/crime/abcs-extreme-exploitation#lightbox-popup-1601Iamnotsuggestinghere,either,thatthisnarrativehastoendwithtriumphforittobeacommercial‘success.’Theemphasisremainsonprocess,journey,liminality.602LookatMe,p.179.603LookatMe,p.179.604LookatMe,p.180.
219
Spiroinsiststhat,byphysicallycuttingthesemodelsandlettingthembleed,heis
cuttingthrough“thatshittowhat’srealandfundamental.”605Soundingverylike
oneofBallard’scharismaticpsychopaths,hecloses,“thisisn’taboutfashion–
we’rewaypastfashionhere.Thisisaboutfindinganewwaytoliveinthe
world.”606Hyperbolicasthisis,itfindsresonancewiththerealculturalmoment
inboththeUSandUK:ElliottSmithultimatelydiedofastabwoundtothechest,
andwasanotedself-harmer(alsodiscussedininterviews).607Yearsbefore
Smith’sdeath,RicheyEdwardsofTheManicStreetPreachersmadeheadlines
whenhecarvedthewords“4REAL’intohisarmwitharazorbladeduringan
interviewwithNMEjournalistSteveLamacq.608TheimageofabloodiedRichey,
palebutstaringdirectlyintothecamera,waspublishedintheNMEandlater
usedonposterswhenthebandweretryingtobreakAmerica,inaninstanceof
recuperationthatfindsclearresonanceinthepassageabove.
Bloodlettingasawaytodemonstrateauthenticityisrepeatedlyfiguredin
Eggers’snovel,too,asBenjaminWidissexploresatlengthinhis2011work,
ObscureInvitations:ThePersistenceoftheAuthorinTwentieth-CenturyAmerican
Literature.WidissoffersareadingofAHeartbreakingWorkofStaggeringGenius
thatunderstandsthebookintheframeworkofCatholicritual,leadinghimto
suggestthatthebookitselfbecomesatransubstantiatedversionoftheauthorin
asecularisedsystemofliterarybelief.ThisisclosetoKonstantinou’sreadingof
the“believer”(alsothenameofamagazinefoundedbyEggers),althoughhis
emphasisonEggers’sconstructionof“alternativeinstitutions”offersamore
materialgroundingforEggers’ssystemofbelief.WidisslooksatEggers’saccount
ofhisRealWorldinterviewandhighlightstheauthor’sassertionthathis
participationisinpartmotivatedbyadesiretogivehissufferingmeaning–to
transformitintoakindofconduitoffeelingwithwhichtovitaliseothersand
createacommunityoflovebasedonthisauthenticexpressionofgrief.Thisis
605LookatMe,p.180.606LookatMe,p.180.607SeeLiamGowing,‘ElliottSmith:‘MrMiseryRevisited,YearsAftertheSinger-Songwriter’sControversialDeath,’Spin,October21,2013.https://www.spin.com/2013/10/elliott-smith-mr-misery-10-year-anniversary-death/4608SteveLamacq,‘TheLastTimeISawRichey,’TheGuardian,29September2000.https://www.theguardian.com/friday_review/story/0,3605,374432,00.htmlEdwardsdisappearedtheyearafterKurtCobaincommittedsuicideandispresumeddead.
220
veryclosetothosestrategieshighlightedbyNguyenascentraltothe“politicsof
intimacy,”whichsheexplainswithreferencetoElizabethPovinelli’sTheEmpire
ofLove(2006):
InTheEmpireofLove,ElizabethPovinellibrilliantlytheorizessuch
intimacyasaliberalismfantasyofself-actualizationandabstraction
intoacompassionatecollectivity.Insuchafantasy,“subjectsinthe
liberaldiasporaconstantlyurgeeachothertobeopentothe
possibilitythatinrecognizingeachotherinintimatelovetheywill
experienceeachotherasdifferentthantheywerebefore–theywill
experienceabreak,arupturefromtheirpriorselvesandexperiencea
truer,purerformofself,aformtheyhavealwaystrulybeen.We
literallyreformthesocialbybelievinginanddemandingthisformof
love.”Thusdidtheaestheticsofdepthandtruefeeling(thoughnotof
necessitydistinctfromastanceofparodyandcritiqueofthesame,as
weshallsee)presumetograntaccesstoothergirlsandtheirsecret
heartsmadeaudible,madevisible.Asthecoverofthesecondissueof
[riotgrrlzine]photoboxtoolboxannounced:“thisismylife,thisismy
scream,thisismyanger,thisismypain,thisismystrength,thisismy
growth,thisismyspirit,thisismyvoice,thisismyheart,thisismy
song.”609
Nguyen’ssuggestionthatparodyandcritiqueofintimacypersistedevenhere
connectsusagaintotheworkofEggersandEgan.Inneitherinstancedoesthe
writerofferusthenaïveintimateaestheticNguyenassociateswithriotgrrrl.
Bothwritersareacutelyconsciousoftheirpostmoderninheritance,asKelly
describeswithregardtoLookatMein‘BeginningwithPsotmodernism.’For
Widiss,Eggersseekstoworkoutorworkthroughthisinheritancethroughhis
stylistic“gimmicks”:
Eggers,assomeonewhosovaluesandprivilegespersonal
connection,whosewritingsoobviouslyaspirestoasurgingand
encompassingimmediacy,facesamediumthatbeyondacertainpoint
609Nguyen,176.ThisisarefiguringofthequestionofthepossibilityofethicalconnectionsandcirclesroundtheLevinasianquestionofresponsibilitytotheOtherandthepossibilityorOther-knowledgethatisnotalsoerasure,aquestionNguyenisfarfromsurethemovementdealtwith.
221
wouldnotseemtoallowit,thatrequiresaretoolingoflived
experienceintoaformbothdigestibleandmarketable:morestatic,
reified,inert.Theinevitablemediationandcommodificationof
Eggers’storyinthebook,then,isprefacedbyaseriesofhighlighted,
hyperbolicpredictiveversionsthereof,condensingthebook’s
contentsyetfurtherandalienatingthereaderfromtheresulting
productinahumorousbutpointedfashion.610
InEgan’swork,however,thisconfrontationisnotsodirectlystaged:Kellyhas
suggestedwemayseeLookatMeas“haunted”bypostmodernism,andseeking
notnecessarilytouseitasastaginggroundfortheresurrectionofbelief(as
WidisssuggestsEggersdoes)buttouseitstechniquesinordertounderstand
“theworlddepictedbypostmodernfiction–whichisstill,inmanyfacets,the
recognizableworldfacingpost-postmodernists–asitselfhistorical,asthe
outcomeofahistoricalprocess,andascapableofhistoricalunderstanding.”611
Wemightsaythatinsteadofwritingthroughpostmodernism,Eganwritesitinin
LookatMe,anovelwhichisitselfasortofcondensedhistoryofliterary
theory.612Eggersusesthe‘tricks’ofpostmodernismtosubverttheaffectlessness
andmediationassociatedwithpostmodernfiction(thosesamequalitiesWallace
railedagainst),andhisimaginedbloodlettingbecomesbothametaphorforand,
byWidiss’sreading,realcommitmenttotheprojectoftransformative
connection:
610BejaminWidiss,ObscureInvitations:ThePersistenceoftheAuthorinTwentieth-CenturyAmericanLiterature.Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress,2011.p.117.611Kelly,2011,p.399.612MuchofthisisconnectedtothecharacterofMoose,anacademichistorianwhoseearlyworkfocusedontheriseofclearglassasaturningpointinhumanhistory(aclearstand-inforEnlightenmentthinkingandrationality),whothroughoutthenovelisworkingonahistoricalprojectthroughwhichheseekstowritethehistoryofAmericathroughthehistoryofcharlotte’shometownofRockford,Illinois,inasortofupdatedre-imaginingofWhitman’sprojectin‘SongofMyself.’Kellywritesthat“Egan’sapproachtorepresentingtheworldhercharactersinhabitacknowledgespriorpostmoderntreatmentsofsimilarthemesandworlds,andisinfactbuiltuponthesetreatments”andthatitistheimplicittreatmentofthisreferencethatcreatesthe“uncannyquality”ofthenovel(‘BeginningwithPostmodernism,’p.402).Thisalsoextendstothelargerprojectofhistoricizingthepostmodernatworkinthenovel,whichalsoincludeshistoricizingitsfoundationsofthepostmodern;thatis,themodern.Egan’stributeisnotjustto“postmoderntextsbyAuster,Ballard,andDeLillo–aswellastoothersbyBarthmBorges,Burroughs,EllisandPynchon”(402)–butalsotothoseauthorssheinvokesinthetext–Austen,Dickens,Trollope.
222
Anticipatinghimselfbeingbeamedintothelivingroomsoflike-
mindedyoungpeopleallovertheworld,Eggerspleads,“Iwillbleedif
theywilllove....Iwillopenavein,anartery...Ohpleaseletme
showthistothemillions.Letmebethelattice,thecenterofthe
lattice.Letmebetheconduit.Thereareallthesehearts,andmineis
strong,andifthereare–thereare!–capillariesthatbringbloodto
millions,thatweareallofonebodyandthatIam–Oh,Iwanttobe
theheartpumpingbloodtoeveryone,bloodiswhatIknow,Ifeelso
warminblood,canswiminblood,ohletmebethestrongbeating
heartthatbringsbloodtoeveryone!”Hisimpassionedpleafailsto
swaythepowersthatbeatMTV,andEggersdoesnotgetthepart.He
does,however,arriveathismostexplicitarticulationuptothispoint
ofthecomplementtopaperinthebook’scontrollingmetaphor,
nominatingheartsandbloodasameansofinterpersonalconnection
andcommunication.613
Thisisnot,however,thecaseinEgan’sworkand,indeed,itmightbethatthe
differencehereissymptomaticoflargerdifferencesbetweenEgan’sworkand
Eggers’s(andWallace’s)resultingfromadifferentcommitmenttosincerity(a
differentshadeofNewSincerity),whichwecantracetothe“escapefrom
consciousness”Kellyintimatesattheendofthenovel.Iwillexploreandexplain
thismorethoroughlyinamoment.
BeforelookingattheendofLookatMe,however,letusreturntoEgan’s
sceneofbloodletting,andconsiderhowandwhyitssignificationdiffersfrom
Eggers’saccount.DescribingtheprocessofhisRealWorldaudition,Eggers
writesofsendingavideotapetoproducers,followingwhichheiscontactedbya
womancalledLaura:
Twodayslaterawoman,Laura,calls.Sheisoneoftheshow’s
producersorcastingagentsorwhatever,andshehasobviously
recognizedmeasthesortofpersonwhobelongsonTV,inspiringa
nationofdisaffectedyouth.IamtogointothenewRealWorld
613Widiss.p.122-3.
223
headquartersforaninterview,halfanhourorso,whichwillalsobe
videotaped.614
Inthisbriefextract,Eggersinvokesanumberofimportantthemes.Heraiseshis
owndesire,thedrivingforcebehindconfession,behindwriting,behindthe
artisticoraestheticorpublictransformationofpain:toberecognised,tobeseen.
Thisis,obviously,thecentralconcernofLookatMe,asitstitlesuggests,andalso
inCharlotteSwenson’spreoccupationwith“shadowselves,”describedearlier.
Here,however,Eggersisrecognisednotjustashimself,butas“thesortofperson
whobelongsonTV.”LetusthinkagainofWallace’sEmersoniandescriptionof
the“veryrarespeciesofperson”who“canstandthemegagazeofmillions”:in‘E
UnibusPluram,’Wallacesuggestedthatthispersonwould“havetobejust
abnormallyself-consciousandself-controllingtoappearunwatchedbefore
lenses.”615Eggers’sappeal-hereandthroughoutAHWOSG-isnotofappearing
unwatched,butofnegotiatingconstantscrutinyandnarratinghisnegotiationsin
evermoreconvolutedandself-reflexivemodesinordertoenablethisspiritof
communionwiththereader,whichasIhavesaid,Widnissreadsinthe
frameworkofCatholicritual:
InthecourseoftheMTVinterview,Eggersaffirmshissuitabilityfor
TheRealWorldexperienceinpartbasedonthefactthathealready
feelshe’sbeingwatchedatalltimes,andsurmisesthatheowesthis
sensetohismother’s“amazingeyes,thesesmallsharpeyes,always
narrowingtoasquintandtearingintoyou;shenevermissed
anything,whethershewasseeingitthereorhalfwayaroundthe
world.”Herdivineacuitythusprovidestheimagery(“tearinginto
you”)thatsparksEggers’ascension,evenasherrigoroussurveillance
offersbothanearthlyanaloguetotheomniscientCatholicgodanda
modelforEggers’owncriticalincisiveness:“WhenIwatchpeopleI
toolookthroughthem.Ilearnedthatfrommymother....Iknow
everythingaboutpeoplewhenIlookatthemforonlyamoment.””
EggerssoundsstartlinglylikeCharlotte,withhertalentforseeingshadowselves,
andherconstantawarenessofscrutiny.Whensheisthreatenedwith
614Eggers.p.182.615Wallace.p.154.
224
bloodletting,however,thereisnoredemptivepossibility,andsheis(justly)
horrifiedbytheprospect.UnlikeEggers,Charlottedoesnotinstigatethe
bleeding:itistobedonetoher.Asapaparazzo,Spiromadehislivingfromthe
unwillingcaptureofimages,forcingthesubjectintospectacle.Hiselevationto
respectabilitymightbeasatiricindictmentofthevampiricnatureofthefashion
industry,whichfeedsontheyouthandbeautyofyounggirls,asEgannotedin
herarticleonJaimeKing:
To“findagirl”istodiscoverateen-agerwithpotential.Thecareer
arcofamodelrequiresthatshestartyoung,andthepreternatural
beautyofveryyounggirls(alongwiththeirquitegenuinegirlishness)
makesthemur-modelsofasort.Evenaface21yearsolddoesn’tlook
quiteasfresh,andI’vehadmodelsintheir20’sadmittomethat
they’reafewyearsolderthantheysay,andtellmehowharditwasto
adjusttometabolicchanges.Foryearsnow,andinsummertime
especially,Manhattanhasteemedwithschoolgirls,someasyoungas
12or13,whoarebuildinguptheirmodellingportfoliosduring
vacation.616
Youngwomenarethelifebloodofthemodellingindustry,literalisedinSpiro’s
demand.KonstantinousuggeststhatWallace’smodelofbeliefsoughtto
confoundEnlightenmentrationalityandnarrativesofautonomythrougha
repurposingoftheavant-garde,utilisingtheuneasegeneratedinthereaderby
postmoderntechniquestodisruptpassivity.617Inthebloodlettingscene,Egan
critiquesthepotentialoftheavant-gardetodisruptnarrativesofconsumption,
suggestinghere,aselsewhere(mostnotablyinAVisitFromtheGoonSquad)a
supremesuspicionofthesuggestionthatanythingcanremainoutsidethe
processesofcapital.618Ifthemodellingindustryalreadyremovesrenders
womenasobjects,demandsthattheystarvethemselvestowork,and
616Egan,‘JamesisaGirl,’TheNewYorkTimes,4February1996The‘90sweretheeraofKateMossandheroinchic,wheresizezerowasstandard.Theturnto‘realpeople’Eganprescientlyidentifiedhasalsoshiftedconceptionsofwhatisdesirableinthemodellingindustry,althoughitisfarfromtransformed.Eganalsoofferedaficitonalisedaccountoftheindustryinhershortstory,‘TheStylist,’publishedinEmeraldCity(1993).617Whetherthisissuccessfulornot,Konstaninouwrites,“remainsanopenquestion.”p.186.618ThiscouldbeconnectedtoKonstantiou’sreadingofEggers’sMcSweeney’sprojectas“somethinglikeauser-friendlyavant-garde,”p.216.
225
perpetuatesastandardofbeautythatisbothunrealandunreflectiveofthe
widerworld,isitsuchastretchtoimaginethedemandtobleed(theobverseof
thedemandnotto,asideeffectofstarvation,oranorexia)?619Infact,inthis
suggestion,sheisclosetoBallardinKingdomCome,wherethatauthorturnsthis
suspicionoftheutilityoftheavant-gardeonhisownwork,bymyreading.Egan’s
suspicion,however,isexpresseddifferentlyandtodifferentends,instrictly
literarytermsaswellasmoregenerally.
Withthisinmind,then,letusturntotheendofLookatMe.AsIhavealready
said,Egan’s“happyendings”aremomentsofparticularinterestintrackingthe
relationshipbetweenhertextsandtheneoliberalhappinessdiscourseIexplore
inthisthesis.Thisendingisparticularlyconcernedwiththesecondaspectofthe
realitygenreoutlinedearlier(theconfessionalmode)althoughitisnotentirely
distinctfromthefirst,exploredabove(thevalorisationofsufferingasaprimary
locusofpublicself-expression).ThebrieffinalchapterofLookatMeoffersan
accountofhowCharlotteSwenson,aswehaveknownherthroughthenovel,has
ceasedtoexist.Itbegins:“thatwomanentertainingguestsonherEastRiver
balconyinearlysummer,mixingrumdrinksinsuchawaythattheBacardiand
Coca-Colalabelsblinkattheviewerhaphazardlyinthedustygoldenlight–she
isn’tme.”620Thisisfollowedbyabrand-name-littereddescriptionofhow
CharlotteSwensonbecamea“culturaliconofpersonaltransformation.”621This
rapidaccountincludesanextensivelistofthewaysinwhichthisiconicstatus
619Indeed,eventheexhibitionthatchangesSpiro’sformfortuneispartofthis:heapparentlygainedcredibilityaftershowingaseriesofphotosofasixteenyear-oldgangmember,HoneyB.,whichledtoHarper’sBazaarhiringhimto“reprisetheseriesin‘GirlGang’,anow-infamousfashionspreadfeaturingmodelsinMartineSitbonandHelmutLangposingasgangmembers.(‘Execution’,ashotofKateMossholdingasawed-offshotguntotheheadofablindfoldedandkneelingAmberValetta,hadcausedaparticularfrissonofoutrageandcommentary.).”LookatMe,p.162.Ifthisseemsridiculous,wemightturntoAngelaMcRobbie’schapteron‘UnpackingthePoliticsofCreativeLabour,’whichopenswiththestoryofVicemagazine’s2013editorialfashionspread“basedonthe‘favoured’modesofsuicidebyanumberoffamouswomenwriters,includingSylviaPlathandVirginiaWoolf.”BeCreative,33.620LookatMe,p.509.621Evenchairinganacademicsymposium,‘TheSemioticsofPhysiognomyinaPost-DeconstructiveVisualDiscourse.’LookatMe,p.511.Charlotte’sreal-lifecounterpart,KimKardashian,whoreinventedherselfafterasex-taperatherthanacarcrash,receivedasimilarhonour,thoughshedidnotactuallychairhersymposium-orrather,Kimposium!–heldattheUniversityofBrunelin2015.Itdidselloutthough.ItseemsnearlyunnecessarytohighlighttheliteraryantecedenceofBretEastonEllis’sAmericanPsycho(1991)inrelationtohissection,anotherinstanceofEgan’sdeepawarenessofmediation.
226
wasdirectlytranslatedintoconsumergoods,aswellanassurancethatnoneof
thisactuallymadeherfeelgood:
ThemorenotoriousIbecameformytransformation,themore
gapinglyfraudulentthistransformationbegantofeel.Ihadn’t
transformed;Ihadundergoneakindoffission,andthetworesulting
partsofmereviledeachother.Iwasaghostsealedwithinthebodyof
afame-obsessedformermodelfromwhomIhadtostrenuouslyguard
mymoodsandthoughts,lestshefindsomewaytocannibalizeand
sellthem(Charlotte’sAnti-SuicideTechniques,Charlotte’sPoemsfor
Depression).622
Thereismuchwemightreadintointhisparagraph.Ifthenovelisindeed
“haunted”bypostmodernism,istheghostherethatpostmodernconsciousness
thatacknowledgestheinevitabilityofself-reflexivityandisatthesame
paralysedbyit?Istheguardingofmoodsandthoughtsacommentonthe
removalofthosetraditionalmarkersofcharacterinthepostmoderncanon(see,
again,Ballard’swork)?IsthisitselfacommentonthedifficultyofwhatKellyhas
describedas“beginningwithpostmodernism”–forwheredoestheauthorbegin,
afterthepostmodern,beyondtherealitygenre?Doesthesuccessofauthors
associatedwithNewSincerity,suchasEggersandWallace,instantiateanew
formofconfessionalliteraturethatreliesnotontheveracityofeventsbutonthe
avowaloffeeling?IfNewSincerityischaracterisedbyadialogicreadingor“two-
wayconversation,”isEgan’sworkquestioningthecultofpersonalityimplicitin
suchareading-forifIreadyourworktocommunewithyou,intermsofthe
frameworkofintimacy,bythisreadingIcometoknowyou?Indeed,Widiss
recognisesthisasacharacteristicofEggers’swriting,inunderstandingthatthe
author’sappealisbasedon“anenduringcharismapredicatedon[his]very
openness,aswellashisinformality,enthusiasm,andhumour.”623Thosewriters
whowriteaboutwritingandindoingsomakethereaderpartytotheirconcerns,
theirfears,andtheiranxieties,alsorepeatedlyandconsistentlyrecognisethat
theyinvestapartoftheirselfintheirwriting.
622LookatMe,p.512.623Widiss,p.114
227
Kellywrites,thatforDavidFosterWallace,“thegreatestterror,butalsothe
onlytruerelief,isthepassivedecisiontorelinquishtheselftothejudgementof
theother,andthefictionoftheNewSincerityisthusstructureandinformedby
thisdialogicappealtothereader’sattentionandjudgement.”624Thisisright,of
course,butitisn’teverything.Konstantinou’saccountofthebelievererrsina
significantway,inrelationtothis.HedistinguishesbetweentheworkofWallace
andEggersonan‘institutional’basis,suggestingthatEggerssoughttoconstruct
“alternativeinstitutions”intheformofhisliterarymagazines,publishinghouse,
andvariousnot-for-profitorganisationsdevotedtoliteracy.Oftheselast,
Konstantinouwritesthatthefirsttutoringcentre,826Valencia,isdesignedasa
piratesupplyshop,andthatthoseinothercitiesaresuperheroorgangster
themed,whichheidentifiesaspartofa“quirkyeconomy”(whichitmaywellbe.
Itmightalsobethatthesecentresaredesignedtoappealtochildren,whose
notionofquirkinessweimaginetobesignificantlylessweightedwithcultural
baggage.Itmayevenbesomecombinationofthetwo.).Konstaninouwrites,
[Thesecentres]areeducationalinstitutionsthatusequirkystyleasa
pedagogicaltool,aspartofaphilanthropicexercise,andonecan’t
helpbutwonderifstudentswhostopinare(inadditiontolearning
aboutwriting)notalsoreceivinganeducationinhowtobecome
quirkybelievers.625
Incontrast,Wallace’spedagogicaleffortsreceivenoattentioninKonstantinou’s
account,whichsuggestshispositionasateacherofwritingcanbeseparated
fromhisliteraryoutput,whereEggers’sextra-textualactivitiesmustbe
consideredinreadinghiswork.Wallace’sengagementwithexistinginstitutional
structuresisimportant,Ithink,givenboththeimportanceoftheMFA
programmetocontemporaryAmericanwriting(asdocumentedbyMarkMcGurl
inTheProgramEra(2009))andhissignificantimpactonthestyleofpopular
literature.IfEggerssoughttoestablishhisowninstitutions,perKonstantinou’s
reading,perhapsWallacesoughttotransformthosealreadyexisting,andin
doingsoexertedasimilarforceoverhisstudents,particularlyashisliterary
624Kelly,2010.p.145.625Konstantinou,p.212.
228
celebritygrew.626Whatliesatthebaseoftheseefforts,ineachinstance,isthis
“enduringcharisma,”orthepersonalityoftheauthorasafactorinthereception
ofthework.EggersandWallacebothfoundthemselvesinasimilarpositionto
CharlotteSwenson,wheretheirliteraryreputationexceededandprecededthem,
anddictatedexpectationandperceptionoftheiroutput.627Beyondthis,the
modeofauto-confessioninwhichCharlottefindsherselftrappedanticipatesthe
currentmomentofsocialmedia,andtheshiftinconfessionalismitentails.
InLookatMe,fansofCharlottewerelimitedtopassivelyobservingher,and
buyingproductssheendorsed,whereaswithcontemporarysocialmedia,users
caninteractwiththeobjectsoftheirobservationandcanalsoseektodirectly
imitatethem.Thishasledtotheriseof‘influencers,’socialmediauserswho
makemoneyfromobjectifyingtheirlifestyles–themostwellknownarethe
Kardashianfamily,whoseactualculturalpresenceresemblesCharlotte
Swenson’sfictionalone.Thecannibalisationofselfcanbealucrative,brand-
sponsoredindustry,andonethatcovertlyinterpellatessubjectstoself-regulate
inordertoaccruecapital,bothsocialorculturalandeconomic.Thisiswell
explainedbyRose,inhissummationofthepsychotherapeuticcodingoftheself:
Itpromisestomakeitpossibleforusalltomakeaprojectofour
biography,createastyleforourlives,shapeoureverydayexistence
intermsofanethicofautonomy.Yetthenormofautonomysecretes,
asitsinevitableaccompaniment,aconstantandintenseself-scrutiny,
acontinualevaluationofourpersonalexperiences,emotions,and
feelingsinrelationtoimagesofsatisfaction,thenecessityto
narrativizeourlivesinavocabularyofinteriority.Theselfthatis
626SyllabifromWallace’scoursewerereproducedafterhisdeathinTheDavidFosterWallaceReader(2015)andexcerptspublishedonline;see,forexample,‘DavidFosterWallace’smind-blowingcreativenonfictionsyllabus,’Salon,11November2014.https://www.salon.com/2014/11/10/david_foster_wallaces_mind_blowing_creative_nonfiction_syllabus_this_does_not_mean_an_essayist%E2%80%99s_goal_is_to_share_or_express_herself_or_whatever_feel_good_term_you_got_taught_in_h/.Wemightalsoconsidertheorganicevolutionofinformalinstitutions,suchastheHowlingFantodswebsite,thathavecometobesignificantspacesofliterarydiscussion,asevidenceofalternativecommunitiesspringingfromWallace’swork–whichwas,purportedly,designedtofosterthisveryfeelingofcommunionorcollectivity.627Ina1997interviewwithCharlieRose,Wallacesaidthatheinitiallywantedtobeawriter“togetsomeattention”butthathequicklyfound“itdidn’tmake[him]happyatall.”CharlieRose,March271997https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xRr4K73XIxM
229
liberatedisobligedtoliveitslifetiedtoaprojectofitsown
identity.628
Livingonlinemakesthisthefoundationalframeworkofsubjectification;weare
obligedtomakeapublicprojectofouridentity.629Rose’s“vocabularyof
interiority,”however,maybesubjecttomodificationbythetransmutationof
thesepsydiscoursesfromspecialistvocabulariestoeverydayrationalities.
Elsewhere,SherryTurklepointsoutthat,invirtualconfession,whatwemight
calltheevaluativedimensionofconfessionisabsent.630IfNewSincerityrelieson
adialogicreadingthatseespositsanethicsofconnectionbetweenreaderand
writer,thisshiftmightweakenitsfoundations,orattheveryleastdemandacall
forareinvigorationofevaluative(and,byimplication,critical)capacityasa
prerequisiteforthecontinuationofthisrelationship(thismightbeimaginedina
pedagogicalsense,particularlyatamomentwhenhumanitiesfacultiesareunder
attackintheneoliberalacademy,discussedelsewhereinthisthesis).
Indeed,Egan’sworkseemstosuggestthatliteraturethatreliesonthe
evocationofan“offthepage”emotionalconnectionmightinadvertently
participateinthecommodificationoffeelingandperpetuatethecultofauthorial
personalitythattransformswritersintocelebrities(andfictioninto
autobiography).AtthecloseofthisnovelCharlotteSwensonsellstherightsto
herlikenesstoThomasKeene,andretirestolivealifeoff-camera.Shesays:
Asformyself,I’drathernotsayverymuch.WhenIbreathe,theair
feelsgoodinmychest.AndwhenIthinkofthemirroredroom,asof
courseIstilldo,Iunderstandnowthatit’sempty,filledwithchimeras
likeCharlotteSwenson...Lifecan’tbesustainedunderthepressure
ofsomanyeyes.Evenaswetrytorevealthemysteryofourselves...
thetruthhasslippedaway,burrowedfurtherinsideadark,coiled
privacythatreplenishesitselflikeblood.631
628Rose.GoverningtheSoul,p.258.629Thinkofhowwidespreadthisexpectationis–ifoneisseekingemploymentinaprofessionalcapacity,oneisexpectedtohaveaLinkedInprofilethroughwhichtodemonstrateoneself,forexample.630SeeSherryTurkle.AloneTogether.NewYork:BasicBooks,2011.631LookatMe,p.514.
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Ifthereis“apartofusthatcan’tbetouched,”untranslatedanduntranslatable,
thenthismightstandinoppositiontowriterslikeEggersandWallace,whoseek
torenderthispartoftheselfintheirfictioninordertoenablesomesustaining
emotionalconnection“offthepage.”Inthisreading,Egan’sworkremainsfirmly
onthepageandinsistsonthisboundary.Itmightevenbeacritiqueoftheovert
appealsofthosewriters,asalreadysuggestedinmycomparisonbetweenEggers
andEgan.If,forEggersandWallace,fictionisawaytonegotiateloneliness,by
allowingustogetundertheskinofanotherperson,thisisnotthecaseforEgan.
Instead,itis,asshehassaid,awaytopeekinsidewindows,withoutever
enteringthehouse,ifyoulike.Egan’ssincerity,then,restsonthisaffirmation,
andherrefusaltogiveofherselfinthesamewayastheseotherwriters–this
mightbeconnectedtoherrepeatedinsistencethatthereisnothing
autobiographicalinherwork.632Thismightbeconnectedtothepejorative
associationbetweenthefeminineandtheconfessional:thatconfessionalwork
byfemalewriters,orworkthatdrawsformtheirownlife,issomehowseenasa
failureofimagination.Thesortofheroictransformationassociatedwith“unself-
consciousself-consciousness”forWallace’smegagazeisdifferentforawoman.
Indeed,thisissupportedbythetheoreticalunderpinningsofLookatMe,which
canbetracedtoJohnBerger’swork,inwhichhesuggeststhatthisperformative
identityisinscribedinfemaleidentityinadistinctanddistortingway:thata
womanalwaysseesherselftwice.633Bythislogic,Eganisforcedintothesame
sortofdoublevision:asawoman,andawriter,inamale-dominatedlineage.If
Eggers’suseof“gimmicks”wasasortofanticipatorydefence,sotoo,Isuggest,is
Egan’s.Inthiscase,however,itworksnottoillustrateanawarenessofthegulf
betweenreaderandwriterandthemediatingfunctionofwritinginorderto
allowanegationorovercomingofthatdistance,butinsteadheightensthat
distance,restatinganauthorialobjectivitythatasksustoreadthecraftofthe
novelratherthantheauthorbehindit.Egan’sfaithisinthebook,quiteliterally;
notseekingtotranscendorovercomeform,buttomakeacaseforthepowerof
literatureforliterature’ssake.Allartisartifice,perhaps,butthisdoesnotmean
632ElissaSchappell,‘WhereJenniferEganDrewtheLineforResearchingHerNewNovelManhattanBeach,’VanityFair,October182017https://www.vanityfair.com/style/2017/10/jennifer-egan-manhattan-beach-interview633SeeJohnBerger,WaysofSeeing.London:Penguin,1972.
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thetruthsitcontainsarenotthemselvesreal.Eganmovestoletthewordsonthe
pagespeakforthemselves.
Myproblemhereisthatthosewordsseemtoexceedthespeaker.Charlotte
Swenson,throughoutthenovel,isresolutelyunlikeable,andspiritedlycorrupt:
shetricksAnthonyHalliday,alcoholicdetective,intokissingher,onlytofillhis
mouthwithwhiskeyandruinhissobriety.634Shedropsoutofuniversityto
becomeamodel,anddespiteherprofessedadmirationforcertainpoets,seems
fairlyun-literary,oftenbaffledbytheliteraryexchangesbetweenIreneMaitlock
andThomasKeene.Heronegoalthroughoutthenovelistogainaccessto“the
mirroredroom,”thehallowedspaceofcelebrity.Andyet,attheendofthenovel,
sherejectsthis.Itishervoicethatsaystothereader:
Lifecan’tbesustainedunderthepressureofsomanyeyes.Evenas
wetrytorevealthemysteryofourselves,tocatchitunawares,expose
itspulseandflinchandperistalsis,thetruthhasslippedaway,
burrowedfurtherinsideadark,coiledprivacythatreplenishesitself
likeblood.Itcannotbeseen,muchasonemightwishtoshowit.It
diestheinstantitistouchedbylight.
Charlotterejectswhathas,untilnow,beentheguidingprincipleofherlife,and
indoingso,becomespoeticherself:“pulseandflinchandperistalsis”isnotlike
herlanguageelsewhereinthenovel.Doessheregainsomeforgottenpartof
herself,the(Alexander)Pope-loving,literate,sensitivepartofherself?Tobelieve
thisrequiresaleapoffaith,foritwouldmeanbelievinginaCharlottethereader
hasneverknown:ashadowself.Orshouldwereadthisasanintrusionfromthe
author–isEganCharlotte’sshadowself,revealingherselfintheimpossibly
lyricallanguageofacharacterwhosestrongestemotionalinvestmentpriorto
thismomentwasinhersectionalcouch?Konstantinouwrites,“wedojudge
novelsbasedonwhattheycanconvinceustobelieve.”635Iftheauthorappears
inthisfinalappeal,ifitisEgan,andnotCharlotte,whoassertsthis“partofus
thatcan’tbetouched,”doesthisbelieEgan’sowninsistenceonobjectivity,and
negateherauthorialdistance?Isthispartthatcan’tbetouchedinfactthecoreof
634GivenWallace’semphasisonAAasamodelfromwhichtostructurebelief,andhisownwritingonaddiction,thismightbeseenasafurtherstatementofEgan’sowndistancefromthosestructures.635Konstantinou,p.171.
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emotionaltruthinthenovel–isthiswhereEganputsherselfin,despitethefact
thatthenovelseemstobecriticalofsuchamove?
Ifthisistrue,thenovelbecomesasortof“hard,beautifulseashell,”that
revealsnothingtothereader,butasksustodelightinthepleasureoflanguage
andofliteratureitself.636Insteadofbeingsincereaboutfeeling,then,Egan’s
workmightbesincereaboutpleasure:abouttherewardofreading,the
lovelinessoflanguage,thejoy(andabsurdity)oftheory.637Acigarisjustacigar,
abookisjustabook.Charlotte,likeMelville’sBartleby,wouldprefernotto.And
incommonwiththatstory,perhaps,Egan’sworksubtlyinsiststhatliterature
doesnothavetoprovideanswers,orevenaskparticularquestions.Kellyinvokes
BartlebyinhisreadingofGeorgeSaunders’sstory‘EscapefromtheSpiderhead,’
andwritesthatinthatstory,“asinBartleby,refusaldoesnotleadto
liberation.”638ThesameistrueinLookatMe,forboththereaderandthe
characterofCharlotte.Ultimately,thisamountstoaliteraryrenderingofthose
rockstardeathsexploredearlierinthischapter;indeed,Charlotte’s
disappearancefindsresonance,again,withRicheyEdwards,whoremainsnot
definitivelydead,butdisappeared.Thisabsencemaybesincere,butthe
questionremainsofitsutility,particularlyifweareseekingtouncoversome
ethicalrelationshipbetweenwriterandreader,aspositedbyNewSincerity.Iam
remindedofCourtneyLove’sreadingofKurtCobain’ssuicidenote,whichwas
pre-recordedandplayedatamemorialserviceatSeattleCenterFlagPavilion
twodaysafterCobain’sbodywasfound:
I’mnotgonnareadyouallthenote‘causeit’snoneofyourfucking
business.Butsomeofitistoyou.Idon’treallythinkittakesawayhis
dignitytoreadthisconsideringthatit’saddressedtomostofyou.
636LookatMe.p.514.637Ofcourse,thequestionofpleasuremightitselfbeunderstoodasapoliticalone,pertheBourdeusianunderstandingoftaste,asdiscussedearlierwithreferencetoSaraAhmed’swork.ThisgoestothewiderquestionofwhoNewSincerityisfor,alsoraisedbyIainWilliamsin‘(New)SincerityinDavidFosterWallace's“Octet,”‘Critique:StudiesinContemporaryFiction,56:3,2015,pp.299-314.638Kelly,2017.p.48.
233
He’ssuchanasshole.Iwantyoualltosay‘asshole’reallyloud.
[crowd:“asshole.”]”639
IsCharlotteSwensonanassholeheretoo?Isherpositionappreciablydifferentto
‘coolhunter’Lulu,whostatestheimpossibilityofuncommodifedauthenticity,in
theend?Isintimacytoomuchtoask?Lovewentontosay,“Ishouldhavelethim
–weallshouldhavelethim–havehisnumbness.Weshouldhavelethimhave
thethingthatmadehimfeelbetter.Weshouldhavelethimhaveit,insteadof
tryingtostripawayhisskin.”640
Charlotte’sabdicationofselfreverberateswiththeactionofsuicide,and
mightremindusoftheclosingofEugenides’sVirginSuicides:
Itdidn’tmatterintheendhowoldtheyhadbeen,orthattheywere
girls,butonlythatwehadlovedthem,andthattheyhadn’theardus
calling,stilldonothearus,uphereinthetreehouse,withour
thinninghairandsoftbellies[thesemenhavenointerestin‘glamour
labour’!],callingthemoutofthoseroomswheretheywenttobealone
foralltime,aloneinsuicide,whichisdeeperthandeath,andwhere
wewillneverfindthepiecestoputthembacktogether.641
Perhapswe,thereader,haveneverknownCharlottebetterthanthecollective
narratorsofEugenide’snovelknewthegirls,orfansofNirvanaknewCobain.
Perhapsthisisthepoint:itisnotthatwelackthepiecestoputCharlotteandher
fracturedfacebacktogether,butthatthosepieceswerenevertheretobegin
with.IfCharlotte’sfacewasneverreallychanged,isanyofthistrue?Isthis
novelablackmirror,inwhichwesearchforreflectionsbutcanneverfindthem–
becausewhatweseekissomecannibalisedemotion,whichbecomesameasure
ofpleasureoverthosequalitiesofthetextinwhichEgandelights,andwhichher
639CourtneyLove,‘OntheSuicideofHerHusband,’GiftsofSpeech.10April1994.http://gos.sbc.edu/l/love.html640Asabove.Granted,thiscouldbeunderstoodasreferringtoheroin,althoughCobainhassuggestedthathewasproductivewhilsttakingthedrug,whichallowedhimtosatisfycommercialobligations.Theobligationtofeelseemstobeconnectedtohispositioningasafigureheadforalostgeneration,comingoutoftherepressiveRegan-eraandintoanewspaceoffeeling,inwhichemotionwasincreasinglycentredinpublicdiscourse–theprecursortothehappinessdiscourseIamtracinginthisthesis.641Eugenides.p.249.
234
workfirmlyasserts?642Thisnovelendsnotonanescapefromconsciousness,per
se,asCharlotteapparentlyinhabitsher‘realself’morecompletelythanatany
otherpointinthenovel.Instead,itisspecificallyasocialconsciousnessshe
abdicates:asenseofselfintheworldandbeholdentoit.Wemightconnectthis
toKonstantinou’sreadingofEganandthe“autoreification”hetracesinAVisit
fromtheGoonSquad.Iftheworldhasbecomeneoliberal(andourlabour
affective),isouronlywaytoresisttheproductiveimperativethatistheengineof
neoliberalismtoabscond,todetach(tobe,wemightsay,cool,intheclassic
sense)?PerhapsweshouldthinkhereofSlavojŽižek’sassertion,afterBadiou:
thethreattodayisnotpassivitybutpseudo-activity,theurgeto“be
active,”to“participate,”tomasktheNothingnessofwhatgoeson.
Peopleinterveneallthetime,“dosomething”academicsparticipatein
meaningless“debates,”andsoforth,andthetrulydifficultthingisto
stepback,towithdrawfromallthis.643
ThisispartofŽižek’sreadingofthepotentialofa“Bartlebypolitics,”inwhich
negationbecomesnotthefirststeptowardsareimaginedpoliticalcommunity,
butanunderlyingprincipleforit.Iseetheutilityofthisreading,butgiventhat
TheKeepgoesontoassertthevalueofliteratureforitsabilityto“openadoorin
ourheads,”I’mnotsosureitisenoughbyEgan’sownaccount.Afterall,that
doorhastogosomewhere–right?644
642Andthisnovelclearlyandrepeatedlyassertsthis,withitsdelightinallusion,anditsplayfuldeploymentofliterarytropesasaself-consciousshorthandforunderstandingpeople,asintheexchangesbetweenThomasKeeneandIreneMaitlock.Indeed,IhaveexploredthenominativedeterminisminMaitlock’snaming,butmightmarkheretoothatinKeene’s–heiskeenonthefuture,optimisticaboutnewtechnologies,passionateabouttheirpotential,andfinelyattunedtonarrativepossibility.Keensatire,indeed.643SlavojŽižek.TheParallaxView.Cambridge,MA:MITPress,2006.p.334.644IsupposeendingonthisquestioninvokesWallace’sundecidability.Inthis,Irecognisethatmycriticalapproachisinconversationwiththatofothers,andhopetohighlightthatthecriticisalsoandisfirstthereader.
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TheKeep:DoNeoliberalsDreamofElectricSheep?
TheKeepisJenniferEgan’sthirdnovel,andtheonlyinstanceofherwork
explicitlydesignedinthegothicformdespitethosegothictendenciesIhave
tracedthroughoutheroeuvre.Itemploystheclassic‘text-within-a-text’formof
gothicfiction;EganhasreferencedHenryJames’sTheTurnoftheScrew(1898)
asaninfluence.645ThestorywithinthestoryisthenarrativeofDannyKing,a
NewYorkhipsterandself-styledgothwhotravelstoanuncertainEuropean
locationtoassisthiscousin,Howard,withtherenovationofacastle.Howard
planstoturnthecastleintoaluxuryhotel.Thetwocousinswerecloseintheir
youth,buttheirrelationshipneverrecoveredafterDannyparticipatedinaprank
thatresultedinHoward’sentrapmentwithinanundergroundcavesystem.
WritingthisstoryisRayMichaelDobbs,aprisoninmatewhoistakingacreative
writingclassrunbyawomancalledHollyFarrell,herselfarecoveringdrug
addictandaspiringauthor.AlthoughRaypresentshisstoryasfiction,itlater
transpiresthatitisthestoryofhowhecametobeimprisoned,andhefeaturesin
hisstoryasacharacternamed‘Mick.’LookatMemovedtowardsareflectionof
theintrusionoftechnologyoneverydaylife,anddepictedtheposthumanas
morebanalthanmonstrous,andinTheKeepEganexpandsonboththeseideas.
Notablyscarceintheearliernovelaretheprostheseswenowrecogniseasthe
mostcommonaccoutrementsoftheposthuman:smartphones,laptops,other
mobiletechnology.TheactionofLookatMeoccursatamomentjustbeforethe
omnipresenceofthesetechnologies.TheiPhone,widelycreditedwithchanging
ourrelationshiptomobiletechnology-andeachother-wasnotlauncheduntil
2007;MySpace,Facebooketalhadyettoachieveubiquity.Atthesametime,
LookatMeincipientlyrecognisedthepre-existingculturalcircumstanceby
whichthesuccessofthesedevices,andthetechnologiesofself-objectification
theyproliferate,waspossible.646TheKeepthematisesthewayinwhichthese
technologiesreshapeimaginationandinterpersonalrelationships,evolvingfrom
645JenniferEganinterviewedbyDonnaSeaman.BookslutDecember2006,www.bookslut.com/features/2006_12_010343.php646Ifanything,itunderestimatedtheimpactofvirtualtechnologiesoftheself;thiswas,asIargued,dueinparttoEgan’spersistentbeliefin‘apartofusthatcan’tbetouched,’perherGuernicainterview.
236
thetelevision-based‘realitygenre’ofLookatMetoamoredirectaccountof
mediatedvirtualselfhood.
In‘BeginningwithPostmodernism,’Kellyidentifiedtheposthumangothic
tendenciesofLookatMe.647TheposthumansubjectwastheobjectofMoose
Metcalfe’sfear,too:“minotaurswhoweren’ttheproductsofbirthorhistory,
natureornurture,butassembledfortheeyefromprototypes;whoborethe
samerelationshiptohumanbeingsasmachine-madeclothingdidtosomething
hand-stitched.”648Inthatnovel,CharlotteSwenson,withherskullfulloftitanium
bolts,representedtheposthumansubjectinamedico-biologicalcontext,butthis
isonlyonepartoftheneoliberalposthumancondition.In‘ACyborgManifesto,’
DonnaHarawayofferedafeministgroundworkforreadingthetechnologisation
oftheselfintermsofbothmedico-biotechnologyandtheriseofcommunication
technologies,whicharealsotechnologiesofself-privatisation,assheoutlines.It
isthislatteraspectthatEganfocusesoninTheKeep,centredonthefigureof
Danny,whoisaddictedtotheconnectivityofcontemporarytechnology.This
addictionstandsinoppositiontohiscousin’sattitude;Howardwantstoreclaim
theprivateimaginativerealm-forthosewhocanaffordit,atleast.Haraway’s
workalsofocusesonthepoliticalfunctionofwriting.Sheinsists,“Contestsfor
themeaningofwritingareamajorformofcontemporarypoliticalstruggle.
Releasingtheplayofwritingisdeadlyserious.”649BydepictingRay’sstruggles
withauthorship,Egandirectlyopensupquestionsaboutthepowerofwriting,
whichmustbereadintermsofitscommunicativepossibilityandalso,per
Haraway,andmyapproachinthisthesis,withregardtothepoliticalpotentialof
writing,andwhatIhavecharacterisedastheethicaldutiesoffiction–thisis
connectedtomyearlierdiscussionofre-inventingliterarypublicness.Yetagain,
Egan’sworkisrifewithtensionsbetween‘textualisation’andmateriality,and
thesetoowillbeconsideredingivinganaccountofhowthenovelexplores
conceptionsofhappinessandself-regulationunderneoliberalism.
Tobegin,then,wewilllookattheprotagonistofthe‘text-within-the-text,’
DannyKing.Onceagain,Eganemploysaplayfulnominativedeterminism.Danny647Kelly.‘BeginningwithPostmodernism,’p.407.648LookatMe,p.483.649DonnaHaraway,Simians,CyborgsandWomen:TheReinventionofNature.London:FreeAssociationBooks,1991,p.311.
237
King,likehiscousinHoward,becomesembroiledinacovertpowercontestthat
seeseachkeentobe‘King’ofthecastle.Thisnaminglinksthesecharactersto
StephenKing,contemporarymasterofAmericangothicliterature,continuingthe
intertextualhabitofEgan’sworkandsuggestingtothereaderthetypeofliterary
forbearRay,asauthor,mighthaveinmind.Danny’sstoryoccupiesthebulkof
thenovel’snarrative.Itishewhofollowstheby-nowfamiliarconventionof
Egan’snarrativesinundergoingmaturation,or‘growingup,’althoughthis
processiscutshortbyRay’smurderousattack.Danny’sbroadnarrativejourney
seeshimmovefromaself-centred,peripherallyemployed,barelyfunctional
charactertoonewhoassumesresponsibilityforothers,confrontshis
(previouslyunspeakable)pastwithhiscousin,andisthustransformedintoa
usefulmemberofsociety,whichistosay,aproductivesubjectwithsubstantial
tiestonormativeconceptionsofthegood.
ThenovelopenswithDanny’sapproachtothecastle,whichisdisastrous
fromtheoutset.HearrivesarmedwithaSamsonitesuitcaseanda(rented)
portablesatellitedish,cladin“cityboots,hipsterboots”thataretotally
inadequatefornegotiatingtheterrain.650Fromtheoutset,Dannyishelplessand
hapless,literallywrong-footedbyhisnewsurroundings–whichareactuallyold
surroundings,thecastlebeingolderthantheUnitedStatesofAmerica.Egan’s
decisiontowriteamaleprotagonistwaspurportedlymadeasadeliberate
inversionthetropeof‘helplessfemale.’651Therearenumerouswaysinwhich
Dannyisfeminisedthroughoutthestory,oftenthroughhisattentiontohis
appearance,evidentinhisimpracticalbutstylishfootwearandlater,inhis
carefullycuratedpersonalstyle:
Straightdyed-blackhairaninchpasthisneck.Apewterhoopinone
earwitharubystuckinit.Today(notalways),mud-colouredlipstick.
ThatwasDanny’sstyle,oneofmanyhe’dhadovertheyears.652
Danny’sadoptionoffeminisedstyleislinkedtoawiderrefusalstemmingfrom
hisabdicationofhisteenagepersona,“DannyKing,suchagoodboy,”whichhe
knewtobeafaçade,disguisingthebadpartofhimthattrappedhiscousinand
650TheKeep,p.5.651JenniferEganinterviewedbyVendelaVida.TheBeliever,8,2006,pp.77-85,p.81.652TheKeep,p.25-6.
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liedaboutitfordays(years)afterwards.ThisislikeCharlotteSwenson’saccount
of‘shadowselves,’andgivesDannyanearlyawarenessoftheperformativityof
identity;anotherfeminisedtrait.653Dannyself-consciouslyfashionsanewself,
likeCharlotteafterherinfidelity,andittooisonethatreliesonintensive
glamourlabourandconductsitselfaccordingtoSennett’saccountofthe
neoliberalself.Ratherthandisruptinggendernorms,Egan’scharacterisationof
Dannyseemstore-inscribetheessentialismthatunderliesthenormativegender
relationsfrequentlyreproducedinherwork–thisisexploredextensivelyin
lookingatAVisitfromtheGoonSquad.Thereisnosenseof‘queering’inDanny’s
feminisation;anysuchsuggestionisoffsetbythefrequentnarrativeinsistence
onhisheterosexuality,highlightedbythesuggestionthatoneoftheprevious
identitieshe‘chose’to‘try’wasa“bisexualclubpromoter.”654WhereBerlant,
Ahmed,etalhaveidentifiedqueeringasaprocessbywhichnewsocialrelations
maybeimagined,outsidetheconstraintsofpatriarchalcapitalism,Egandepicts
thisinthesamelightasallinstancesofalterityinherwork–ayouthful
aberration,aphasetopassthroughbeforecedingtoinevitablenormative
‘commonsense.’Dannymaywearmakeup,butheisnotqueer.WilliamHughes
andAndrewSmithwriteinQueeringtheGothic(2009),“tobequeer…istobe
different.”655Aswehaveseenalready,being‘different’inEgan’sworkimperils
one’sveryexistence.656
Dannyisfurtherfeminisedbyhischoiceofemployment,orrather,non-
employment.Heisaprecariousworker,plyinghisuncertaintradeinavarietyof
servicesectorroles.AllofDanny’sskillsareimmaterial,basedontheabilityto
recognisethevalueofrelationshipsandparlaythatintoaccesstopower:
653JudithButler’sGenderTrouble:FeminismandtheSubversionofIdentity(1990)isusuallycreditedwithpopularisingdiscussionaroundtheperformativeaspectsofgenderanditssocialconstruction.InherPost45interview,EgandiscussestheinfluenceofJohnBerger’sWaysofSeeing(1972)onherwork,whichcanalsobeconnectedtothisrepresentation.654TheKeep,p.26.655WilliamHughesandAndrewSmith,editors.QueeringtheGothic,,ManchesterandNewYork:ManchesterUniversityPress,2009,p.3.656IthinkafurtheranalysisofEgan’sinsistenceonusinghumourinthenovelwouldbeinterestinginlightofthisaccount.Thetypeofhumourthatoccursmostoftenisthebroadlyslapstick,orknowinglyironic,whichsomewhatundercutstheinherentqueernessofthegothicuncanny.IthinkitwouldbeenlighteningtoreadthisnovelinconjunctionwithShirleyJackson’swork,inparticularWeHaveAlwaysLivedintheCastle(1962),inthecontextofqueer/feministtheory.
239
AndpowerwassomethingDannyunderstood–thiswasoneofaslew
ofskillshe’dpickedupinNewYorkafteryearsofstudyandtraining
andpractice,skillsthatcombinedtomakearesumesospecializedit
waswrittenoutininvisibleink,sothatwhenhispop(forexample)
tookalook,allhesawwasablanksheetofpaper.657
Powerisacentralthemeofthenovel.Here,wemightmarkthat,despitehis
accumulationofimmaterialorinformationalcapital,Dannystillcovertlylongs
forhisfather’sapproval;heisnot,apparently,asfreefromthenormativebonds
ofobligationandattachmentashemightliketothinkhimself.Itisalso
importanttonotethatDannychoosesthisidentity.HefirstwenttoNewYorkto
attenduniversity(afamiliarstageforEgan’smiddle-classcharacters),but
droppedoutinhisjunioryear,havingdiscoveredthathissenseofselfwas
completelyinsubstantialandbecomemoreinterestedinidentity
experimentationthanformaleducation.Thereisaconnectionherebetween
educationandself-knowledgethatisimpliedbutundeveloped,partofawider
characterisationthatseesDanny’sproblemsasthose‘problemsoftheself’we
haveseenelsewhereinEgan’swork.Foregoingformaleducationissymbolicof
Danny’swiderrefusalofself-examination,whichisalsoacentraltenetof
psychotherapeuticrationalesoftheself.ThisistheframeworkinwhichEgan
posesDanny’sobsessionwithtechnologicalconnectivity,too.Itisadistraction
fromandobstacletothe‘necessary’workheneedstodoonhimself,whichturns
outtobetakingresponsibilityforhisactions,includinghishistoricprank.
Danny’saccountofhisnetworkedexistencestandsincontrasttothe
optimisticreadingsoftheoristssuchasHardtandNegri,whohaveidentifiedthe
riseofimmaterialeconomiesandtheirrelationalnetworksascontainingthe
potentialfornewnetworksofresistancetopower.Instead,Dannyexemplifies
the‘cool’figurewesawinMcGuigan’swork:
Peoplesubjectedtosuchuncertaintyandunpredictabilityespecially
inso-called‘creative’andalliedcareers,thoughnotonlythere,must
fashionthekindofselfthatcancopewheretrade-union
representationhasbeeneliminatedorseverelyrestricted.Thiskind
ofselfisaneoliberalself,figuringacompetitiveindividualwhois657TheKeep,p.21.
240
exceptionallyself-reliantandratherindifferenttothefactthathisor
herpredicamentissharedwithothers–and,therefore,mustbe
incapableoforganisingasagrouptodoanythingaboutit.Sucha
personmustbe‘cool’inthecircumstances,selfishlyresourcefuland
fitinordertosurviveundersocial-Darwinianconditions.658
Insuchareading,wecantracethelimitationsofHardtandNegri’ssuppositions,
someofwhichMcRobbiehascriticisedinherworkongenderandpost-Fordist
economies.PerMcRobbie,suchreadingsasHardtandNegrioffertendtorelyon
Fordistmodelsofworkersubjectivityandsitesoflabour,ignoringthenew
affectivedemandsofimmaterialeconomies,andevincingtheoreticalblindness
tothefeminisationoflabourthathasoccurredwiththeriseoftheseeconomies,
asoutlinedintheprevioussection.659Byoverlookingthetransformationofsites
oflabour,theyalsooverestimatethescopeforsolidaritybasedonphysical
proximitybetweenworkers,whichisoftennotafeatureoftheimmaterial
workplace.Solidarityisalsounderminedbythefragmentedworkingformof
zero-hourscontractsandothernon-minimumstandardworkingpractices,which
compelworkerstocompeteforshifts,andallowemployerstocuthourswithno
notice,ortoofferabsurdlyshortshiftsduringwhichemployeeshaveno
opportunitytointeractwithco-workers.660ThismediatesMcGuigan’swork,too-
lackofworkerorganisationmaybeduenottostraightforwardindifference,but
alsotothematerialdifficultiesoforganisingindisruptedorimmaterial
workplaces.Adoptingtheposeofdisaffectionmaybeanecessaryprotection,as
seeninthefigureofCharlotteSwensoninLookatMe.Theproblemwiththe
adoptionofsuchastanceisthatitforestallsanypoliticisationbecauseit
damagestheworkerrelationallyevenasitprotectsthemindividually.
McRobbiehasalsocriticisedaccountsofthekindsofsubcultureinwhich
Dannyisenmeshedthatdemonstrate,“alackofconcernforthedifficultiesfaced
byhipsterparticipantsintermsofhowhardshipandpovertyactuallyaffect
them.Nobodylikestotalkaboutfailureordisappointmentorevenjustsheer658JimMcGuigan.‘TheNeoliberalSelf,’CultureUnbound,6,2014,pp.223-240,p.236.659Thisrefersbothtothesteadyincreaseoffemaleworkersandtotheelevationofformsoflabourhistoricallyunderstoodasfeminineinaffectiveeconomies(egdemonstrationsofcaring).660SeeAbiAdamsetal,‘The‘Zero-HoursContract’:Regulatingcasualwork,orlegitimatingprecarity?’,EuropeanLabourLawNetwork–WorkingPaperSeries,5,March2015formoreontheformandimpactofthesecontracts.
241
exhaustion.”661Dannydoesdiscussthesefeelings–orrather,betraysthemin
attemptingnottotalkaboutthem.Heandhishipsterfriendscharacterisesuch
feelingsas“theworm”:
Wasitparanoia?Lowselfesteem?Insecurity?Panic?Thosewords
werealltooflat.Buttheworm,whichisthewordtheyfinallypicked,
thewormwasthreedimensional:itcrawledinsideapersonand
startedtoeatuntileverythingcollapsed,theirwholelives,andthey
endedupgettingstrungoutorgoingbackhometotheirfolksorbeing
admittedtoBellevueor,inthecaseofonegirltheyallknew,jumping
offtheManhattanBridge.662
Thespectreofthewormrecursthroughoutthenovel,invadingDanny’sthoughts
athismanymomentsofself-doubtanduncertainty.Thewormisagothicmotif,
andanexpressionofthecreepingsenseofanxietythathauntstheneoliberal
subject.663Danny’saccountofthewormconfirmsJohansen’ssuggestionthat,
Theneuroticcitizenofcontemporaryneoliberalism,likethegothic
subjectoftheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies,isone
characterizedbyunnamed–evenunnameable–anxietiesaboutthe
rationalitiesandsubjectivitiesthatstructureeverydaylife.664
InEgan’snovels,sympathyforthisneuroticismislimited.Danny’scoolnessisa
modeforsurvival,butitisonethatisnecessaryonlybecausehehasturnedhis
backontheconventionalgoodlifefromwhichhefeelsheisexcludedbyhis
youthfuldeviance.Thisdevianceseemstosignalsomeessentialweaknessor
inadequacyinhischaracter.Assuch,Dannymayberedeemed,andreturnedto
economicfunctionality,ifheresolvesthiscentral‘problemofself’anddoesthe
necessarytherapeuticworkonhimself.Thisfiguringperpetuatesreadingsof
thoseinvolvedinprecariousemploymentasvictimsoftheirown(poor)choices,661McRobbie,BeCreative,p.56.662TheKeep,p.11.663Again,Ithinkthismightbeextended,andlinkedtotheimmanenceoftheAnthropocene,whichoffersaboundarylimittotheproductivepossibilitiesofneoliberalcapitalismwhichisnearlyimpossibleforustounderstand,butwhichneverthelesscontributestothelargersenseofcognitivedissonancebywhichIhavecharacterisedneoliberalsubjectivity.WithregardtoEgan’suseof‘theworm’torepresentthis,wemightreadanotherlinktoStephenKing’sworkhere:King’sepistolarystory,Jerusalem’sLot(1978),featuresadarksupernaturalforcecalledTheWorm,calledforthbyagrimoirecalledDeVermisMysterii,whichalsofeaturedintheworkofRobertBlochandH.P.Lovecraft.664Johansen.‘TheNeoliberalGothic,’p.43.
242
ignoringthatmostpeoplewhotakesuchemploymentoftendosobecausethey
canfindnoothermeansofincome;survivalhasaverydifferentmeaningon
theseterms.Theassumptionofastateofself-coherencetowhichthesubject
maybereturnediftheyonlymakethecorrectchoicesbeliesthewayinwhich
subjectsexperiencetheunintelligibilityofneoliberalpower.
Ifthegothicformexpressesdoubtsabouttherationalityofdominantmodesof
subjectification,Egan’sworkstrivestoresolvethesedoubtsthroughits
insistenceonacentralrationalityormeaningtotheworld,discoverablethrough
communionwiththeself.Suchcommunionreliesontheamassingofresources–
time,emotionalvocabulary,formaleducation–thatarefarfromuniversally
accessible.Iftheeconomicmodeloftheselfisseentobeirrationalinitsstrictest
iteration,thisisonlybecauseEgan’sworkprofessesacontinuedfaithinthose
classicliberalgoodobjectsthatneoliberalismdestabilisesinitspracticesand
processes:secureintimaterelationships,self-sovereignty,protectionofthe
‘essential’selffromexternalinterference.Thedifficultyisthatshe
simultaneouslyprofessesthisfaithandreproducesthelogicsandprocessesof
neoliberalismasinevitableinherwork,withoutrecognisinganytension
betweenthetwo.Theinsistenceonthesevaluesasself-evidentlygood
representsthemasneutralwhentheyarenot,aswesawwhenlookingatThe
InvisibleCircus.Defending‘traditional’goodobjectswithoutconfrontingeither
“thedominationscontainedin[or]thelimitedvalueofthosefreedomsand
entitlementsincontemporaryconfigurationsofcapital”emptiestheoppositional
potentialofthoseobjects.665Egan’sworksituatestheseobjects,orthisversionof
thegoodlife,asrewardsforacceptingthe‘naturalorder’ofneoliberal
capitalism.Tobehappy,Dannyhasonlytoacceptthedesirabilityofthe
normativegoodlife,andabandonhiseffortstolivehislifeoutsidethese
strictures–afamiliartropeinEgan’swork.
Beforecomingtothisacceptance,thefeelingsthatDannycategorisesas‘the
worm’canonlybeallayedthroughthepursuitoftheirroughopposite,which
Dannyandhisfriendscall‘alto’:“Truealtoworkedtwoways:yousawbutalso
youcouldbeseen,youknewandwereknown.Twowayrecognition.”666This
665Brown.ResistingLeftMelancholy,p.26.666TheKeep,pp.5-6.
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termwascoinedtodescribe,“therelationship[Dannyandhisfriends]craved
betweenthemselvesandtheuniverse.”667Thisistheevolutionoftheimage
culturedepictedinLookatMe,wherethatterm–“lookatme”–becomesactive,
ratherthanpassive.ForDanny,altoreliesonthereciprocalnatureofvirtual
relationships,returningustothenewconfessionalmodeexploredinthe
previoussection.Whenlookingatthewayinwhichvirtualtechnologiesofthe
selfhavetransformedtheconfessional,throughtheuncertaintiesofevaluative
exchangeinvolved,Isuggestedthatpartofthedifficultyinassessingthevalueor
functionoftheseconfessionsistheunknowabilityoftheaudiencetowhomthey
aremade.ThesesamefearsareexpressedbyHoward,whoengagesDannyina
vigorousargumentaboutthevalueofvirtualconnection:
What’sreal,Danny?IsrealityTVreal?Areconfessionsyoureadon
theinternetreal?Thewordsarereal,someonewritesthem,but
beyondthatthequestiondoesn’tevenmakesense.Whoareyou
talkingtoonyourcellphone?Intheendyouhavenofuckingidea.
We’relivinginasupernaturalworld,Danny.We’resurroundedby
ghosts.668
ThisisthecruxofEgan’sconcerninTheKeepandelsewhere,andshehas
saidthatinthisnovelshesoughttomakethequestionofwhatis‘real’irrelevant.
ThisissignalledbyherinvocationofJames,andthegothictraditionof
uncertaintyregardingwhicheventsareactualoccurrencesandwhicharethose
perceivedasaresultoftheprotagonist’spsychologicalstate:
Ireallywanted,firstofall,nottoanswerthatquestion,andsecondof
all,tomakethequestionirrelevantbecauseIwantedtomakethe
readerwonderwhatwemeanwhenwesay,‘Isitrealornot?’Howdo
wedefinerealexactly?Especiallywhensomuchexperienceisvirtual
now.Doesthatchangeourdefinitionofreality?669
Mysuggestionhasbeenthatratherthanchangingourdefinitionofreality,the
virtualrealmrepresentsanewspaceofsubjectificationwheresubjectsare
enmeshedinself-regulatorypracticesinnewways,throughtheirrendering
667TheKeep,p.5.668TheKeep,p.130.669EganinterviewedbyDonnaSeaman.Bookslut.n.p.
244
visible(andpotentiallyprofitable)alloflife,allthetime.Inthesespaces,the
samerelationsofdominationasexistinthephysicalworldmaybeperpetuated.
ThisunderstandingisavitalelementofHaraway’sworkthatismissingfrom
Egan’s.TheKeepfailstoeffectivelydemonstrateanunderstandingthatvirtual
technologiesarestillboundupwiththesamepowerstructuresastraditional
technologies–perhapsevenmoreso,byHaraway’saccount.670Seemingly
benigntechnologiesoftheselfarelinkedtotechnologiesofdominationatevery
stageoftheirevolution,dissemination,andusage.Connectivesocialmediahasa
concomitantfunctionasaspaceofsurveillance,atbothstateandpersonallevels,
asTurklehasrevealedinherwork.671Haraway’sfoundationalassertionthat,
“Socialrealityislivedsocialrelations,ourmostimportantpoliticalconstruction,
aworld-changingfiction,”pointstothepaucityofEgan’saccountofthevirtual.If
virtualtechnologieshavechangedourperceptionofreality,thisisandmust
beenseentobepoliticallyconsequential.672Instead,EgansuggeststhatDanny’s
addictiontoconnectivetechnologiesisproblematicbecauseitimpedeshimfrom
doingthenecessaryworkonhimself:“He’sverybusytalkingtoalotofpeopleall
thetime.Buttheonepersonheisunfamiliarwithishimself.”673
ThislogicisextendedtoRay,theconvictwhoiswritingthestoryofDanny
andHoward.WritingthisstorybecomesawayforRaytoconfronthis
wrongdoingsandtakeresponsibilityforthem-emotionalresponsibility,thatis;
heisalreadyreceivingformalpunishmentthroughhisimprisonment.Asstated,
Rayexpresslyinsistsonthefictionalityofhisnarrative,althoughitisinfact
‘inspiredbytrueevents’–heisMickinthestory.Therevelationofthis
constitutestheresolutionofRay’sstory,intermsofhiswritingprojectandhis
owntextualnarrative.Hiscreativewritingteacher,HollyFarrell,narratesthe
closingsectionofthenovel.AnoldfriendofHowardKing’sfromreformschool,
Rayhasalonghistoryofcriminalityanddeviantbehaviour,includingabrief
flingwithHoward’swife.DuringthetimeatwhichthestoryofDannyoccurs,
670SeeHaraway,Cyborgs,Simians&Women,p.303.671SeeTurkle,AloneTogether,p.262-3.672Thisisdemonstrated,forexample,inAngelaNagle’sKillAllNormies,(2017),whichgivesanaccountoftheextensiveconnectionsbetweenonlineright-wingextremismanditsmainstreamrise.673EganinterviewedbyDonnaSeaman.Bookslut,n.p.
245
Ray/MickhadbeenreleasedbythestateintoHoward’scustody,somewhat
unwillingly.Afterapotentiallysupernatural(orpossiblyjustdrunken)dalliance
withtheelderlyBaronessvonAusblinker,whooccupiesthekeepofthecastlein
defianceofHoward’sownership-theOldWorldresistingthenew-Dannyis
tryingtoescapethroughawindowandoverhearsRayandAnndiscussingtheir
romanticpast.AnnwantstotellHowardabouttheone-nightstandsheandRay
had,whichoccurredsixyearsprevious,beforesheandHowardhadachild.
Ray/Mickisaghastatthethought,andinsiststhattheycannotandshouldnot
tellhim.Thatis,herefusesthehealingtransparencydemandedbythe
psychotherapeuticrationalityoftheconfession.Assuch,heisfraudulentand
destinedtounhappiness,andcondemnsAnntoo.HiscontinueddesireforAnn
alsoposeshimasathreattothe‘good’familyunit–heisadangerouscharacter.
Dannyisdelightedtooverhearthisconversation,feelingastirringofaltoatthe
powertheinformationgiveshim.HeknowssomethinghiscousinHowarddoes
not,anditissomethingwiththepotentialtodisruptthepresumptionofthegood
lifeonwhichhishappinessisbuilt.
Danny’sawarenessofpowerisverysimilartoRay’s,likeningtheuncertain
natureofprecariousindustriestothevagariesofcriminalenterprise.Both
DannyandRaycovetthepositionof‘numbertwo’toHoward;neitherwantthe
responsibilityofbeingtheleader,butbothwantaccesstopower,andthe
legitimationthatapparentlybestows.Thisisonlyoneofanumberofpower
strugglesinthenovel:Rayalsofacesclashesintheprison,whichresultin
anotherinmatestabbinghim;HollyandRayhaveaconfrontationatthe
beginningofthecreativewritingcourse,whenhewritesasexuallyexplicitstory
designedtoundermineherauthority;Howardandhisentouragefaceanon-
goingbattleforsupremacywiththeBaronessregardingownershipofthecastle.
Thegothicsettingsofthenovelrepresentthistoo:acastleandaprison,both
symbolsandspacesofdomination.Gothicnovelsrelyontheinterplayofpower
relations,drawingterrorfromthewayinwhich,asMaggieKilgourwrites,
“publicformsofoppressionhaveinfiltratedandcontaminatedtheprivate
relationsbetweenmen,by‘givingageneralreviewofthemodesofdomesticand
246
unrecordeddespotismbywhichmanbecomesthedestroyerofman’.”674Kilgour
expandsthisreading,exploringthewaysinwhichtheworkofMary
Woollstonecraftusesthegothicmodetoexposetheunequalpowerrelations
betweenmenandwomen,andnotingtheutilityofthegothicmodeasatoolfor
exposingunequalpowerrelationsinadeliberatelypoliticalcontext.Shewrites,
Wollstonecraft’sgoalasareformeristohelpreleasewomenfroman
entrapmentinfalsesystemsofrepresentationwhich,perpetuatedby
customandprejudice,impedetheirindividuality.Writingisa
revolutionaryandrevelationaryactinwhichsherendstheveilsthat
haveconfinedandoppressedwomen,keepingthem,likegothic
heroines,‘immuredintheirfamilies,gropinginthedark’.…
Wollstonecraftseeshowpoliticalmodelsinfluenceandinvadeour
privateworlds.…Likethemiddleages,then,theprivatesphereis
idealisedasarefugefromthemodernpublicworldofatomistic
individualism,aplaceinwhicholderorganicrelationsstillsurvive.675
InEgan’snovels,itisnottheinfluenceofpoliticalmodelsthatinvadesour
‘privateworlds,’butadepoliticisedcelebrityculturethatpervertsourcapacity
toknowour‘true’selvesandconstructmeaningbasedonthisknowledge.
Howard’sintentioninconvertingthecastletoaluxuryhotelistocreateaspace
wheretechnologyisoutlawed.Byhisaccount,thiswillliberatepeoplefromthe
imaginativeconstraintsimposedbycommodifiedentertainment,asheexplains
toDannyearlyon:
Peoplearebored.They’redead!Gotoashoppingmallandcheckout
thefaces.Ididthisforyears–I’ddriveouttothemallsonweekends
andjustsittherewatchingpeople,tryingtofigureitout.What’s
missing?Whatdotheyneed?What’sthenextstep?AndthenIgotit:
imagination.We’velosttheabilitytomakethingsup.We’vefarmed
outthatjobtotheentertainmentindustry,andwesitaroundand
droolonourselveswhiletheydoitforus.676
674MaggieKilgour,TheRiseoftheGothicNovel,LondonandNewYork:Routledge,1995,p.75.675Kilgour,TheRiseoftheGothicNovel,p.75.676TheKeep,p.45
247
Thisrepeatsthatsameassumptionoftheexistenceofsomeessentialprivateself,
or“aplacewhereolderorganicrelationsstillsurvive,”thatunderpinned
CharlotteSwenson’sself-abdicationinLookatMe.TheironyisthatHoward,a
retiredfinancier,seesthisimaginativelackasbothasocialproblemthatneeds
toberemediedandapotentiallylucrativegapinthemarket,withnoapparent
contradiction.WherebusinessessuchasStarbuckshavesoughttopromotetheir
sitesasOldenburg-ian‘thirdspaces,’Howard’sprojectmightevenbea‘fourth
space,’inthatitisconceivedtobeoutsidehome,work,andvirtualsociality.677In
contrasttothethirdspace,Howard’shotelaimstoofferaspaceofdisconnection.
Thismovesbeyondthecynicalappropriationofspacesofopensocialityand
publiccommunionasamarketingtooltothepresumptionofdepoliticised
disconnectionasthepreferredstateofthecontemporarysubject.Thisis
exemplifiedinthenovel’sconclusion,aswewillseeinamoment.
Beforelookingatthecloseofthenovel,whichIargueconstitutesacrucial
momentacrossEgan’soeuvre,Iwillattendtotherepresentationofwritingin
thenovel.InthequoteabovefromKilgour,writingisidentifiedas“revolutionary
andrevelationary,”capableofrendingtheveilofoppression(femaleoppression,
inherexample).ThisisthesameconceptionofwritingIhaveespoused
throughoutthisthesis,inmysuggestionthatliteraturecanandshouldexpose,or
forcethereadertoconfront,theconditionsofreality,orflowsofpower,that
constituteeverydaylife.Thisistrue,bymyaccount,particularlywhensucha
confrontationischallengingorunpleasant–asisthecaseinaskingreadersto
abandonthecognitivedissonanceIhavesuggestedasthe(self-protective)
dominantstateoftheneoliberalsubject,ortheperverselypleasurable
melancholyor‘crueloptimism’ofimpossibleattachments.InTheKeep,Egan
framesanaccountofwritingthatrevealstheincompatibilityofherworkwith
mybelief.Rayistheprimaryauthorinthenovel,aswehaveseen,andistaught
byHolly,alongwithnineotherconvicts.Aftersubmittinghisstoryabouta
student“fuck[ing]hiswritingteacherinabroomclosetuntilthedoorfliesopen
andallthebroomsandmopsandbucketscomecrashingoutandtheirbareasses
677SeeRayOldenburg‘OurVanishing“ThirdPlaces,”’PlanningCommissionersJournal,25,1996-7,pp.6-10;alsoSimonBryant,EverythingbuttheCoffee:LearningAboutAmericaFromStarbucks,BerkelyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2009.
248
areshininginthelightandtheybothgetbusted,”inanefforttoembarrassand
undermineHolly,Rayis‘taughtalesson’infrontoftheclass.678HollyasksRayif
heseeshimselfasajoke,andtellshimsheknowsplentyofpeopledo.Shethen
challengeshim,tellinghimto“justwalkout.”679Asaprisoner,hecannotdothis,
andshepointsoutallthelayersofhisimprisonment:thedoor,thegate,razor
wire,thetowermannedbyanarmedguard.Morethanthis,Ray’simprisonment
isaresultofhisinstitutionalisation;herevealsthatwhenhelastgotoutof
prison,hehadforgottenhowtoopendoorsforhimself,havingbecome
accustomedtotheautomaticdoorsandrestrictedpassageoftheprison.Holly
tellsRay,andtherestoftheclass,thatherjobistoshowthemadoortheycan
open,throughwriting.ThespeechhasconsiderableimpactonRay:
afterHollymentionedthatdoorinourheads,somethinghappenedto
me.Thedoorwasn’treal,therewasnoactualdoor,itwasjust
figurativelanguage.Meaningitwasaword.Asound.Door.ButI
openeditupandwalkedout.680
Thereissomeauthorialsleightofhandatworkhere,notrevealeduntillaterin
thenovel,onthepartofRayandEgan.Inthefinalsectionofthenovel,Holly’s
narrative,welearnthatRayandhiscellmatehavecolludedtobreakoutof
prison,escapingthroughthepipesbeneaththeprison,afterRaydivertedthe
waterfromaplumbingmain.681
ThisechoestheendofRay’saccountofDanny,inwhichtheinhabitantsofthe
castlebecametemporarilytrappedunderthecastle,afterfollowingamapof
dubiousorigin.ThisistheeventbywhichDannybecomescapableoftaking
responsibility–ofgrowingup–whenheisforcedtoleadthegroupoutofthe
tunnelsfollowingHoward’sbreakdown.Thebreakdowniscausedbyhiscousin’s
claustrophobia,aresultofhistraumaticexperienceinthecavesasachild,andits
re-emergenceopensaspaceofhealingdialoguebetweenheandDannyafter
theyescapetosafety.Atthispoint,Dannypubliclyacknowledgesandacceptshis
678TheKeep,p.17.N.B.TheslapstickcomedyRayuseshereisthesametypeofhumourEganherselfusesthroughoutthenovel,asmentionedearlier.679TheKeep,p.17.680TheKeep,p.19.681ThisnodstoStephenKing,onceagain,andtowhatmightbethebest-knowncontemporaryprisonescapestory,RitaHayworthandtheShawshankRedemption(1982),whichwasadaptedasafilmin1994andwonanumberofOscars.
249
wrongdoing,sayingtohiscousin,“Ileftyoutodie.”682Howardhasadifferent
takeonthesituation,tellingDannythathe“escapedwithhismind,”suggesting
thatheimaginativelydissociatedfromthematerialtraumaofhisimminent
death,givingsomecontexttohisownbeliefintheimportanceoftheindividual
(private)imagination.ThatthisexperiencedidnotmateriallydamageHoward
(asidefromtheclaustrophobia)isdemonstratedthroughhisachievementofthe
normativemarkersofsuccess:wife,child,wealth.Onceagain,imaginationis
valorisedasaprivategood,fortheprotectionofthe‘inner’self-thisistheethos
ofHoward’shotel.ProofthatDannyhasbeenrecuperatedfromhisstateof
wretchedalteritycomesinthisconversationtoo;aftertheircatharticexchange,
Howardsays,“Ifeellike–wecouldworktogetheronsomething.”683Through
acquiescingtothenormativelogicofneoliberalcapitalism,Dannyfinallyhas
accesstotheprospectoffinancialsecurityandprofessionalsuccess;hehas
becomeanequalinhiscousin’seyes.HeandHowarddiscussopeninga
restaurant–evenhis‘worthless’servicesectorskillsareabouttocomegood,it
seems.Intheend,however,itisnottobe.‘Dangerous’Mick/Ray,whoisnotjust
playingatbeingdifferent,butactuallyexistsoutsideofthelaw,thinksheisabout
tolosehisproximitytoHoward,tobereplacedbyDanny.Hecannotstandthis,
seeingitasthefinalseveranceofhisconnectiontotheprospectofthegoodlife,
andshootsDanny,underthepretencethathebelieveshimtohaveaknife.The
knifemayormaynothavebeenreal,anditmayormaynothavebeeninDanny’s
possessionatthetime;wehavelearnedbynowthatRayisanunreliable
narrator(andrealityisirrelevant).AfterdescribingDanny’sdeathindetail,Ray
continues,recountingavisitationfromDanny’sghost:
Wherethefuckdidyoucomefrom?Isaid.
Dannysmiled.Hesaid:Youdidn’treallythinkIwasgoingtoleaveyou
alone?
Hesaid:Haven’tyoulearnedthatthethingyouwanttoforgetmostis
theonethat’llneverleaveyou?
Hesaid:Letthehauntingbegin.Andthenhelaughed.
Hesaid:We’retwins.There’snoseparatingus.
682TheKeep,p.206.683TheKeep,p.207.
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Hesaid:Ihopeyouliketowrite.
Andthenhestartedtotalk,whisperingintomyear.684
WritingbecomesawayforRaytoexorcisethisghost,awayforhimtorecognise
andconfronthiswrongdoingsothatsalvationmightbepossible.
Thissalvation,liketheprojectofwriting,istiedupwiththefigureofHolly.
Inthefinalsection,welearnfromHollythatsheandRayenjoyedasortofchaste
affair,thattheysharedamutualattractionforwhichsheendangeredherjoband
reputationbygoingtovisitRayinthehospitalafterhewasstabbed,andthen
later,whenhewasreturnedtotheprison.Hewasplanninghisescapethewhole
time.Holly’sfunction,asfarasRayisconcerned,seemstobetoaffirmsome
senseofhisvaluetohim,togivehimaselftobelievein.Thisissuggestedbythe
wayinwhichDannythinksofhisgirlfriend,Martha,inRay’sstory,recallingthat
sheloveshimanytimeheneedstofeelfortifiedorvalidated,despitealso
sleepingwiththebaronessandconstantlyflirtingwiththewomanwhobabysits
HowardandAnn’sson.ThisiswhatwritingdoesforRayaswell;itgiveshim
self-belief,whichgiveshimbothpowerandpurpose:“AndsinceIstartedthat
class,everythingfeelsdifferent–brighter,sharper,alittlestrange…”685
Ray’spowerisdemonstratedwhenhisinabilitytomeetthedemandsofhis
readers(i.e.theotherinmatesintheclass)causesaphysicalaltercation,which
resultsintheclassendingearly.Henowhassomethingthattheotherswant,
whichisthedefinitionofpowerinEgan’swork.Hiswritingisalsothethingthat
bondshimtohiscellmate,Davis,withwhomheeventuallyescapes.Davis
discoversthepagesofRay’sstorysecretedbeneathhismattress,anditchanges
thenatureoftheirrelationshipentirely,becauseDavisseesthatRaycaresabout
something.Fromthis,hededucesthatRaymightbeinterestedinconstructinga
differentkindoffuturethantheonethatotherwiseawaitsthem–interested,that
is,inescapingthecertaintyofimprisonment.Inascenethatisbothaffirmative
andfrustrating,DavisrevealstoRaythathe,too,hasasecretprojectthat
sustainshim;hehasbuilta‘radio’thatoperatesonasupernaturalfrequency.He,
likeRay,canhearghosts.Onarationallevel,Rayknowsthathiscellmateismost
684TheKeep,pp.210-11.685TheKeep,p.57.
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likely“abugwhothinkshe’sbuiltamachinethatcantalktoghosts.”686Asa
writer,however,Rayhasstartedtounderstandthepowerofimagination-and,
possibly,thepremiseofsuspensionofdisbelief.Assuch,hefindshimselfableto
havefaithinDavis:
inthatsplitsecondIgofrompretendingstraightintobelieving–it’s
likeallthepretendingmademebelieve,exceptthatdoesn’tmake
sense,becausepretendingandbelievingareopposites.…maybeitall
comesbacktoHolly.Maybeifyoubelievethataword–door–isa
thingyoucanwalkthrough,andthenyouwalkonthroughlikeIdid,
there’snothingoutthereyouwon’tswallow.687
Inthispassage,RayseemstogivevoicetothesamepotentialIhavetracedinthis
thesisasthekeyvalueofliterature–theabilitytoopenupnewimaginative
spheresthatmayhaveamaterialimpactonhowwelive.Thisiswherehis
accountisaffirmative.Itisfrustrating,however,becauseallthisimaginative
potentialisonceagainemployedinserviceoftheprivateself.Empoweredto
thinkofhimselfasworthydespitehislowlystatus,Rayescapestheprison,and
thatisthelastwehearofhim.Thisconfigurationepitomisesconfusionofthe
messagethatemergesfromEgan’swork,whichbymyreadingoccursbecause
herworkassumesneoliberalsystemsandmodesofbeingastheonlywaterin
whichwe,andhercharacters,swim.Writingmayberevelationary,inEgan’s
work,whereitservesto‘reveal’someromanticessentialpartofhumanitythat
somehowpersistsagainsteveryhardship,inallsocialrelations,andinany
systemofhumanorganisation.Onthismodel,writingfollowspsychotherapeutic
rationales,functioningtorevealselftoself.Thisreliesonanassumptionof
universalitybuiltontheconceptionoftheuniversalsubjectasstraight,white,
wealthy,American.Theempatheticpotentialofherworkisradicallylimitedby
theseassumptions.Thissortofwritingcannotberevolutionarybecauseit
subscribestoandreproducesthenormativemoresofdominantpower
structures.Morethanthis,thissortofwritingsuggeststhatthereisnoneedfor
revolution,offeringusavisionofaworldwheremaladaptiverelationsarethe
faultoftheindividual,ratherthantheresultofasystemtowhichnoreasonable
686TheKeep,p.99.687TheKeep,p.101.
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personcouldbeexpectedtowillinglysuccumb.Thereis,bythisaccount,noveil
ofillusiontoberent-onlythe‘natural’certaintyofthingsastheyare.
Thispessimism(orrealism,byEgan’sstandards)isunderlinedbytheending
ofthenovel.AfterRayescapes,hesendshismanuscripttothehouseHolly
shareswithherhusbandandtwodaughters,puttingheratriskofarrestfor
receivingit.Inthissection,weareatlastprivytoHolly’slifeoutsidetheprison,
anditturnsoutnottobeveryglamorous.Hollyisaformermethamphetamine
addictmarriedtoamanwhostillusesdrugs.She‘gotclean’followinga
breakdowncausedbylosingherthirdchild,afterusingdrugsduringthe
pregnancy.Sheworksatalocaluniversityandisstudyingforamaster’sdegree
increativewriting.WelearnthatHollytreasuresthevisionofherselfthatshe
seesreflectedinRay’seyes,thatshestartstodressdifferentlyoutsideofthe
prison,andtothinkofwaysshecanencounterhimoutsideoftheclass.Welearn,
too,thatsheprofessestounderstandthatherunhappinessisherownfault:“My
firstmistakewasbeinginahurry.Igrabbedforwhatwasinfrontofme:
marryingSeththerockstar,havingachild–I’dalwaysbeenspecialandI
thoughtthespecialnesswouldstillbetherenomatterwhat,butthisotherstuff
mightnot.”688This‘specialness’islinkedtohertalentasawriter,but
consideringoneself‘special’rarelyendswellforthewomenofEgan’snovels:for
Faith,itmeantdeath;forCharlotteSwenson,erasure.Afterrecoveringfromher
addiction,somepartofHollystillcannotletgoofthatfeelingofbeingspecial:
Iwasjustrelievedtobealiveandcleanandhavemychildrenback,
thetwothatwerelefttome[aswellasajob,andtheopportunityto
pursuefurthereducation]…Butevenwithallthat,whichIwas
gratefulforandknewfullwellIdidn’tdeserve,Ican’texactlysayI
washappy.…Ithoughthappinessonlycamefromgettinghigh,andI
wasneverdoingthatagain,never,evenifitmeantnotbeinghappy
onemoredayinmylife.689
ThisrepeatsEgan’sformulathat,whenitcomestoconstructingalife,theoptions
aretoeitheraccept‘reality’andmakethebestofit,ortoseektotranscendit,
wheresucheffortswillalwaysbebothdamagingandimpermanent.Theideaof
688TheKeep,p.230.689TheKeep,pp.230-1.
253
organisingadifferentformofsocialityorpoliticalbasisforlifeisneverframed
asapossibility.WelearntoothatHolly’sacquiescenceto‘reallife’isinsufficient
becauseshehasnotgivenuponthepossibilityoftranscendence.Shedescribes
howmeetingRaybroughtbackthehappinessshehadpreviouslyonlyknown
whentakingdrugs,withaclearparallelbetweenheraddictiontoillegal
substancesandherattractiontoanoutlaw.Holly,itseems,hasnotlearnedher
lesson.
WhenshereceivesRay’smanuscript,Hollystaysupallnightreadingit,taking
ineverydetail,andthenburiesitinhergarden:
I’msorelievedtoknowit’ssafe,it’sallsafe,thewholestoryandmein
thestory,thatteacherwholeftherhusband,thatprettyprincess–
she’sburieddownthereliketreasure.
I’veburiedtheevidence,too.Iknowit’sillegaltoholdonto
somethingsenttoyoubyaconvictwho’sjustescaped.690
HollyiswillingtoriskbeingprosecutedtopreserveRay’sinventedversionof
her,the“prettyprincess.”Althoughthepolicedonotfindthemanuscript,they
unearthabagofmeththatherhusbandhasstashedinthehouseandsheis
arrestedforit,spendingthenightincells-punishmentstillfindsher.Afterher
release,shebecomesintenselydepressed,onacomedownfromtheintensityof
herillicitrelationship.Shefindsherselfunabletotendtoherchildren,ortoget
outofbed.Atlast,hermotherintervenes,andtellsherthatsheneedsto“get
away”–aswithMoose’sresolutioninLookatMe,travelisashortcuttoself-
reinventionandrenewal.Hollymanagestolocateahotelonlinethatseemstobe
theoneinRay’sstory,andcomestobelievethatinsendingherthestory,Ray
intendedtoleadhertoit:“Ifoundhim.Orhefoundme.”691Findingthehotelis
theeasypart.Thehardpartispayingforit:“Ididn’tthinkahotelcouldbeso
expensive–topayfortwonightsplusairfare,Ihavetocashinmy401K…The
wholethingseemswild,self-indulgent,notallowed.”692Thewholethingiswildly
self-indulgent,butitisperfectlyallowedbytheneoliberalmodelofindividual
happinessaboveallelse.Intakingmoneyfromher401K(herprivatepension
690TheKeep,p.216.691TheKeep,p.233.692TheKeep,p.233.
254
plan)Hollyisdeliberatelyignoringtheconcernsofthefutureforimmediate
gratification-idealneoliberalbehaviour.
Holly’sexperienceenroutetothehotelfollowsthissamelineofthinking;she
receivesaseriesofelaborateinstructioncards,eachonereassuringherastothe
specialnessoftheexperiencesheisabouttohaveand,byextension,assuringher
thatsheisspecialanddeserving.Bytheconventionsoftheromance,Holly
expectstofindRaywaitingforheratthehotel.Itisforthisshehaslefther
children,usedhervacationdays,cashedinherpension.Heisn’tthere.Whenshe
realisesthis,shereflectsontheirconversationduringhervisittothehospital.As
sherecallsit,duringtheirexchangesheassertedherunworthiness-“I’mnota
writer.Orateacher.”-andhedeniedtheseassertions,tellingher,“Iknowwho
youare.”693Tobeseen,andtobeknown,isoftendepictedastheprimarygoalof
humanexistenceinEgan’swork,perLookatMe.This,Ithink,hasrootsinthe
samelogicidentifiedasunderpinningNewSincerity.Thereisaquoteattributed
toDavidFosterWallacethatruns:
Fictionisoneofthefewexperienceswherelonelinesscanbeboth
confrontedandrelieved.Drugs,movieswherestuffblowsup,loud
parties–allthesechaseawaylonelinessbymakingmeforgetmy
name’sDaveandIliveinaone-by-oneboxofbonenootherpartycan
penetrateorknow.Fiction,poetry,music,reallydeepserioussex,
and,invariousways,religion–thesearetheplaces(forme)where
lonelinessiscountenanced,stareddown,transfigured,treated.694
Theproblemis,Ithink,thatEgan’sworkseemstounderstandloneliness
literally,asin,theconditionofbeingalone.AsIseeit,thiscondition,
characterisedasakindof‘spiritualmalaise’orexistentialangst,isinfact
inseparablefromtheconditionofbeingalive–andso,theconditionsinwhich
peoplelive.Loneliness,then,doesnotmeanfeelingemotionallydisconnected;it
meansbeingremovedfromtheessentialdignityoflife,forwantofabetter
phrase.Ifliteratureaddressesonlythelonelinessoftheindividual,ifthisisallit
seekstoresolve,itmayaswellbeamoviewherestuffblowsup.Attheendof
693TheKeep,p.241.694Thisquoteseemstooriginatefroma2008blogpostwrittenbyjournalistandeditorDavidStreitfeld,‘DFAandDeLillo,’miravista.typepad.com/cosmopolis/2008/09/delillo-and-dfw.html.
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TheKeep,weleaveHolly,farfromherfamily,afewthousanddollarsdown,
divingintowhatHowardandhiswifeAnncalled‘theimaginationpool.’Earlier
inthenovel,Annanticipatedthismoment,describingwhatshethoughtthe
functionofthehotelmightbe:
Awomantravelsherebyherself.She’sunhappy,she’s–shutdown.
Maybehermarriageisintrouble;maybeshe’salone.Whateveritis,
she’sbecomenumb,deadtoherself.Soshechecksinandleavesher
stuffintheroomandthenshecomesthroughthegardentothispool
…andshedivesin…andit–itdoessomethingtoher.Beinginthat
waterdoessomething:itwakesherup.Andwhenshegetsoutofthat
pool,shefeelsstrongagain.Likeshe’sreadytostartherlifeover.695
Ifthisisabookaboutbooks,aboutwritingandwhatitcando,Eganseemstobe
suggestingthatliteraturehasarejuvenatingpower;thatitcanreinvigoratetired
minds,andbraceindividualsforthetaskofdealingwithreality.Withthis
formula,Eganrendersliteratureassomehowoutoflife,asthoughitexistedina
vacuumoutsideofthematerialworld,ashercharactersseemto.Insuchaview,
literaturehasadutyonlytoitssingularreader,andeventhen,itisadutyof
distraction,amomentaryrelieffromreality.ThisisthederivativeformofNew
Sincerity,theonethatfindswidespreadcommercialsuccessbecauseitoffersno
challengetotheconditionsthatcausethelonelinessitostensiblyseeksto
alleviate.Wallace’sworkfoughthisowntendencytosolipsism(notalways
successfully).InEgan’s,solipsismislittlemorethantheconditionofbeingalive.
Thatseemsliketheloneliestaccountofexistenceimaginable–andthemost
miserable.
695TheKeep,p.47.
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AVisitFromtheGoonSquad:TheDaytheMusicDied
Wecome,now,toEgan’slastfullnovelsofar(anotherisdueforpublicationthis
autumn,andthereisalsotheTwitficBlackBox).Publishedin2010,AVisitFrom
theGoonSquadisthemostsuccessfulofEgan’snovels,inbothcriticaland
commercialterms.ItwontheNationalBookCriticsCircleAwardandthePulitzer
Prize,andtoppedbestsellerlistsacrosstheU.S.andfurtherafield.696Itisthe
mostculturallysignificantofEgan’snovels,intermsofreception,dissemination,
andimpact.ItscriticalsuccessbroadlysignalledEgan’sascendancepropertothe
ranksof‘GreatAmericannovelist’(shebeatlong-timetitleholderJonathan
FranzentothePulitzer).697LikeallEgan’swork,thisnovelisengagedwith
counterculture,thistimethroughitsfocusonthemusicindustry,rootedinthe
SanFranciscopunksceneofthelateseventiesandeighties.698GoonSquad’s
ostensibleinterestistime,madeplainbyitsopeningepigraph,whichistaken
fromMarcelProust’sInSearchofLostTime.699Ihavedescribedelsewherehow
thisinterest,forNilges,representsawayinwhichthenovelasaliteraryform
mayconfrontthelimitationsofneoliberalhypercomplextime:
recentnovelisticproductionengagespreciselywiththeoppressive
senseofthehereandnowasoneofneoliberalism’sdefining
problemsthatunderwritesitslimitingeffectuponthecultural(andto
nosmallextentcriticalandtheoretical)imagination.700
696GillianReagan.‘JenniferEganin‘AVisitFromtheSalesSquad,’Politico29March2011,www.politico.com/states/new-york/city-hall/story/2011/03/jennifer-egan-in-a-visit-from-the-sales-squad-000000.697ThistoowasnotedbyKellyin‘BeginningWithPostmodernism’,wherehesuggestedthatthesepublicdisplaysofcriticalapprovalwouldrectifytheauthor’s“criticaleclipse”:thisinitselfisaformulathatbearssomeattention.Asforwhata‘GreatAmericannovelist’is,wemightlooselyreadittomeanthatanauthorhascompletedacriticallylaudedworkofsomescope,andthatthatworkisseentoaddresstheconditionoflifeinAmericaatthecontemporarymoment(inverybroadbrushstrokes).SeeLevGrossman,‘JonathanFranzen:GreatAmericanNovelist,’Time12August2010,content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,2010185,00.html.698ItoccurstomethatLookatMemaynotappeartohavethesameovertinterestincounterculturebasedonmyreading,althoughthatthefashionindustryisan‘alternative’creativeindustryisclear.ThereisanothersubplotinthatnovelwhichconcentratesonCharlotteHauser’syoungerbrother,Ricky,anavidskateboarderwhoisrecoveringfromleukaemia,whichhasamoredirectengagementwithwhatmightproperlybetermed‘subculture.’Thiswasnotexploredforreasonsofspace.699Anepigraphwhichassertstheimportanceoflookinginwardstoconnectwiththepast,andsuggeststhatunderstandingthelivesofothersisaninsolvablepuzzle,settingthetoneforthenovelandreflectingthosetendenciestoeschewmaterialcircumstancewehavealreadyseeninEgan’swork.700Nilges.‘Neoliberalismandthetimeofthenovel,’p.372.
257
Ihaveexplained,too,Nilges’sassertionthatitistheprocessualformofthenovel
thatcanre-establishasenseof“neoliberalismasahistoricallyspecifictemporal
imaginary,onethatisdirectlyrelatedtospecifichistoricalconditionsandthatas
suchdoesnotmarktheendoftimeitselfbutratherthecrisisofoneof
neoliberalism’sconstitutivedimensions.”701IhavedescribedEgan’sothernovels
as‘hauntologies’andsituatedtheminthemodeoftheneoliberalgothic,
recognisingthattheymayexpressanxietiesunintendedbytheauthorbutvery
muchaconditionofcontemporarylife,throughtheirtemporalliminality
(amongstotherfeaturesoutlinedinmyreadings).Inspiteofitsexplicit
thematisationoftime,however,AVisitfromtheGoonSquadisnotoneofthese
hauntologies.Its‘non-linearnarrative’notwithstanding,itssenseoftimeis
actuallymoreclearlydelineatedthananyofthepreviousnovelswehavelooked
at.Theextensivetemporalconnectionsdescribedbetweencharactershaveled
sometocharacteriseitasa‘Facebooknovel.’702Atypicalexampleofthisoccurs
inthechapterentitled‘Safari,’aboutagrouponsafariwhowitnessanear-miss
incidentwithalion:
ThemembersofRamsey’ssafarihavegainedastorythey’lltellforthe
restoftheirlives.Itwillpromptsomeofthem,yearsfromnow,to
searchforeachotheronGoogleandFacebook,unabletoresistthe
wish-fulfilmentfantasythereportalsoffer:Whateverhappenedto...?
Inafewcases,they’llmeetagaintoreminisceandmarvelatone
another’sphysicaltransformations,whichwillseemtomeltaway
withtheminutes.703
TherestofthepassagedescribedsuchameetingbetweenDean,astruggling
actorwhofindssuccessinmiddleage,andLouise,twelveatthetimeofthe
safari,divorcedwiththreeteenagersbythetimetheyfindeachotheragain.Ina
fewsentences,thenarrativecoverstheirfirstreunion,their“unexpectedly
movingsex,”andtheireventualmarriage.704Anotherinstanceofthiscondensed
701Nilges.‘Neoliberalismandthetimeofthenovel,’p.372.702JenniferEganinterviewedbyStephanLee.‘JenniferEganon‘GoonSquad,’‘LosAngelesTimes’brouhaha,andhernextnovel,’2April2011,EntertainmentWeekly,ew.com/article/2011/04/02/jennifer-egan-interview-goon-squa/.703JenniferEgan.AVisitfromtheGoonSquad2010London:Corsair,2011,pp.74-75.704GoonSquad,p.75.
258
temporalnarrativeoccurswhenEgandescribesaSamburuwarriorwho
performsforthetourists.LookatMealsofeaturesaSamburuwarrior,whoselife
ThomasKeenseekstotransformintocontentontheExtra/OrdinaryPeoplesite.
TheSamburuaresomewhatfamiliartoAmericans,withmembersofthetribe
havingfeaturedinKevinBaconfilmsandNikeads.705InGoonSquad,this
unnamedwarrior’slifenarrativeispresentedinthesameformasthatofthe
Americantourists:
Thirty-fiveyearsfromnow,in2008,thiswarriorwillbecaughtinthe
tribalviolencebetweentheKikuyuandtheLuoandwilldieinafire.
He’llhavefourwivesandsixty-threegrandchildrenbythen,oneof
whom,aboynamedJoe,willinherithislalema:theironhunting
daggerinaleatherscabbardathisside.Joewillgotocollegeat
Columbiaandstudyengineering,becominganexpertinvisualrobotic
technologythatdetectstheslightesthintofirregularmovement(the
legacyofachildhoodspentscanningthegrassforlions).He’llmarry
anAmericannamedLuluandremaininNewYork,wherehe’llinvent
ascanningdevicethatbecomesstandardissueforcrowdsecurity.He
andLuluwillbuyaloftinTribeca,wherehisgrandfather’shunting
daggerwillbedisplayedinsideacubeofPlexiglas,directlyundera
skylight.706
ThisaccountismuchlessinterestedinthewarriorthanhisAmericanised
grandson,andsuggeststhatupwardmobilitycansubsumenotonlyclassbut
racialinequality:Joeinventsadevicetobeusedforsecurity,despitethe
disproportionatepolicingandsurveillanceofyoungblackmeninAmerica,both
onandoffline.707ThisispresentedtousasnomoreunusualthanDeanand
Louise’sreunion,andasthoughitwerenomorepoliticallycharged.Thisrapid
narrativecyclingisatypicalfeatureofthenovel,replicatingthetemporalsense
of“allatonce”engenderedby‘hypercomplex’time.Thistechniqueisalso
705PeterApplebome.‘StraightOutofAfrica,aReallyTallStory.’TheNewYorkTimes,2January1994,www.nytimes.com/1994/01/02/movies/film-straight-out-of-africa-a-really-tall-story.html.706GoonSquad,p.65.707JeffreyLane.‘TheDigitalStreet,’AmericanBehaviouralScientist,60:1,2015,pp.43-58,;K.BabeHowell‘GangPolicing:thePostStop-and-FriskJustificationforProfile-BasedPolicing,’5UniversityofDenverCriminalLawReview,5:2,2015,pp.1-33.
259
directlyinfluencedbythenewarchivalformsenabledbyvirtualtechnologiesof
theself,perTurkle’swork.GoonSquadrationaliseshypercomplextimeinaway
thatrepeatsthelogicsandprocessesofneoliberalismratherthanstaginga
confrontationwiththem.
Iamnotaloneinexpressingdoubtsaboutwhatthisnovelisdoing,ortrying
todo.SeanCarswell,inanarticleentitled‘GoonsandGrrrls:AMeditationon
PunkrockIdeologyandNeoliberalism’(2016),picksuponsomeoftheproblems
ofEgan’suseofpunkrockcounterculture,whichistheroughhistorical
backgroundagainstwhichitseventsunfold.IsuggestedthatTheInvisibleCircus
enactsabroad‘emptyingout’ofthepoliticalcontentofthatcounterculture,ina
waythattooeasilyaccordswithneoliberalnarrativesoftheeraandseesitasan
inevitableprecursortotheriseofneoliberalism.GoonSquad,morethananyof
Egan’snovels,normalisesandnaturalisestheprocessof‘sellingout,’asthough
theprocessof‘becomingneoliberal’werenomorethantheinevitableresultof
timepassing.Inacharacteristicdisavowal,EganincludesachapterinGoon
Squad,‘PureLanguage,’whichlooksdirectlyattheprocessof‘sellingout,’
throughexploringthecommodificationofculturalinfluence,althoughthetheme
alsoframesthenovelmoregenerally,asweshallsee.
Elsewhere,JeffreyJ.LewismakesAVisitfromtheGoonSquadoneofthe
subjectsofhisarticle,‘ThePlutocraticImagination,’readingitasneoliberalinits
attentiontotheultra-wealthy.708AnisShivaniidentifiesthenovelasbelongingto
whatheterms‘plasticrealism,’whichherelatestotheriseofthe“MFAregime”
incontemporaryAmericanliteraryfiction.Iamnotseekingtoaddressthewider
debateoftheimpactofMFAprogrammesonAmericanliterarycultureatlarge,
althoughitseemstomewemightjustaseasilyidentifycommercialimperatives
asthereasonfortheemergenceofthis‘style.’Certainly,aswehaveseen,
separatingcommercialandcriticalsuccessisasomewhatfutileenterprise.
Shivaniassertsthatsalesandreadershipareirrelevanttothesewriters-
becausetheyare“ensconcedintheacademy”–althoughIdoubtthateithercan
708JeffreyJ.Williams.‘ThePlutocraticImagination,’Dissent60:1,2013.Again,Iamnottotallyconvincedbythis–theultrawealthydofeatureinEgan’swork,butIwouldarguethatinGoonSquad,aselsewhere,itistheuppermiddleclassratherthanthe‘1%’withwhomherworkismostpreoccupied.Therecanbenodoubtingthatherworknormalisesthestateofaffluence,however,andasIhavesuggested,herwritingseemstoooftentofalteror‘missthemark’whensheattemptstoaddressthoseoutsideofthisclass(seeTheKeep).
260
becastoffsoeasily,evenifauthorsmightliketoadoptaposeofdisinterestwith
regardtoboth.Thereader,afterall,hasbecometheprimarysubjectof
theoreticalliteraryengagementinthepost-DavidFosterWallaceliterary
landscape,andunderneoliberallogic,thereaderistheconsumerofliterature.709
Regardlessofthereasonfortheemergenceofthisdominantnew(ish)style
offiction,Shivani’saccountdescribes,“anewhappiness–almostanecstatic
bubblingupofferociousindividualism,asthoughthecountryhadbeen
discoveredanew,itsrawenergiesasavailablefortranslationintopersonal
successasneverbefore”aspermeatingthisliterature.710Thisisaninteresting
perspective,movingusonfromthoseNewSincerityreadingsthathaveinsisted
onthepervasivesadnessofAmerica,“sunksodeepinthecultureyoucantasteit
inyourmorningCheerios.”711This‘deepsadness,’perSmithandWallace,ismost
oftenlinkedtothevapidityofconsumeroradvertisingcultureandthedifficulty
ofachievingfulfillingaffectiveexchangesorconnections.This‘newhappiness’is,
Ithink,connectedtotheself-maximisationstrategiesofneoliberalhappiness
discourse,andtheapparentlyboundlesshorizonofchoiceunderneoliberalism
(boundless,thatis,aslongasitagreeswiththeframeworkofneoliberalism).My
workhasexploredtheintersectionofthesetwostates,basedonthematerial
evidenceofariseinstatesofaffectivedistressoccurringatthesametimeasa
generalincreaseinlivingstandardsandaffluence.712Thenegotiationoftheseis
thespaceofcognitivedissonanceIhavepositedelsewhere,bywhichwemay
‘acknowledge’oursadnessbutarealsointerpellatedtotranslatethissuffering
intoneoliberallanguagesofhappiness,regulatingourselvesinaccordancewith
709ApologiesforinvokingFranzenagain,butthe‘Oprahincident’inwhichthatauthorbecameembroiledisaneatillustrationofmypoint:DavidK.Kirkpatrick,‘’Oprah’GaffebyFranzenDrawsIreandSales,’TheNewYorkTimes29October2001.www.nytimes.com/2001/10/29/books/oprah-gaffe-by-franzen-draws-ire-and-sales.html.Kirkpatrickwrites,“iftherewereeveratimeinthebookbusinesswhenauthorswrotetoimpresscriticsandtheirpeerswithoutregardtobooksales,gettingcaughtinthatpostureisnowalmostembarrassing.”Thepermissivenessofneoliberalismeradicatesthehigh/lowdistinctionbywhichauthorswerepublicly‘permitted’toadoptsuchstances;more,itsloveofsuccessnarrativesrewardstheauthorwithacannyeyetobooksales(likeJenniferEgan,perthePoliticoarticle).AsLewisLapham,editorofHarper’s,isquotedassaying,“thegarretisathingofthepast.”710AnisShivani,‘WeAreAllNeoliberalsNow:TheNewGenreofPlasticRealisminAmericanFiction,’HuffingtonPost12June2016,www.huffingtonpost.com/anis-shivani/we-are-all-neoliberals-no_b_7546606.html.711Smith.TheBurnedChildrenofAmerica,p.xii.712PerOliverJames,RichardLayard,andothersexploredearlier.
261
theproductiveimperative.Shivani’s“ecstaticbubblingupofferocious
individualism”isaneatexplanationofthoseproblematicendingsofEgan’swork
Ihaveexploredsofar,inwhich,aswehaveseen,wealwaysreturntothe
individual,andtotheprivateself.
ShivaniandCarswelloverlapwhendiscussinghowacceptancefromthe
literaryestablishmentmightbeseenasasignthatanovelaccordswith,rather
thanchallenges,dominantpowerstructures,particularlywhenthisacceptance
translatesintoincreasedcommercialpotential.Bothmakeplainthatthenovelas
productisalsoenmeshedinawebofcapitalistproduction,asaproductitself,
andcautionusnottoforgetthisinouranalyses.713Ialsofinditinterestingthat
Shivanipointsouttherelativeabsenceofnovelisticattemptsto‘writeout’the
2008financialcrisis.ThereismuchinGoonSquadthatwouldhaveworked
fruitfullyagainstthehistoricalmomentofthefinancialcrash,anditsabsenceis
partoftheoddsenseofahistoricitythatframesthenovel,despiteitsoccasional
referencestoactualhistoricaleventsorcircumstance.714AVisitfromtheGoon
SquadisformallydistinctfromEgan’searliernovels,inthatitisanovelthat
reproducesneoliberaltimeinitsform,insteadofnarrativelyengagingwiththe
formoftime,asIhavesuggestedtheseearliernovelsdothroughtheir
(sometimesinadvertent)hauntologies.Shivaniisalsoawareoftheinfiltrationof
psychotherapeuticlanguageintocontemporaryAmericanliteraryfiction,and
linksittoanemptyingoutofphilosophicalcontent.Hewrites,ofplasticrealism,
“thereisnopatternofhistoricalexplanation,withoutwhichrealismismerelya
codeofestablishedtextualsignalsratherthananhonestattempttotranslate
languageintoreality.”715Itakethispoint–indeed,hisdescriptionofthechasm
betweena“codeoftextualsymbols”and“anhonestattempttotranslate
languageintoreality”isthecruxofthetensionIhavebeentracinginEgan’s
713PerEgan,“Themosttangibleoutcomeoftheselists[ofnovelswithpositivereviews/criticalapproval]iscommercial,maybe,andbelieveme,I’lltakeit.’”,‘JenniferEganin‘AVisitFromtheSalesSquad,’Politico.n.p.714IftheGoonSquadwerereallywrittenina‘fracturedform’(which,asIseeit,itisnot),itseemstomeitwouldbeanidealartefactoftheexistentialcrisisofcapitalismmaderealbythe2008crash.Thenovel’soverviewofadecliningmusicindustrybasedontheriseofstreamingandothernewformsofvirtualconsumptionalltooeasilyparallelstheabstractionofthebankingsectorEgantoucheduponinLookatMe,butthisisnotdrawnoutinthenovel.715Shivani,‘WeAreAllNeoliberalsNow:TheNewGenreofPlasticRealisminAmericanFiction.’n.p.
262
work.716However,asIhavetriedtoshowthatEgan’sworkstagessome
conversationbetweenhistoricalframings,myreadingsuggeststhatitisthe
politicaldimensionthatismissingfromEgan’swork;theoverlapofthe
philosophicalandthehistorical,groundedinthematerialcircumstanceoflife.
Shivanialsocontendsthatsufferingisnotabsentfromthenarrativesof‘plastic
realism’:
Protagonistsinplasticrealismcertainlymaysufferfromillness,
addiction,emotionalinadequacy,andfamilialdysfunction–and
indeedoftensuffertoridiculousexcess–butthetherapeutic
narrativeensuresthatindividualscanonlygrowandlearnfromsuch
experiences.717
Inthesenarrativesofovercomingpersonalstrife,Shivanigoeson,“allproblems
originateinternally,andthecharacters’taskistouncovertheirownunique
predestinedharmony–whichtheydo,inallcases.”718InAVisitfromtheGoon
Squad,these‘trials’aretheverytraitsbywhichcharactersaredefined.Every
characterhassomeobstacletheymustovercome,notusuallyintermsof
poverty,ornaturaldisaster,violence,orinequality,butwhatwemightcalla
‘problemoftheself.’Thisisnottosaythatthenoveldoesnottouchuponthese
kindsofissues,buttheyareco-optedintothislargerframeworkofthepersonal.
Thisistheoperatinglogicofneoliberalhappinessdiscourseatthelevelofself-
imbrication.Ifproblemsthathavetheirrootsinstructuralinequitiesormaterial
inequalitycanberecuperatedas‘problemsoftheself,’theycanbereframedas
solvablewithintherubricofproductiveaction,bethisthroughengagementwith
psychotherapeuticrhetoric,‘investment’intheself,ormanagementaspartofa
‘happinessjourney.’Thisfurtherenmeshesthesubjectinthesamesystemthat
engenderstheiroriginaldistress,reinforcingtheideathat“thereisno
alternative.”Letusattend,then,tothesufferingoftheneoliberalsubjectinA
VisitfromtheGoonSquad–andtheirpathtohappiness.
716ThisreachesitspeakinthefinalchapterofGoonSquad,‘PureLanguage,’asweshallsee.717Shivani,‘WeAreAllNeoliberalsNow:TheNewGenreofPlasticRealisminAmericanFiction,’n.p.718Shivani,‘PartII:TheNewGenreofPlasticRealisminAmericanFiction’HuffingtonPost,originalemphasis,n.p.
263
AsIhavesaid,AVisitfromtheGoonSquadisroughlybasedaroundthemusic
industryinAmerica,fromtheWestCoastpunksceneoftheseventiestoa
futuristicEastCoastindustryinwhichtoddlershavebecomeacrucialmarket
demographic.Itdepictsthelivesofaseriesofinterlinkedcharactersover
thirteenchapters.Thelooseinterweavingofthenarrativefollowsfromthefact
thatsomeofthechapterswerewrittenasshortstoriespriortotheconceptionof
thebook;thishas,apparently,causedsomeconfusionamongstcriticsasto
whetheritisinfactanovel,orsomenewliteraryform.Forthepurposesofmy
discussion,Ireadthetextasanovel,andwilldescribeitassuch.Thetwocentral
protagonistsofthenovelemerge,loosely,asSashaBlake(néeGrady)andBennie
Salazar,whoworktogetheratBennie’srecordlabel,Sow’sEarRecords.Other
charactersincludethemembersofBennie’spunkband,TheFlamingDildos,
whichcompriseshisbestfriendScottyandthreegirlsnamedRhea,Jocelyn,and
Alice.JocelynisinvolvedwithrecordexecutiveLouKline,whoactsasBennie’s
mentor.WealsomeetAlex,withwhomSashagoesonadate,laterBennie’s
‘parrot’(atermforacovert‘culturalinfluencer’)andSasha’scollegefriends,one
ofwhom(Drew)shelatermarriesandstartsafamilywith.HerdaughterAlison
Blakeistheprotagonistofthenovel’swidelydiscussedPowerPointchapter.
Bennie’swife,Stephanie,alsofeatures,asdoesherbrotherJules,whoattempts
torapeastarletcalledKittyJacksonduringapromotionalinterview.Stephanie
worksforaPRgurucalledLaDoll,whosefortunesdeclineconsiderablyaftera
misjudgedpartydisplayinjurescelebrities.Finally,LaDoll,orDolly,hasa
daughtercalledLulu,whofeaturesastheprotagonistinEgan’sBlackBoxTwitfic
(2012).Therearevariousothercharactersandoverlappings,butthisrepresents
thecentralnetworkofconnectionsinasmuchdetailasisnecessaryforthetime
being.
Sashaisthefirstcharacterwemeetinthenovel,whichopenswiththe
sentence,“Itbegantheusualway,inthebathroomoftheLassimoHotel.”719
Withintheworldofthenovel,this“it”referstoSasha’skleptomania,whichin
thisinstancepromptshertostealawoman’spursefromherbaginthehotel
bathroom.ThetheftispartofawiderurgeSashafeelstotakethings,whichhas
resultedinherappropriatingaplumber’sscrewdriver,anex-friend’sbathsalts,719GoonSquad,p.3.
264
andalittlegirl’sscarf.Sashais,atherownexpense,engagedintherapeutic
treatmentinanefforttoregulatethisaberrantbehaviour.720Inthistherapeutic
dialogue,Sasha’stheftsareframedas“awayfor[her]toasserthertoughness,
herindividuality.”721Sashareturnsthewalletaftersheismoreorlesscaught
withit,beseechingthewomannottotellandexplainingwiththeimmortal
words,“It’saproblemIhave,butI’mgettinghelp.”722Thisisnotatheft,buta
mistake,andSashais,shepromises,workingtocorrectherbehaviour.The
womanacquiescestoSasha,whoisyoung,attractive,andrelativelyaffluent,and
thepolicearenotcalled–Sasha’sdate(withAlex)isnotevendisrupted.The
onlyconsequenceisherneedtofurtherunburdenherselftoCozintheirnext
session.Asthedateprogresses,AlexreturnstoSasha’sapartmentandtheyhave
sex.Followingthis,AlexdecidestotakeabathinthetubinSasha’skitchen–a
quaintreminderofpovertythathasbecomeaquirkyrealestatefeature.While
hegetstowels,Sashagoesthroughhiswalletandstealsascrapofpaperbearing
thewordsIBELIEVEINYOU.WhenwelaterfindoutaboutSasha’spersonal
history,thisaccruessomemeaning.In‘Goodbye,MyLove,’heruncleTed
HollanderisdispatchedtoItalytofindSashaatthebehestofherwealthy
stepfather.Werapidlylearnaboutherchequeredhistory,characterisation
supplementedbytherapidrecountingoffactsinawaythatmimicsthe
disorientingpresentationofvirtualidentity/information:
Sashahaddisappearedtwoyearsago,atseventeen.Disappearedlike
herfather,AndyGrady....Sashahadsurfacedperiodically,
requestingmoney-wiresinseveralfar-flunglocales...Sashahadfled
anadolescencewhosecatalogofwoeshadincludeddruguse,
countlessarrestsforshoplifting,afondnessforkeepingcompany
withrockmusicians…fourshrinks,familytherapy,grouptherapy,
andthreesuicideattempts723
720Hertherapisthastheunlikelynameof‘Coz,’whichmightleadthereadertospeculateonhisactualexistence,althoughSashadoestellhimthatsheis“bankrupting[herself]topayforyou.”GoonSquad,p.8.721GoonSquad,p.4.722GoonSquad,p.10.723GoonSquad,p.221.
265
WealsolearnherethatTedtrieshisbesttokeephischildrenawayfromSasha,
afraidthather‘badness’issomehowinfectious.ThusSasha’sthieveryis
explained,especiallyherattractiontoanapparentlytreasuredreminderreading
IBELIEVEINYOU.Whatsheneeds,itseems,issomeonetobelieveinher.Asshe
thinksduringthelastencounterwithCoztowhichthereaderisprivy,
“Redemption,transformation–Godhowshewantedthosethings.Everyday,
everyminute.Didn’teveryone?”724Thisisa‘textbook’narrativeoftraumaand
abandonment,solvablethroughworkontheselfandemphasisonemotional
relationswithothers.ThedarkersideofSasha’slife–whilstinItaly,sheworks
asathiefandaprostitutetosupportherself–isimplicitlyavoidable,aresultof
herownfailingsandherinabilitytoacceptthefamilialsupportofhermother
andstep-father.LikePhoebeinTheInvisibleCircus,oncesheacceptslifetheway
itis-forherasawealthymiddle-classwhiteAmerican-shewillfindthings
mucheasier.
ThisisborneoutaswelearnmoreaboutSasha’sstory.Thenovelfollowsher
returntoAmericaandtouniversity,wheresheisabusinessandartsdouble
major.Thischapter,toldinsecondperson,focusesonherrelationshipwithRob,
afellowstudentwhoisgaybutcannotcometotermswithhissexuality.Sasha
andRobtelleachothertheirsecrets,atSasha’sinsistence,tomakesuretheywill
notendupdating.Sashaseemstohavemoreorlessovercomehertraumatic
pastandmovedtowardsacceptingtheconventionalpromiseofherfuture,
althoughshepersistsintheparanoidbeliefthatadetectivehiredbyher
stepfatherisconstantlyobservingher.Thisbeliefgivesherlicencetobehaveas
thoughRob,aconventionallyattractiveformerfootballplayer,isherboyfriend,a
subterfugetowhichheagreesforreasonsthatareasconfusingtohimasthey
areplaintothereader.WhenRobquestionsherastothelogicofherparanoia,
sheresponds,“IwanthimtoknowI’mhappy.…Iwanthimtoseemewellagain
–howI’mstillnormal,evenaftereverything.”And[Rob]wantedthattoo.”725
Thisrelationshipisupset,however,whenSashaactuallybecomes‘normal,’
724GoonSquad,p.19.725GoonSquad,p.203.
266
takingupwithDrew,whois“detectiveproof,”andtowhomshehasnointention
ofrevealingherpast.726
Atsomepointafterthis,Robtriestokillhimself.Sasharevealsherself
incapableofcomprehendingthedifferencebetweentheirsituations,climbing
intohishospitalbedandtellinghim“We’rethesurvivors,”asthoughRobmight
alsoforgetsomepartofhimself–hissexuality–andovercomehis‘aberrance’
throughsodoing.727Inthissameexchange,Sashareiteratesherinsistencethat
theywillhavea“normallife,”withnoquestionofwhatthismightmeanforhim,
oranydemonstrableawarenessthattryingtohavea“normallife”alongthe
narrowparametersbywhichshedefinesitmightbetherootofhissuffering.Nor
doesanysuchunderstandingdevelop,forSashaorthereader.Robdies,atthe
endofthestory,drowningintheEastRiverafterinducingDrewtotakeEcstacy
withhim.Asmentionedearlier,despitetheostensibleabsenceofnormative
moraljudgementinEgan’swork,takingdrugsisgenerallycastasdysfunctional
andcovertlypositionedasapersonalfailing,particularlyifthecharacterenjoys
takingdrugs:FaithinTheInvisibleCircus,forexample,orJocelyninGoonSquad.
Theshort-livedtranscendenceofdrug-takingisseenasyetanotherfutileeffort
tosubvertneoliberalism’sinescapablereality,unless,ofcourse,thedrugsare
medicallyprescribedinordertomanagethe‘abnormal’brain,asisthecasefor
MooseMetcalfeinLookatMe.Robmismanageshimself,evenasheisdying:“As
youflail,knowingyou’renotsupposedtopanic–panickingwilldrainyour
strength–yourmindpullsawayasitdoessoeasily,sooften,withoutyoureven
noticingsometimes….”728Hecannotconducthimselfaccordingtowhat
(neoliberal)commonsenseknowstobebest-andsoheisdoomed.
ThischaptercloseswithSashascreaming“Fight!Fight!Fight!”intoRob’sface;
areminder,ifweneededit,thatSashaisafighter,asurvivor.729Forthissame
reason,Rob’schapterisimmediatelyfollowedbyTedHollander’s,sowemight
observejusthowmuchSashahasovercomebyrefusingher‘victimhood’and
acceptingtheinescapableboundsofmiddleclassAmericanlife.Thisnarrative–
726GoonSquad,p.203.727GoonSquad,p.206.728GoonSquad,p.213.729GoonSquad,p.214.
267
ofrefusingvictimhood–recursthroughoutthenovel,andIwillreturntoitina
moment.Beforethat,IwanttolookbrieflyatSasha’sultimatefateinthenovel:
She’dreconnectedonFacebookwithhercollegeboyfriendand
marriedlate(whenBethhadnearlygivenuphope)andhadtwo
children,oneofwhomwasslightlyautistic…shewaslikeanyone,
withalifethatworriedandelectrifiedandoverwhelmedher….730
Inthenarrativehabitofthenovel,thispassageemploysacompressedaccountof
lifethatservestoheightenitsemotionalsignificationwhileatthesametime
presentingitsendasinevitable.Sashahasreformedandconformed,losingher
jobasaresultofherkleptomaniaandreconnectingwithDrew.Shehas
relocated,too,fromNewYorktoadesertsettlement,whichbythisunspecified
pointinthefuturehasbecomeastandardsuburbanhabitat.731
Sasha’sreformationisnotuniqueinthenovel,whichfrequentlyuses
marriageandchildrenasasymbolofmaturityorgrowthandsuccess.Carswell,
readingthisagainstthebackdropofpunkrock,isunimpressedbythismotif:
Punkrockerswhoarewomen[inGoonSquad]becomestay-at-home
moms.Again,thisispresentedasapositivechange,uncomplicatedby
thepowerinequitiesofapatriarchalfamilywithabreadwinner
callingtheshots.Becominganunemployedmotheristhewaywomen
growup.…Throughthesefalsedichotomies,punkrockisexemplified
aschildishanddestructive.Growingupbecomesareificationof
consumercapitalistpatriarchalculture.732
Carswellcorrectlyidentifiesthewayinwhichthesefamilialrelationsprescribe
andlimitfemaleidentity.Sashagoesfrombeingaconflicted,independent,
troubledindividual,toajunksculptorandhomemaker,savedandrewardedby
hermarriagetoa‘goodman.’Thereisaretrogressivefeeltothisthatsits
uncomfortablywithEgan’spurportedlycontemporary,orevenfuturistic,
narrative,andanelisionofthepowerimbalancesofheteronormativemarriage.
730GoonSquad,p.241.731Thisgestures,again,toAnthropoceneconcerns,butmakesnosubstantialcommentonecologicaldecline.732SeanCarswell‘GoonsandGrrrls:AMeditationonPunkRockIdeologyandNeoliberalism,’CriticalSociology,42:2,2016.pp.323-328,p.326.
268
ThischapterhasalsobeenlaudedforitsuseofPowerPointasamedium,
whichhasbeencharacterisedbycriticsandinterviewersassomethingofarisky
experiment.733Eganhassuggestedthatthiswastheveryappealoftheform,as
wellasseeingitasavisualdemonstrationofthethematicinterestsofthenovel:
“Thereareallthesepausesinourlivesthatmakeusthinkaboutthebigpauseor
sortofthepausethat’sallaroundus,and…PowerPointallowedmetoexploreit
inamorevividwaythanIcouldotherwise.”734Egan’splayfulnesswhenitcomes
toliteraryformsispartofherwiderinterestinliterarytheory,orTheory,as
MartinPaulEvehasit.735Inmyreading,Egan’sutilisationoftheseformsand
techniquesispartofthewiderprocessofdepoliticisationthatoccursinher
work.IfTheoryisdeployedasastylistictool,ratherthananinterrogativeone,
itsfunctionisdrasticallylimited.DanicavandeVeldehascharacterisedEgan’s
useofPowerPointas“subversive”–withoutgivinganyclearunderstandingof
whatisbeingsubverted,orwhy.736Thisis,perhaps,inevitableinabodyofwork
thatwilfullydisengagesfromthematerialflowsofpowerthatconstructsocial
reality,presentinganotherstumblingblockforcriticalapproachestoEgan’s
work.
Indeed,suchadeploymentoftheorystandsinoppositiontothebest
intentionsofNewSincerity,andWallace’swork,asacknowledgedbyWilliamsin
theaccountof‘Octet’exploredearlier.737Withthisinmind,letusturntothe
DavidFosterWallaceinspired,‘FortyMinuteLunch,’or,infull,“Forty-Minute
Lunch:KittyJacksonOpensupAboutLove,FameandNixon!”738Thischapter
seemstoreferenceWallace’sBriefInterviewswithHideousMen(1999).The
authorofthearticle(thehideousman)isJulesJones,brotherofBennieSalazar’s
733Thisismentionedinmostinterviewsandpublicitysurroundingthenovel;see,forexample,ChristianHouse,‘AVisitfromtheGoonSquad,ByJenniferEgan,’TheIndependent13March2011www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/reviews/a-visit-from-the-goon-squad-by-jennifer-egan-2240306.html.734JenniferEganinconversationwithSpencerMichels,PBSNewshour,July12010http://www.pbs.org/newshour/art/conversation-author-jennifer-egan/.735MartinPaulEve.‘”StructuralDissatisfaction”:AcademicsonSafariintheNovelsofJenniferEgan,’OpenLibraryofHumanities,2015,1:1,pp.1-24,p.21.736DaniciavandeVelde,‘MusicalPauses,GenderedNostalgia,andLossinAVisitfromtheGoonSquad’inWriteinTune:ContemporaryMusicinFiction,editedbyErichHertz.NewYork:Bloomsbury,2014,pp.123-135,p.125.737Williams.‘(New)SincerityinDavidFosterWallace’s“Octet,”’p.301.738GoonSquad,p.175.
269
wife,writingatatimeofpersonalandprofessionaldecline.Hehasrecentlybeen
dumpedbyhisfiancéeandhasbeenstrugglingwithwritingthecelebrityprofiles
assignedtohim.JonesinitiallyinterviewsKittyinarestaurantbut,having
troubleconnectingtoherthroughherPRspiel,becomesfrustratedathis
inabilitytoinstigatean‘event’toformthecentrepieceofhisprofile.Heobserves
theactress,notingthatdespitetheabsenceofeventhedoeshave:
lustbecauseherneckisverylong,withathin,nearlytranslucentgold
necklacearoundit.Hershoulders,exposedbythewhitehaltertopof
hersundress,aresmallandtanandverydelicate,liketwolittle
squabs.…BysquabsImeantheylookedsogood(hershoulders)that
Icouldbrieflyimaginepullingapartallthoselittlebonesandsucking
themeatoffthemonebyone.
IaskKittyhowitfeelstobeasexgoddess.739
KittyrespondswithawearylackofinteresttoJones’sinterjectionofmaledesire,
unawareofitsundertoneofviolence.Theplayfultoneofthenarrativevery
nearlydeflectsitsgrotesquery.Thefootnoteaccompanyingthesentence
describingpullingapartKitty’sbonesrecountsJonesmeetinghispartner,
framingthismomentassomeprofoundconnectionwithherwholelife,asit
were,andofferingthisasballastagainstthosewhojudgehimtobe“asick
puppy.”740Shortlyafterthis,Jonessuggeststheyleavetherestaurant,inaneffort
tocreatethenecessary‘event.’HewatchesKittywalkingoutandascribesan
interiormonologuetoherthatseesherasintoxicatedbythepowerofherown
attractivenessandembarrassedforotherpeopleinthepresenceofthis
intoxication,althoughshegivesnotangiblesignofanyofthis.
Oncethetwoareoutside,Jonessuggeststhattheytalkaboutsomethingnew
–horses,perhaps?IttranspiresthatKittyloveshorses,andownsone,whose
picturesheproudlydisplaystoJones:“HisnameisNixon.‘Likethepresident?’I
ask,butKittylooksdisturbinglyblankatthisreference.‘Ijustlikedthesoundof
739GoonSquad,p.183.740GoonSquad,p.183:“Watchingher,Isawitall:thesmall,overheatedapartmentstrewnwithrunningshoesandleotards,thebiweeklydinnersatherparent’s,thesoftdarkfuzzonherupperlipthatshebleachedeachweekwithatart-smellingwhitecream.AndthefeelingIhadwasnotofwantinghersomuchasbeingsurroundedbyher,blunderinginsideherlifewithouthavingmoved.”
270
thename,shesays.”741NotonlyisKittyvain,Jonesimplies,sheisalsostupid.742
Shortlyafterthis,Jonesattemptstorapeher:
Iwanttofuckher(obviously)andthenkillher,orpossiblykillherin
theactoffuckingher(‘fuckhertodeath’and‘fuckherbrainsout’
beingacceptablevariationsonthisbasicgoal).WhatIhaveno
interestindoingiskillingherandthenfuckingher,becauseit’sher
life–theinnerlifeofKittyJackson–thatIsodesperatelylongto
reach.743
ThisstoryismoreorlessderivedfromoneofthetitularstoriesofWallace’s
collection,whichopens:“AndyetIdidnotfallinlovewithheruntilshehad
relatedthestoryoftheunbelievablyhorrifyingincidentinwhichshewas
brutallyaccostedandheldcaptiveandrapedandverynearlykilled.”744The
hideousmaninthisstorytellstheintervieweraboutawomanhesleptwithafter
meetingheratafestivalrecountingherrapeatthehandsofa“psychotic
mulatto”whoshedivertedfromalsomurderingherbyfocusing“veryintentlyon
thepsychoticmulattoasanensouledandbeautifulalbeittormentedpersonin
hisownrightinsteadofmerelyasathreattoheroraforceofevilorthe
incarnationofherpersonaldeath”andthuspreventinghimfrom
depersonalisingandsubsequentlykillingher.745RachelHaleyHimmelheber
offersathoroughunpackingofWallace’sstoryin‘”IBelievedSheCouldSave
Me”:RapeCultureinDavidFosterWallace’s“BriefinterviewswithHideousMen
#20”’(2014),layingoutthevariouswaysinwhichWallace’sstoryinterrogates
andexposesthepervasivenessofrapecultureinAmerica:
theoppressiverealityofAmerica’scultureofrapeisthatitis
inescapable,inextricablyembeddedinsomuchofourlivesthat
741GoonSquad,p.186.742Thistoodirectlyechoesthemalenarrator’sattitudetothefemalesubjectinWallace’sstory,atleastinitially.743GoonSquad,p.187.744DavidFosterWallace.‘BriefInterviewswithHideousMen#6’E---on“HowandWhyIHaveCometobeTotallyDevotedtoS----andHaveMadeHertheLinchpinandPlinthofMyEntireEmotionalExistence”TheParisReviewIssue1441997–Inthecollectedversionofthestory,theword“raped”hasbeenexcisedfromthisopening.745DavidFosterWallace.BriefInterviewswithHideousMen.London:Abacus,2001,p.256.
271
nothing–noteducation,notawareness,notempathy,notlove–can
saveusfromreplicatingitscycleofabuseandviolence.746
SoisthiswhatEgan’spasticheorparodydoestoo–exposestheinequitiesof
contemporaryAmericanrapecultureandthedifficultiesofconstructing
masculineidentitygiventhispervasiveness,whentheidealcharacteristicsofthe
neoliberalsubject(self-reliance,lackofneedforothers,andsoon)arethose
typicallygenderedasmasculine?747Idon’tthinksoand,onceagain,Ifindit
difficulttopindowntheintentionorfunctionbehindthispieceofwriting,
despiteJones’sownlatervagueassertionthatheislikeAmerica:“Ourhandsare
dirty.”748
Tobeginwith,Wallace’sstoryusestheframeworkofa‘normal’man(Eric)
tellingthestoryofawoman(Sarah)tellingherstoryofbeingraped,theresultof
whichisthathecomestoloveherbutalsothatherealiseshecanlove,whichhas
notpreviouslybeenimaginabletohim.749Wallace’sstoryenactsbotha
distancingfromtherapistandanamplificationofitsnarrator’simbricationin
thedamagingaspectsofrapeculture–seeninhisrepeatedobjectificationof
Sarahashetellsthestory,forexample–throughthisframeworkandthe
narrator’srepeatedinsistenceofhisawarenessoftheparallelsbetweenthe
rapist’sbehaviourandhisownpredatoryactions.Incontrast,Egan’schapter
offersusanaccountofanattemptedrapefromthemouth(orpen)ofthewould-
berapist.SeeJones’simaginingofKitty’sinnermonologue:
IknowI’mfamousandI’mirresistible–acombinationwhose
propertiescloselyresembleradioactivity–andIknowthatyouinthis
roomarehelplessagainstme.It’sembarrassingforbothofustolookat
eachotherandseeourmutualknowledgeofmyradioactivityandyour
746RachelHaleyHimmelheber‘”IBelievedSheCouldSaveMe”:RapeCultureinDavidFosterWallace’s“BriefinterviewswithHideousMen#20”’Critique,55,2014,pp.522-535,p.522-3747Thisisnotintendedtoover-simplifytheissueofgenderunderneoliberalism,andIhavelookedelsewhereatthewayinwhich‘feminine’traitsarerecuperatedinaffectivelabour,aswellasreiteratingthatthis‘idealsubject’isonethatisvirtuallyimpossibleformostpeopleto‘liveupto.’748GoonSquad,p.131.749Himmelhebercriticallydescribestheimplicationsofthisforthefeministethicsofcareatsomelength.
272
helplessness,soI’llkeepmyheaddownandletyouwatchmein
peace.750
ThesuggestionisthatKittyhassomespecialpowerandistacitlyawareofthis;
thatJulesJonesis,therefore,inapositionofdisadvantage.AsHaley
Himmelheberwrites,“Thisassumptionisacommononeinthecultureofrape:
menaredrivenmadwithanintensesexualdesirethatcannotbestopped,so
womenwhosebodiesprovokethatdesiremustbeextracareful.”751ForKitty,it
isnotjustherbodythatrendershervulnerableinthisway,buther“innerlife,”
heryouthandcelebrity,whichmakeher“irresistible”toJones–hecannotresist
her,heispowerlessagainsther,despitethefactsheis“minute”andheissixfoot
threeandtwohundredandsixtypounds.Allthiscanstillbereadasironic
commentaryintheveinofWallace’swork,exceptthat,withoutanyframing
device,thereisnodistancebetweenthereaderandthenarrator,andratherthan
highlightingthattheoriginofrapecultureisembeddedinsystemicpatriarchy,
thisbecomesanotherinstanceofa‘problemoftheself.’Thisisexacerbatedby
Egan’sattempttoframeacorrespondencebetweenrapecultureandcelebrity
culture,whichringsfalse,andminimisesthedamagepatriarchalculturedoesto
bothmenandwomen.
JonestellsthereaderthatKittywrotetohimafterhewasimprisonedforthe
attemptedrape:
‘IapologizeforwhateverpartIplayedinyouremotionalbreakdown,’
shewrote,‘andalsoforstabing[sic]you.’Therewasacircleovereach
Iandasmileyfaceattheend.
WhatdidItellyou?Nice.752
Jones’smisogynycontinuesunabated,andKitty’sstupidityisconfirmedtothe
readeronceagain.ThisechoesSarah’seffortstounderstandandcareforher
rapistinWallace’sstory(undertakentosaveherselffrombeingmurdered,so
shemightonlyberaped),butwithoutanyofthephilosophicalweightof
Wallace’sstory,characterisedbyHaleyHimmelheberas“aproblematic
750GoonSquad,p.185.751GoonSquad,p.529.752GoonSquad,p.189.
273
demonstrationofcareethics”.753TheshortcomingsofEgan’sapproachare
underlinedbythewayStephanie,JulesJones’ssisterandBennieSalazar’swife,
describesthe‘incident’:
therapechargewasdropped(atKittyJackson’srequest)andhewas
convictedofkidnappingandaggravatedassault–outrageous,given
thatthestarlethadwalkedintoCentralParkwithJulesofherown
freewillandsustainednotasingleinjury.Infact,she’dendedup
testifyingforthedefence.ButtheDAhadpersuadedthejurythat
Kitty’ssupportforJuleswasaversionofStockholmsyndrome.‘The
factthatsheinsistsonprotectingthismanisfurtherevidenceofhow
deeplyhehashurther...754
WeknowStephanie’sunderstandingofwhattranspiredtobeinaccurate,having
readthatJonesdid,infact,intendtorapeandkillKitty,byhisownaccount.We
might,ofcourse,readKitty’sletterandStephanie’sunderstandingoftheevents
asacritiqueofKitty’sneedtoassumeresponsibility,seenassymptomaticofthe
entrenchedgenderpoliticsofpatriarchalcapitalism.However,suchareadingis
drasticallylimitedbythewaysinwhichEgan’sworktendstosubscribetoand
reproducenormativeelementsofthesegenderroles.755ThesuccessofWallace’s
accounthingesonitsexposureofthewayinwhichtheseinequalitiesare
damagingtobothmenandwomenwhoaresubjecttothem:
Andyet,[thenarrator’s]painatthestory’send,mitigatedasitisby
hisabusivenessandself-reflexivity,isreal.Becausetheinterviewer,
andlikelythereader,havenotunderstoodhimashewishedtobe
understood,heisangry.Allofhisdisavowaloffear,hisinsistenceon
acknowledgingtheassumptionthatheisafraidonlytorefuteit,is
lostinthestory’send…Thereadermaybedisgustedbyhis
hideousness,butitisdifficulttoignorehishumanity.AsEricnotes
elsewhereinthestory,“Irememberweepingatmoviesaboutanimals
753Himmelheber,‘“IBelievedSheCouldSaveMe,”’p.523.754GoonSquad,p.125.755Recuperativeof‘badlybehaved’femalecharactersthroughmarriageandmotherhood,forexample.
274
asachild,eventhoughsomeofthoseanimalswerepredatorsand
hardlywhatyouwouldconsidersympatheticcharacters.”756
WhatoccasionsreflectionondamagingculturalnormsinWallace’sworkis
mistranslatedintoareproductionofthesenormsinEgan’s.Stephanie’saccount,
likeherbrother’s,implicitlyvalorisesKittyforherrefusaloftheroleofvictim,
whichwealsosawasafeatureofSasha’snarrative.Thistiesintoframeworksof
neoliberalself-responsibility,evidentinpsychotherapeuticlanguage.Theroles
of‘victim’and‘survivor’areframedastwooptionsincontrollingthenarrativeof
personalexperience,eventhoughthisdichotomyiscompletelyfalse,andmay
evenbedamaginginitspolarisation.Thevalorisationofthesurvivornarrative
perpetuatestheimplicitideathatvictimsaresomehowtoblameforfailingto
assumesufficientresponsibility.Evenavictimoftraumacanchoosehappiness,
accordingtothisrhetoric,iftheyonlycastthemselvesasasurvivor.757
WemightrecallhereHaleyHimmelheber’sassertionthatWallace
emphasisesthroughouttheBriefInterviewswithHideousMencollectionthat
“educationintheformofaccesstoself-knowledge,thelegacyof‘therapy
culture,’doesnotnecessarilygivepeoplethemeanstoaddresstheproblems
theyareabletoname.”758InEgan’swork,theproblemismorelikelytobethat
namingtheproblem,inthecontextofthepsychotherapeuticcultureof
neoliberalhappinessdiscourse,seemstonegatetheneedforanyfurther
investigationoftheproblem,obscuringsystemicinjusticeinfavourof
recuperativeaccountsofindividualselfhood.Wallace’snarratoracknowledges
hisownvulnerability,andmovesthereadertoapositionofgreater
understanding.ThisdemonstrateswheresomeoftheputativestrengthsofNew
Sinceritymightlie,butdoesnotdiminishmygeneraluncertaintyabouttherange
ofartisticoutputsgatheredunderitsbanner.Inthisinstance,Wallace’sworkhas
politicalconsequencebecauseitoperatesattheeverydayintersectionof
systemicviolence,andinsodoingrevealsitspervasiveness.
756Himmelheber,‘“IBelievedSheCouldSaveMe,”’pp.534-5.757Forafulleraccountofhowneoliberalismvacatesthepoliticalcontentoftheseterms,seeRebeccaStringerKnowingVictims:Feminism,AgencyandVictimPoliticsinNeoliberalTimes,LondonandNewYork:Routledge,2014,pp.78-80.758Himmelheber,‘“IBelievedSheCouldSaveMe,”’p.523.
275
Incontrast,Egan’scharactersfailtoopenupanysuchpossibilitybecause
theyareconstantlyboundedbytherelentlesscertaintiesofneoliberallogics.
JulesJonesisneverpresentedasseekingunderstandingfromthereaderoras
attemptingtomakeanyemotionaloraffectiveconnection,butastryingtotake
thattowhichhethoughthehadaright,inthepublicfigureofKittyJackson.His
angertowardswomenisidentifiedasaresultofthebreakdownofhis
engagement–misplacedangertowardsonewoman,ratherthanmoregeneral
misogyny.Theconflict,complexityandhumanityofWallace’snarratorare
absentfromJones’scharacterisation.Assuch,heiseasilyrecuperatedby
punitivecorrection:“Inprison,Julesseemedtoregainthecomposurehe’dlostso
spectacularlyinthemonthsbeforetheassault.”759Thisassertionisfollowedbya
listofallhisaccomplishmentswhilstincarcerated,includinggarneringcritical
plaudits–a“specialcitationfromthePENPrisonWritingProgram’–takingup
basketball,losingweight,and“miraculouslyovercom[ing]hiseczema.”760Thisis
amiraculousovercomingindeed-frommurderousrapisttoupstandingcitizen,
allthankstotheinterventionoftheAmericancorrectionalsystem,whichisnot
generallyknownforimprovingthelivesofthosesubjecttoit.761IfEganwantsus
toreadthisassatiriccommentary,sheneedstomakethepoliticalstanceofher
workmuchclearer.
ThisisbroadlytrueofEgan’swriting:satirerequiresalevelofmaterial
politicalengagementthatEganseemsunwillingtoundertakeinherwork.Any
suchengagementislargelyforeclosedbythestrategiesofdisavowalIhavenoted
atworkinhernovels.ThisisexemplifiedintheotherchapterfeaturingKitty,
‘SellingtheGeneral,’whichisinspiredbyQaddafi’suseofU.S.PRfirmthe
MonitorGroup:“Hewantedrehabilitation,Americansympathy,anendtothe
759GoonSquad,p.126.760GoonSquad,p.126–thisallrecounted,again,inthe‘temporaltelescopic’mode,or“allatonce”time.761JudithLichtenberg.‘America’sprisonsystemisinhumane.Here’swhy.’TheWeek30September2016,.theweek.com/articles/651722/americas-prison-system-inhumane-heres-why;Itisalsoasystemrunonstrictneoliberaleconomicprinciples:seeBrianKincade,‘TheEconomicsoftheAmericanPrisonSystem,’Smartasset3February2017,smartasset.com/mortgage/the-economics-of-the-american-prison-system.
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CIA’sassassinationattempts.IfQaddaficoulddoit,whynothe?”762InGoon
Squad,itisdisgracedPRexpertDolly(‘LaDoll’)whotakesthemorallysuspect
roleofadvisortoanallegedgenocidaldictator.
Dolly’sfirststrategyfortransformingthegeneralistohavehimwearasoft
hat,whichisatriumph,aftersomeadjustment.Afterall,“Howcouldamanina
fuzzybluehathaveusedhumanbonestopavehisroads”?763Afterthesuccessof
thismove,Dolly’snextplanistohavethegenerallinkedtoamoviestar,
“Someonerecognizable,appealing–whatbetterwaytohumanizeamanwho
seemedinhuman?”764Ridiculousasthisseems,itissomethinglikethelogicby
whichPresidentTrumpwas‘humanised’toaswatheoffemalevotersthrough
hisdaughter,Ivanka.765Thisreliesonacommonsensepoliticsofintimacy,an
accountofunderstandinginwhichafigureisrenderedintelligibletothosewho
wouldotherwisefindthemalienandalienatingthroughtheirnearnesstoa
figurewhoisfelttobeliketheobserver,oratleastrecognisabletothem.This
strategydistortstheliberalformulationthatprejudicestemsfromignorance,
relyingagainonanintimateformofknowledgebasedonindividualfeeling–
thinkofBallard’saccountof“government[broughttoyou]byadvertising
agency.”766
ThemoviestarDollychoosesis,‘naturally,’KittyJackson.Welearnthat
Jones’sattemptedrapedidwondersforKitty’spublicprofile,butthatshefailed
tocapitalizeonhermomentinthesun:
TheassaultandtrialhadenshrinedKittyintheglowingmistof
martyrdom[giventhepervasivenessofrapeculture,perWallace’s
work,thereadermightfindthisaccountofpublicsympathyhardto
believe;perhapsitwastheresultofherperformanceas‘ideal
victim’].Sopeoplewereallthemorespooked,whenthemistburned
off,tofindtheactresssharplyaltered:gonewastheguilelessingénue762EdPilkington.‘TheMonitorGroup:Gaddafi’sPRfirmusedacademics,’TheGuardian4March2011www.theguardian.com/world/2011/mar/04/the-monitor-group-gadaffi-prGoonSquad,p.146.763GoonSquad,p.149.764GoonSquad,p.152.765AnneHelenPetersen.‘MeetTheIvankaVoter,’BuzzFeed2November2016www.buzzfeed.com/annehelenpetersen/meet-the-ivanka-voter?utm_term=.jgMK0ngDD#.pleOr6D00,766J.G.Ballard.KingdomComeLondon:HarperPerennial,2007,p.15.
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shehadbeen,andinherplacewasoneofthosepeoplewho‘couldn’t
takethebullshit.’767
Inabilitytotoleratebullshitisanathematoworkingintheentertainment
industry,asEgansuggestedinLookatMe,andsoKitty’scareerstalled.Assuch,
Dollycalculatesthatshemightjustbedesperateenoughtotakethepart,
assumingKitty’smotivationsanddesirestorunalongthesamelinesasherown.
ThisforeshadowstheactualcalculationscarriedoutbyAlexinalaterchapter,
wherehescoreshisfriendsintermsof‘need,’‘reach,’andcorruptibilitytoassess
howlikelytheymightbeto‘sellout’asparrots.Dolly’sassessmentseems
correct,andKittyagreestotraveltoarendezvouswiththegeneral,accompanied
byDollyandLulu.However,DollyhasmisjudgedKitty;shehasundertakenthe
jobnotasawayofcatapultingherselfbackintothepubliceye,buttoconfront
thegeneralregardinghisatrocities–forwhatpurpose,otherthanherinability
totakebullshit,isunclear,exceptperhapsasanefforttomartyrherself.The
purportedcrimesofthegeneralalsoseemoverlyvague,giventhecomplexityof
therealworldcircumstancesthatinformthechapter.InBallard’swork,itisthe
specificityofhisimaginedrealitiesthatallowsustoseethemassatirical
reflectionsofourownworld;inEgan’s,thevaguenessoftheseworldstendsto
leaveusonasurfacewithnothingbelowit.
Kitty’soutburstangersthegeneralandhisguardsseizeher,withLuluand
DollyrushedawayandsentbacktoAmerica.Oncehome,Dollyprintsand
distributestheflatteringphotographsofKittyandthegeneral,pre-outburst,to
herremainingtabloidcontacts.Thepaparazzithendescenduponthegeneral’s
hidingplaceenmasse,locatinghimwitheasewhereopposingforcesandforeign
stateshavefailed.Asaresulthedoesnotkilltheactress,andinsteadposeswith
herforthephotographers-thistime,Kittyplaysalong.Thiseffectively
completesDolly’splan;welearnthatthegeneraltravelstoNewYorktospeakat
theU.N.conventionabout“hiscountry’stransitiontodemocracy”andKitty–a
survivorafterall–startsmakingmoviesagain,hertoleranceforbullshit
apparentlyrestored.
What,then,ofthecharacterswhodonotperformaccordingtothetenetsof
neoliberalselfhood?Wehaveseenhowdeadlysuchdeviancecanbewhen767GoonSquad,p.153.
278
lookingatRob’schapter,andtoucheduponitwithregardtothewaysinwhich
femalecharactersareexpectedtoreformthroughpursuingfulfilmentintheir
domesticlives.Earlier,ImentionedthecharacterofJocelynasafigurewhodoes
notfollowthispath.Jocelyninitiallyappearsin‘AskMeIfICare,’thechapterin
whichBenniefirstencountersLou,whogoesontobecomehismentor,enabling
him,eventually,tosetupSow’sEarRecords.Rhea,Jocelyn,Bennieetalareina
punkband–punkinthesensethatitsmusicisloudandabrasive,ratherthan
signallinganyclearpoliticalstance.FollowingtheusuallogicofEgan’snovels,
theseteenagersaredrawntothiscountercultural‘scene’forpersonalreasons;
allaremisfitsoroutcastsinsomeway,implicitlyconnectedtotheirworking-
classstatus.768
ThischapterrecountsLoutakingJocelynandRheaouttodinner,wherehe
introducesthemtococaine.Afterthis,theyattendaFlamingDildosshowduring
whichJocelynperformsfellatioonLouinthemiddleofthecrowd,makingRhea
deeplyuncomfortable.OthersignsthatJocelynisinadifferentkindoftroubleto
Rheaincludeherdrinkinghabits:“Jocelynneedstodrinkmorethanmetoget
buzzed,andwhenshefeelstheboozehitshetakesalongbreath,likeshe’sfinally
herselfagain.”769ShealsoconfessestoRheathatshefindsLou’sson,Rolph,
attractive.Intheend,sherunsawaytobewithLou,althoughherparentstrack
herdown.Rhea’sconcernthroughoutthischapteristhequestionofwhenthings
startbeing“forreal”:“WhendoesafakeMohawkbecomearealMohawk?Who
decides?Howdoyouknowifit’shappened?”770Thepunkscene,withits
obsessionwith‘authenticity,’isanidealstaginggroundforthesequestions.
TheproblemisthatEganstartsfromtheassumptionthatnooneisforreal.
ThisistherootofCarswell’scritiqueofthewayGoonSquadengageswiththe
punkscene,informedbyhisinsiderperspectiveassomeonewhogrewupin,and
isstillengagedwith,theAmericanpunkscene.Egan’sdepoliticisationofpunkis
evidentinthebandsshelistsinthechapter,allofwhicharerealbandswho
existedatthetimethechapterisset–theStranglers,theNuns,NegativeTrend;
theBeatles,Blondie,IggyPop.Notablyabsentareanybandswhoseoutlookwas
768GoonSquadp.44-5.TheexceptionisAlice,actingoutafterherparentsdivorce.769GoonSquad,p.48.770GoonSquad,p.48.
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explicitlypolitical–TheDeadKennedys,leadinglightsofthelateSanFrancisco
punksceneareaclearomission,asareanyofthebandsfromtheirinfluential
recordlabel,AlternativeTentacles.771Thequestionofwhois“forreal”is
underminedbytheassumptionthatallalterityisaposture,anoutward
expressionoftemporaryalienationthatwillultimatelyberemediedby‘growing
up,’where,asCarswellhasit,“Growingupbecomesareificationofconsumer
capitalistpatriarchalculture.”772Thisisproblematicinthat,throughoutthe
1980s,theAmericanpunkscenerepresentedaclearsiteofoppositiontothe
neoliberalpoliciesofReagan–forexample,theDeadKennedysheadlinedRock
AgainstReaganshows.ThebandsinthesescenesestablishedaD.I.Y(DoIt
Yourself)networkofproductionanddistributionthatallowedthemto
circumventthemajorlabelsrepresentedbyLouKilneandthoseofhisilk.This
wasapoliticallymotivated,anti-capitalistdecision,andisstillatworktoday,in
labelssuchasWashingtonD.C.’sDischord.Thatgrowingupmustmean‘selling
out’isacertaintyonlywithinEgan’snovels.
ItisnosurprisethatwediscoverRheahassuccumbedtoherinevitable
destinyaswifeandmother,whensheandJocelyn,nowintheirforties,are
reunitedatLou’sdeathbed.Jocelyn,bycontrast,liveswithhermotherandhas
“beenclean”foroverayear,whichisherlongestperiodof‘recovery’todate.Her
addictionwasforetoldasinevitablebythewayinwhichdrinkingseemedto
makeher‘real.’TheimplicationthatJocelynispredestinedtoaddictionabsolves
Eganoftheneedtodevelopanymorecomplexaccountofaddiction;evenher
dysfunctionalrelationshipwithLoustemsfromthissamecharacterflaw,
apparently.773Inthischaptershe,likeRheabeforeher,wrestleswiththe
questionofwhatbeingrealmeans,strugglingtofindsomemeaningintheway
herlifehasturnedout.Rheareassuresher,“Youjusthaven’tfoundthereason
771Forahistoryofthepunkscenethatilluminateshowenmesheditwaswithpoliticalactivism(albeitanaccountthattendstooverlookthecontributionofwomentothepunkmovement,asisoftenthecaseinthesehistoriographies),seeSteveBlush’sAmericanHardcore:ATribalHistory.Washington,WA:FeralHouse,2001.772Carswell‘GoonsandGrrrls,’p.326.773ThisisalsotrueofHollyinTheKeep,whoseearlymarriagetoalocalrockstarwasbasedonherfeelingofpersonalspecialness,andwholaterbecameamethamphetamineaddict,thetwoapparentlyconnected.
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yet,”andJocelynasserts,“Igotlost.”774ThiswasimpossibleforRhea,asJocelyn
seesit:“Thewholetime,Rheaknewwhatshewasdoing.Evendancing,even
sobbing.Evenwithaneedleinhervein,shewashalfpretending.Notme.”775
Onceagain,weareconfrontedwiththesamearchetypeswesawinFaithand
PhoebeO’Connor:thegoodgirl,whocancontrolherself,andthebadgirl,whois
impulsive,over-investedemotionallyand,apparently,doomed.AlthoughJocelyn
doesnotdie,shecannotaccessthegoodlifethatRheaenjoys.Sheharboursan
immenseangertowardsLou,andfantasisesaboutkillinghim,givingvoicetoher
thoughts:“Ishouldkillyou…Youdeservetodie.”776Atthispoint,Rhea
reprimandsherforthisunseemlyangertowardsthemanwhoborderlineabused
herasateenager–sheisbeingabadvictim.Thisangerhasnoplaceinthe
psychotherapeuticnarrativeofacceptanceandforgivenessbywhichaddictsare
supposedtoacceptresponsibilityfortheirown‘disease’;thenarrativestrategies
ofaddictionmanagementgroupsareverylikethoseofpositivepsychology.777
Here,aswitheverythingelse,Jocelyngoestoofar.Whenshespeaks,hervoiceis
“tooloud.”778Intheend,JocelynonceagainsubmitstoLou’sdesire.Inascene
mimickingthefellatioincident,duringwhichLoukepthisarmaroundRhea
whileJocelynfellatedhim,Louasksthetwowomentotakehishands,whichthey
do,andthethreestand(or,inLou’scase,lie)together,lookingoutatthepool:
‘Nicetobe.Withyougirls,’hesays,fightingtobreathe.Clutchingour
hands,asifwemightflee.Butwedon’t.Welookatthepoolandwe
listentothebirds.
‘Anotherminute,’hesays.‘Thankyou,girls.Onemore.Likethis.’779
ThispeacewouldbepossibleifonlyJocelynwouldsubmittonormality,giveup
heranger.Louasksforanothermoment,onemoreminute.ForJocelyn,thereis
774GoonSquad,p.92.775GoonSquad,p.92.776GoonSquad,p.95.777See,forexample,StephenG.Postetal.‘PositivePsychologyinAlcoholicsAnonymousandthe12Steps:AdolescentRecoveryinRelationtoHumility,’TheAddictionsNewsletter,APA50,2015.Elsewhereinthisthesis,Ihaveaddressedthewayinwhichdrugaddictsaremarginalisedasnon-productivemembersofneoliberalsociety.778GoonSquad,p.93.Incontrast,whenLouspeaks,itisinanear-whisper,buttheystraintohear:“Weleanclose,listening.Habit,Iguess.”p.94.Mentalk,andwomenlisten.779GoonSquad,p.96.
281
nomoretime.“I’mprayingthatit’sover,”shesaysearlierinthechapter.780Ifyou
cannotfitintotheneoliberalworld,theonlyoptionistogetout.781
Anothercharacterwhoexhibitsdifficultyinbecomingneoliberalistheonce-
magneticScotty,whosemusicalprowessfailstotranslateintosuccessbymiddle
age.In‘X’sandO’s,’ScottyhasleftSanFrancisco,followinghisdivorcefrom
Alice,andisworkingasajanitorinNewYork.Hehappensacrossapictureof
BenniewhilstreadingastolencopyofSpinandthetwocorrespond.Benniesets
upameetingwithScottyinhisoffices,assumingthathisformerfriendisstilla
musicianandislookingforhelpwithhiscareer.ItisimpliedthatScottyhas
somesortofmentalillness–hisnarrativeevincesextremeparanoia.Hehasfew,
ifany,friends,andhesurvivesonstringbeansandJagermeister.VisitingBennie,
hebringshisoldfriendafishthathecaughtononeofhisfrequentexpeditionsto
theEastRiver;BenniefailstoappreciatethegiftandScottyresolvestobringit
home,butforgets.HehopeslaterthatBenniewilllookatthefish-out-of-water,
surethathewillbeamazedifhedoes.ThisanticipatesBennie’slaterre-
discoveryofScotty,andhisrecuperationasa(commercial)success.
Thischapteralsocontinuesthenovel’spreoccupationwithdestiny,chance,
andmeaning,closelyresemblingtheforemostthemesofTheKeepinits
explorationofpower.InTheKeep,Eganseemedtosuggestthatimaginationhad
sometransformativepotential,atleastasfarasthecharacterofRaywas
concerned.Scottyattemptsasimilarimaginativeleapbasedonhis
understandingof‘hypercomplexity’:
ifwehumanbeingsareinformationprocessingmachines,readingX’s
andO’sandtranslatingthatinformationintowhatpeopleohso
breathlesslycall‘experience’,andifIhadaccesstoallthatsame
informationviacableTVandanynumberofmagazines…ifIhadnot
onlyaccesstotheinformationbutalsotheartistrytoshapethat
informationusingthecomputerinsidemybrain(realcomputers
scaredme;ifyoucanfindThem,thenTheycanfindyou,andIdidn’t
780GoonSquad,90.781Thisisnotintendedtobeareductiveaccountoftheactualimpulsetosuicide.IamreferringexplicitlytothewayinwhichsuicideistreatedinEgan’swork,inwhich,aswehaveseen,itfeaturesheavily,andisalmostalwaysundertakenbythesame‘type’ofcharacter.
282
wanttobefound),then,technicallyspeaking,wasInothavingallthe
sameexperiencesthoseotherpeoplewerehaving?782
ScottyhereremindsusoftheposthumanstrainsofLookatMe,positingthe
biotechnologist’sunderstandingofhumanity,couchedintheclichédlanguageof
theschizophrenic.Scotty’sparanoiaiscrucialtohisredemption,however,and
castshisrefusalofneoliberalselfhoodinadifferentlighttoJocelyn’s.Where
Jocelynseesherselfaslost,ashavinglostagencyinherownlifeduetoher
inabilitytomakegoodchoices,Scottychoosesnottobefound.Hisparanoia
expressesauniversalconcerninthisageofmasssurveillance;wearebeing
observedeverytimeweuseacomputer,bystateagencies,advertisers,andpeers
alike.LikeMooseMetcalfeinLookatMe,Scotty’s‘madness’reflectsdisquieting
truthsaboutthenatureofneoliberallife;likeMoose,hetoowillfindhimself
recuperatedbythecloseofthenovel.
Aftertheirunsuccessfulmeeting,BenniegivesScottyhiscardandtellshimto
stayintouch.Later,bytheriver,Scottyseesayoungjunkiecoupleandtakes
themtobemusicians.HegivesthemBennie’scard,andtellsthemheishis
buddy,allowinghim(proximityto)powerforthebriefestofmoments:“…Ifelt
hopeless.Icoulddothisonlyonce;Iwouldneverhavethatcardagain.”783
Whetherornotthegamblepaysoff,weneverfindout,butthemoveawakens
somedormantenergyinScotty:heisvitalisedbyhisnearnesstopower.Every
week,Scottygetshisunwornsuitjacketdrycleanedatthesameshop,muchto
theirincredulity.Attheendofthechapter,heresolvestotakeitinonhiswayto
work,havingwornittoBennie’soffice:
Iwantedtodropoffmyjacketatthedrycleaneronmywaytowork–
I’dbeenlookingforwardtoitsinceyesterday.I’dleftthejacket
crumpledonthefloorbesidemybed,andIwouldbringitinlikethat,
allusedup.I’dtossitonthecounterohsocasually,daringthegalto
challengeme.Buthowcouldshe?
782GoonSquad,p.102.Again,thiscanbeconnectedtoEgger’sTheCircle,inwhichasimilarapproachunderliestheinsidious‘Sharingiscaring’sloganofthetitularcorporation.783GoonSquad,p.113.
283
I’vebeensomewhere,andIneedmyjacketcleaned,Iwouldsay,
likeanyoneelse.Andshewouldmakeitnewagain.784
WhereJocelynwantedonlyanend,Scottyislookingforanewbeginning.These
arethemagicwordsofneoliberalselfhood–andso,itseems,hejustmightget
whathewants.
Scotty’snewbeginningisalessdrasticrebirththanthatofJulesJones,but
muchmorespectacularinitsrealisation.Itoccursinthefinalchapterofthe
novel,‘PureLanguage,’whichseesthenovelcirclebackonitself,focusingon
Alex,Sasha’sdatefromtheopeningchapter.Alexismarriedtoanacademic,
Rebecca,whostudies“wordcasings,atermshe’dinventedforwordsthatno
longerhadmeaningoutsidequotationmarks.”785Thischapterthematisesthe
problemoflanguageandexpressionasanextensionofitsconcernwith
authenticity,whichisconnectedto–butnotactuallythesameas–itsfocuson
‘sellingout.’Lulureturnsinthischapter,too,nowayoungadultworkingfor
BennieSalazar.Bennieisthemostsuccessfulsell-outinthenovel,workinghis
wayupfromstrugglingpunktorecordproducertolabelowner,onlytobitethe
handthatfedhimuponbecomingincensedatthelackofartisticintegrityofhis
‘corporateoverlords’–heservedaroomfulofexecutivesplatesofexcrement.
Followingthisupset,Benniereturnedtoworkingasaproducerof“musicwitha
raspy,analogsound,noneofwhichhadreallysold”–whichishowhecomesto
workwithScottyagain.786Alexisinvolvedbecauseheisregardedashaving
sufficientculturalcachetocovertlyinfluenceotherstoattendScotty’supcoming
launchconcert.Themusicindustryhaschangedconsiderably,withitsprimary
marketnowinfants,thankstoaubiquitous‘kiddiehandset’calledaStarfish:
anychildwhocouldpointwasabletobuydownloadmusic–the
youngestbuyeronrecordbeingathree-month-oldinAtlanta,who’d
purchasedasongbynineInchNailscalled‘Ga-ga.’Fifteenyearsof
784GoonSquad,p.114.785GoonSquad,p.330Examplesinclude‘friend’and‘real’and‘story’and‘change’;“Some,like‘identity’,‘search’,and‘cloud’,hadclearlybeendrainedoflifebytheirWebusage.Withothers,thereasonsweremorecomplex;howhad‘American’cometobeanironicterm?Howhad‘democracy’cometobeusedinsuchanarch,mockingway?”(332).Onceagain,Eganteetersontheedgeofsocialcommentary,withoutactuallyfallingin.RebeccaisnotamillionmilesawayfromLookatMe’sIreneMaitlock,althoughshehasa“sexybeauty”thatcharacterlacked,ofwhichacademiaisapparentlydrainingher,muchtoAlex’sconsternation.786GoonSquad,p.319.
284
warhadendedwithababyboom,andthesebabieshadnotonly
revivedadeadindustrybutalsobecomethearbitersofmusical
success.787
Alexisfinanciallyreliantonhiswife,hisownemploymentpermanently
precarious(despitetheboomingmusicindustry),andthisispartofhisreason
foracceptingtherole.Hefurtherrationalisesthetransactionbyreminding
himselfthat:
everybyteofinformationhehadpostedonline…wasstoredinthe
databasesofmultinationalswhosworetheywouldnever,everuseit
–thathewasowned,inotherwords,havingsoldhimselfatthevery
pointinhislifewhenhe’dfeltmostsubversive788
Insteadofpromptingareconsiderationofonlineidentityperformance,which
mightevokepoliticallyconsequentialconsiderations,suchasJaronLanier’s
proposalsforredistributivepracticesbasedonthewayinwhichonlinepersonal
informationisusedbycorporations,asexploredinWhoOwnstheFuture?
(2013),Alex’sreflectionsherereiterateEgan’srecurrentinsistencethat
authenticityisanimpossibleethicalstandardinaworldwherenothingis,orcan
be,outsideofmarketlogic.
Atthesametime,inanothermovethatseemsdesignedtoforeclosethe
possibilityofcriticism,EganwritesLuluasacharactersosteepedin‘business
ontology’thattheideaofanoppositionbetweenintegrityandfinancialgainhas
becomecompletelyirrelevanttoher–unintelligible,even.Nevertheless,Luluis
stillconcernedwiththeideaofauthenticity.ShetellsAlexshepreferstouseher
handsettocommunicatewithothers,becausewithspeech,“Therearesomany
waystogowrong…Allwe’vegotaremetaphors,andthey’reneverexactlyright.
Youcan’teverjustSay.The.Thing.”789RecallingtheendofLookatMe,itseems
thatevenLulubelievesinsomeessentialpartoftheself,apartshestrugglesto
expressinlanguage.Authenticityisdepictedasimpossible,exceptontheterms
ofthisuntouchable,indescribable,andsomehowinnateinner-self.
787GoonSquadp.320.788GoonSquad,p.324.789GoonSquad,p.328.
285
WhenAlexfirstmeetsScotty,heisunsettledbythemusician’sderelict
appearance.Hisfirstthoughtisthatthemusiciandoesnotexist,“Hewasaword
casinginhumanform:ashellwhoseessencehasvanished.”790Alex’sjudgmentis
consistentlypoor(perhapsthisiswhyhiscareerissoprecarious)andheissoon
provenwrong.Scotty’sparanoidinsistenceonstaying‘offthegrid’has
apparentlypreservedthisessentialpartofself.Scottybeginshisconcertby
panderingtohisfans(babies),performingstandardnurseryrhymesthatmanage
todrownoverthehelicopterhoveringoverhead,inavaguelydystopianimage.
Theatmosphereisslowlytransformed,likenedtoWoodstockorthefirstHuman
Be-In.ThispalpableapprovalemboldensScotty,andhebeginstoplayhisown
music:
That’swhenhebegansingingthesongshe’dbeenwritingforyears
underground,songsnoonehadeverheard,oranythinglikethem–
‘EyesinMyHead,’‘X’sandO’s,‘Who’sWatchingHardest?’–balladsof
paranoiaanddisconnectionrippedfromthechestofamanyouknew
justbylookingathimhadneverhadapageoraprofileorahandleor
ahandset,whowaspartofnoone’sdata,aguywhohadlivedinthe
cracksalltheseyears,forgottenandfullofrage,inawaythatnow
registeredaspure.Untouched.791
Scotty’sperformanceisdepictedassomecatharticexpressionofauniversally
feltbutunspokendistress:“itmaybethattwogenerationsofwarand
surveillancehadleftpeoplecravingtheembodimentoftheirownuneaseinthe
formofalone,unsteadymanonslideguitar.”792Theresultofthisissomesortof
momentofmassconnection.Thisconnectionisnotbasedonanysubstantive
formofpublicsolidarity,butonanemotionallyaffectingpieceofentertainment.
TheconcertistheresultofanartfullyconstructedPRcampaignthathasseen
individualstradeontheir‘authenticity’tomakeithappen.Evenso,Scotty’s
performanceisreceivedasastatementofpersonalpurity,ratherthananymore
substantivecriticismofthesystemsandpracticesthathe,inhisparanoia,has
resistedthroughouthislife.Hisveryperformancegivesthelietohis
790GoonSquad,p.341.791GoonSquad,p.345.792GoonSquad,p.344.
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oppositionalidentity.BennierecountstrackingScottydownafterlosinghisjob
attherecordagency,andtellinghim,“It’stimeyoubecameastar.”793Scotty
alwayswantedtobeontheinside,afterall;hetoojustneededsomeonetobelieve
inhim.EvenScotty’sparanoiamouldshimintherecognisableculturaltropeof
waryoutsider,inthetraditionofdetectivefictionorWesternsor,fromthe
beginningoftheAmericanliterarycanon,‘outsiders’likeEmersonandThoreau.
KennethParadisexploresthistropeofmasculineidentityindetail,observing
thattheidealisedindividualityofautonomousmasculineidentity,
reliesonanunderstandingofsocialobligationasakindofconspiracy
whoseobjectisultimatelythenegationofindividualautonomy…The
individual“sellsout”–makeshismoralvaluesnegotiable–whenhe
“buysin”tovarioussocialarrangementsunderstoodasmechanisms
ofexchange.794
Scotty’sparanoiaallowshimtoberecuperatedasarepresentativefigureofa
radicalmasculineautonomythatoffersnoimmediatechallengetothestatus
quo,relyingasitdoesonthepersistentstrainofscepticisminAmericanculture
towardsthepoliticalpotentialofsolidarity;thenegotiationbetweenpopular
sovereigntyandindividuallibertyandtheunderlyingfearofthetyrannyofthe
majority.Thisisastarkcontrasttofemalecharacterswhoattempttoestablish
somesortofautonomousselfoutsideofthenormativeconstraintsofthe
heteronormativemiddleclass‘goodlife.’Askingformore,orattemptingtolivea
lifeoutsideoftheseframeworks,onlyresultsindeathanddisaster.Thereare
ruleswhenitcomestobeingawoman,asEganoutlinesinBlackBox(working
title:LessonsLearned).Learningtheserulesandconformingtothemisessential
toproductivehappiness,wherethishappinessisfiguredthroughmarriageand
childrenand,usually,thematerialresourcestoliveacomfortablelifewithout
working.ReturningtoShivani’sassertionthat,“allproblemsoriginate
internally,andthecharacters’taskistouncovertheirownuniquepredestined
harmony–whichtheydo,inallcases,”wemightobservethatthe‘predestined
harmony’forfemalecharactersinEgan’sworkispersistentlycircumscribedby
793GoonSquad,p.341.794KenethParadisSex,Paranoia,andModernMasculinity,NewYork:SUNY2006,pp.103-4.
287
theconventionalmarriageplot.795Despitethe‘failure’ofhismarriage,Scotty
survivesandseemsabouttothriveatlast,literallydiscoveringthispredestined
harmonyinamusicalperformancethatserendipitouslycapturesthecultural
momentinaformrecognisableenoughtobesusbsumedasproduct.
EganhasdescribedIggyPopasthepatronsaintofAVisitfromtheGoon
Squad,whichseemsaptgivenhislatestincarnationascarinsurancesalesman.796
InRhea’schapter,‘AskMeIfICare,’shequotesasetoflyricsfromhissong‘The
Passenger’:
Iamthepassenger
AndIrideandIride
Iridethroughthecity’sbackside
Iseethatstarscomeoutofthesky797
ThisseemstomeasnearastatementofintentasEganhasmade.Thisnovelisa
passivejourneythroughthelivesofothers,professingverisimilitude,but
missingtheessenceoflifethroughitsomissionofanysubstantivephilosophical
orpoliticalcontent.Itsformreplicatesthe“allatonce”ofneoliberaltime,
enmeshingthereaderinthesamenetworksofinformationthatconstitutethe
inescapableknowledgeeconomiesofneoliberalism.Itscircularityreifiesthe
logicof‘noalternative’anditsstylistic‘innovations’constituteentertaining
literaryexperimentsratherthaneffortstonegotiatenewrelationshipswiththe
reader,ortointerrogatehowliteraturemightbechangedbytheemergenceof
newmediumsandmodesofwriting.Thefatalismofthenovel,thewayinwhich
itresolvesnothingbutconnectseverything,affirmsthecertaintyoftheworldit
depicts,reassuringthereaderthatthereismeaning,order,andsense,despite
theseemingchaosoftheworld.Ballard’sworksetouttounsettleus,toforceus
outofourfogofcognitivedissonancetoreflectontheworldwecolludein
building,andthetypeofhappinesswehavecometoaccept.Egan’sworkpaints
effortstoreimaginetheworldaslittlemorethanthetransgressivefolliesof
youth,andsuggeststhatthoselimitingandlimitedformsofhappinessconceived795Shivani‘PartII:TheNewGenreofPlasticRealisminAmericanFiction,’HuffingtonPost,originalemphasis,n.p.796‘SwiftcovercarinsuranceTVad2011–Boots,’YouTube,uploadedbyswiftcover,January42011www.youtube.com/watch?v=KlRjYlsC3bc.797GoonSquad,p.58JenniferEganinterviewedbyKillianFox,TheGuardian21August2011,www.theguardian.com/books/2011/aug/21/jennifer-egan-interview-observer.
288
underneoliberalismarethemostwecan,orshould,hopefor.Egan’sliterary
worldisdangerouslyreassuring.InhislastreflectionsonSasha,Benniesaysthat
hehopesshehasfoundagoodlife,because,“Shedeservesit.”798Iargue
throughoutthisthesisthatconstructingagoodlifeoutsideofneoliberalism
dependsnotondeservingsubjects,butonthereturntoanobjectivepolitical
imaginarythatrecognisesthewaysinwhichthestructuralinequalitiesof
neoliberalismforeclosetraditionalaccountsofthegoodlife,andseekto
suppressthereimaginingoftheseaccountsbeyondpervasiveeconomiclogics.
GoonSquadendswiththefigureof“anothergirl,youngandnewtothecity,
fiddlingwithherkeys.”799Thenovel,likeneoliberalcapitalism,cyclically
reproducesitself,withanassurancethatnootheroutcomeispossible,and
differenceisacommercialsellingpoint,ratherthanawayofformulating
alternativepoliticalrealities.Infailingtoconfrontthestructuralrealitiesof
neoliberalism,andthesufferingtheycause,Egan’sworkisdoomedtorepeat
them.
798GoonSquad,p.348.799GoonSquad,p.349.
290
Conclusion:TheGood,theBad,andtheFuture
Inthisthesis,IhavesoughttoofferalooselyFoucauldianreadingofthewayin
whichhappinesshascometooperateasaformofneoliberalgovernmentality.
ThroughcontrastingtheworkofJ.G.BallardandJenniferEgan,Ihaveshown
howliteraturecanrepresent,reflect,andconfrontthistransformation,
suggestingthatBallard’sworkoffersusasystem-focusedaccountofthese
impacts,whilstEgan’soperatesatsubject-level.Ihavedrawnoutthose
strategiesofself-maximisationgenerallyassociatedwithneoliberalhappiness
discourse–positivepsychology,wellnessdiscourse,andsoon–butalsosought
toexplorethewayinwhichunhappinessisregulatedthroughneoliberallogics.I
havesoughttoexplainhowtheseregulatoryeffortsmayactivelycontributeto
thedistressofthesubject,andhighlightedthepatternof‘middle-classification’
throughwhichtheyoperate.Ihavealsoexploredthewaysinwhichnewforms
andsitesoflabourareinvolvedinneoliberalconceptionsofhappiness,and
toucheduponthegenderedimplicationsofaffectivelabour.
Thishasformedpartofalargerexplorationofthepoliticalfunctionof
literature,whichIframeafterLaurenBerlant’sinsistencethattheworkof
“undoingaworldwhilemakingonerequiresfantasytomotorprogramsof
action,todestroythepresentonbehalfofwhatthepresentcanbecome.”1Ihave
arguedthatBallard’sworkgroundsitsfantasticimaginariesinexistentpower
structuresandsorevealstheirlimitations,andthatthisispartofaself-reflexive
attemptbythatauthortoovercomethesubsumptionofhisworkascultural
product.Incontrast,Egan’sworkisdirectlypositionedasaculturalproduct.In
accordancewithAnisShivani’swork,thiscanbeseenasamorepervasivetrend,
particularlyintheAmericanliteraryscene,althoughIhavegesturedtowardsthe
waysthisisinevidenceinotherartformsthroughassessingthestrengthsand
limitationsoftheNewSinceritymovementinthisrespect.Buildinguponthis,I
suggestthattheframeworkofthepoliticsofintimacyIhavedrawnfromMimi
ThiNguyen’sworkmightbeausefulcriticaltoolforassessingthepoliticalutility
oftheseartworks.Ihavealsosuggestedthatthisframeworkisausefulonein
whichtodevelopanaccountofthecurrent‘post-truth’politicallandscape.
1LaurenBerlant,CruelOptimism,Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress,2011,p.263.
291
Foraffecttohaveform,itmustbecomepersonal.Forpersonalfeelingsto
havematerialconsequencetheymusthaveacontainer.This‘container’isnot
necessarilyexactlycongruenttothosefeelings.Politicallyspeaking,thisisthe
sameissueattheheartofrepresentativedemocracy,whereweelect
representativeswhomaynotexactlyrepresentus,andwhoseinterestsmay
evenbecontrarytoourown.Affectivedistress,whichIbelieveisaformof
distresslargelycausedbythesenseofpowerlessnessinone’sownlife,is
containedinthelanguageofpsychotherapeuticrationality,whichdisconnectsit
fromthosewidersystemsthatcausepowerlessness.Followingthis,thepolitics
ofrecognitionhavemorphedintoade-radicalisedpoliticsofintimacy.Thisis
dangerousbecauseitminimisestheopportunityofsubstantiverelationships
withthosewhomwearenotlike,andleavesusopentoemotionalmanipulation
onthelevelofpersonalidentification–Ballard’sgovernmentbyadvertising
agency.Giventheclassistandracistcodingofneoliberalcapitalism,thisleadsto
asituationwherethewhitemiddle-class(oraspiringmiddle-class)subjectmay
becomedetachedfromissuesofsocialjusticebecausetheyquitesimplydonot
recognisetheirimpact.Thisclassalsosuffersfromtheirdisenfranchisementbut
isdis-incentivisedtocasttheirsufferingaspoliticalthroughthemodelof
subjectivityasguidingprincipleoflife.Intheory,thelanguageofmentalhealth
mightbeusefulasastartingpointforsolidaritybecausesomanypeoplesuffer
thesestatesofaffectivedistress,butitcouldonlybeusefulifitrecognisedthose
structuraldeterminationsthatimpacttheaffectivepotentialofsubjects,which
byitsframinginindividualisticneoliberallogicbecomesimpossible.
WhatmyworkmovestowardsissomethinglikeaRawlsianconceptofpublic
reason–awaytoamendtheexistingframeworkofcommonsense.2However,in
itsFoucauldianapproachitmustnecessarilyrefuteRawls’sattachmenttoblind
justice.Irecognisethatsubjectsaresituatedinprocessesofpowerandthatthey
arealsopractitionersofpower.Irecognise,too,thatsubjectsareattachedto
feelingsandidentity,andthat,asBerlantsuggests,removingsuchattachmentsis
difficult.WhatIamproposingisthatthereadingandteachingofliterarytexts
opensanimaginativespacebeyondtheselfinwhichwemayretainour
2JohnRawls.‘TheIdeaofPublicReasonRevisited,’TheUniversityofChicagoLawReview,64:3,1997,pp.765–801.
292
attachmenttoselfandatthesametimequestionitsvaliditywithregardtothe
wayinwhichweareenmeshedinnetworksofneoliberalpower.Berlant’sbrief
suggestionthatweshouldpayattentiontoprocessesopensthewaytoconsider
apoliticisationofcivicprocessesinordertoenfranchisesubjectsatthelevelof
livedidentityandexperience.Readingandwritingisapowergame,asIhave
statedelsewhereinthisthesis,andbyelucidatingtherulesofthisgame–which
reflectthewiderrulesofpowerasitoperatesinsociety-wemaymakeit
possibleforsubjectstodecideifthesearerulestheywanttoplayby.Thisis
connectedtothere-inventionofpublicnessthatIhavesuggestedmustbe
fundamentaltoanyefforttoresisttheprivatisingimpulseofneoliberalismand
toreformulateconceptionsofhappinessinwhichsubjectsdonotaccept
sufferingasnecessaryorinevitable.
Byreaffirmingthepublicself,onemustalsoreaffirmthosenetworksthat
constitutethepublicsphere(ideally,perBerlant’sanarchisticformulation,ona
locallevel).Thisemphasisesrelationalityinsteadofatomisation.Throughthis,
thepoliticsofintimacymightbere-radicalised,insistingonstructuralanalysis
insteadofpersonalfeelingasthestartingpointforattemptstoconstructan
ethicsoftheselfthatwouldenablepoliticalaction.Reshapingpublicimagination
iscentraltoreinvigoratingpoliticalopposition,asWendyBrownhasshownin
herwork.Theveryfactthatneoliberalismreliesonstrategiesthatreshapethe
privateselfrenderthatselfthegroundonwhichitshouldberesisted.Despiteits
shortcomings,Egan’sworkrepeatedlyacknowledgestherelationshipbetween
literaryfictionandtheindividualimaginativerealm.Thisformulationtacitly
acceptsthatliteratureisafieldofsubjectification;assuch,thepotentialexists
forliterarytextstoopenupanimaginativespacethatmightserveasastarting
pointfornewaffectivepotentialitiesthatmightenablepoliticalaction.
Isuggestthatsuchaspacecanandshouldbeenhancedthroughinsistenceon
thepublicandrelationalreadinganddiscussionofliterature-throughactive
reading,ratherthanpassive.Iacceptthattheremaybelittlethatisnewinsucha
formulation,butstressthattheutilityofmyinterventioncomesfromits
timeliness.Whenneoliberallogicseekstotransformschoolsanduniversities
intobusinesses,theremustbevoicesthatseektoresistthis,andthatinsistthat
thestudyofliteraturehasafunctionbeyondtheattainmentofliteracy,orthe
293
privateentertainmentofthereader.Buildingonmyworkinthefuture,Iwould
liketoreturnmoreextensivelytoFoucault’s‘TheEthicsoftheConcernforSelfas
aPracticeofFreedom’andseektorefinetherelationshipbetweenthisstrainof
Foucault’sthoughtandtheradicalpotentialofthepoliticsofintimacy,ina
literaryframework.Althoughthisthesishas,forreasonsoutlinedatits
beginning,operatedinaU.S./U.K.context,Iwouldseektoexpandmyreading
globally,particularlyintracingthecontoursoftherelationshipbetween
neoliberalismandnationalism,aswellastheinfluenceofAmericanculture.This
thesiswasoriginallyconceivedasamorebroadexploration,withafinalsection
ontheworkofMichelHouellebecq.Duetospaceconstraints,thishasbeen
removed,butIhopetoreturntothatworkinthefuture.
Inconclusion,Ibelievethatliteraturehasaroletoplayinshapingpublic
politicaldiscourseandenablingpracticalaction,notleastinrevealingthe
structuresofpowerthatunderlieoureverydaylives.IthinkBallard’swork
recognisesthis,andthathislatenovelsconstituteanefforttoovercomehisown
imbricationinthe‘literaryestablishment.’Incontrast,Egan’sworkshowsusthe
dangerofwhathappenswhenliteratureceasestointerrogatethesystemsand
processesbywhichpowerestablishesandreproducesitselfandinwhich
relationsofdominationareinscribedandperpetuated.Elevatingliteraryworks
thatseektooffercommentwithoutcritiquethreatensthepoliticalfunctionof
literature,andneutersthepotentialofitsimaginativeefforts.Mythesishasbeen
abouthappinessunderneoliberalism,andthekindsofhappinesswecometo
acceptinthefaceofasystembuiltontheperpetuationofsuffering.Morethan
this,ithasbeenaboutliteratureitself,aboutwhatweread,andwhyweread,
aboutthepotentialofliterature,andthewayinwhichitbringsitselftobearon
materialreality.Assuch,IwanttoclosewithaquotefromKafkathatcaptures
Ballard’ssuccess,andEgan’sfailure,anddemonstrateswhythesimple
happinessofreadingshouldneverbejustthat:
Ithinkweoughttoreadonlythekindofbooksthatwoundandstab
us.Ifthebookwe’rereadingdoesn’twakeusupwithablowonthe
head,whatarewereadingitfor?Sothatitwillmakeushappy,asyou
write?Goodlord,wewouldbehappypreciselyifwehadnobooks,
andthekindofbooksthatmakeushappyarethekindwecouldwrite
294
ourselvesifwehadto.Butweneedthebooksthataffectuslikea
disaster,thatgrieveusdeeply,likethedeathofsomeoneweloved
morethanourselves,likebeingbanishedintoforestsfarfrom
everyone,likeasuicide.Abookmustbetheaxeforthefrozensea
insideus.Thatismybelief.3
Literaturecanmoveus,itcanopenspacesofempathyinwhichweconfrontour
ownassumptionsandprejudices,itcanaskustoimagineremakingourworld
fromthelowesttothehighestlevelofpower.Readingandwritingispolitically
consequentialbecauseitquiteliterallyframestheworldinwhichwelive.Ifwe
aretorefusetheinadequate,constraining,anddamagingregulatorydiscourseof
happinesspropagatedbyneoliberallogic,wemustrefuseliteraturethatrepeats
itsrationales.Instead,weshouldreadthosebooksthataffectuslikedisaster.We
shoulduseliteraturetoenableanempatheticperspectiveontheworldthat
recognisestheperpetuationofstructuralinequality,indefianceofthe
selfishnessofneoliberal‘values.’Weshouldmakereadingapublicjoy,notjusta
privatesolace.Wemustaskhowliteracyisdisseminatedinsociety,andwhy.
Tellingstoriesisthewaywecometounderstandtheworld,sowemustensure
thatthestorieswetellarecapableofactingoffthepageforeveryone.Anything
lessistoolittle.
3FranzKafka,lettertoOskarPollak,January27,1904.InTheBasicKafka,NewYork:Simon&Schuster,1979,pp.289-90,p.290.
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