DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Our Best Selves: J. G. Ballard, Jennifer Egan, and Conceptions of Happiness UnderNeoliberalism

Malone, Patricia

Award date:2018

Awarding institution:Queen's University Belfast

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PATRICIAMALONEBA,MA

‘OurBestSelves:J.G.Ballard,JenniferEgan,andConceptionsofHappinessUnderNeoliberalism.’

SUBMITTEDINPARTIALFULFILMENTOFTHEREQUIREMENTS

FORTHEDEGREEOFDOCTOROFPHILOSOPHY

14/09/2017

2

ABSTRACT

Inthisthesis,Iseektoexploreconceptionsofhappinessunder

neoliberalismthroughaninvestigationofcontemporaryliterature,

lookingattheworkofJ.G.BallardandJenniferEgan.Ihavesoughtto

offeralooselyFoucauldianreadingofthewayinwhichhappiness

hascometooperateasaformofneoliberalgovernmentality.Ibuild

onexistingaccountsofhowaformofneoliberal‘commonsense’

comestoinstituteprocessesofself-managementandself-

maximisationandpaysignificantattentiontoanunder-represented

areaofenquiryinexploringhowneoliberalhappinessdiscourse

permitsandregulatesunhappinessaspartofitsprogramme.My

readingofBallardmovesawayfromthepsychoanalyticcontextin

whichheisusuallysituatedtoofferanaccountofhisworkthat

recognisesitsemphasisonthematerialconditionsoflife,and

highlightsapoliticalshiftinhislateworknotyetmuchcommented

on.Thesecondhalfofmythesis,whichlooksatJenniferEgan’swork,

substantiallyexpandsexistingscholarship,examiningallfourofher

novelspublishedtodateandseekingtoofferacomprehensive

overviewofhercurrentcriticalposition.Thecomparisonbetween

theseauthorsispartofawiderexplorationofthefunctionof

literature,throughwhichIassesshowliteraturecanrepeat,resist,

andrevealtheinsidiousnatureofneoliberalpower,andthe

conceptionsofhappinessthatgowithit.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thisthesisisdedicatedtomyfather,afteradifficultyear;tomy

husbandDanny,whohasdonemoreformethananypersonshould

reasonablybeexpectedtodo,andisbetterthananyonecouldhope

tobe;tomysister,whoprovidedtheendlessfreecoffeethatallowed

metothinkImightactuallyfinishit.Tomymother,for

understandingwhyIneverhadtimetoSkype,andtoallmyfriends,

particularlyKimberleyO’Brien,myconstantcompanioninmisery,

andGraceLoughrey,whoseownexperiencesoftheprecarityoflife

providedmuchinspiration.MysincerestthankstoPaulMichaelfor

managingtoproofreadworkthatattimesevenIdidnotunderstand.

Finally,tomysupervisor,AndrewPepper,whosomehowmanagedto

pullmethrough,againstallodds(andreason).Mayweallcontinueto

struggleontogether,inthehopesofbeatingbacktheceaselesstides.

WithatipofthehattoEgan,thisthesishasathemetune.Atfirst,

afterBallard,Ithoughtitwas‘DeathorGlory,’byTheClash.Asall

Clashfansknow,thefutureisunwritten.However,Ihavesince

realisedthatitisactually‘Anthem’byLeonardCohen,towhose

musicIwasintroducedbymyfather.

“Ringthebellsthatstillcanring

Forgetyourperfectoffering

Thereisacrack,acrackineverything

That’showthelightgetsin.”

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Introduction.................................................................2

WhatWeTalkAboutWhenWeTalkAboutNeoliberalism:Foucault,

Governmentality,andSelf-RegulatingSubjects............................10

WorkingSubjectsandWorkingontheSelf................................23

DistressandDissonance...................................................32

Happiness,AffectandthePoliticalImplicationsofFeeling................35

Onthe‘ProductiveImperative’............................................42

What’sLiteratureGotToDoWithIt?:Explainingmyapproach...........43

LookingatBallard:SystemsandSelfhood.................................48

ExploringEgan:WhoAreWeNow?........................................53

InSummation..............................................................58

Chapter2BALLARD

OnBallard..................................................................66

ThePoliticsofPsychopathology?...........................................74

‘InnerSpace’:Ballard,ScienceFictionandthe‘Psy’Sciences.............80

BetterOffTogether:Leisure,Criminality,andtheConstructionof

CommunityinCocaineNights..............................................85

AllWorkandNoPlay:GlobalElitesandtheHappinessImperativeinSuper-

Cannes(AnEdenFullofSnakes)..........................................101

MillenniumPeople:TheCultureIndustry,ClassandPrecarity...........123

KingdomCome:‘LostintheSupermarket’................................142

CHAPTER3EGAN

OnEgan...................................................................165

ContemporaryAmericanLiteraryCulture:NewTimes,NewSelves,New

Sincerity?.................................................................171

TheInvisibleCircus:PromisesWeCouldn’tKeep........................179

LookatMe:“LetBeBeFinaleofSeem”...................................200

TheKeep:DoNeoliberalsDreamofElectricSheep?......................235

AVisitFromtheGoonSquad:TheDaytheMusicDied...................256

CONCLUSION..............................................................289

CHAPTER1:INTRODUCTION

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Introduction

Inthisthesis,Iaimtoexplorethefunctionofliteratureintheprevailing

neoliberalframeworkofthecontemporarymoment.TherouteIhavetakeninto

thisistheexplorationofhowconceptualisationsofhappinessfigurein

contemporaryliterature,seekingtoidentifywhatisdistinctaboutsuch

conceptionsunderneoliberalism.By‘neoliberalism,’Imeanthebroadprocessof

themarketisationofallpartsoflife,andtheresultant‘businessontology’that

proliferatesundertheguiseofcommonsenseinthecontemporarymoment.The

term‘businessontology’istakenfromMarkFisher’swork.Itismentioned

brieflyinCapitalistRealism,andelaboratedonina2009interview,whereFisher

said,

BusinessontologyasIunderstooditwassimplytheideathat

everythingisfoldedinsideabusinessrealitysystem,thattheonly

goalsandpurposeswhichcountarethosethataretranslatableinto

businessterms.TheproblemisthatBusinessOntologyhasnoplace

foranythinglike‘thepublic.’It’stimetoreinventtheconceptofthe

public;andalsoforworkersinpublicservicestostarttodriveout

businessinterestsandbusinessmethods.Upuntilthe[2008]credit

crisis,weboughttheideathatbusinesspeoplesomehowhavea

betterhandleonrealitythantherestofuscanmuster.But,afterthe

creditcrisis,that’snolongertenable.AndasIsayinthebook,if

businessescan’tberunasbusinesses,whyshouldpublicservices?1

Ofcourse,thisisnotwhathappenedafterthecreditcrisis,whichwasused

insteadtousherinaperiodofausterity,withcutstopublicservices,andto

institutearhetoricofscarcitythathasallowedemploymenttobecome

increasinglydestabilised,mostnotableintheriseofzerohoursorcausualised

contracts.2Underlyingallofthisisthefactthatthesemovesarenotactuallyor

necessarily“goodbusinesspractice”unlessthispracticeisdefinedonlyby

keepingcostslowandextractingmaximumlabourvaluefromworkers.What

elsemight“goodbusinesspractice”looklike?HenryFordfamouslypaidhis

1‘QuestioningCapitalistRealism,”MarkFisherinterviewedbyMatthewFuller,Mute,December2009.http://www.metamute.org/community/your-posts/questioning-capitalist-realism2Thisisdiscussedindetailthroughoutthisthesis.

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workersabovethestandardrateinordertoincreasemoraleandreducethe

levelsofturnoverinhisfactories;thiswasagoodbusinesspracticethatalso

improvedthelivesofworkers.Theunderlyingrationalewaseconomic,butthere

wasalsoanimplicitrecognitionthattheconditionsinwhichpeopleworkaffect

theirlivesbeyondwork-thisextendedtoFord’spaternalisticSocialization

Organization,whichlookedatthetypeofpersonaworkerwas,apaternalistic

practicewithsignificantimplicationsfortoday’sjobmarket.3Theturnoverat

Ford’sfactorieswascausedbyworkerstakingtheirlabourelsewhere-acore

aspectoffreedomandcheckonpowerbuiltintothemarket,accordingto

neoliberaleconomistMiltonFriedman–butwhilethefearofjobscarcity

pervades,workersareincreasinglyunlikelytodothis,andsobecomesubjectto

everworseningconditionsunderthelogicofbeing“lucky”tohaveajob.4This

alsoaffectsmoraleand,giventhataffectiveoremotionallabourisalargerpartof

workthaneverbefore(asIwillexplorelater),theworkermaybetooexhausted

-physically,mentally,emotionally-toexercisethis‘right’anyway.5This

frameworkgesturestothewayinwhichthepoliticaldimensionofneoliberalism

positedbytheoristssuchasFriedmanandFriedrichHayekhasbeenevacuated

inthecontemporarypracticeofneoliberalism,whichIdiscussinmoredetail

below.

Ireadtheriseofstatesof“affectivedistress”asrepresentativeofthe

widespreadsufferingcausedbythepoliticalinadequacyofneoliberalism,and

thewayinwhichitslogicseekstorendersubjectsaseconomicunitsandtohave

themunderstandandconducttheirlivesaccordingtoitsone-dimensional

framework.6ThisdrawsfromMichelFoucault’sworkinTheBirthofBiopolitics

(2008),mostnotablyhisconceptionofthetransformationfromthe‘subjectof

3‘TimWorstall.‘TheStoryofHenryFord’s$5aDayWages:It’snotWhatYouThink,’Forbes,4March2012.https://www.forbes.com/sites/timworstall/2012/03/04/the-story-of-henry-fords-5-a-day-wages-its-not-what-you-think/#314cb23a766d.Thisis,evidently,notintendedtoholdFordupasamodelod=fbenevolentcapitalism,buttohighlightinsteadtheincreasingly‘economised’logicofneoliberalismoverevenFordistcapitalism,discussedlater.4MiltonFriedman.CapitalismandFreedom.Chicago:ChicagoUniversityPress,1962p.14.5Thiserosionininformalrightsisexacerbatedbythedecliningpowerofunionsintheworkplace,whichIaddresslaterinlookingat‘coolcapitalism’andtheobstaclestoorganisingthatnowexist.6ThistermisalsotakenfromFisher’swork.

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right’tothe‘subjectofinterest’;theriseofhomoeconomicus.7Thesubjectof

rightisgovernedbythegeneralwill,whichis,theobjectiveorjuridicalprinciple

ofright.Thesubjectofinterestis,incontrast,governedwithreferenceto

subjectivewill–self-interest,whichFoucaultcharacterisesas“anirreducible,

non-transferable,atomisticindividualchoice.”8Foucaultsaystheremaybesome

reconciliationbetweenthesesubjects–thatthesubjectentersintothesocial

contract(andthusbecomesthesubjectofright)becausetheyhaveaninterest.In

hisaccount,thesubjectofinterestisnotreplacedbythesubjectofrightthrough

theemergenceofthecontract;instead,thesubjectofinterest“remains,subsists

andcontinuesuptothetimeajuridicalstructure,acontract,exists.Foraslong

asthelawexists,thesubjectofinterestalsocontinuestoexist.Thesubjectof

interestconstantlyoverflowsthesubjectofright.Heisnotabsorbedbyhim.He

overflowshim,surroundshim,andisthepermanentconditionofhim

functioning.”9Rightdoesnotsubsumeortranscendinterest,eveninthe

presenceofthejuridicalwill.Thesubjectofrightissplit,astheycontinueto

possess“anumberofimmediateandnaturalrights,”butatthesametimeagree

inprincipletotherelinquishmentofrightsunderthesocialcontract.Incontrast,

Foucaultsays,“fundamentallythesubjectofinterestisnevercalleduponto

relinquishhisinterest.”10Thisis,hesays,whereeconomicanalysisconnectsto

thesubjectofinterest–fortheseinterestscanbeclearlyfiguredintermsof

economicinterest.Herehegivesanexamplefromthegrainmarket,wherea

countrywithasurplusofgrainmightseektoselltheirstockstoacountrywitha

poorcrop,previouslyprohibitedfordangerofcausingashortageinthefirst

country.Helaysouttheeconomists’argument–whichsuggestageneral

advantagemaybeattainedthroughthemaximisationofindividualinterest-

thus:

Notonlymayeachpursuetheirowninterest,andtheymustpursueit

throughandthroughbypushingittotheutmost,andthen.Atthat

point,youwillfindtheelementsonthebasisofwhichnotonlywill

7MichelFoucault.TheBirthofBiopolitics:LecturesattheCollègedeFrance,1978-1979.translatedbyGrahamBurchell.London:Palgrave,2008,pp.267-290.8Foucault.TheBirthofBiopolitics,p.272.9Foucault,TheBirthofBiopolitics,p.274.10Foucault,TheBirthofBiopolitics,p.275.

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theinterestofothersbepreserved,butwilltherebybeincreased.So,

withthesubjectofinterest,astheeconomistsmakehimfunction,

thereisamechanismwhichiscompletelydifferentfromthedialectic

ofthesubjectofright,sinceitisanegoisticmechanism,adirectly

multiplyingmechanismwithoutanytranscendenceinwhichthewill

ofeachharmonizesspontaneouslyandasitwereinvoluntarilywith

thewillandinterestofothers.Themarketandthecontractfunction

inexactlyoppositewaysandwehaveinfacttwoheterogeneous

structures.11

Theamplificationofinterestis,Foucaultsays,thefundamentalcharacteristicof

homoeconomicus.Forthissubject,Foucaultsays,followingAdamSmith,the

conceptofthecollectivegood“mustnotbeanobjective.”12Thisaccordswiththe

workofneoliberaltheoristsMiltonFriedmanandFriedrichHayekinits

insistencethatthegovernmentmustnotandcannotobstructorinterferewith

individualinterests,andthatnogovernmentorrulereverhassufficient

knowledgetoattempttocontrolorplanthe“totalityoftheeconomicprocess.”13

Liberalism,writesFoucault,“acquireditsmodernshapepreciselywiththe

formulationofthisessentialincompatibilitybetweenthenon-totalizable

multiplicityofeconomicsubjectsofinterestandthetotalizingunityofthe

juridicalsubject.”14Thejuridicalsovereignisandshouldbepowerlessagainst

theinterestofhomoeconomicusbecausetheycannotknowthetotalityinwhich

theyoperate.Thereis“noeconomicsovereign”–norulebutinterest,which

operatesintheunknownandunknowabletotalityoftheeconomic.15Thisiswhy

Foucaultconcludesthat“economicsciencecannotbethescienceofgovernment

andeconomicscannotbetheinternalprinciple,law,ruleofconduct,or

rationalityofgovernment.”“Economics,“hewrites,“isasciencelateraltotheart

ofgoverning.Onemustgovernwitheconomics,onemustgovernalongside11Foucault,TheBirthofBiopolitics,pp.275-6.12Foucault,TheBirthofBiopolitics,p.279.13IwilldiscussthecontributionofFriedmanandHayektoneoliberalthoughtinamoment.14Foucault.TheBirthofBiopolitics,p.282.15Atthesametime,theproliferationofbureaucracyIdiscusselsewherethatrepresentstheincreaseofdocumentation,measurement,andtrackingofthesubjectmightbeconnectedtothisshift:toagovernmentlaitycentredontheindividual,orthesubjectofinterest,ratherthanthegeneral,orsubjectofright.Inthisway,thehappinessdiscourseItraceinthisthesiscanbeclearlyseenasonesuchaspectofgovernmentality.

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economists,onemustgovernbylisteningtotheeconomists,buteconomicsmust

notbeandthereisnoquestionthatitcanbethegovernmentalrationality

itself.”16Undercontemporaryneoliberalrationality,however,theartof

governinghas,againstallthis,becomeeconomic.17Anditishereourdifficulties

lie.

Despitethevalorisationofhomoeconomicus,accountsofthegoodlifethat

relyonnon-economicconceptionsofthegoodpersistinthepublicimagination.

Ingivinganaccountofsuchconceptions,IdrawfromRichardSennett’swork,

whichpositstheneedforasustained(andsustaining)lifenarrative,requiring

secureintimaterelationships,theabilitytodevelopandnurtureindividual

talentsorcompetenciesinwork,andasecureplaceofresidence:

Aselforientedtotheshortterm[theidealneoliberalself],focusedon

potentialability,willingtoabandonpastexperienceis…anunusual

sortofhumanbeing.Mostpeoplearenotlikethis;theyneeda

sustaininglifenarrative,theytakeprideinbeinggoodatsomething

specific,andtheyvalueexperiencesthey’velivedthrough.The

culturalidealrequiredinnewinstitutionsthusdamagesmanyofthe

peoplewhoinhabitthem.18

TheelementsSennettseesasnecessaryforconstructionofsomesortof‘good

life’arenotinterchangeable.Theydependoneachother,andrecognisethe

relationalaspectofselfhood;nooneisanisland.Thestructuraltransformations

wroughtbyneoliberalism,elaboratedatlengthbelow,worktoundermineeach

oftheseaspects.Centraltothisisthetransformationoflabourtoanincreasing

stateofimmaterialityandprecarity.Workisadistinctfocusinthisthesis

becausemanyofthesystemicchangesofneoliberalismaredirectlylinkedtothe

16Foucault.TheBirthofBiopolitics,p.286.17Thismeansnotonlyliterally,butalsointhesensethatgovernmentalactionhasbecomepronetocalculationthrougheconomiclogic,acost-benefitanalysis:see,forinstance,WendyBrown’saccountofthewayinwhich“neoliberalismreplacesstricturesondemocraticproceduralismandaccountabilitywithnormsofgoodmanagement:effectivityorprofitability.Indeed,itsetsasidelegality,accountability,andtruthfulnessinfavorofthesecriteria.”Brown.‘AmericanNightmare:Neoliberalism,Neoconservativism,andDe-Democratisation,’p.706.ShegivestheexampleofGeorgeBush’sstatementonthelegitimacyofthegroundsforinvadingIraqasanexampleofthis:‘DidwegetridofSaddamornot?Istheworldabetterplaceforitornot?”Thisis,wemightsay,aformulationbasedoninterest,ratherthanright.18RichardSennett.TheCultureoftheNewCapitalism.NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,2006,p.5.

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changingnatureofworkandtheworkplaceinpost-Fordistcapitalism,whichhas

seentheriseofimmaterialeconomies,affectivelabour,andtheprecaritisationof

theworkforce.

FordistcapitalismtakesitsnamefromthefactoriesandprocessesofHenry

Ford,andtheindustrialisedandstandardisedmodesofmassproductionand

consumptionenabledbythenewtechnologiesoftheearlytwentiethcenturyand

therationalisationofbothworkplaceandworkerthataccompaniedthese.Ford

famouslyintroducedtheassemblylineprocess,whichmeantworkersdidnot

requirespecialisedskillsandwere,instead,‘cogsinthemachine’ofproduction.

Aswehaveseen,Fordplacedgreatemphasisonthe‘moralcharacter’ofhis

workers–onehadtobethe‘rightkindofperson’toworkinaFordfactory.Atthe

sametime,FrederickWinslowTaylorwasintroducinganewsetofprinciplesof

scientificmanagement,elevatingandexpandingtheroleofmanagers.Taylor’s

innovationsreliedona“scientificanalysisof‘timeandmotion’inthe

workplace.”19Thisanalysisreliedonthecloseobservationofworkersand

measurementoftheiroutput,aswellascarefulanalysisofdifferentfactorsof

production,breakingtheprocessintoindividualcomponents.ForTaylor,the

primacyofmanwasover,andthemachinemustnowreign;inshort,menshould

bemorelikemachines,astheywereonFord’sassemblylines.AlthoughTaylor’s

methodshavefallenoutoffavour,theirinfluencecanstillbefelt,intheriseof

managementasadiscipline,thepersistenceofsurveillanceintheworkplace,and

therhetoricofscientificanalysisthataccompaniesproductivitystudies.William

DavieshassuggestedthatonereasonforthedeclineofTaylorismisitsinability

toaccountfortheephemeralorintangible,whichhavebecomemoreimportant

thanphysicallabourinourneweconomy.20

Tosaythatourcurrenterais‘post-Fordist,’then,referstothechanging

natureoflabour–thedeclineofthefactory,theriseofcreativityover

standardisation,theshiftfrommanufacturingthingstoproducingknowledgeor

experiences.Thispointstotheriseofimmaterialeconomy,whichvariously19WilliamDavies.TheHappinessIndustry.LondonandNewYork:Verson,2015.p.118.Inthespecificexamplegivenhere,Taylor’sstrategieswereappliedtotheproblemofincreasingtheamountofpigironthatlabourerscouldloadontoawagon.20Indeed,DaviessuggeststhattheriseofhappinessdiscourseisareasonforthedeclineininterestinTaylor’stheories,whichofferednoaccountofthehappinessorunhappinessoftheworker.pp.120-1.

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referstoknowledge-basedeconomies;totheriseofaffectivelabour;andtothe

increasedvalueofthoseintangiblesnotconsideredinthe‘machineoverman’

theoriesofFordismandTaylorism.Thesechangesinwork–initstype,its

location,anditsdemandsontheworker–pointtoototheemergenceofanew

typeofworker,andanewsystemoflabourvalue,whichIexplorethroughout

thisthesis.

Severalcriticsrecognisethepersistenceofthosegoodobjectsoutlinedabove,

suchasLaurenBerlantinher2011work,CruelOptimism.Berlant’sworkhas

informedthetheoreticalframeworkofthisthesisinitssuggestionthatpeople

remainattachedtoideasofthegoodlifethatarerendereddifficultoreven

impossibleunderneoliberalism.AlthoughBerlantrecognisesthatthese

attachmentsmaybedamaging,shesuggeststhattheymightstillenablesubjects

tostructuresomesenseoffuturityagainstthe“crisisordinariness”oflifeunder

neoliberalism.Thisisconnectedtomysuggestionthatpsychotherapeutic

rationales,wellnesspractices,andotherelementsofneoliberalhappiness

discourse,mayusetheideaofhappiness–ofworkingonone’sownhappiness–

asawaytodisguisetheimpossibilityofthosenon-economicallybasedaccounts

ofthegoodlifepositedbytheoristssuchasSennett,andtodistortthestructural

inequalitiesthatrenderthemimpossible.Thewayinwhichconceptionsof

happinessareatworkunderneoliberalism,andtheparticulartypeofhappiness

discoursethathasevolvedunderitsrationales,maybeseenasadistinctformof

governmentality,asIexplorebelow.Throughtheproliferationofthishappiness

discourse,thedistressofsubjectsiscontained,depoliticised,anddétournéd,

transformedintoaformofgenerativesufferingwhichdoesnotchallengethe

primacyoftheproductiveimperativethatliesattheheartofneoliberalism,

whosegreatestenemyisstasis.

Incharacterisingthishappinessdiscourse,Iamnothereconcernedwiththe

precisedifferencesbetweendifferentbranchesofpsyscience.Instead,whatIam

lookingatisthedisseminationofpsystrategiesinserviceofaparticularend.

Thisendisnotnecessarilyaclearorunanimousideaof‘happiness,’butbetter

understoodinmyworkastherecuperationofdistressandthecreationand

maintenanceoftheproductivesubject.Thisrefersmorebroadlytotheprocess

of‘psychologisation’oflife,whichhasbeendescribedatlengthbyvarious

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theorists,includingJandeVos.InPsychologisationinTimesofGlobalisation

(2012),deVoswrote:“Ifyouwanttoknowthehuman,don’tstudypsychology,

studypsychologisation.”21MyfocusisnotsimplywhatDavidInglebycalls“the

psycomplex.”22Instead,Iseethisasoneavenueofdisseminationforthis

happinessdiscourse,whichalsofunctionsthroughinformalandnon-medicalised

practices,asseen,forinstance,inthe‘wellnessindustry’chartedbyCederstrom

andSpicer.Thisisconnected,asIsuggestlater,totheexpansionofthe

psychologicalfromspecialistdiscoursetoeverydayrationality:wemightsay,

even,theunfurlingofthedisciplineofpsy.This,too,movesbeyondastate-

centricapproachtolookatthenetworksofdisseminationthatallowand

perpetuatethishappinessdiscourse.DeVospositsafigurehedescribesashomo

psychologicus;onemightsaythisthesisisinterestedintheevolvingrelationship

betweenhomopsychologicusandhomoeconomicus,butdoesnotassumethe

absoluteexistenceofeitherfigure.Instudyingliteraryfiction,itshouldbe

possibletotracktheculturaldisseminationofthesefiguresinthedevelopment

ofcharactersandsituations,andtousethisasthebasisforbeginninganaccount

ofhowtheseforcesareatworkintheworldbeyondthetext.

TheauthorsIhaveselectedforthisinvestigationareJ.G.Ballardand

JenniferEgan;thebroadfocusofmythesisisAnglo-American.Iwillexplainand

elaborateoneachofthesechoicesinthisintroduction,beginningwithan

accountoftheunderstandingof‘neoliberalism’andassociatedcriticaltermsthat

underpinmywork,movingintoanelaborationontherelationofliteratureto

thisframework,andwhyIseehappinessasimportanttothisinvestigation.

Followingonfromthis,IwillexplicatewhyIhaveselectedtheworkofBallard

andEganasasiteofenquiry.Iwillofferanaccountofmytheoreticalframework,

aswellasanoverviewofotherliteratureoperatinginthesamearea,andan

explanationofhowmyworkbuildsonexistingcriticalapproaches.

21JandeVos.PsychologisationinTimesofGlobalisation.London:Routledge,2012.p.10.22DavidIngleby,‘TheAmbivalenceofPsychoanalysis,’FreeAssociations;Psychoanalysis,Groups,Politics,Culture.15,1984.ThisaccordswithRose’sFoucauldianaccountofpsysciencesasacomplexnetworkofpowerdiffusion,cuttingacrossdifferentpartsoflifeincludingfamily,workplace,andsoon.

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WhatWeTalkAboutWhenWeTalkAboutNeoliberalism:Foucault,

Governmentality,andSelf-RegulatingSubjects

Inanyacademicworkthatinvokesneoliberalism,aneffortmustbemadeto

explainwhatexactlytheauthormeansbyneoliberalism.Whereour

understandingofcapitalismhaslongremainedcloselytiedtoMarx’s

illuminations,itsmostrecentiteration–oratleast,thetheoreticaldeployment

thereof–remains,apparently,fraughtwithuncertainty.Neoliberalismhas,atits

roots,thebasicideathatthefreemarketisthebestmechanismformaximising

humanfreedomandensuringafairsociety.ItisassociatedwiththeChicago

SchoolofEconomics,andtheworkofFriedrichHayekandMiltonFriedmanin

particular.Boththesewritersframedtheirdefenceofcapitalisminreactionto

theriseofcentralisedorplannedeconomies,suchasthoseofSovietRussiaor

NaziGermany.Aneconomycontrolledbythestatewas,theyargued,onein

dangerofbecomingtyrannical,attheexpenseoftheindividual(bothas

sovereignpoliticalsubjectandascreativeforceforprogress).Bothwere

respondingtoanintellectualclimateinwhichtheirideaswerewidelyunpopular

–Keynesianeconomictheorywasdominantinthepost-warera,asnations

soughttostabiliseeconomically,socially,andpolitically.Thetwowerebrought

togetherinthe1940s,whenseveralfacultymembers,includinguniversity

presidentRobertHutchins,conspiredtobringHayektotheUniversityof

Chicago,whereby1946Friedmanwasafacultymember.Thiswaspartofa

consciousefforttouniteconservativeeconomistswhoopposedKeynesian

orthodoxy,intheintellectualspiritoutlinedabove.Thisschoolofthought

identifiedasliberalintheirbeliefintheabsoluteprimacyoftheindividual;in

TheRoadtoSerfdom(firstpublishedin1944),Hayekwroteofhisbeliefthatat

thatmomenttherehadbeen“anentireabandonmentoftheindividualist

traditionwhichhascreatedWesterncivilization.”23Friedmanoutrightrejected

theideathatpoliticalfreedomwaspossibleinaneconomicallyunfreecontext,

andinsistedonthe“intimateconnection”betweeneconomicsandpolitics.”24

Indeed,forFriedmanandHayek,theeconomicwasnotsomerealmoflife

separatefromthebusinessofliving,buttheverystuffoflifeitself,andeconomic

23FriedrichHayek.TheRoadtoSerfdom.LondonandNewYork:Routledge,2006.p.20.24Friedman.CapitalismandFreedom,p.8.

11

theorywasa“coherent,logicalwholethatheldtogether,thatdidn’tconsist

simplyinasetofdisjointedpropositions.”25Hayekinsistedthatthe“Endof

EconomicMan”wasoneofthe“governingmyths”oftheage,refutingitwithhis

insistencethatthosewhoespousedthisendatthesametimecouchedtheirown

idealsineconomicterms:that“thepoliticalidealsofthepast,ofliberty,equality

andsecurity”hadbeenrecastthroughleftistclaimsforsocialreconstruction

which,byHayek’sreading,alwaysreliedoneconomicreconstruction.26

Thefirstvenueinwhichthesetheoristsandtheircohortweregiventhe

opportunitytoputtheirtheoryintoactionwasChile,inthemid-nineteen

seventies.27FollowingPinochet’scoup,Friedmanbecamehiseconomicadvisor.

Thiswasnothisfirsttimeinsucharole;hehadpreviouslyactedaseconomic

advisortoRepublicanBarryGoldwaterduringhis1964presidentialrun.

Goldwater’srunhadbeenunsuccessful,however,andsoChilebecamethefirst

siteinwhichFriedmancouldtesthisassertionthat“Onlyacrisis–actualor

perceived–producesrealchange”andperformareal-lifetrialoftheutilityofhis

free-markettheories.Inreturn,theChicagoboysweretobestowlegitimacyon

Pinochet’sreforms,andenhancethecredibilityofhisregime.Incontrastto

FriedmanandHayek’sowninsistenceontheindissolubilityofeconomicand

politicalfreedom,thePinochetregimewas,fromitsinception,ruthlessly

totalitarian.28VanHornetalconnectthistothegrowingpublicimageofthe

ChicagoSchoolasMachiavellianschemerswhoseonlyconcernwasthegrowthof

thefreemarketatallcosts,asDavidHarveyimpliesinhischapteronthesubject,

entitled‘Freedom’sJustAnotherWord…’VanHornetalalsorecognisethatsuch

interpretationdependsonthecriticalapproachtaken,asinanyhistoriography:

InNaomiKlein’srendering,theChicagoSchoolrepresentsthe

epicentreofanhistoricprocessof“capitalistreformation,”withthe

1970sexperimentinChileservingasanoffshore“laissez-faire

25MiltonFriedmaninLivesoftheLaureates:Twenty-threeNobelEconomists,ed.WilliamBreitandBarryT.Hirsch,Cambridge,MA:MITPress,2004.p.65.26Hayek,p.207.27RobertVanHornetaleds.BuildingChicagoEconomics.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2011.p.xlii;DavidHarvey,ABriefHistoryofNeoliberalismOxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2008,p.7,NaomiKlein,TheShockDoctrine,London:PenguinBooks,2007,p.7.VanHornetalgivetheyearas1975,Harveysuggests’73;Kleindoesnotgiveapreciseyear.28Kleinconnectedthe“economicshocktreatment”oftheChicagoSchoolwithPinochet’sregimeoftortureinTheShockDoctrine.

12

laboratory”fortherestorationofapurifiedmarketorder.Here,the

ChicagoSchoolitselfitendowedwithremarkablepurposivecapacity,

withFriedman(“DrShock”)astheprincipalprotagonist.Orthodox

andsympathetichistoriographies,incontrast,eschewthe

conspiratorialundertonesinfavourofheroicnarrativesofscientific

contestationandtransformation,culminatingintherighteousdefeat

offlawedKeynesianformulationsandtherevelationofenduring

economictruths.29

Whatisinterestinghere,Ithink,isthequestionofpurposeorintent–thisis

equallytrueinHarvey’swork,whichascribesaclearanddistinctfunctionto

neoliberalism:therestorationofclasspower.Theremitofthisthesis,however,

isnottodecideontheintentionoftheoriginaltheoristsofneoliberalism,butto

lookatthewaysinwhichtheirideashaveproliferatedthroughoutandreshaped

societyatlarge,andtheeffectthishashadonourunderstandingandexperience

of‘happiness.’

HarveyoffersarundownofthedetailsoftheChicagoplanforChile,

suggestingthatalthoughitwasinitiallysuccessful,theLatinAmericandebtcrisis

in1982souredtheoutcome,resultingin“amuchmorepragmaticandless

ideologicallydrivenapplicationofneoliberalpoliciesintheyearsthat

followed.”30Itwasthisturn,Harveysuggests,thatprovidedtheevidenceto

supporttheturntosimilareconomicpoliciesintheUSandUKinthe1980s.31I

understandthisturnasthestartofabroadscaleculturalshiftaroundpublic

economicpolicyandtheprivateconceptualisationoftheself–ifHayekbelieved

thatEconomicManwasneverdead,thentheemergenceof‘commonsense’

neoliberalismmarkedbythisturnsawhisfullresurrectioninthepopular

imagination,inthefigureofhomoeconomicus,theidealneoliberalsubject.What

Iamfollowing,then,mightbedescribedtheriseofneoliberalculture.Inthis

understanding,theinsistenceonthefree-marketasthebestmechanismfor

29VanHornetal,p.Xxvii30Harvey,9.VanHornetalpointoutthatChile’slatertransitiontodemocracyandeconomicgrowthhasbeenusedasadefenceoftheChicagoprogrammeandarefutationoftheassociationwithtotalitarianism.31Thesepolicies,whicharenowrecognisedashallmarksofneoliberalprocess,includetheprivatisationofstate-runindustries,thede-regulationofresources,andthecreationoffreemarketswhereverpossible.

13

individualfreedombecomesallbutirrelevant,thankstotheinstitutionofa

‘businessontology’thatrewritesthemarketnotasameansbutasanall-

encompassingend,andanideologicalendatthat.ThisiswhatImeanwhenI

suggestthatneoliberalismasitoperatesnowisnotsomuchpoliticalsystemas

aneconomicone,althoughIrealisethatsuchaformulationmaybefraught.It

suggests,inthefirstplace,broadacceptanceoftheveracityofFriedmanand

Hayek’sassertionsregardingtheirbeliefinfreedom;thisstandsincontrastto

readingsofintentsuchasKleinandHarvey’s.Letmeseektodispensewiththese

concernsbyreiteratingthatIamnotseekingtogiveahistoryoftheevolutionof

newliberalismorfree-marketliberalismtopresent-dayneoliberalism,whichI

thinkisofadifferentcharacter,asIhavesuggested.InthesamewayIdrawupon

Foucault’swork,butseektomovebeyondit,Iampositingaversionofneoliberal

thoughtthathasinsomewayssurpassedandinothersdistortedtheoriginal

visionofFriedmanetal.Idonotclaimtounderstandthisvisionbeyondtheir

ownwriting,andhere,asaliteraryscholar,Iturntothetextforevidence:ifthey,

asauthors,insistontheauthenticityoftheirbeliefs,Iwill,fornow,takethemat

theirword.Asmuchastheysoughttoreformeconomicspractically,these

thinkersconnectedthistoatransformationoftheintellectualclimate.Dothey

believeinthefreemarket?Yes.Dotheybelieveinthefreemarketbecausethey

believeittobethebestmechanismtoassureindividualfreedom?Accordingto

theirwriting,theydo.Doesthecurrentincarnationofneoliberalismsharethis

belief?Ithinknot.Whentheeconomicbecomesanontology,disconnectedfrom

widerpoliticalideals–fortherighttochooseisnotthesameastherightto

freedom,asNikolasRoseandothershavepersuasivelyargued,andasIwill

suggestthroughoutthisthesis–thenthoseclaimsregardingtheinnate

connectionbetweenthepoliticalandtheeconomicmustbere-evaluated.

Althoughneoliberalismasitnowoperatesmayconstituteamodeoflife,Ibelieve

thatitnolongerhasaclearpoliticaldimension,whichwemightalsounderstand

asa‘freedomfunction,’perFriedmanetal.32Theabsurdityofthispositionisthat

32Withregardtothisideaofneoliberalismasa‘modeoflife,’wemightthinkofFoucault’sdistinctionbetweenEuropeanandAmericanneoliberalisminTheBirthofBiopolitics,whichherelatestothedistinctcharacterofAmericanliberalism,writing,“Americanliberalismisnot–asitisinFranceatpresent,orasitwasinGermanyimmediatelyafterthewar–justaneconomicandpoliticalchoiceformedandformulatedbythosewhogovernandwithingovernmental

14

themarketbecomesatoolonlytoensurethattheworldfunctionsasamarket,

andIbelievethewidespreadevidenceofaffectivedistressItraceinthisthesisis

bothsymptomandevidenceoftheapoliticismofcontemporaryneoliberal

culture.33Friedmanhimselfdiscussestheproblemofmeansandendswhen

thinkingaboutfreedom,suggestingthat,

Acommonobjectiontototalitariansocietiesisthattheyregardthe

endasjustifyingthemeans.Takenliterally,thisobjectionisclearly

illogical.Iftheenddoesnotjustifythemeans,whatdoes?…Desirable

ornot,anyendthatcanbeattainedonlybytheuseofbadmeans

mustgivewaytothemorebasicendoftheuseofacceptablemeans.34

Ifthemarketbecomesbothmeansandends,ithassurelyceasedtobe

acceptable,andithascertainly,Ithink,ceasedtobeaguarantoroffreedom;in

thisway,ithasceasedbepolitical.35

IntheintroductiontoTheHandbookofNeoliberalism(2016),SimonSpring,

KeanBirchandJulieMacLeavyassertthat,“Neoliberalismisaslipperyconcept,milieu.LiberalisminAmericaisawholewayofthinkingandbeing.”p.218.FoucaultalsoinvokedHayekasakindofhonoraryAmericaninthisreading:“SomeyearsagoHayeksaid:Weneedaliberalismthatisalivingthought.Liberalismhasalwaysleftittosocialiststoproduceutopias,andsocialismowesmuchofitsvigorandhistoricaldynamismtothisutopianorutopia-creatingactivity.Well,liberalismalsoneedsutopia.Itisuptoustocreateliberalutopias,tothinkinaliberalmode,ratherthanpresentingliberalismasatechnicalalternativeforgovernment.Liberalismmustbeageneralstyleofthought,analysis,andimagination.”pp.218-9Itisthis‘generalstyle’Iconnectmyaccountoftheexpansivediscourseofneoliberalism,althoughforthoselivingthroughit,itseemsmorelikeamodefordystopiathanutopia.33Howdoesoneresistamodeoflogicthatdoesnotfinditsprimaryexpressioninparticularpoliticalbeliefs?Thiscanbeconnected,too,tothebroadpoliticalshifttotherightdiscussedelsewhereinthisthesis,aswellastotheextremedifficultyevenopponentsofneoliberalismfindinframingargumentsagainstitwithoutresortingtomimeticeconomiclogic.Think,forinstance,oftheupcomingstrikeintheuniversitysector.Althoughthisstrikeispartofawidermoveagainsttheneoliberalizationoftheacademy,studentshavebeenencouragedtodemandcompensationfromuniversitiesforclassesmissedduetotheunwillingnessofmanagementtonegotiate;seeSallyWeale,‘Studentsdemandcompensationfromuniversitiesoverlecturerstrikes,’TheGuardian,7February2018https://www.theguardian.com/higher-education-network/2018/feb/07/students-demand-compensation-from-universities-over-lecturer-strikes.Althoughthisasframedasonewaytogettheattentionofthemanagement,whosepreoccupationiswiththefinancesoftheuniversity,italsoriskstacitlyacceptingthemodelofstudentsas‘consumersofeducation’thathasbeenpushedbytheneoliberalisationofhighereducation.Again,thisabsurditymightbeusefullyconnectedorcomparedtotheriseofbureaucracyundertheneoliberalbusinessontology,wherepaperworkbecomestheoutcomeofproductivity,ratherthanitsmeasure:thelogicsgeneratedbythissystemare,againandagain,illogical.34Friedman,p.22.35Despitethis,itmaystillhavepoliticaloutcomes,asneoliberallogicisusedtoframepublicpolicyetc.–butIfindithardtobelievethatthereisanycomprehensivepoliticalphilosophyinwhichthisisdesignedtofunctionasamechanismoffreedomatworkbehindsuchframing.Tothisend,the‘neoliberalstate’seemsalwaystobesomethingofachimera(asHarveyhasalsosuggested).

15

meaningdifferentthingstodifferentpeople.”36Inessence,astheeditorsofthat

handbookrecognisethemselves,theneoliberalmomentisthematerial

realisationofpost-Fordistcapitalism.Thecontemporaryusageofthetermhas

itsrootsinFoucault’swork,asmentionedabove,inthoselecturescollectedas

TheBirthofBiopolitics(2008),whereFoucaultgaveanaccountofvariousforms

ofneoliberalism(German,Austrian,American).Intheselectures,Foucaultdrew

outtheconnectionbetweenthegovernmentoftheselfandthegovernmentof

thestate–biopolitics–andalsodeployedtheconceptof‘governmentality.’

Foucaultlinkstheconceptofgovernmentalitytogovernment,andspecificallyto

thestate,whichhedescribesas‘governmentalised’.Inthisunderstanding,

‘government’referstoatypeofpowerinsociety,theobjectofwhichis

population.Thisgovernmentalisationbroadlyreferstothespaceofrule,andis

markedforFoucaultbyachangeinthenatureofgovernment,whereitis

transformedfromdispositionaltoprocessual.Thistransformationsignalsashift

fromthecorrectarrangementofthings,asitwere,tothereconceptualisationof

governmentasconcernedwitha“sortofcomplexcomposedofmenandthings,”

ortheimbricationofmenandthings,asFoucaulthasit.37Governmentality

occursthroughtheeverydayprocessesthatshapeandconstitutelife,becauseit

istheseprocessesthattakeastheirtargetthisimbricationofmenandthings.

Foucaultdevelopsthisconceptwithakindofgenealogyofpower,inhis

historicaltracingoftheprocessesbywhichhesuggestssovereigntywas

transformedintogovernmentality,aslaidoutinSecurity,Territoryand

Population:LecturesattheCollegedeFrance1977-8(2009).Thishistorical

trackingislargelyirrelevanttothisstudy,whichseekstolookforward,rather

thanback,tounderstandthewaysinwhichpeopleincontemporarysociety

renderthemselvesgovernable,asdistinctfromaprocesswhichchartsthewaysin

whichtheyareorhavehistoricallybeenrenderedso.Theunderstanding

explicatedinthisthesisisalsocloselylinkedtotheideaofdeterritorialised

36SimonSpringer,KeanBirchandJulieMacLeavy,editors.TheHandbookofNeoliberalism.LondonandNewYork:Routledge,2016,p.1.37MichelFoucault.‘Governmentality,’pp.87-105.TheFoucaultEffect:StudiesinGovernmentality,editedbyGrahamBurchell,ColinGordonandPeterMiller.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1991,p.93.

16

populations,whichmustnecessitateachangeinthenatureofgovernmentality,

whengovernmentalityisunderstoodtorefertopopulationasitsobject.

Consideringakindofdeterritorialisedgovernmentalityalsosteersdiscussion

awayfromthestricturesofthestate,andopensupthosenewvirtual

technologiesoftheselfIframeasenablingandenactingself-regulatory

processesinneoliberalhappinessdiscourse.Inconsideringthis,onemight

returntoFoucault’sgenealogymomentarily.If,ashesuggests,progressbroadly

movesfromsovereigntytogovernmentality,atleastinasmuchassovereignty

becomespartofgovernmentality,thereisnoreasontoassumegovernmentality

isimmutableorunchangeable,andthatittoomightnotbeadaptedthroughthe

changingnatureofpowerandpopulation.Thisstudyisnotsuggestingthat

governmentalityhasbeensupersededbyanyotherpracticeorrealmofpower

butratherthat,althoughkeyelementsofFoucault’stheorystillhavesocialand

theoreticalresonance,itistheiradaptationbycontemporarytheorists,suchas

NikolasRoseandPaulRabinow,fromwhichIdevelopmywork.Thisadaptation

doesandmustreflectthechangingnatureofthesocietyinwhich

governmentalityispracticedandinthemodesofsubjectivityamongstthoseon

whomitispracticedandwho,inturn,practicegovernmentality.Thisstudyseeks

toadaptandexpandFoucault’sworkthroughliteraryinvestigation.

Foucault’sconceptionofbiopoweriscloselyrelatedtothisconceptof

governmentality,andtotheshifttotheprocessual.Theconceptofbiopoliticsor

bipowerfunctioninginthisdiscussiondoesnotfollowthetraditionalhistorical-

medicalFoucauldianmodelexactly.Theconceptofbiopoliticswasintroducedin

TheHistoryofSexuality,whereFoucaultdescribedtheemergenceofbiopolitics

ontwolevels:first,basedontheideaofthebodyasamachine:

Itsdisciplining,theoptimizationofitscapabilities,theextortionofits

forces,theparallelincreaseofitsusefulanditsdocility,itsintegration

intosystemsofefficientandeconomiccontrols,allthiswasensured

bytheproceduresofpowerthatcharacterizedthedisciplines:an

anatomo-politicsofthehumanbody.38

38MichelFoucault.TheHistoryofSexuality.translatedbyRobertHurley.London:Penguin,1990.p.139.

17

Thesecondlevelofthisistheconceptualisationofthebodyasthespeciesbody,

whichwecanlinktoFoucault’saccountoftheshifttopopulationastheobjectof

government,whereby“issuesofindividualsexualandreproductiveconcern

interconnectwithissuesofnationalpolicyandpower.”39Biopowerispower

overbodiesbothattheindividuallevelandthespecieslevel,asFoucaulthasit;

biopoliticsarethosedisciplineswhichemergefromthisframework,whichalso

seeincreasesinmeasuring,recording,andmanagingthebody–elementswhich

arealsoimportantinunderstandinghowadiscourseofhappinessinwhich

subjectsbecomeself-regulatinghasemerged(foritis,bynow,ordinaryto

measure,accountfor,record,andattendto,ournearnesstoordistancefrom

happiness,ininformalsettingssuchassocialmediapostsaswellasinformal

psychiatricsettings).

Myunderstandingoftheterm‘biopolitics’seekstoreaditasmoreinherently

humanistic,takentoimplythelivelynatureofpowerflowsandthenecessityof

thevitalsubject–thatis,specifically,thesubjectwhoiscapableofacting,aswell

asbeingactedupon.The‘bio’inthis‘biopower’isunderstoodtoimplynotjust

livingbodies,butalsoembodiedsubjectivities.Toadheretoanunderstandingof

biopowerthatdoesnotmakethistheoreticalleap,particularlywhen

contemporarysocietyincreasinglytendstobeshapedbytheinformationaland

immaterial,wouldbetosubscribetoanunhelpfulCartesiandichotomy.This

moveextendsthedomainofbiopower,andredrawsthelinesofitsmateriality,

hencetheneedtomoveawayfromthehistorical-medicalmodel.This

understandingpointstoadramaticshiftinmodesofgovernance,whichare

developedfromcertainhistoricalideasasdescribedbyFoucault,suchastheidea

thatlife“hasnotbeentotallyintegratedintotechniquesthatgovernand

administerit;itconstantlyescapesthem,”andtheideaoflifegenerallyas

transmutedfromanegativetopositivepoliticalforce–thatis,themovefromlife

39TheFoucaultEffect:StudiesinGovernmentality,editedbyGrahamBurchell,ColinGordonandPeterMiller.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1991.p.5.Foucaultalsosuggeststhattheemergenceof‘population’astheobjectofgovernmentisconnectedtoandmadepossiblebytheemergenceoftheeconomicasarealmofgovernmentbeyondthejuridicalframeworkofsovereignty:seeMichelFoucault.‘Governmentality,’pp.87-105.TheFoucaultEffect.p.99.

18

assomethingthatcouldbetakenbythesovereigntosomethingthatmust

insteadbemaximisedbygovernance.40

TheconceptionsofhappinessItraceandinvestigateinthisthesis,then,canbe

looselyunderstoodasbeginningwiththewaysinwhichtheneoliberalsubjectis

interpellatedtoprocessesandstatesofself-maximisation.Thisisseenmost

clearlyinthepracticesofpositivepsychology,asadvocatedbyMartinSeligman

etal,abranchofpsysciencethatpromotes“humanflourishing”asitsprimary

objective.41Moreovertlycommercialpracticeshavearisenaroundthis

principle,intheformofthe‘wellness’or‘mindfulness’industries,asexploredby

CarlCederströmandAndréSpicerinTheWellnessSyndrome(2015)andWilliam

DaviesinTheHappinessIndustry(2015).Althoughthesemaximisation

strategiesfigureheavilyintheovertconceptualisationofhappinessunder

neoliberalism,theyareoftenstrategiesforthewell:theyassumetheexistenceof

abaseof‘happiness’or‘wellness’thatcanbemaximisedthroughtheir

programmesandtechniques.Myconcernwithstatesofaffectivedistressleadsto

aslightlydifferentfocus;Istartfromthepremisethatsubjectsaresuffering

underneoliberalism,whichinstitutesatomisticpoliciesandpracticesthatrely

onandincreaseeconomicandotherinequalities,andremovestatesafetynets

forcitizensthroughthedismantlingoflegalprotectionsandtheunderminingof

thewelfarestate.42Assuch,althoughIexploretheimpactoftheseself-

maximisationframeworks,Iammoreinterestedinthewayinwhichaberrance

ismanaged–howaretheunwellmadewell,ortheunhappyconvincedtothink

ofthemselvesasabletobehappy,withoutconsideringthematerialpolitical

dimensionsofthissuffering?Underneaththisisthequestionofconsent–howdo

we,assubjects,cometobeenmeshedinalifesystemthatisdamagingtous,to

others,andtotheplanetonwhichwelive,ecologicallyspeaking?43

40Foucaulted.Burchell,etal.TheFoucaultEffect,p.96.41SeetheUniversityofPennsylvaniaAuthenticHappinesswebsite:www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu/.42DavidHarveyhasoutlinedthisriseininequality(aspartofhisthesisthatneoliberalismisaprojecttorestoreclasspower)inABriefHistoryofNeoliberalism,pp.152-182.Manyothertheoristshavedemonstratedthisincreaseininequality,too:see,forexample,HeatherWhitesideandTomSlater’schaptersinTheHandbookofNeoliberalism,pp.361-9and370-81.43Thislatterpointreferstothetreatmentoftheearthasanapparentlyinexhaustiblesourceof‘naturalcapital’inthefaceofallevidencethatsuggestsournaturalresourcesarelimitedandfinite,andthathumaninterventionischangingtheverygeologicalformationoftheearth.See,for

19

NikolasRose’sworkhasbeenimportantinunderstandingtheseprocessesand

inallowingmetoformulateanaccountofhownewtechnologiesoftheself,as

wellasnewtypesandsitesoflabour,constitutenewspacesofsubjectification

andsitesofself-regulation.Iexplorethiswhenlookingattheroleofsocialmedia

andvirtualidentityinJenniferEgan’swork.InInventingOurSelves(1996),Rose

writesthat:

inthegenealogyofsubjectification,prideofplaceisnotoccupiedby

thephilosopherreflectingontheirstudiesonthenatureofthe

person,thewill,theconscience,morality,andthelike,butratherin

theeverydaypracticeswhereconducthasbecomeproblematicto

othersoroneself,andinthemundanetextsandprograms–on

asylummanagement,medicaltreatmentofwomen,improvingone’s

self-esteem–seekingtorendertheseproblemsintelligibleand,atthe

sametime,manageable.44

Thesearethespacesandprogrammeswithwhichmythesisismostoccupied.

Theyrepresentthewaysinwhichpsychotherapeuticrationales,wellness

rhetoric,andotheraspectsofneoliberalhappinessdiscourseinterveneinorder

to‘contain’affectivedistress.Affectivedistresshasthepotentialtobecome

problematicconductintwoprimaryways.Iftransformedintopoliticaldissent,it

mighthavethepowertorecogniseandseektoresistthestructuralinequalities

wroughtbyneoliberalism–whichare,often,atthebaseofthisdistress.Evenif

affectivedistressissuccessfullydepoliticised,andtheproblematicconductof

politicaldissentstavedoff,thisdepoliticisation–alearnedpowerlessness–can

renderasubjectincapableofengagingwiththeworldonanyproductivelevel–

thedepressedorstressedpersonwhocannotattendwork.Thesemundanetexts

andprogrammesaredesignedtointervenetoensurethattheprimarylanguage

ofsufferingispersonal,i.e.removedfromsystemiccritique,andalsotoensure

thatthisdepoliticisedaccountofsufferingdoesnotcausesubjectstodetachfrom

systemsofproductionandconsumption.Thisiswhymyworkhereisless

concernedwithgivinganaccountofhowweshouldlivethanitiswithlookingat

instance,DipeshChakrabarty,‘TheClimateofHistory:FourTheses,’CriticalEnquiry,35:2,2009,pp.197-222.44NikolasRose.InventingOurSelves:Psychology,Power,andPersonhood.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,1998,p.26.

20

howwedolive.Thedefinitionof‘problematicconduct’is,asmythesis

recognises,broadinscope,andoftenmanifestsasclass-bound–theunderlying

conceptofhappinessasself-maximisationisdistinctlymiddleclass,asexplained

elsewhereinmythesis.Iexplorethisinlookingattheworkofboththese

authors,whichalsorevealsdifferentsocietalexpectationsregardingthe

representationofclassinU.S.andU.K.literaryculture,asIwilldemonstrate.Part

ofmythesispositstheidealneoliberalsubjectasdistinctlymiddleclass,asI

outlinebelow.Rose’sfocuson“everydaypractices”and“mundanetextsand

programs”alsoinformsmyapproachinseekingtoexploretheprocessesby

whichsubjectsareinterpellatedtomaketheirsubjectivitytheprincipleof

personallife,ethicalsystemsandpoliticalchoices.45Thisoccurs,Isuggest,

throughtheelevationofthefeelingofpersonal–individual-happinessasthe

supremegood,andtheinsistencethatsuchhappinessisachievablethrough

makingthe‘correct’choicesinlife.

Broadlyspeaking,then,neoliberalpracticereferstothefinancialisationof

bankingpractice,theprecaritisationoflabour,andthereconstructionofthe

idealselffromsovereignbeingtoenterprisingsubject–alltheresult,according

toSpringeretal,of“theextensionofcompetitivemarketsintoallareasoflife,

includingtheeconomy,politics,andsociety.”46Effortstogivemorespecificityto

neoliberalismtendtooccurwithinthedisciplineofgeopolitics,connectedto

accountsofspecificpracticesofneoliberalismaroundtheglobe,whichoften

emphasisethevarietyanddiscordanceamongstthesepractices.Myresearchhas

focusedonneoliberalismintheU.K-U.Scontext,perthebackgroundofBallard

andEgan,whobothemployideasofnationalidentitywithintheirwork,albeitin

verydifferentways.J.G.Ballard’swork,inthelatequartetofnovelsonwhichI

focus,interrogatesthefigureofthecosmopolitanglobalcitizeninbothaleisure

andworksociety,inCocaineNights(1996)andSuper-Cannes(2000)

respectively.InMillenniumPeople(2003),Ballardlookscloselyatthequirksof

theEnglishclasssystem,usingthisfocustoexplorehisthematicinterestinthe

45SeeNikolasRose.GoverningTheSoul.London:FreeAssociationBooks,2nded.,1999,p.11.46Springeretal.TheHandbookofNeoliberalism,p.2

21

‘bourgeoisationoflife.’47KingdomCome(2006)directlyexplorestherelationship

betweennationalismandconsumerism,posedinahyperrealproto-fascist

society.Egan’sworkexposesthe‘specialrelationship’betweenAmericaand

neoliberalism,mostnotably,perhaps,inLookatMe(2001).Isuggestthatthis

relationshipistheresultofthedistinctlyAmericanemphasisonindividualism

andthecapacityforself-reinvention,bothofwhichcanbetracedtothevery

beginningofthatcountry’snationhood,asrecognisedintheworkofAlexisde

Tocqueville.

Thegeopoliticalspecificityofthisapproachhasitsorigins,too,inthe

concomitantriseofneoliberaleconomicpolicyinbothcountries.DavidHarvey’s

historicalaccountoftheemergenceofneoliberalismasthedominanteconomic

frameworkrecognisesthepremiershipsofMargaretThatcherintheU.K.and

RonaldReaganintheU.S.asinstrumentalinthisrise.48Hewrites,

Volcker[headoftheU.S.FederalReserveunderReagan]and

Thatcherbothpluckedfromtheshadowsofrelativeobscuritya

particulardoctrinethatwentunderthenameof‘neoliberalism’and

transformeditintothecentralguidingprincipleofeconomicthought

andmanagement.49

TheU.K.andtheU.S.haveahistoricallyspecificsharedrelationshipwith

neoliberalism,aswellasalongercommoneconomicandsocialhistory,andas

suchitmakessensetofocusonauthorsfromthesecountriesinthis

investigation.

Springerhaselsewherearguedthatgiventheexistenceofthesevarious

understandingsofneoliberalism,wemightmostfruitfullyunderstandand

describeneoliberalismasadiscourse,andassessitsimpactthrough

conceptualisingitasaprocessualforce.By‘processualforce,’hemeansaforce

manifestingthroughthosesystemsandproceduresthatgiveshapetoeveryday

life,andwhichinstitutethesystemsoflogicbywhichweassubjectsareshaped

47SeeJ.G.BallardinterviewedbyZinovyZinik,‘1998:RussiaonMyMind,’pp.356-363inExtremeMetaphors,editedbySimonSellers,London:FourthEstate,2012,p.357.48HesituatesthisalongsideDengXiaoping’seconomicliberalisationofChina,whichissomewhatbeyondtheremitofthisthesis.49Harvey.ABriefHistoryofNeoliberalism,p.2.

22

andlearntoshapeourselves.50ThisisaFoucauldianunderstanding,inwhich

“…neoliberalismis…recognisedasamutable,inconsistent,andvariegated

processthatcirculatesthroughthediscoursesitconstructs,justifies,and

defends.”51Happiness,Isuggest,isonesuchdiscourse.Springer’sprocessual

understandingofneoliberalismimmediatelyconnectsittothedirecthuman

impactithasonsubjectsthroughexplicitlyrecognisingthewayinwhichit

worksonsubjectswhomustnegotiatethesevariegateddiscourses.Thisisalso,I

think,theunderstandingthatliteraturecanofferus,andthatIseektoexpandon

inthisthesis.Springer’sprocessualunderstandingcanalsobelinkedtoRose’s

accountoftheneedtounderstandthose“mundanetextsandprograms”that

seekto“render…problemsintelligibleand,atthesametime,manageable.”52

Thechaosofchoiceandlackofpoliticaldimensionunderneoliberalismrender

power,asitactsonandthroughthesubject,unintelligible.Theconceptof

happinessisdeployedasawaytorenderthesufferingthiscausesasintelligible

andmanageable,whilstensuringitremainsremovedfrompolitically

consequentialformulationsthatmightdisruptneoliberalpractice.Thisisechoed

inStuartHallandAlanO’Shea’sconceptionof‘common-senseneoliberalism,’in

whichtheywrite,

Thestructuralconsequencesofneoliberalism–theindividualisation

ofeveryone,theprivatisationofpublictroublesandtherequirement

tomakecompetitivechoicesateveryturn–hasbeenparalleledbyan

upsurgeinfeelingsofinsecurity,anxiety,stressanddepression.

Thesearenowresponsibleforoneineverythreedayssickleavefrom

work.Weneedtoacknowledgetheseaffectivedimensionsthatarein

play,andwhichunderpincommonsense.53

Thisemphasisesanotherofthereasonshappinesshasbecomeacentral

battlegroundforneoliberalism;physicalmanifestationsofaffectivedistress

disrupttheworkplace,underminingwhatIhavedescribedasthe‘productive

50SimonSpringer.‘Neoliberalismasdiscourse:betweenFoucauldianpoliticaleconomyandMarxianpoststructuralism,’CriticalDiscourseStudies,9:2,2012,pp.133-41.51Springer.‘Neoliberalismasdiscourse,’p.135.52Rose.InventingOurSelves,p.26.53StuartHallandAlanO’Shea.‘Common-senseneoliberalism,’Soundings,55,8-24,2013.pp.8-24,p.12.

23

imperative’bywhichneoliberalism,andallcapitalistsystems,reproduce

themselves,andproducetheirsubjects.

WorkingSubjectsandWorkingontheSelf

AsIhavesaid,thisthesisfocusesontheriseofnewtypesandsitesoflabour,and

newtechnologiesoftheself,asrequiringandreproducingnewformsof

subjectivityandsitesofsubjectification.Thetwoarecloselylinked–theriseof

newtechnologies,inavirtualoronlinecontext,givesrisetonewformsofwork,

aswellasnewsocialities.InSimians,CyborgsandWomen(1990),Donna

Harawaywrotethat,forMarxists,“Labouristhehumanizingactivitythatmakes

man;labourisanontologicalcategorypermittingknowledgeofasubject,andso

theknowledgeofsubjugationandalienation.”54AsHarawaysuggests,Marxist

analysisseessystemicalienationastheresultofthewagerelation.Ina

Foucauldianaccount,asminelooselyis,labourisbutonesiteinwhichpoweris

revealed.Giventheeconomicprimacyofneoliberalism,however,thesubjectis

encouragedtooperatenotjusttheirlifebutalsotheirsubjectivityaccordingto

whatFisheridentifiedasthe“businessontology”ofneoliberalism.55Incontrast

toMarxisttheory,workcannotbeseenastheprivilegedcategoryof

subjectificationbecausethequestionofwhatworkishasbeenradically

transformedbyimmateriallabour;thisisdemonstrated,forinstance,bythe

accountof‘glamourlabour’IexploreinlookingatEgan’swork,primarilyinThe

Keep(2006)andLookatMe(2001).Inthisunderstanding,theMarxist

constructionofalienationisinadequate:theboundariesbetween‘labour’and

‘life’areincreasinglydestabilisedbyimmaterialandaffectiveeconomies,asI

discussatsomelengthinmyassessmentofEgan’swork.Thisrecallstheearlier

quotefromFoucault,assertingthatlife“hasnotbeentotallyintegratedinto

techniquesthatgovernandadministerit;itconstantlyescapesthem.”56These

newtypesandsitesoflabourrepresentanewintegrationoflifeintosystemsof

governmentandadministration,whichispresentedasnatural,inevitableand

evendesirable.Thisintegrationalsoreliesonthesubject’sapparentlywilling54DonnaHaraway.Simians,CyborgsandWomen:TheReinventionofNature.London:FreeAssociationBooks,1991,p.158.55MarkFisher.CapitalistRealism.London:ZeroBooks,2009,p.17.56Foucaulted.Burchelletal.TheFoucaultEffect,p.96.

24

enmeshmentinthesesystems–affectivelabourwantstherightattitudeasmuch

astherightcandidate,afterall.WilliamDaviesquotesIanCurtisofJoyDivision

onhisexperienceofworkinginaTayloristfactory,whereheclaimed,“Iwas

reallyhappybecauseIcoulddaydreamalldaylong.”57Affectivelabourasksus

forourdaydreams.ItencroachesontheprivateimaginativerealminawayI

identifyasincreasinglyproblematicwhenitcomestotheformulationofan

objectivepoliticalimaginary.Suchanimaginaryallowsfortheconstructionof

solidaritythatwouldactasanecessaryprecursortoanytheoryofsocialjustice

thatmightseektoredressthesystemicinequalitiesperpetuatedby

neoliberalism.

AngelaMcRobbiehasrecognisedmanyofthedifficultiesthatarisefrom

affectivelabourinherworkoncreativeindustries,suchasBeCreative(2016).

Here,shelooksathowthevalorisationof“beingcreative”asawayoflifehas

beenusedtoobscuretheprecaritythatfrequentlymarksemploymentin

creativeindustriesand,increasingly,inotherimmaterialindustries,suchasthe

servicesector.Theriseofthesekindsofworkalsorevealsthewayinwhichthe

languageofself-maximisationhasbeenemployedintheworldofwork–the

logicof“ifyoulovewhatyoudo,you’llneverworkadayinyourlife.”David

Graebergesturedtothiskindofthinkinginhisessay‘OnthePhenomenonof

BullshitJobs,’wherehetoucheduponthewayinwhichresentmentisstirredup

against“anyonewhoseworkhasclearandundeniablesocialvalue”inaneraof

precariouslabour.58Theperceptionoffulfilmentthroughworkasavailableto

thosewhosejobsareseentohaveintrinsicworth–doctors,teachers,fire

fighters–isusedasatoolbywhichthestatecanjustifytheremovalof

traditionalprotectionsfromthosejobs.Workersshouldbegladtohavethe

opportunitytoworkinthoseindustries,thisreasoningsuggests;nooneelsehas

jobsthatmakethemfeelgood,whydotheyalsodeservelegalprotectionsother

workersdonothave?Elsewhere,thecallto“becreative”redirectsthesesame

dissatisfactionsthroughsuggestingthatanyjobisanopportunityto

57Davies.TheHappinessIndustry.p.120.TaylorismreferstothescientificmanagementtechniquesoriginatedbyFrederickWinslowTaylorinthe1880sanddesignedtoanalyseandsynthesiseworkflow.58DavidGraeber.‘OnthePhenomenonofBullshitJobs,’StrikeMagazine,August172013.strikemag.org/bullshit-jobs/

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demonstrateyourcreativity.Thiscanbeconnected,too,toculturesof‘cool’

capital,asdescribedinJimMcGuigan’swork.IlookatthisinexploringEgan’s

oeuvre,inmyanalysesofLookatMeandTheKeep.Elsewhere,LeeKonstantinou

hasofferedareadingof‘coolness’inEgan’sworkinhischaracterologicalstudy,

CoolCharacters(2016).ForKonstantinou,coolnessisassociatedwithirony,and

hisreadingofEganfocusesonAVisitFromtheGoonSquad,inwhichhereadsthe

characterofLuluasrepresentativeof“afuturewherecoolmaynolongerbeon

thestreetstobehuntedbutmayhavebeensubsumedbythecommodificationof

everydaylife.”59Konstantinou’scompellingstudyconnects‘coolness’toirony,

andchartsthewaysinwhichironymaybeapoliticallyusefulformofcoolness–

andthewaysinwhichthe‘post-postmodern’moment(outofwhichEganwrites,

perKelly)mightalsobeapost-ironicmoment.Heseesthisasproblematic

because“andpoliticalfantasythatdispenseswithreification...risksdispensing

withthegroundsofpoliticalaction,”neatlysummingupsomeoftheproblemsI

identifywithEgan’swork.60

Bydiscipline(asocialscientistratherthanaliterarycritic),McGuiganisnot

inclinedtoofferaliteraryreadingofcoolness.Hisworkdoes,however,insiston

anoverlapbetweentheriseofCulturalStudiesintheacademyandcool

consumption.61ThisoverlapintersectswithKonstantinou’sworkatvarious

points,notleastofwhichisKonstantinou’sefforttoaddressthe“largelacuna”in

MarkMcGurl’sanalysisoftheprogramera.62Thislacunareferstotheoversight

inMcGurl’sworkregardingtheimpactofthelabourmarketonwritersofliterary

fiction.WhatMcGuigansuggestsisthattheinfocusonconsumptionasthe

privilegedsiteofCulturalStudies,thereexisted“adiscernablehomology

betweentheactive[consuming]subjectofCulturalStudiesandthesovereign

consumeroffree-marketcapitalism”–thisis,wecannote,theessenceofNikolas

Rose’scritiqueoftheobligationtochoose(freedom).63

59LeeKonstantinou.CoolCharacters.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.2016.p.268.60Konstantinou.p.259.61SeeJimMcGuigan,‘ThePoliticsofCulturalStudiesandCoolCapitalism,’CulturalPolitics,2:2,2006,pp.137-158.62Konstantinou,p.238.Thislacunaisalsorecognisedinmyaccountoftheshiftinattitudestowardscommercialsuccess,exploredinthesectiononEgan.63McGuigan,2006,p.149.ItisworthnotingherethatMcGuigan’sanalysisfindsadifferentfocusthanKonstantinou’snotjustbydisciplinebutalsobygeography:itisspecificallythe

26

LikeKonstantinou,McGuigantraceshisaccountofcoolnesstoblackculture,

suggestingthat,“Scholarsofthetopicgenerallyagreethatcoolcameoutof

Africa.”64However,whereforKonstantinou,coolnessasacharacterological

featureretainsitsassociationwithironythroughouthisanalysis,forMcGuiganit

beginswithanideaof“composureinbattle,heat,andlifegenerally,especially

foryoungmales.”65McGuiganrecognisessomefunctionofironyinhisaccount,

specificallyironicdetachment,althoughhesuggestsatthesamepointthat

hedonism–thepursuitofpleasuretoexcess–isalsoafactor.Indeed,

McGuigan’saccountof“thepresent-dayhedonisticmainstream”sees“anotable

constituent[as]beingextravagantunrulinessandbinge-drinkingamongst

teenagedgirlsandyoungwomen,”inaformulationthatseemstotakepopular

accountsofladettecultureasaformoffemaleempowermentasatemplatefor

theactualexperienceandintentionoffemalebehaviour.66McGuigandescribes

coolas“markedbyapredominantlymasculineexpressionofdignityfrom

below,”which,admittedly,followsasimilargenealogicallinetoKonstantinou’s

account.67Whatwemightaddtoboth,however,istheriseintheimportanceof

creativityasanaspectofcoolnessandcoolidentity,asitwere.Differentiating

betweencoolnessasamonolithicandinterpretableconceptandmovingtowards

developmentofculturalstudiesinBirminghamonwhichhefocuses,whereasKonstantinoulooksatAmericanfictionand,byimplication,theacademyinAmerica.Nonetheless,therearelegitimateandsignificantconnections:afterall,coolnessisagloballanguage.WemightevenbridgethetwothroughlookingatThomasFrank’sTheConquestofCool,inwhichhelooksatHerbertMarcuse’sworkasaculturalcriticandhighlightsitsnearnesstoadvertisingcopy.SeeTheConquestofCool:BusinessCulture,Counterculture,andtheRiseofHipConsumerism.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1997,p.62.McGuiganandKonstantinoubothmakereferencetoFrank’sinfluentialstudyintheirwork.McGuiganevengoessofarastoacknowledgeFrank’sinnovationinreadingmanagementliteratureaswaytodiscerntheculturalshiftsofthe1960s,butfailsinthisinstancetoanticipatehowcrucialthesestrategieshavebecome–anunavoidablepointinlookingattheself-managementstrategiesinstitutedbycontemporaryneoliberallogic.64McGuigan,p.149.65Ibid.McGuigan’sreadinggivesusspacetospeculateonwhyitis,culturallyspeaking,somucheasierformentobecool.Konstantinoudoesnotnecessarilyoverlookthis,butIcannothelpfeelinghemissessomeopportunitiestoexpanduponit:hisdiscussionofKathyAckerinthecontextofpunk,forinstance,mightbebolsteredbyconsiderationofthatwriter’sclearanddirectassociationwiththeriotgrrrlmovement(see,forinstance,SashaFrere-Jones,‘HannaandHerSisters,’TheNewYorker,November26,2012).66Iwas21in2006andwouldsuggest,frompersonalexperience,thattherewere(andstillare)stillmanypartsoftheworldinwhichthissortofbehaviorbywomenwasseenasfarfrom‘cool’;indeed,Egan’saccountofexcessivedrinkinganddrugusebywomeninAVisitFromtheGoonSquaddemonstratesthis,inanovelwrittenin2010.67McGuigan.2006,p.150.

27

anunderstandingofcoolidentityliessomewherebetweentheliteraryanalysis

ofKonstantinouandthesocialandculturalanalysisofMcGuigan.Itis,aswithso

muchelseinthisthesis,anefforttoencapsulatethedynamisminherentinsuch

categoriesinamomentwheretheclassictropesofcoolnessareincreasingly

uncertain,aswellastorecogniseadistinctlyperformativeaspectofcoolness

thatisnotnowrelatedtodisconnection,buttocaring–forinthepost-Occupy

worldtowardswhichKonstantinou’sworklooks,ithasindeedbecomecoolto

care.Thisformofcaring,however,isrifewithmanyofthesameproblems

Konstantinouidentifiesinhiswritingonpost-irony.Foremostoftheseistheway

inwhichtheassumptionofsubsumptionremovesthegroundsforaction

traditionallyunderstoodaspolitical,whichcanbeseenasanecessarycondition

fortheshifttoleftistfocusonidentitypolitics,characterisingthisasanareain

whichthesubjectcanexperienceandexertsomemeasureofcontrol(asopposed

totheeconomywhichhasbeenincreasinglymystifiedbyitsrecastingasthe

functionofgovernmenti.e.thedomainof(ruling)experts).Thisisconnectedto

myaccountofthepoliticsofintimacy,whichseescoolnessshiftedfrom

dissociationtoassociation,wherethisassociationtakesplaceonpersonalterms

i.e.couchedinthepsychologisedlanguageofunderstanding.

Thisconceptofcaringasafactorofcoolnessisaninherentlyfeminised

construct,giventhetraditionalassociationbetweencaringlabourandwomen.

ThisissupportedbytheoristssuchasAngelaMcRobbie,whoseektoraw

attentiontothewaysinwhichtheemotionaloraffectivelabourrequiredin

immaterialindustriescoincideswithtraditionallyfeminineroles.Further,

McRobbie’sanalysisofcreativityfeedsintothistoo,andisimportanttoconsider

inlightoftheevolvingconceptofcoolness–fortobecreativemeanstomake

somethingandtocareaboutit.Theprogenitordoesnotdisownordisavowtheir

offspring;rather,theyarepassionatelyattachedtoit(atleastinasmuchasthose

genderedreadingsofcreativitythatrelyon‘birthingideas’andsoonare

concerned).Wheretraditionallymasculinistaccountsofcreativityhaveinvolved

adisregardorindifferencetotheconditionsofreception,theentrepreneurial

spiritofneoliberalcapitalismteachesusthatnotonlyisitcooltocare,butitis

alsofinanciallyviable.Ifourworkiswhoweare,thenourprideinitisnomore

thanprideinourselves.Ouridentitiesasworkersandmakersareenmeshedina

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feminiseddiscourseofresponsibilityandpersonalidentity.InEgan’swork,

Danny,thecoolcharacterinTheKeepwhoprofessestocareaboutnothing,isa

figureofridicule–untilhefindssomepurpose,andsomewaytocare.Indeed,

eveninBallard’swork,whichisnotoriouslypoorongender,itisultimatelythe

redemptivefigureofDrJuliaGoodwinwhoofferssalvationattheendofthe

quartet(althoughinKingdomComethisisoutsideofproductiveneoliberal

networks,giventhattheshoppingcentrethatdominatesthetexthasbeen

destroyedbythetimethisredemptionarrives).AlthoughKonstantinou’s

accountoftheliteraryshiftfromironytobelief(and,perhaps,post-belief?)is

convincing,thisaspectofcreativityrequiresmoreconsideration.LaterIdiscuss

theideaofcoolnessasaformofprotection,whichissomewherenear

McGuigan’sreading,andKonstantniou’saccountofirony.Bythis,however,I

referspecificallytothewayinwhichcoolnessbecomesadefenceagainstthe

demandforcreativity,particularlyamongstworkingclasssubjectswhose

performativevocabularyconceivesofcreativitywithadifferentsetof

significations.68Further,theideaofcaringinaworkplacethatconsistently

underminesandbelittlestheworker–asisthecaseinindustriesinwhichzero-

hourscontractsarecommon,forwhatdoessuchacontracttellyouexceptthat

yourvalueisminimal?–becomesrisible,whichservestounderminetheideaof

unionformationorothercollectiveaction.Itmightbecooltocare,butperhaps

onlyincertainclasses,incertainsettings,andforcertainpeople:thosewhocan,

onewayoranother,affordto.

McRobbie’sworkhasalsoidentifiedthewayinwhichyoungwomenare

encouragedtodis-identifywithworkingclassidentitythroughaspirational

mediaandlifestylemessages,andnotedthatinservicesectorjobsthereisrarely

68RichardFlorida’saccountofhowtheworkingclassarepushedoutofcitiesasthosecitiesbecomecreativeareasoffersmaterialevidenceforthisreading.Floridahasdefendedhimselffromcriticswhopilloryhimasanadvocateofneoliberalismbysuggestingthathisthesisisthat“[e]veryhumanbeingiscreative,”butitishardtodiscernanyclearunderstandingofcreativitybeyondamiddle-class,employablenorminhiswork.Indeed,hiscontinuedinsistenceonthemeritocracyofthe‘creativeclass’echoessomeofthemostpersistentexcusesofproponentsofneoliberalcapitalism(tosaynothingofhistalkofa“shifttopost-materialistvalues”–tellthattomillennialsstrugglingtobuyahouse)SeeRichardFlorida,’TheRiseoftheCreativeClass,Revisited,’Citylab,June252012.https://www.citylab.com/life/2012/06/rise-creative-class-revisited/2220/.Toputitinanutshell,theaccountofcreativityheredoesnotdoenoughtoofferanaccountofhowthiscreativitymightfunctionasanimaginativeforcetocountertheexistingrealityofwide-scalemarketization,whichisthesamepleathatclosesbothKonstinatou’stextandLaurenBerlant’sCruelOptimism(and,infact,thisthesis).

29

anypossibilityofunionisation,butthatthesejobsmayofferopportunitiesfor

‘life-longlearning’andprofessionaladvancement.Thisformspartofherrebuttal

totheoristssuchasMichaelHardtandAntonioNegri,whoofferedanoptimistic

accountofthepotentialofimmateriallabourinEmpire(2000)anditssequels.

Althoughmyworklookslargelyattherepresentationofworkincontemporary

literature,Ihavesoughttogroundmyreadingsinrelationtotheactualworldof

workasfaraspossible,andtousethosestudiesandcriticalworksthatbest

representthelivedexperienceofsubjects.Throughthisexploration,Ifindmyself

morecloselytheoreticallyalliedtoMcRobbie,andmyworkinsistsonthe

importanceofconsideringhowthesenewformsofworkimpactthosebondsof

solidaritythatareassumedaspossibleunderaMarxistapproach.The

marginalisationofworking-classsubjectshasmuchtodowiththeemergenceof

formsofaffectivelabourinwhichthenecessaryperformativeskillsetsare

overtlycodedasmiddleclass–readingsocialcues,smilingondemand,

demonstratinganappropriaterelationshipwiththecustomer.69Inaworld

shiftingfrommakingthingstoproducingexperiences,beingthe‘rightsortof

worker’meansbeing–oratleasttryingtobe–theidealneoliberalsubject.And

theidealneoliberalsubjectis,asIexploreinmywork,clearlycodedasmiddle

class.

Thefetishisationofthemiddleclassundertherhetoricofaspirationand

choiceisoftenobscuredbydebatearoundwhatconstitutesa‘newmiddleclass,’

thankstothemeltingpotofneoliberaleconomicpolicyinthe1980s,whichsaw

distinctionsbetweenthepetitebourgeoisieandthe‘professional’class(doctors,

solicitors,accountants)eroded.Theidealversionofthemiddle-classsubject

underneoliberalismowesmuchtotheentrepreneurialspiritofthepetite

bourgeoisie,butthisisoftenunderratedinaccountswhichstillprivilegethe

visiblerespectabilityofthe‘professions’i.e.law,medicine,teaching.Weneed

onlyglanceatBallard’sworktoseethis,andhefrequentlysatirisesthis

perception:inthefinalnovelofhislatequartet,KingdomCome,thewrongful

releaseofanassassinhingesonthetestimonyofagroupofwitnesses

69ThisisshowninEmmaDowling’swork,whichMcRobbiereferences.See‘ProducingtheDiningExperience:Measure,SubjectivityandtheAffectiveWorker,’ephemera,7:1,2007,pp.117-132.

30

constitutedbyateacher,adoctor,andasolicitor,whoseprofessionsassuretheir

respectability–andwhoarealllyingintheirtestimony.Infact,theideal

neoliberalsubjectisamemberofneitherofthesesubsets,butsomethingmuch

morelikeamanager.Thiscanbeseeninthestrategiesforsubjectificationunder

discussionhere,whichare,asRosesuggests,muchmoreakintomanagement

strategiesthanphilosophicaldeliberationsonhowtolive/constructandconduct

oneselfintheworld.Thisoccursatthesametimeasthetransformationofthe

stateunderthesesamerationalities–WendyBrownandothershavenotedhow

thestateunderneoliberalismisremade“inthemodelofthefirm,”gesturing

towardsthewayinwhichthisalterstheobjectofthestatefromprotecting

citizenstoprotectingprofits(ortheeconomy).70

Thisisnottosaythatthelanguageofpoliticalphilosophicalenquiryis

obsolete,butrathertohighlightthewayinwhichanewandapparently

unobjectionablefaux-philosophicalregisterhasbecomecommonplacein

articulatingstrategiesofself-management–thelanguageofpositivepsychology,

of‘mindfulness’and‘self-love.’Thisconnectsusagaintothoseself-maximisation

strategiesthatimaginethesubjectasfreetochoosehappiness–themiddle-class

subjectisimaginedasthesubjectwithoutinclination,withoutanyofthe

substantivebondsorburdensthatmightmakeimpossiblethosechallenges

identifiedbySennett.71ThisunderstandingdrawsonandelaboratesSara

Ahmed’sworkinThePromiseofHappiness,inherdiscussionoftheconstruction

of‘happyobjects’andthesubject’srelationshiptotheseobjects.Usingthe1983

filmEducatingRitaasacasestudy,Ahmeddescribedhowtheprotagonistinthat

filmbecomes‘free’:

ForRitatobecomeeducatedrequiresthatshebecomefreefrom

hungerforthings,frominsistenceonandinenjoyment.Having

70WendyBrown.‘AmericanNightmare:Neoliberalism,Neoconservativism,andDe-Democratisation,’PoliticalTheory,34,2006.pp.690-714,p.706.Thismightbeseentoexplainthegovernmentbailoutofbanksfollowingthe2008financialcrash,whichrancontrarytothestrictestlogicofneoliberaltheoriesofthestate(i.e.non-interference),butmakessensebythisunderstandingofstatetransformation.71Sennett.TheCultureoftheNewCapitalism,p.5.

31

becomefree,Ritacannowchoose,withthecapacityforchoicebeing

organizedthroughtropesofindifference.72

Thiscoincideswiththoseculturesof‘cool’capitalismtoucheduponearliertoo,

inwhichthe‘coolness’ofthesubjectmanifestsasapoliticallyconsequential

indifference,whichIsuggestmayoperateasaformofprotectionforthe

vulnerableworkerundertheprecariouslabourpracticesandpoliciesof

neoliberalism.Iseektoquestiontheassumptionsofapathy,learnedor

otherwise,thattoooftenunderpinaccountsofperformativeindifference–this

is,Ithink,aparticularprobleminreadingworking-classsubjects,andprecarious

workersmoregenerally.

Tensionsdoexistbetweenthisaccountofthemiddle-classsubjectasfree

frominclinationandtheriseofleftistidentitypoliticsthatseektoinscribe

attachmenttoidentityasthefoundationalelementofthepoliticalsubject.Ihave

soughttopaysomeattentiontothisinmythesis,asthe‘hollowingout’ofleftist

critiquehasplayedanimportantpartintheriseoftheneoliberalhappiness

discourseItraceinmywork.Thesetensions,broadlyspeaking,havetheirroots

inthecounterculturalmovementsofthenineteensixties,inwhichpolitical

freedomandthecapacityforindividualhappinesswerecloselyinterconnected.

BothBallardandEganexplicitlyrecogniseandaddressthisintheirnovels,which

isanotherreasonformyfocusontheirwork.WendyBrown’scritiqueofidentity

politicsinStatesofInjury(1995)hasbeenhelpfulinmyexaminationofthese

tensions.Brown’sworkhasbeenimportantinunderstandinghowtheconceptof

ressentimentisatworkincontemporarysociety,whichisexploredinlookingat

KingdomCome.Heraccountofhowsufferingistransformedintoasiteof

politicalidentityhasalsobeenusefulinformulatinganaccountofhowsufferers

ofaffectivedistressarereconstitutedasproductivesubjects.Thisreconstitution

islinkedtomyreadingofsocialmediaasasiteofsubjectificationinwhich

sufferingmaybetransformedintoaformofsocialandeveneconomiccapital,

elaboratedbyinvestigationofLookatMe.

72SaraAhmed.ThePromiseofHappiness.Durham,NCandLondon:DukeUniversityPress,2010,p.35.

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DistressandDissonance

AlthoughIagreewithPhilipMirowski’sassertionthat“mostpeoplehavenoclue

whatneoliberalismis,muchlessharboropinionsabouthowtheirownthought

processesmightrelatetoit,”thoseprocessesandpoliciesIhaveoutlinedasthe

structuralmanifestationsofneoliberalismarediscernabletosubjects,andtheir

impactsareclearlyfelt.73Forinstance,workersinthe‘gigeconomy’often

understandthattheirlackoflegalprotectionisrelatedtothesystemic

dismantlingofformalunionpowers–andeveniftheydon’t,theyrealisethat

workershistoricallyhaddifferentrightsthanthosetheyarecurrently

permitted.74Likewise,theraisingofenvironmentalconsciencethrough,for

example,state-sponsoredrecyclingprogrammes,meansthatmostpeopleare

awareofthecontemporarystateofenvironmentalprecarity,tosomedegree

(althoughtherearethosewhodisputeit,forvariousreasons).Withtheadventof

theInternet,andtheriseofmobileInternettechnologies,aswellasthegeneral

riseinaffluencethatseesmoreandmorepeoplewiththematerialand

educationalmeanstoaccessthesetechnologies,informationismoredirectlyand

widelyavailableinthewestthanatanyotherhistoricalmoment.75Giventhis,

theconceptof‘falseconsciousness’onwhichMarxismhasreliedforitsaccount

ofhowsubjectsremainenmeshedinoppressivecapitalistsystemsisoflimited

utility.Instead,Iproposeamodelof‘cognitivedissonance,’inwhichthesubject

isatonceawareofthemoreorlesscompletestateofcrisisoftheworld,but,

findingnowaytorenderthisintelligibleinthedepoliticisedcontextof

neoliberalism,maintainsastateofdisconnectionfromtheirownimbricationin

thiscrisis.Atthesametime,thisawarenessisinherentlydistressingtothe

73PhilipMirowski.NeverLetASeriousCrisisGoToWaste,LondonandBrooklyn,NY:Verso,2014,p.34.74AgoodexampleofneoliberalisedstatepracticescanbeseenintheTaylorreview’saccountofthefunctionofunions,whereitissuggestedthatthe‘culture’ofhaving‘avoice’maybeanadequateordesirablesubstituteforunionprotections,particularlyinnewindustries–see‘GoodWork:TheTaylorReviewofModernWorkingPractices,’July2017,51-2:www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/627671/good-work-taylor-review-modern-working-practices-rg.pdf.Thiswilfullyignoresthevarietyofreasonsworkersmaynotfeelcomfortableadvocatingforthemselves,inthecontextofprecariouszero-hourscontractsandothernewworkingpractices.ThisistoucheduponwhenlookingatEgan’sworkandthetypeofsubjectwhomayprosper(ornot)intheseworkplaces.75Concomitantly,wemightsuggest,misinformationisalsomorefreelyavailablethaneverbefore.Iwilltouchuponthislater,inmyaccountof‘post-truthpolitics.’

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subject,nomatterhowdeeplysuppressed,andthuscontributestothese

widespreadstatesofaffectivedistress.

Myreadingofthesubjectisalways,Ishouldstress,asympatheticone:Isee

affectivedistressasarealformofsuffering,andamseekingtoestablishan

alternativewayinwhichsubjectsmaybeabletorenderitintelligible,outsideof

psyorwellnessstrategiesthatquietpoliticalcritiqueanddiscouragesystemic

analysis.76Iamsuggestingthatfictioncancounterthisdistressordissonancein

itsabilitytorevealtheundercurrentsofpowerthatshapeourlives,andin

offeringreadersanimaginativevocabularywithwhichtolookbeyondthe

presentmomentandbegintoconstructanalternativefuture.Itcanalsoshowus

theanticipatedconsequencesifwedonot;lookatthecurrentsuccessofthe

adaptationofMargaretAtwood’sTheHandmaid’sTale(1985).77Literaturehasa

clearpublicfunction:itbondsandbindsus,andcontributestothosemythsthat

formourculture,andourselves–thisisevidentinmyaccountofAmerican

literaturewhenlookingatEgan’swork.

Theindividualisationofdistresslimitstheempatheticpotentialofsubjects,

whichcanonlybedamagingonbothapublicandprivatelevel.Inthisthesis,I

amnotseekingtodisparageanyformoftreatmentortosuggestthatmental

healthisentirelyamatterofsocialdeterminism,althoughIbelievethatthereisa

strongcorrelationbetweenthetwothatisdeliberatelydownplayedinmost

publicdiscussion,whichtendstofocusmoregenerallyonissuesofsocialstigma

aroundthereportingandsharingofstatesofdistress,understatingtheroleof

materialandsocialcapitalinprocessesofreportingandsharing.Indeed,sucha

focusmayevenbecounter-productive,inlightofthe‘responsibilisation’that

occursthroughneoliberalism’sindividualisingprocesses.Thisrhetoricallows

thosewhoaremiddleclasstoconsume(private)therapeutictreatmentandbe

valorisedfortheirchoice,whilethemorecomplexsufferingofworkingclassor

otherwise‘undesirable’subjectsisdemonisedasachosenstateofaberrance–

whydothey,too,notavailthemselvesoftheseresources?Thisfailstoaccount

76Thesestrategiesalsoenmeshthesubjectinprocessesofconsumptionthatareenvironmentallydestructive.Althoughthishasnotbeenacentralobjectofinvestigationinmythesis,itdoesformpartofthebackgroundtotheseexperiencesofaffectivedistress.77JosefAdalian.‘HowTheHandmaid’sTaleChangedtheGameforHulu,’Vulture.June152017,www.vulture.com/2017/06/hulu-the-handmaids-tale-how-it-changed-the-game.html.

34

fornotjustmaterialdisparity(moneytoaffordtreatment)butalsothemore

complexprocessesofsocialisationbywhich‘wellbeing’isconstructed.Ballard’s

workisacutelyawareoftheseprocesses.Hemostdirectlydeconstructsthemin

MillenniumPeople,withitssustainedfocusonthecultureindustryandthewayit

enactsacivilisingprogrammeforthemiddleclass.Morebroadly,Ballard’s

repeatedreturntoclosedcommunitieswithcovertrulesthatareatfirst

unintelligibletohisprotagonistsrepresentstheinarticulacyofnon-middle-class

subjects–“outsiders”–inthelogicsandbehavioursofthatprivilegedclass.

Egan’sworkdoeslesstorevealtheseprocesses,becauseitremainscaught

withinthem,asweshallsee.

Oneofthecentralproblemsoftheprimacyofhappinessdiscourseisthatit

institutesaframeworkinwhichsufferingisrelativisedaccordingtohowitisfelt.

Assuch,themiddle-classsubjectwhopurchasestherapytoalleviatepersonal

distressmaycometocharacterisethisasaformofpoliticalaction–theworldis

bad,andtheyaretakingactionnottofeelbadinit,whichiscastasapolitically

rebelliousstance.Iexplainthisfurtherbelow,inmyaccountoftheproblematics

ofthe‘politicsofintimacy,’aswellasexploringitinEgan’swork,inwhichthese

samelogicsareapparent.Ihaveidentifiedthisasadistinctproblemin

contemporaryfeministdiscourse.Theriseofdiscussionsofaffectivedistressasa

commonoccurrence,parsedinthelanguageofmentalhealth,alsotendsto

presentsufferingasnaturaland‘normal,’withnoefforttoexplainitbeyondthe

individual.Theseformsofsufferingmayevenberecastasformsofsocialcapital.

Theriseincelebrityaccountsofsufferingfromanxiety,aswellasitsfrequency

inblogsandothersocialmedia,isaninstanceofthis.78Thisis,again,not

intendedasajudgment,butasanindictmentofthewayinwhichneoliberallogic

seekstoimpelsubjectstomarketiseeverypartoftheirlifeandsubjectivity–

eventhesufferingitcauses.Thisisalsoadangeroustendencybecausethe

intensefocusonpersonalexperiencesofdistressminimizeswiderempathetic

abilitythroughtherelativisationofsufferingandtheobfuscationofthelink

betweenpubliclifeandindividualselfhood.

78AGooglesearchfortheterm‘celebritieswithanxiety’bringsup894,000results:www.google.co.uk/search?q=celebrities+with+anxiety&oq=celebrities+with+anxiety&aqs=chrome..69i57j0l5.3543j0j9&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8

35

Theprimacyof‘happiness’asalogicofselfoperatesasa‘styleofthought,’

whichessentiallyworksbackwardsfromagivenanswerordictateslimitsof

understanding.AsRosesuggests,astyleofthoughtis,

notjustaboutacertainformofexplanation,aboutwhatitisto

explain,itisalsoaboutwhatthereistoexplain.Thatistosay,it

shapesandestablishestheveryobjectofexplanation,thesetof

problems,issues,phenomenathatanexplanationisattemptingto

accountfor.79

Inasimilarvein,SaraAhmedsuggeststhat,“Positivepsychologyispositive

aboutpositivefeeling;itpresumesthepromissorynatureofitsownobject.”80

Subjectivityastheguidingprincipleoflife,withtheovertaimofmaximisinga

personalfeelingofhappiness,makesthesamepresumption:happinessbecomes

notanexplanation,buttheformofwhatthereistobeexplained.Anxiety,then,

shouldnotbelinkedtoimminentenvironmentaldisaster,risinglevelsof

personaldebt,ortheincreasingdifficultyinsecuringstablehousing,butframed

asa‘problemoftheself.’Theseotherthingsare,byneoliberalcommonsense,

factsthatthesubjectcannotchange.Ifthesubjectcannotavoidawarenessofor

concernabouttheseapparentlyinevitablefacts,sheshouldseektorestructure

herresponsetothesefacts–tomaximiseherexperienceofhappinessormanage

herexperienceofdistressinaccordancewiththesystemthatgeneratesthese

facts.Bymyaccount,oneofthecorestrengthsofliteratureisthatithasthe

capacitytostageaconfrontationbetweenthereaderandtheseaspectsoflife

thatareotherwisenaturalised,andinsodoingtodenaturalisethemandrefute

their‘inevitability’–toundocommonsense.

Happiness,AffectandthePoliticalImplicationsofFeeling

ThelanguageofmentalillnesstowhichthetermsemployedearlierbyHalland

O’Sheabelong–“feelingsofinsecurity,anxiety,stressanddepression”-

generatesitsownmanagementdiscourse,withtheconcomitantfoilofmental

wellnessasa“moralimperative,”asCarlCederströmandAndréSpicerdescribe

79NikolasRose.ThePoliticsofLifeItself.Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,2007,p.12.80Ahmed.ThePromiseofHappiness,p.8.

36

it.81CederströmandSpicermakereferencetoAlenkaZupancic’sdefinitionof

“biomorality,”partofa“moralityoffeelingsandemotions”:“apersonwhofeels

good(andishappy)isagoodperson;apersonwhofeelsbadisabadperson.”82I

amnotconvincedthatthisdefinitionaccuratelycorrespondstopublicattitudes

tomentalhealth,particularlygiventheon-goingworkaroundremovingthe

‘stigma’ofmentalillness,whichhasbecomeacorepartofpublicdiscourse

around‘happiness’underneoliberalism.83Thismessagehasbeenwidely

disseminateddue,undoubtedly,tothemuchvaunted‘globalmentalhealth

epidemic’authorssuchasOliverJames(SelfishCapitalism,2008),RichardLayard

(Happiness:LessonsfromaNewScience,2005)andMartinSeligmanhavesought

toanalyse,andthesearchfora‘cure’.Ratherthancastingsufferersofmental

illness-whichisgenerallyreportedasaffectingaboutonepersonineveryfour

familiesworldwide,ahugeproportionoftheglobalpopulation-as‘bad’or

aberrant,andtreatingthempunitively,thesecampaignsseektoreassure

sufferersthattheyarenotalone,thatthereisnoshameinstrugglingwithmental

healthand,crucially,thatthereisawayto‘overcome’suchstruggles,through

productiveengagement.84Governmentsarenotaloneinthis–manybusinesses

andbrandshaverecognisedthecommercialpotentialofsufferingasaselling

point,asnotedinanarticleinMarketingWeeklastyear,‘Howbrandsarehelping

toremovethestigmaofmentalillness.’85Thereisevenaclothinglinecalled,

‘WearYourLabel’whosebiosays:

WearYourLabelstartedasasimpleidea:clothingtocreatea

conversationaroundmentalhealth.Ourteammembers[the

81CarlCederströmandAndréSpicer.TheWellnessSyndrome.Cambridge:Polity,2015,p.4.82CederströmandSpicer.TheWellnessSyndrome,p.5.83Asearchfortheterms“mentalillnessstigma”onjournalrepositoryScienceDirectrevealsasteadyincreaseinthenumberofarticlespublishedonthetopicsince1999,withmoreresultsinthepastfiveyearsthantheprevioustencombined:www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleListURL&_method=list&_ArticleListID=-1144347055&_sort=r&_st=13&view=c&md5=c9dd6355db136a78216fcecd574de095&searchtype=a.Thisismatchedbyanincreaseinpubliccampaigns(oftengovernmentfunded)designedto‘de-stigmatise’mentalillness.SomeexamplesarecollectedbySarahManavis,in‘9MentalHealthCampaignsFromAroundtheWorld,MentalFloss,May132016.www.mentalfloss.com/article/79812/9-mental-health-campaigns-around-world84RangaswamySrinivasaMurthyetal,editors.‘MentalHealth:NewUnderstanding,NewHope.’TheWorldHealthReport2001.Geneva,2001,p.24.85JonathanBacon.‘Howbrandsarehelpingtoremovethestigmaofmentalillness,’MarketingWeek,12May2016,www.marketingweek.com/2016/05/12/how-brands-are-helping-to-remove-the-stigma-of-mental-illness/.

37

preferrednomenclatureforemployeesintheneoliberallanguageof

theworkplace]haveallexperiencedmentalillness[theword

‘experienced’bothsuggestsdistancefromtheillness,i.e.overcoming,

andcategorisesthissufferingasimpermanentandwithinthe

vocabularyofchoice–neoliberallogictellsuswecanchooseourown

experiences,withhappinessdiscourseofferingstrategiesfor

‘reclaiming’and‘reframing’thosewhichhavenotfeltchosen]and

unitedunderthecommongoalofendingthestigma,instyle[thereis

noclearindicationastowhy‘style’wouldimpacteithermentalhealth

oranyattendantstigma,althoughtheappealtopresentationtiesin

wellwiththeframeworkof‘selfasenterprise’anditsemphasisona

highlevelofself-presentation].86Ourmotto?It’sokaynottobeokay

[aslong,itseems,asthisfallswithintherealmsof‘notok’whereyou

canstillmakemoneytospendongarmentsdesignedtopublicise

yourlackof‘okayness’].87

Thesuffererofmentalillnesshasbeenrecastasaconsumerdemographic,at

leastatthelevelofsufferingwheretheyareabletoengagein‘productive

consumption,’toborrowatermfromHarvey.88Thecharacterisationofsufferers

as‘bad’ismorecomplex,andistiedtoamorecomprehensivedisengagement

fromproductiveactivity–asHarveymakesclear,sicknessundercapitalismis

definedas“inabilitytogotowork,inabilitytoperformadequatelywithinthe

circulationofvariablecapital(toproducesurplusvalue)ortoabidebyits

disciplinaryrules.”89The“moralimperativetohappiness”musttreadacareful

86SeeLoisMcNay,‘SelfAsEnterprise:DilemmasofControlandResistanceinFoucault’sTheBirthofBiopolitics,’Theory,CultureandPolitics,26:6,2009,pp.55-77.87Seethe‘bio’sectionoftheWearYourLabelwebsite,wearyourlabel.comItshouldbeobviousthatthisstrategyisdistinctfromthoseoflinguisticreclamationpracticedbyminoritygroupssuchasmembersoftheLGBTQorblackcommunities,relyingasitdoesonvagueappealstoanilldefinedcommunityof‘sufferers’ratherthanofferingthedétournementofwordswhichhavebeenusedtodiminishoroppressmembersofthosegroups.88DavidHarvey.SpacesofHope.Edinburgh:EdinburghUniversityPress,2000,p.103:“Productiveconsumptionofthecommoditylabourpowerinthelabourprocessunderthecontrolofthecapitalistrequires,interalia,themobilisationof‘animalspirits’,sexualdrives,affectivefeelings,andcreativepowersoflabourtoagivenpurposedefinedbycapital.”89Harvey.SpacesofHope,p.106:“Thosewhocannot(forphysical,psychicorsocialreasons)continuetofunctionasvariablecapital,furthermore,falleitherintothe‘hospital’oftheindustrialreservearmy(sicknessisdefinedundercapitalismbroadlyasinabilitytowork)orelseintothat

38

lineinitscharacterisationoftheunhappy:itwouldnotdotoalienatepotential

consumers.

Toelaborateonthe‘affectivedimension’ofsufferingcategorisedasmental

illness,then,wemustrecallthataffectisdifferentfromfeeling.Theaffective

realmconstitutesapre-personalspaceinwhichthelogicandconvention(both

biographicalandsocial)thatgiveformtoemotionorfeelingareabsent.Brian

MassumimakesthisclearinhisintroductiontoDeleuzeandGuattari’sA

ThousandPlateaus(1980):“Itisaprepersonalintensitycorrespondingtothe

passagefromoneexperientialstateofthebodytoanotherandimplyingan

augmentationordiminutioninthatbody’scapacitytoact.”90Massumiisa

centraltheoristofthe‘affectiveturn’inhumanitiesandsocialsciences,along

withauthorssuchasPatriciaCloughandLaurenBerlant.91Theaffectiverealmis

identifiedasonewithpotentialfordisruptionthroughitsremovalfrom

processesofsubjectification:itcontainspotential,ratherthanpossibility,in

Massumi’sterminology.Possibilityissomethingliketheretrogradeexpression

ofpotential,sowhenwesaythehorizonsofpossibilityarenarrowedunder

neoliberalism,weareeffectivelyworkingbackwardsfromitspresumedprimacy.

This‘potential’offersaconceptualspaceoutsideofthetotalisingforceof

neoliberalism.Theneedtocontroltheaffectiverealminordertodiscouragethe

spreadofthispotentialisoneofthecentralreasonsfortheconstructionofa

regulatorydiscourseofhappinessunderneoliberalism,whichseekstomanage

affectandredirectitintothesortsofstateslistedbyHallandO’Shea.Affect

theoryimplicitlyrecognisesthatneoliberalculturedoesnotdependon

intentionality-andexplicitly,asinMassumi’swritingonRonaldReaganin

Movement,Affect,Sensation:ParablesfortheVirtual(2000).Theirrationalityof

neoliberalismisexploredatlengthbyHarvey,inhisaccountofhowithas

undisciplinedinfernoofthelumpenproletariat(read‘underclass’)forwhomMarxregrettablyhadsolittlesympathy.”90BrianMassumi.‘NotesontheTranslationandAcknowledgements,’inGillesDeleuzeandFélixGuattari,,AThousandPlateaus:CapitalismandSchizophrenia.LondonandMinneapolis,MN:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,1987,pp.v–xix,p.v.91ManyofthesetheoristsarebroughttogetherinTheAffectiveTurn:TheorizingtheSocial,editedbyPatriciaTicinetoCloughandJeanHalley.LondonandDurham,NC:DukeUniversityPress,2007.HarveyalsoinvokesthelinksbetweentheoriesofaffectandMarx’swork,inhisreadingofMarxon‘senseperception,’SpacesofHope,p.101.

39

betrayeditsownapparentlyfoundationallogic.92This‘irrationality’or

variousnessisacentralpartofneoliberalcommon-sensesuccess,throughits

abilitytosubjectalloppositionaldiscoursestoitsmarketlogicandthussubsume

them.

Thisisconnected,too,tothecontemporarypoliticalmomentcategorisedas

‘post-truth’politics,markedbyBrexitintheU.K.andDonaldTrump’sriseto

powerintheU.S.A.andaccordingwithaglobalre-emergenceofrightwing

nationalism.93RalphKeyes2004workThePost-TruthEraisoftencitedasan

earlysourceforthecontemporaryuseoftheterm,althoughIthinkthatKeyes’

emphasisondishonestysomewhatmischaracterisesthenatureof‘post-truth,’

whichreliesnotsomuchondeliberatefalsification(althoughthisispartofit),

butonare-categorisationofauthority-thatis,therighttomaketruth

statements.94Theemergenceofpost-truthpoliticsisconnectedtotheriseof

statesofaffectivedistress,inthatitheightenstheunintelligibilityofpower

throughitsdestabilisationofauthority.Italsodemonstrateshowpervasive

neoliberalhappinessdiscourseis:inunderstandingthis,IhavefoundMimiThi

Nguyen’saccountofthe‘politicsofintimacy’tobeausefulconceptual

framework.95The(de-radicalised)politicsofintimacyrepresentstheannexingof

thepublicspherebythepersonalthroughthesamelanguageoffeelingand

instinctemployedinpsychotherapeuticrationales,wellnessrhetoric,self-

maximisationstrategies,andotheraspectsofneoliberalhappinessdiscourse.

Nguyen’saccountisdrawnfromtheintimateaestheticthatmarkedtheriot

grrrlmovementofthe1990s,whichshedescribesasexpressing,“awishforan

authenticformofknowledgefreefromerrorandillusion”and“asentimental

politicsaswellasanaesthetics.”96Unlikethepoliticsofaffect,Nguyen’sconcept

doesnotrelyonaprioriknowledge,butlocatesthepoliticsofintimacyastaking

92Harvey.ABriefHistoryofNeoliberalism,pp.79-81.93Theriseofpost-truthpoliticscanbeseenintheOxfordEnglishDictionary’sselectionof‘post-truth’asthe‘wordoftheyear’for2016.Itisdefinedthereinas“relatingtoordenotingcircumstancesinwhichobjectivefactsarelessinfluentialinshapingpublicopinionthanappealstoemotionalandpersonalbelief.”OxfordDictionaryOnlinewww.en.oxforddictionaries.com/word-of-the-year/word-of-the-year-2016.94RalphKeyes.ThePost-TruthEra.NewYork:StMartin’sPress,2004.95See‘RiotGrrrl,RaceandRevival,’Women&Performance:ajournaloffeministtheory,22:2-32012,pp.173-196.96ThiNguyen.‘RiotGrrrl,RaceandRevival,’p.177.

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placeself-consciouslywithinand,inheraccount,inoppositionto,structural

determinations.Nguyen’scritiqueofthispoliticsas“engenderinganemotional

style,andarhetoricalpractice,thatsometimesglossedintimacyforreciprocity,

experienceforexpertise,andmisrecognizedhowforcesworkthroughthese

idioms”seemstomeasuccinctsummationoftheemotiverealmofpost-truth

politics,andanillustrationoftheriseoftherhetoricof‘truthiness’-another

recententrytotheOED,definedas“thequalityofseemingorbeingfelttobetrue,

evenifnotnecessarilytrue.”97Therhetoricofpost-truthpoliticsseeksto

subsumematerialinequalityintowhatitcastsasapoliticallyinconsequential

emotionalrealm;thisisthepoliticsofinjuryBrownhaswarnedagainst,where

materialdisadvantageissublimatedtosufferingassiteofpoliticalidentity.98

Post-truthrhetoricallowsformaterialitytobecomeentirelydetachedfrom

perceivedexperienceofsuffering;thuswehavethereactionaryriseofthe

straightwhitemaleasminoritygroup,overturningtheprincipleof‘protected

class’entirely.Politicaldiscourseinwhichsufferingismeasuredthrough

professionoffeelingdivertsattemptstounderstandthewaysinwhichsystems

andprocessesofpowerworktodisadvantageandmarginaliseparticularpeople

andclasses.Sufferingbecomesaprobleminthatitrepresentsanobstacleto

privatehappiness–toflourishing,asSeligmanmighthaveit–insteadofbeinga

measureofmaterialoppressionorpublicunfreedom.Thedenigrationof

expertiseisbuiltintoapoliticalframeworkthatreliesonindividualaccrualof

knowledgethroughdirectemotionalidentification.

InexploringEgan’swork,IuseaquotefromDianaFussinwhichshewrites,

“‘Thepersonalispolitical’re-privatizessocialexperience.”99Ifthesenseofthe

personalthatbecomespoliticalisaconceptionofselfhoodbuiltthroughand

aroundthelanguageandlogicofpsychotherapeuticrationales,allactiononthe

97ThiNguyen.‘RiotGrrrl,RaceandRevival,’p.177.SeealsoRose’scommentsinGoverningtheSoul:“Publicappearance,language,conduct,arenotnowvaluedforwhattheycanachieve,butareinterpretedintermsoftheinnerpersonalitythatismanifested;closeness,warmthandthefrankexpressionoftheinnerselfhavebecomethesupremevalues.”p.219,emphasismine.Roseusesthephrase“tyrannyofintimacy”forthisphenomenon.Thisdefinitionof‘truthiness’takenfromOxfordLivingDictionaries,www.en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/truthiness,emphasismine.98WendyBrown.StatesofInjury:PowerandFreedominLateModernity.Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,1995.99DianaFuss.EssentiallySpeaking:Feminism,Nature&Difference.LondonandNewYork:Routledge,1989,p.101.

41

selfmaybepresentedaspolitical.Thislegitimatesapoliticswithlittleinterestin

practicalredistributiveaction,protectionoflabourrights,andsoon,instituting

insteadapoliticsofself-maximisation,operatingbythesamelogicasthe

happinessdiscourseIchartinthisthesis.Thisway,neoliberalismcanmoderate

itsowneconomicfocuswithadiversionarypoliticaldiscoursethatdovetails

withitsnarrativeofresponsibilisation.Ifallproblems,includingpolitical

problems,areproblemsoftheself,thereisnoneedforeconomicredressorstate

intervention,orforexpertiseingovernance.Thedenigrationofexpertiseisa

corestrategyofpost-truthpoliticsandneoliberalhappinessdiscoursealike;this

ishowfeelingbecomesequivalenttofact,and(individual)happiness–rather

than,say,freedom,orequality–comestobethecentralprincipleoflife.

Theriseofthisemotivepoliticalregisterisdue,inpart,tothelackofany

politicalconceptionofthegoodlifeinneoliberalism,towhichIhavealready

alluded.Anypoliticalconstructionof‘goodlife,’beitLockean,Hobbesianor

Rousseauian(oreventheuncertainutopiaofMarxism,whichconcentratesmore

onavoidingthe‘badlife’),reliesonafoundationalbeliefinthebestwayto

organisesocietyforthebenefitofcitizensandavoidanceofconflict,inbroad

terms.Neoliberalismisnotapoliticaltheory.Itisaneconomictheorywith

politicalconsequencesandnoattachmenttoanyethicaldimension,asshownby

itsabilitytoaccommodateandsubsumedisparateandoftencontradictory

discourses.100Harveyrecognisestheproblemthisposesforneoliberalisminits

applicationasatheoryofstate,highlightingtheproblemof‘socialincoherence’

withwhichBallard’sworkgrapples:

Atthepopularlevel,thedrivetowardsmarketfreedomsandthe

commodificationofeverythingcanalltooeasilyrunamokand

producesocialincoherence.Thisdestructionofformsofsocial

solidarityandeven,asThatchersuggested,oftheveryideaofsociety

itself,leavesagapingholeinthesocialorder.Itthenbecomes

peculiarlydifficulttocombatanomieandcontroltheresultantanti-

100Thisis,quitesimply,becauseneoliberalismisatheartaneconomicstructure,ratherthanapoliticalone.Itreconceptualisesthemanagementofpopulationasthemanagementofeconomicforces.

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socialbehaviourssuchascriminality,pornography,orthevirtual

enslavementofothers.101

Theunintelligibilityofthispowerisdistressingtosubjects,makingitdifficultto

identifyforcesofdominationandsodifficulttoresist.Theimperativetochoose

–toconstructalifebasedonaseriesofchoices,each“imbuedwithaself-

referentialmeaning”–involvesthesubjectinthischaosofchoice,obligingthem

toparticipateinchoicesaccordingtowhatisavailable,evenwhenthesechoices

maynotbeintheirbestinterests.102Neoliberalhappinessdiscourseseeksboth

tomanagethisdistressandtodiscouragesubjectsfromseekingtounderstand

theirsufferingonanystructurallevel.Thisworksthroughemphasisonholistic

wellnessandbiologicalreadingsofunhappiness,whichrecastsufferingasboth

physical-andtherefore,curablethroughworkonthebody-andnatural–that

is,inevitableunderanyformofsocialorganisation.Inthislanguage,althoughthe

conditionofbeingunhappymaynotbeachoice,‘choosing’tostaythatwayis.

Thesubjectisencouragedtotakeresponsibilityfortheirowndistressandto

choosebetweenarangeofstrategies(pharmaceutical,therapeutic,narrative)to

manage,andthusalleviate,it.Thisdisconnectionalienatestheindividualfrom

structuralcritiqueandenmeshesthemdeeperwithintheobligationofchoiceby

whichneoliberalismconstructsitsownidealsubjects-orrather,forcesthese

subjectstochoosetheirownconstruction.Thisisportrayedandenactedin

Egan’swork,aswewillsee.

Onthe‘ProductiveImperative’

InthisintroductionandthroughoutmythesisIusetheterm‘productive

imperative’todescribethemotorofneoliberalreproduction.Thistermisclosely

connectedtothegrowthimperativeofcapitalism,ofwhichPaulM.Sweezy

wrote,

Intheirsingle-mindedpursuitofprofit,inwhichnonecanrefuseto

joinonpainofelimination,capitalistsaredriventoaccumulateever

101Harvey.ABriefHistoryofNeoliberalism,p.80.102Rose.GoverningtheSoul,p.231.

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morecapital,andthisbecomestheirsubjectivegoalandthemotor

forceoftheentireeconomicsystem.

Itisthisobsessionwithcapitalaccumulationthatdistinguishes

capitalismfromthesimplesystemforsatisfyinghumanneedsitis

portrayedasinmainstreameconomictheory.103

Iusetheterm‘productiveimperative’insteadofgrowthimperativebecauseIam

lookingnotattheeconomicsystemofneoliberalism,althoughitsconsequences

areimportant,asIhaveoutlined.Thisisnot,asshouldbeclearbynow,aMarxist

reading.Instead,Iamfocusingontheneoliberalsubject,oreventheproduction

ofsubjectivityundertheprocessesofneoliberalism.Theaimofpromotinga

discourseofhappinessthatfunctionsasaformofgovernmentalityand

interpellatessubjectstobecomeself-regulatingisnotonlytoensuresubjectsdo

notactoutdissentorinterruptmarketflows,butalsotoperpetuatethesubject’s

imbricationinprocessesofproductionandconsumption.Itisthisimbrication

thattiesthesubjecttothesystemthatisatthesametimethecauseoftheir

suffering.Thisinformsmysuggestionthatthereareacceptableorcorrectforms

ofsuffering,oftenoverlookedincontemporarycriticalaccountsofhow

conceptualisationsofhappinessareatworkunderneoliberalism.

What’sLiteratureGotToDoWithIt?:ExplainingMyApproach

Givenallthis,then,whydoesmythesisfocusonliterature,insteadofanyother

culturalform(besidestheeconomicimperativeoffundingreceivedunderthe

auspicesofliteraryscholarship)?Andwhythesetwoauthors?Ihavetouchedon

theanswerstothesequestionsthroughoutthisintroductionsofar,andwill

attemptheretogiveafullexplanationforeach.Theunderstandingofliterature

onwhichthisthesisisbuiltreliesonseeingliteratureasapublicformofartwith

thecapacityforpoliticalconscienceandanethicaldutytothereader.If,as

FredericJamesonandMarkFisherhavesuggested,itiseasiertoimaginetheend

oftheworldthantheendofcapitalism/neoliberalism,andthesesystemsinflict

damageateverylevel,asIhavesuggested,thequestionofimaginativecapacity

becomesapoliticalone.In‘AProperlyPoliticalConceptofLove’(2011),Berlant

103PaulM.Sweezy.‘CapitalismandtheEnvironment,’MonthlyReview,56:5,2004.www.monthlyreview.org/2004/10/01/capitalism-and-the-environment/.

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described“theworkofnormativenegationthatarevolutionaryprojectmust

assumeasitsburden.”104WhatIamsuggesting,then,isthatliteraturehasa

revolutionarycapacity,whichinthecontextofmyworkistwofold.

First,literaturehasthecapacitytostageaconfrontationwithrealitythat

exposesthoseelementsofpowerthatareusuallyrenderedinvisiblethrough

common-sensenaturalisation.Laterinthisthesis,IuseMaryWollenstonecraft’s

gothicwritingasanexampleofthiscapacity.105Moreimmediately,thisiswhatI

thinkBallard’sworkdoes,throughitsfocusonthesystemsbywhichourworld

isconstructed.Thiswillbecomeapparentthroughmyexplorationofhislate

novelsinthefollowingsection.Thesecondcomponentofthisrevolutionary

potentialisthewayinwhichliteratureisuniquelypositionedtoofferreaders

thespaceinwhichtoconstructanewpoliticalimaginarybasedonaconditionof

empatheticsolidaritythatovercomesthelimitingorproblematicaspectsofthe

politicsofintimacyexploredearlier.Literaturehasadistinctabilitytoofferthe

readernarrativeinsightintothelivesandthoughtsofcharacters.Eganoncesaid

thatforher,writing“islikepeekingintowindowsandgoinginsidehousesand

findingoutwhatthepeopletherearelike,whattheythink.”106Inthis“peeking

inside,”fewerconstraintsareplacedonthereaderthaninotherformsthatmay

alsoofferpotentialempatheticencounters;forexample,inafilm,wemaybe

confrontedwithanactorplayingarole,withwhomwehavecertainassociations

thatinhibitourcapacitytoidentifythemfullyasthecharactertheyportray.

Literatureoffersthepossibilityofanimmersiveempatheticexperience.Thisis,I

think,somethingliketheaccountofitspossibilitythathasbeenpositedbythe

emergentschoolofNewSincerity,whichIalsoaddressinmyexplorationof

Egan’swork.

Intheircollection,RethinkingEmpathythroughLiterature(2014),Meghan

MarieHammondandSueJ.Kimintroduceavarietyofperspectivesonthis

empatheticpotential.Althoughmanyofthestudiestheycitesuggestthatthere

104LaurenBerlant.‘AProperlyPoliticalConceptofLove,’CulturalAnthropology,26:4,2011,pp.683-691.p.685.105SeeMaggieKilgour,TheRiseoftheGothicNovel.LondonandNewYork:Routledge,1995,p.75.106JenniferEganinterviewedbyZaraDinnen,‘’Thisisallartificial”:AnInterviewwithJenniferEgan,.Post45,May2016.www.post45.research.yale.edu/2016/05/this-is-all-artificial-an-interview-with-jennifer-egan/.

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aretoomanycontributoryfactorstomakedirectcausalconnectionsbetween

empatheticreadingandaltruisticaction,therehavebeenotherstudiesthat

claim,inturn,todemonstratetheempatheticpotentialofliterature.107

Regardlessofthesecontradictoryclaims,myworkrestsonanunderstandingof

empatheticpotentialthatreliesonthatsamefoundationconceivedofinthe

theoreticallyradicalaspectofthepoliticsofintimacy(butnot,Ihavesuggested,

carriedoutinpractice):thisunderstandingmusttakeplaceinthecontextof

existentstructuraldeterminations,thatis,withanawarenessofhowpower

works.Otherwise,asBerlanthasdemonstratedonherworkonsentimental

narratives,thesamelimitationsofintimacyarerepeated–afalsetranscendence

oftheselfthatholdsnocapacityforincitingaction.108IhavefoundAnnJurecic’s

essay‘EmpathyandtheCritic’(2011)usefulforthinkingpasttheselimitations,

particularlyhersuggestionthat,ratherthansignallingdirectidentification,

empathymightinsteadinvitereaderstoconsider“theambiguitiesofsocial

experience.”109Jurecic’semphasisontheteachingofliteratureisalsohelpfulin

consideringthepublicaspectofliteraturethatenablesitspoliticalpotential;

thosewhoarescepticalofsuchpotentialmaybetooinclinedtofocusonreading

asapassiveact,whenbymyargumentitis,andmustbe,anactive,engaged,and

engagingprocess.

Thesecontradictorypositionsare,Iargue,playedoutbytheworkofthetwo

authorswithwhomIengageinthisstudy.Ballard’sworkseekstonegotiatethe

passivityofreadinganditsownstatusasculturalobjecttoexposethecirculation

ofpowerinawaythatis,Isuggest,designedtoprovokethereadertopolitical

action.Incontrast,Egan’sworkremainstiedmorecloselytotheprivate

imaginarysphere,andthustendstoofferanaccountofliteratureasaprivate

good.Suchanaccountneutersthepoliticalpotentialofliteratureand,Ithink,too

closelyreplicatesthose‘values’propagatedbyneoliberalismandthe

conceptionsofhappinessitpromotes–individualism,atomism,andsolipsism.If

literaturemayhave,asIsuggest,arevolutionaryfunction,itstandstoreason107See,forexample,MajaDjikicetal.‘ReadingOtherMinds:EffectsofLiteratureonempathy,’ScientificStudyofLiterature,3:1,2013.pp.28-47.108SeeLaurenBerlant,‘PoorEliza’inNoMoreSeparateSpheres!:ANextWaveAmericanStudiesReader,editedbyCathyN.Davidson,JessamynHatcher.Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress,2002,pp.291-323.109AnnJurecic.‘EmpathyandtheCritic,’CollegeEnglish,74:1,2011,pp.1-27,p.22.

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thatitmightalsohaveaconservativeone.Contrastingtheseauthorsallowsme

todemonstratethis,andtotentativelysituatethesetendenciesintermsofwider

literarypractice.ThismostlyoccurshereinthecontextofEganandthe

contemporaryliterarylandscapeinAmerica,asmuchofBallard’sworkgestures

totheimpactofAmericanculturalimperialismonBritain.Iamkeentoexpand

myreadingofBallardinthiscontextinthefutureandoriginallyhopedtoinclude

theworkofMichelHouellebecqinmythesistoallowabroadercomparison–

unfortunately,duetospaceconstraints,thiswasnotpossible.

In‘ReadingOtherMinds,’MajaDjikicetalpropose“thatinsteadofthinkingof

fictionasmade-up,fictionisbettercharacterizedintermsofsubjectmatter:the

socialworld.”110Elsewhere,DonnaHarawayinsistedthat,“Socialrealityislived

socialrelations,ourmostimportantpoliticalconstruction,aworld-changing

fiction.”111Literaryfictioncanofferusapeekintothelivesofothers,butmore

thanthis,itcanilluminatethewaysinwhichtheselivescometobeconstructed,

andaskustoconsiderourownlifeinthesameway.Partofthesuccessof

neoliberalismhasbeenitstotalisingimpactonpublicandprivatenarratives:the

wayinwhichithasnaturalisedeconomicrationalesandlogicsatapersonaland

politicallevel.WendyBrowngivesthisexample,mentionedearlier,inthe

politicalrealm:

[Neoliberalism]replacesstricturesondemocraticproceduralismand

accountabilitywithnormsofgoodmanagement:effectivityor

profitability.Indeed,itsetsasidelegality,accountability,and

truthfulnessinfavourofthesecriteria.Hence,forexample,G.W.

Bush’sroutineresponsetoquestionsaboutwhetherthepretextfor

invadingIraqwasfoundedandlegitimate:“DidwegetridofSaddam

ornot?”“Istheworldabetterplaceforitornot?”112

Thissameprocesscan,Isuggest,betracedonapersonallevel,aswe

increasinglyseeinthecontemporarypoliticalclimate.Theriseofahappiness

discoursethatjustifies(andevenpromotes)personalfeelingasarationalefor

actionandallowsconsiderationsofconsequencetobelimitedtothatsamelogic110Djikic,etal.‘ReadingOtherMinds,’p.29.111Haraway.Simians,CyborgsandWomen:TheReinventionofNature,p.149.112Brown.‘AmericanNightmare:Neoliberalism,Neoconservativism,andDe-Democratisation,’p.706.

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i.e.howtheymaketheactorfeel,discouragessubjectsfromconsidering

themselvesrelationally.Throughbothperformingrelationally–thatis,being

publiclyreadanddiscussed–anddemonstratingtherelationalnatureof

subjectsintext–therealityoflivedsocialrelations–literaturecanoffersome

ballasttotheselimitingconstructions.

ThefinalargumentIofferforconductingthisinvestigationthroughthe

explorationofcontemporaryliteratureisitsactualimaginativecapacity–thatis,

thewayinwhichtheworldsintowhichwepeekmaynotexistinourreality.

BothBallardandEganengageinaloosekindofspeculativefictionthrough

whichtheyhyperbolisebothourexistingrealityandourimminentreality.

Fictioncanbothrepresentandexceeditstemporalmoment,andthisisauseful

traitatamomentinwhichtechnologicaladvancesseemtooccurexponentially.

Asmentionedearlier,Ihavesoughttoexplorethisinrelationtoconceptionsof

happinessandselfhood,andinthisIhavefoundtheworkofSherryTurkle

invaluable,especiallyher2006book,AloneTogether.JaronLanier’sworkhas

alsohelpedmeinthinkingaboutthe‘nextfiveminutes,’andabouthowourlife

onlineisconnectedtoour‘reallife.’113Initsabilitytoofferusrecognisable

futurisedpresents,literaturecanalsodemonstrate“theenergy[to]generatethis

sustainingcommitmenttotheworkofundoingaworldwhilemakingone

[which]requiresfantasytomotorprogramsofaction,todestroythepresenton

behalfofwhatthepresentcanbecome.”114If,asIhavesuggested,theneoliberal

subjectisrequiredtoadoptapermanentstateofcognitivedissonanceinorder

tosurvivetheeverydaycrisesofneoliberalism,apublic,engaged,and

speculativeliteraturegroundedinmaterialrealitybutnotboundbyitmaybe

abletopiercethe“greycurtainofreactionwhichhasmarkedthehorizonsof

possibilityundercapitalist[neoliberal]realism.”115FollowingBerlant,again,this

kindofliteraturecanoffera

surrealisticaffectospheretocountertheonethatalreadyexists,

enablingaconfrontationwiththefactthatanyactionofmakinga

claimonthepresentinvolvesbruisingdetachmentfromanchorsin

113ParticularlyYouAreNotAGadget:AManifesto(2011)andWhoOwnstheFuture?(2014).114Berlant.CruelOptimism,p.263.115Fisher.CapitalistRealism,p.81.

48

theworld,alongwithoptimisticprojectionsofaworldthatisworth

ourattachmenttoit.116

Thefirstanchortodrop,Isuggest,mustbeourattachmenttothedisconnected

andatomisticaccountsofhappinessthatneoliberalismoffersus.Berlant

suggeststhatthecruxofcrueloptimismliesinthefactthat“itisawkwardandit

isthreateningtodetachfromwhatisalreadynotworking.”117Infact,under

neoliberalcommonsense,itisnotsimplyawkwardorthreatening,but

impossiblebecause,asThatcherinsisted,thereisnoalternative.Thejobofthe

author,andtheroleofliterature,isnottoshowusthatthereis,buttoremindus

thatwearecapableofconstructingsuchanalternativeforourselves.Itisthis

capacityIexploreinthefollowingpages.

LookingatBallard:SystemsandSelfhood

InmyexplorationofJ.G.Ballard’swork,Ilookathislastquartetofnovels.I

suggestthatthesenovelsworktogethertodemonstrateabroaderthesis,and

representtheadoptionofamoreovertlypoliticalapproachthanisinevidencein

Ballard’searlierwork.Whilstthesenovelsutilisethemesandmotifsevident

throughoutBallard’swork,suchasclosedcommunitiesandsuspicionof

consumerism,itismycontentionthatthesearedeployedwithamoredeliberate

intentintheselatenovels.Thisis,Ibelieve,aresponsetotheriseof

neoliberalismanditsglobalpervasiveness.Assuch,thesenovelsareintendedto

emphasisetheheightenedinequalitiesthatproliferateunderneoliberalism,

whichareobscuredanddistortedbyneoliberalhappinessdiscourseasaformof

governmentalitythatpresentsitselfascommonsense.Ballardexposesthis

throughafocusonthosesystemsthatstructureandshapeeverydaylife–

leisure,work,thecultureindustry,andconsumerism–underlinedbyhis

affectlessstyle,whichinitsdepthlessnesshighlightsthenearnessofthese

systemstothesurfaceoflife.IsuggestthatBallardisseekingtoilluminatethe

dangerofadepoliticisedcommon-sensepublicdiscourse,whichrationalisesand

allowssufferingasnaturalandinevitable.Theselastfournovelsare,Ithink,a

directappealtothereader;acalltoaction,ifyoulike,stressingtheneedto

116Berlant.CruelOptimism,p.263.117Berlant.CruelOptimism,p.263.

49

reclaimtheimaginativerealminordertofashionalternativestotheapparently

totalisingeconomiclogicofneoliberalism.Ballard’sworkrailsagainstthe

somnambulisticeffectofcognitivedissonance,andlookstoestablishsome

groundingforapubliclifethatresiststhestructuraldeterminationsofextant

power,insteadofrepeatingthem.Inthis,Ballardcondemnsconservatismofall

stripes,andrecognisesthattraditionalistleftistthinkingmaybeasout-datedas

right-wingnostalgia.

MyinvestigationofBallard’sworkbeginswithanaccountofhowIreadthese

latenovelsinrelationtohiswideroeuvre,andanattempttocontextualisethe

politicalshiftoutlinedabove.Thisalsoinvolvesexplainingtheconnection

betweenBallard’sworkandaffecttheory,whichIlinktoBerlant’swritingonthe

Event.Iexplainhowmyinterventionrecognisesexistingpsychoanalytic

criticismonBallard,butthatIdonotseektomakethistheframeworkofmy

investigation.InmyexplorationIseektodemonstratethewayinwhichthe

“mundanetextsandprogrammes”ofneoliberalhappinessdiscourseare

manifested–andcritiqued–inBallard’swork;thepsysciencesconstituteonly

oneaspectofthis.IemphasisetheneedtorememberBallard’sowninsistenceon

thematerialcircumstanceoftheworldandtheimpactthishasonthehorizonsof

possibilityforindividualsubjects.

Intheopeningpartofmyclosereading,Iconcentrateonthefirstnovelfrom

thislatequartet,CocaineNights.Thisnovelexploresthetourismandleisure

industry,andusestheholidayresortsandretirementcommunitiesoftheCosta

delSoltorepresentamicrocosmofneoliberal‘shockdoctrine’ineffect.Italso

introducestheformcommontotheselatenovels,whicharealllooselysketched

using–andsubverting-thetropesofdetectivefiction.Eachfeaturesacentral

protagonistwhoarrivestoaclosedcommunitywiththeintentionofunravelling

somemysterythatpertainstohimself.Inthecourseofhisinvestigation,each

protagonistisdrawnintotheheartofthesocietyheseekstoinfiltrate,and

discoversthattheoriginalmysteryispartofalargernetworkofcorruptionand

depravity.Thepersonallymotivatedquestfallsbythewaysideinthecourseof

theserevelations,andisgenerallyresolvedtolittlefanfare,orglossedoverin

favourofotherconcerns.

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InCocaineNights,protagonistCharlesPrenticeinitiallyseekstodiscoverwho

setafirethatkilledseveralprominentresidentsofaholidaysettlement,inorder

tofreehisbrother,Frank,whohasbeenarrestedforthecrime.Asthenovel

progresses,welearnthathisbrotherisinfactinnocent,andthatthefirewas

actuallytheworkofagroupofcapitalistconspirators,partofaplantorevitalise

thecommunity.Whereleisureunfitssubjectsforthecycleofproductive

consumption,intimationsofmortalityserveasacorrective–areminderthat

happinessisprimary,andthathappinesscomesfromconsumption.The

discoveryofthetruthisirrelevantinthisnovel,offeringnoredemptionfor

FrankPrentice–CharlesPrenticebecomesthenextscapegoat,gesturingtothe

cyclicalnatureofcapitalistviolence.Thisnovelalsodemonstrateshow‘deviant’

behaviours–theft,rape,burglary–cannotconfrontordamageneoliberal

capitalismbecausetheyareimmanenttoitandthuseasilysubsumedbyit.

Thisisexpandedinthenextnovelinthequartet,Super-Cannes.Inplaceof

leisure,thisnovelfocusesontheworldofwork,atthehighestlevelofthe

informationaleconomy.Ittellsthestoryofabusinessparkwhereelite

executivesbegantosufferaninexplicablemalaiseuntilresidentpsychiatrist

WilderPenroseinstitutedasystemofprescribedpsychopathy,whichallowed

paedophilia,drugdealing,andracistattacksonnon-residentsofthepark.

BallardemploysaBaudrillardianframeworktoparodythehyperrealityof

financecapitalandinformationalindustries.Thisframeworkisalsopartofa

deliberatereflexivitythatshapesthesenovelsinwhichthereaderisconstantly

remindedthatBallard’sfictiveworldis,likeDisneyland,morerealthanthereal.I

exploreBallard’streatmentoftheriseofmanagementstrategiesasanaspectof

neoliberalhappinessdiscourse,andbegintolookatthewaytheworkplacehas

beentransformedundertherubricofself-maximisation.IalsolookatBallard’s

useofflightasawaytofigureimaginativepotential,andhisinvocationof

AntoinedeSaint-Exupéry’sworkasawaytorepresenttheneedforan

imaginativespaceoutsideofthedemandsofcapital–thisrecursinKingdom

Come,too.

Inmyexaminationofthisnovel,IsuggestthatalthoughBallardwarnsagainst

thedangersofnostalgia,herecognisestheimportanceofthepastasaformof

ballastagainsttherationalisingforceoftechnologicalprogress,aftertheworkof

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HerbertMarcuse.ThisgivesrisetoareadingthatsuggestsBallardseessome

causeforhopeinthewretchedfiguresofneoliberalcapitalism;theunemployed

protagonistofthisnovel,PaulSinclair,remainsoutsideoftheproductiveworld

ofEden-Olympia,quiteliterallyattheendofthenovel.Isuggestthatthisnovelis

anexplicitwarningagainstacceptingtheviolenceandinequalityofneoliberal

capitalismasinevitableornatural,andallowingourselvestoretreatintothe

palliativeworldofpersonalhappiness,asneoliberalhappinessdiscoursewould

haveusdo.Theendingofthenovel,asIdemonstrate,clearlyplacestheonuson

thereadertoacceptresponsibilityforenactingchange;toresist,asSpringerhas

it,“Thebanalityofevil[whichis]anerasurethatdeprivesusofourabilityto

recognizeviolenceasamomentthatisatoncebothexceptionaland

exemplary.”118

ThethirdnovelofthequartetisMillenniumPeople,andinmyreadingofitI

concentrateonBallard’sunpackingofclasspoliticsandtheriseofprecarityasa

modeofliving.Thisexplorationexposesthemythoftheneutralneoliberal

subject,andmakesplainhowneoliberalhappinessdiscoursedrawsonand

perpetuatesmiddle-classcodinginordertogenerateself-regulatingsubjects.I

lookatBallard’sexplorationofthe‘goodobjects’ofneoliberalhappiness

discourse,exploringthisinrelationtoAhmed’sworkandherconceptionofthe

idealneoliberalsubjectasonewithoutinclination.Inthisnovel,Ballarddraws

attentiontohisownsustainedfocusonthemiddleclassthroughouthiswork,as

wellasparodyingthecultureindustryandleftistprotestmoregenerally.Isee

thisasaclearefforttowriteoutoforbeyondhisculturalposition,anattemptto

resistincorporationintoprocessesofinterpassivity.Thisistied,again,tomy

argumentthatBallardisseekingnottoperformcritiqueintheselatenovels,but

tospurreaderstoactionthroughconfrontationwiththoserealitiesusually

obscuredthroughthedistortinglensofneoliberalhappinessdiscourse.This

novelwrestleswiththedifficultiesofresistingasystemthatseemscapableof

consumingallalterity,culminatinginaviolentstandoffwhereviolenceis

returnedtoitsrightfuloperative(thestate),andthemiddle-classrebelsofthe

ChelseaMarinaareplacatedwiththeadditionofasportsclubandan

118SimonSpringer.‘TheViolenceofNeoliberalism,’inTheHandbookofNeoliberalism,NewYork:Routledge,2016,pp.153-64,p.158.

52

enlargementofthemarina–theyhave,itseems,“almosteverythingyouwant

here.”119

Itisthisdanger-ofgettingwhatyouthinkyouwantunderneoliberal

capitalism–thatgivesshapetothelastofthesenovels,KingdomCome.Inmy

readinghereIconcentrateonthethemesofcommunityandconsumerismthat

underpinthenovel,whichrecountsafascistuprisingcentredarounda‘super

mall’inthemotorwaytownsbeyondLondon.IsuggestthatBallard’sfiguringof

fascismisconnectedtoFoucault’saccountof“thefascisminusall…thefascism

thatcausesustolovepower,todesiretheverythingthatdominatesandexploits

us.”120Inthisnovel,Ballardexploresthevacuumcreatedbytheabsenceof

valuesunderneoliberalism.Thedisappearanceofasubstantialpublicpolitical

discoursecreatesaspaceinwhichfearanduncertaintyaremanagedthrough

compulsiveconsumptionandthelogicofconsumerismsupplantsanyconception

ofindividualwill,embeddingself-regulationinserviceofmaterialconsumption

asanaturalpartof(neoliberalised)existence.Withoutanysubstantialcivic

realmoutsideoftherulesofcommodification,subjectsbecomevulnerabletoan

‘emptiedout’politics,onethatreliesonmoodandfeelinganddrawsitsstrength

fromtheexclusionofthosewhoareseentobeoutsideofWesternconsumerist

structures.Inthenovel,thisistransformedintoaracistnationalismthatsees

non-whitecommunitiesbecometargetsofviolence.

IexplorethelooselyNietzscheanframeworkofthenovel,andconnectthisto

WendyBrown’saccountofressentimentinStatesofInjury(1997).Ialsoreturnto

Ballard’scritiqueofleftistoppositionthatfailstoformulatenewcritical

approaches,anddescribehowwemightconnectBallard’sworktothecurrent

politicalmomentintheU.K.andU.S.InKingdomCome,Ballardhyperbolically

literaliseshisfearsof“governmentbyadvertisingagency,”andrailsagainstthe

ideathatpoliticsshouldbedictatedbypersonalfeeling.121Thereisaclear

condemnationofthewayinwhichthe9/11attackswereinstrumentalisedasa

politicaltool,inhisdepictionofanattackontheMetro-Centre.Thesalvationof

119J.G.Ballard.MillenniumPeople2003London:HarperPerennial.2004,p.291.120MichelFoucault.PrefaceinGilesDeleuzeandFelixGuattari,Anti-Oedipus,1972,translatedbyRobertHurley,MarkSeemandHelen.R.Lane.Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress.1983,pp.xi-xv.p.xiii.121Ballard.‘1998:RussiaonmyMind.’ExtremeMetaphors,p.357.

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theprotagonistinthisnovelcomesthroughthere-establishmentofintimate

relationships,whichallowshimtorecogniseandresisthispositioninthe

networksofdominationconstructedaroundtheMetro-Centre–whichistosay,

aroundconsumercapitalism.IlinkBallard’sworktoBaudrillard’sagainhere

andsuggestthatBallardcallsforaformofself-knowledgethatallowsus,after

Foucault,“nottodiscoverwhatwearebuttorefusewhatweare.”122Thisispart

ofamovetowardsanethicsoftheselfthatreliesondefyingthetotalisingefforts

ofneoliberalismandinstitutingasystemofself-critique,ratherthanself-

maximisation,thatallowsustorecogniseourownenmeshmentinpower

structuresandtoconstructawaytoresistit.Thisdemonstratesthepowerof

literaryintervention,andpointstothenecessityofanimaginativerealmoutside

ofneoliberalmarketlogic.

ExploringEgan:WhoAreWeNow?

InmysectiononEgan,Iofferclosereadingsofthefourfullnovelsshehas

publishedtodate.IncontrasttoBallard’ssystem-focusedaccountof

neoliberalism,inwhichneoliberalhappinessdiscourseisclearlyvisibleasa

formofgovernmentality,IsuggestthatEgan’sworkoperatesatasubjectlevel.

Thatis,hernovelsdepicttheindividualexperienceofneoliberalhappiness

discourse.ItakeissuewithEgan’sdeploymentofliterarytheory,positingitas

partofadisavowalofpoliticalintentorfunctionthatunderminesthepoliticised

contentofherwork.Iidentifytheconceptof‘self-objectification’ascentralto

Egan’swork,andseethisaslinkedtonewvirtualtechnologiesoftheself,and

formsofaffectivelabour,whichoperateassitesofsubjectification.Incontrastto

Ballard’seffortstointerveneinandresistthetotalisingforceofneoliberalism

andthediversionarystrategiesofneoliberalhappinessdiscourse,Egan’swork

reliesonaviewofliteraturethatseesitasaprivategood,apersonalpleasure,or

evenasolaceinthefaceoftheapparentinevitabilityofneoliberalism.Thisview,

Isuggest,isadangerousone,becauseitleavesherworkopentoreproducing

thosesameprivatisingandatomisticlogicsthatinduceaffectivedistress.

MyinvestigationofEgan’sworkbeginswithanaccountofthecritical

contextinwhichIcometoherwork.Thisinvolvesidentifyinga‘special122MichelFoucault.‘TheSubjectandPower,’CriticalEnquiry,8:4,1982,p.777-795,p.785.

54

relationship’betweenthe‘values’ofneoliberalismandtheAmericancultureof

individualism,whichIframeusingtheworkofAlexisdeTocqueville.Iexplain

thatTocquevillesawthisstrainofAmericannationalcharacterasmediatedby

substantialinterestinpublicaffairs,butthattheprivatisingimpetusof

neoliberalpoliciesandprocessesundoesthisinterest,andleavesindividualism

unchecked.IsuggestthatthedominanceofAmericanconsumercultureandthe

historicfiguringoffreedomasthefreedomofeconomicself-determinationalso

contributetothisspecialrelationship,andthattheconnectionbetween

economicfreedomandhappinessintheDeclarationofIndependenceunderlines

thisconnection.ThissituatesEgan’sworkinthecontextofAmerican

exceptionalism,whichIbelieveisapersistentprobleminherwork.

IhighlighttherelativepaucityofcriticalworkonEgan,whichIbelieveisdue

inparttothewayheruseofliterarytheorytendstoenactasortofauto-

criticism.Thisauto-criticismworksasaformofdisavowal,complicatingefforts

tolocateherworkpolitically.However,IsuggestthattheissuesEgandealswith

inherwork–whichincludeterrorism,precariouslabour,attemptedrape–are

unavoidablypoliticallycharged.Ibelievethatherworkmaybebetter

categorisedasbetrayingneoliberalanxietythanexploringit;thisleadsmeto

suggestthatherworkoperatesinthemodeofthe‘neoliberalgothic,’evenwhen

itisnotexplicitlywritteninthegothicform.IconnectthistoNilges’saccountof

the‘neoliberalnovel,’aswellastheconceptofhauntology.Irecognisethatpart

ofthisisEgan’s‘writingout’ofherpostmoderninheritance,anddrawonwork

byAdamKellytoelaborateonthis.Iaminterestedhereinexpandinganaccount

ofthecapacityofthenovelisticform,againstwhichIcometoweighEgan’s

accountoftheroleofliterature.IalsorecognisetentativeeffortstosituateEgan

againstthecriticalbackdropofNewSincerity,andIseektoexploreher

relationshiptothisschool.

MyclosereadingofEgan’sworkis,again,chronological,andbeginswith

herfirstnovel,TheInvisibleCircus.ThisnovelissetinSanFranciscoin1978–a

significantdateinthehistoryofneoliberalism,asIexplain.Itsstructureis

somewherebetweenthatofthedetectivenovelandabildungsroman.Ittellsthe

storyofPhoebeO’Connor,whosesisterFaithkilledherselfinItalytenyears

earlier.Faithwasinvolvedinthehippiemovement,andeventuallywiththeRed

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ArmyFactionandothermilitantEuropeangroups.Herinvolvementwiththese

groupsledhertoparticipateintheplantingofabombthatkilledaman,andshe

wasunabletolivewiththeguiltofhisdeath.Phoebediscoversthiswhenshe

undertakesajourneytoEurope,followinginhersister’sfootsteps.

ThisnovelintroducesseveralmotifsthatrecurthroughoutEgan’swork,most

notablythebildungsromanstructure.Theprocessofgrowththatoccursin

Egan’snovelsis,Isuggest,verydistinctlyaprocessof‘becomingneoliberal’–of

acceptingtheconditionsoftheworldastheyareandacquiescingtothesortof

privatehappinessthatunderliesthemiddle-classneoliberalaccountof

happinesswithoutinclinationorobligation.Inreadingthisnovel,Ihighlight

Egan’sproblematictendencytodepictpoliticalengagementasareactionary

emotionalstate.ThisisparticularlyevidentinTheInvisibleCircus,Isuggest,

becausesolittleattentionispaidtothematerialgainswroughtbyactivistsinthe

nineteensixties.Itisalsorelatedtothedepictionofclassinherwork,which

tendstofocusonwealthywhiteAmericans–thosecharacterswhodonotfitthis

descriptionusuallyperishbytheendofthenovel(withthenotableexception,I

argue,ofScottyinAVisitFromtheGoonSquad).IrecognisetheutilityofEgan’s

connectionbetweentheindividualismofsixtiescountercultureandthe

emergenceofflexible,orneoliberal,capitalism,butsuggestthatherstrategyof

disavowalmakesitverydifficulttotellifherworkisseekingtodismantlethe

efficacyofartisticcritiqueorifitfindsitselfcaughtinitsbind.Inseekingto

resolvethis,IsuggestthatspecialattentionmustbepaidtotheendingsofEgan’s

novels,whichcompelareadingthatseesherworkasimbricatedbyneoliberal

happinessdiscourse,ratherthanimaginingoppositiontoit.Attheendofthis

novel,Phoebegivesupontheideaoftranscendingtheeveryday.Hersubmission

totheadventofneoliberalism,andthetransformationofSanFranciscotoatech

hub,seesherreintegratedintotheworldvirtuallyseamlessly,unlikeher

doomedsister.Isuggestthatthisisapessimisticaccount,andasoptothereader

thateffectivelyseekstofunctionasanotherwayofregulatingdistress–which,in

myreading,canonlyexacerbatesuchdistressinthelongerterm.

InexploringEgan’snextnovel,LookatMe,IwrestlewithEgan’sdense

theoreticallayering,andseektoteaseouthowitworksan‘insulating

framework’inhernovels,andwhatthismeansforcriticalapproachestoher

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work.IdrawonDavidFosterWallace’saccountof“imagefiction,”inwhichhe

suggestedthatfictionrespondingtotelevisualculturesoughtto“imposesome

sortofaccountabilityonastateofaffairsinwhichmoreAmericansgettheir

newsfromtelevisionthanfromnewspapers...”123WhenitcomestoEgan’s

work,Isuggestthereisatendencytocommentarywithoutcritiquethatrenders

anyefforttoimposeaccountabilitytoothless,becauseitpresentsneoliberal

realityasnaturalandinevitable.

Inthissection,IintroducetheworkofJimMcGuiganandAngelaMcRobbieto

lookatimmaterialeconomies,affectivelabour,andgender.Iseetheelisionof

genderissuesinEgan’sworkasacleardemonstrationoftheproblematic

manifestationofpoliticaldisavowal;thisisanovelaboutawomaninthe

modellingindustry,wherethereaderisdirectedtothinkoftheprotagonistas,“a

moreexaggeratedversionofeveryone’spositioninavisuallybased,media-

drivenculture,”asthoughthegenderedaspectsofthisformofidentity

performancecanbeglossedover.124Itentativelysuggestthatthismightbe

relatedtoEgan’sanxietyaroundbeingperceivedasa‘femalewriter,’areading

whichwouldbearfurtherexplorationinthefuture.

AlthoughImovetowardsreadingEgan’sworkinthecontextofsocialmedia

andothernewtechnologiesoftheself,Irecognisethatthefoundationofthis

novelisdrawnfromtheriseofthe‘realitygenre,’andseektolinkthistothe

proliferationofthesenewtechnologiesoftheself;asortofemergenttimelineof

theimperativetoself-objectify.Thisself-objectificationrendersthesubject

visibleinnewways,andassuchinstitutesnewmodesofidentityperformance,

whichIsuggestarecloselyrelatedtoneoliberalhappinessdiscourseandcometo

operatearegulatoryfunctionthroughtheiruse.Thisisconnectedtothe

recuperationofsufferingasproductive,andtheemergenceofnewformsof

socialcapital.Isuggestthatthisisalsorelatedtothetransformationof

confession,inboththe‘realitygenre’andthesenewtechnologies.

TheKeepisEgan’sonlynovelexplicitlywritteninthegothicform,whichEgan

usestoexplorevirtualidentity,immateriallabour,andthefunctionofwriting,

123DavidFosterWallace.‘EUnibusPluram:TelevisionandU.S.Fiction,’ReviewofContemporaryFiction,13:2,1993,pp.151-194,p.172.124JenniferEgan.LookatMe.2001London:Corsair,2011,201,p.92.

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again.Inreadingit,IlookatEgan’suseoftheformaspartofaposthuman

gothic,invokingDonnaHaraway’sworkinmyreading.IsuggestthatEgan’s

worktendstoinsistonacentralrationalitythatisbeliedbytheanxietiesthat

haunthertexts,oratleast,thesefirstthreenovels–GoonSquadseemstolargely

exorcisethesedemons,bymyreading.TheKeepposesitselfasaninvestigation

intothenatureofreality,whichseeksatthesametimetorenderthatquestion

irrelevant,byEgan’sownaccount.IuseHaraway’swork,again,tosuggestthat

thisapproachdrasticallymisrepresentsthematerialimpactoftheemergenceof

newrealities.

Throughoutthisreading,Iexplorethewayinwhichpsychotherapeutic

rationalesareutilisedasmodelsofcharacterdevelopmentinEgan’swork.I

explorethisthroughlookingatEgan’sdepictionofRay,amurderer,prisoner,

writer,andfinally,escapee.Iquestionthenovel’spurportedexaminationof

power,andcompareitseffectivenessinexposingwiderpowerstructurestothe

workofearliergothicauthors,suchasMaryWollstonecraft.IsuggestthatEgan’s

reluctancetoengagepoliticallyresultsinamischaracterisationofhowpoweris

atworkinwidersociety.Insteadofmaterialdisadvantagecausedbysystemic

discriminationandaneconomythatfavoursonlythealreadywealthy,Egan

identifiespervasivecelebritycultureastheprimarythreattotheimaginative

potentialofthe‘essentialself.’IseethisasmostapparentinherwritingofHolly,

Ray’screativewritingteacher,forwhomdruguse,relativepoverty,andeventhe

lossofachild,areallfiguredaspartofaseriesofbadpersonalchoices,echoing

thelogicofresponsibilisationthatseesindividualsasliableforallandany

misfortunetheyencounter.Inclosing,IsuggestthatEgan’sdepictionofwriting

andimaginationinherworkrendersliteratureasanartisticformdisconnected

fromreallife,whichdrasticallylimitswhatitcanorshouldbeabletodo.

ThelastpartofmyclosereadingofEganfocusesonherPulitzer-winning

novel,AVisitFromtheGoonSquad.IuseAnisShivani’saccountof‘plastic

realism’toframemyreadingofthisnovel,andtoconsiderhowitscommercial

andcriticalsuccessnecessitatesareconceptualizationoftheculturalpositionof

Egan’swork–withwhich,shehassuggested,shewasmorethanpleased.Thisis

incontrasttoBallard’seffortstoresistthesubsumptionofhisworkbythe

cultureindustry,asdemonstratedbyMillenniumPeople.Thisraisesquestions,

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again,regardingwhatwereadandwhy,andwhattypeofbooksareseenas

‘good,’andpubliclyrewardedassuch.MuchofmyreadingofGoonSquadlooks

atits‘hollowingout’ofthepunkmusicscenearoundwhichitislooselybased,

andIseektodrawattentiontothewayinwhichconventionalgenderrolesare

covertlyre-inscribedthroughoutthenovel,whichItakeassymptomaticofa

widerconservatismatworkinEgan’swriting.

IcontinuemyinvestigationoftherelationshipbetweenJenniferEganand

NewSincerity,andNewSincerityandpoliticalcritique,withaclosereadingof

herpasticheofDavidFosterWallaceandWallace’s‘Briefinterviewswith

HideousMen#20.’Forthis,IuseRachelHaleyHimmelheber’sworktoilluminate

thepoliticalpotentialofNewSincerity.IhighlightareasinwhichEgan’s

engagementwithrealityistoodetachedtofunctionascritique(includingher

chapter,‘SellingtheGeneral)andpaycloseattentiontohertreatmentof

‘aberrant’characters.Thisculminatesinadetailedaccountofthecharacterof

Scotty,whosepathepitomisessomeofthemostchallengingaspectsofEgan’s

work.Iseektodemonstratethat,despitetheallegedlyunconventionalformof

thisnovel,itsoffersnothingthatisactuallysubversive,andmightevenbeseen

toplacatethereaderinitsinsistenceonthecyclicalrecurrenceoftheworldand

thesuggestionthatwemusttakeourprivatepleasureswherewecan.

InSummation

Inshort,then,themethodologicalbasisofmyworkisliteraryanalysiswitha

looselyFoucauldianframework,withaninsistenceonunderstandingthereal

materialconditionsandwaysinwhichpeoplearelivingandareconstructing

livesatthismoment.Myaccountsofsubjectivityandsubjectificationare

developedfromtheworkofNikolasRose,althoughIhavesoughttoexpandand

refinethesethroughlookingatmorerecenttechnologiesoftheselfthanare

coveredinhiswork.Inunderstandingthesetechnologies,theworkofJaron

LanierandSherryTurklehasbeeninvaluable,althoughmyworkhasaclear

politicaldimensionlargelylackingfromtheirwork.Ihavealsolocatedthe

workplace,andthechangingnatureofwork,asaprivilegedsiteof

subjectification.Iseektoexplorehowthesenewsitesofworkemployandare

complicitinthedeploymentofaspectsofneoliberalhappinessdiscourse,and

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howthisformsandinformsnewsitesandmodesofsubjectification.Inlookingat

thesenewsites,myworkbuildsoncontemporaryfeministcriticismthatseeksto

challengetheFordistpreconceptionsbuiltintotheapproachoftheoristssuchas

HardtandNegri,suchasMcRobbie’swork,outlinedabove.However,Ihave

soughttoretainafocusonworking-classsubjectsthroughoutthisthesis,in

keepingwithmysuggestionthatneoliberalhappinessdiscourseworksto

marginaliseanddis-incentiviseworking-classidentityaspartofitswiderproject

ofdepoliticisiation.

MyfocusonhappinesscanbesupportedbywhatAhmedhascharacterisedas

the‘happinessturn,’whichshehassituatedasbeginningaround2005,inits

contemporarymanifestation.125Inawiderhistoricalcontext,thereiscertainly

nothingnewaboutdiscussinghappiness,butformyself,Ahmed,Cederströmand

Spicer,andothersworkinginthecontemporarymoment,thereisadistinct

discourseofhappinessthathasemergedinthispastdecadeorso,andcometo

dominatenotjustpersonalbeliefsorpractices,butstateprocesses,political

rhetoric,theworldofwork,andbeyond.UnderMartinSeligman,positive

psychologyhasseengrowthandlegitimationasapsychologicalfield.

Positivepsychologyisamovementorschoolthatseekstotransformthefocusof

psychologicalpracticefrom“thestatesthatmakelifemiserable”(depression,

schizophreniaandalcoholismaregivenasexamples)to“thestatesthatmake

lifeworthliving.”126Thisframeworkseesthefunctionofpsychologicalsciences

asadditive,ratherthanasaformofrestorativetreatmentorholdingground.

Indeed,itisusuallytruethatwelearnthroughdamage:wedonotgenerally

examinehealthybrainsandbodies,andsoourframeworkofmedicalknowledge

isbuiltondisease,impairment,injury.Seligmanandotheradvocatesofpositive

psychologyseethefieldasofferingachancetotreatthewell,ineffect:toshift

frommanagingdistresstomaximisinghappiness(authentichappiness,at

that).127

125Ahmed.ThePromiseofHappiness,p.3-12.126MartinSeligman.AuthenticHappiness.London:BrealeyPublishing,2003.p.xi.127Thislanguageof“maximization”hasechoesinFoucault’sworkregarding“themovefromlifeassomethingthatcouldbetakenbythesovereigntosomethingthatmustinsteadbemaximisedbygovernance,”asabove(seep13).

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Seligmanwrites,“Thetimehasfinallyarrivedforasciencethatseeksto

understandpositiveemotion,buildstrengthandvirtue,andprovideguideposts

forfindingwhatAristotlecalledthe“goodlife.””128Thisaccountof“thegoodlife”

is,forSeligman,connectedtostrengthsandvirtues,ratherthanpleasure:

happinessthatcomesfromorisbuiltonthese“strengthsandvirtues”is

authentic;thingswhichgiveuspleasureareshortcuts,andthissenseof

happinessisinauthentic.129Seligman’saccountofthegoodlifeisaprofoundly

normativeonewhichpretendstobeneutral;thisisthecruxofSaraAhmed’s

rebuttalinThePromiseofHappiness,whichlooksatthosefigureswhoare

excludedorabsentfromthestructuresofhappinessSeligmanandothersrely

on.130Positivepsychologyhasthreestrands,or“pillars”:

Firstisthestudyofpositiveemotion.Secondisthestudyofthe

positivetraits,foremostamongstthemthestrengthsandvirtues,but

alsothe“abilities”suchasintelligenceandathleticism[forSeligman’s

versionofhappinessalsobelievesweshouldacceptcertain

limitationsandadjustourdesireforhappinesstofallwithinthe

upperendofourowncapacityforhappiness,inthesamewaywe

mightresignourselvestonevermakinganOlympicteamorjoining

Mensa].Thirdisthestudyofthepositiveinstitutions,suchas

democracy[whatistheinstitutionofdemocracy,though?],strong

families[whatconstitutesastrongfamily?Wemayassumeitisa

128Seligman.AuthenticHappiness,p.xi.129IwillconfesstostrugglingwithSeligman’swork,notleasthisaccountofhowpsychologistscaninstantlytella‘real’smile(Duchenne,inhisterminology)froma‘fake’(PanAmerican)one–thisseemsimportanttomegiventhevalueattributedtosmilinginaffectiveeconomies,particularlytheserviceindustry.Further,thesmileisnotaneutralsocialgood:muchrecentfeministconversationhasraisedthequestionofwhymensofrequentlytellwomentosmile–seeErikaHardison,‘It’sImportantforMentoUnderstandTheyNeedToStopTellingWomentoSmile,’HuffingtonPost,11April2016https://www.huffingtonpost.com/erika-hardison/its-important-for-men-to-stop-telling-women-to-smile_b_9655246.html;or‘RosieInocencioSmith,‘TheSexismofTellingWomentoSmile:YourStories,’TheAtlantic,27October2016https://www.theatlantic.com/notes/all/2016/10/the-sexism-of-telling-women-to-smile-your-stories/503309/;andelsewhere.Indeed,Seligmanseemsoblivioustothisaspectofsmiling,recountinganexperimentbyDacherKeltnerandLeeAnneHarkerinwhichthe‘realness’ofthesmilesinphotographsofsenior-classwomenfromUniversityofCalifornia,anddescribingasectionofthisexperimentwheretheinvestigatorsratedtheattractivenessofthewomeninthephotographs(bywhatscaleitisunclear),positingaconnectionbetweenprettinessandhappiness.Thisconnectionwasdisproven;instead,Seligmanwrites,“Agenuinelysmilingwoman,itturnedout,wassimplymorelikelytobewell-wedandhappy.”p.5.130Feministkilljoys,unhappyqueers,andmelancholicmigrants;alltheserevealandundosomeofthenormativeassumptionsunderlyingSeligman’saccountof“virtuesandstrengths.”

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familyinwhichSeligman’sdirectivesforparentingarefollowed],and

freeinquiry,thatsupportthevirtues,whichinturnsupportthe

positiveemotions.131

Indeed,inhisefforttosituatepositivepsychologyintheboundsofempirical

scientificdiscourse–anattemptwhichhascolouredmuchotherwritingon

happinessanditsutilityorpracticabilityinbothpopularscienceandpublic

policy–Seligmanhimselfabandoned‘happiness’ashisprimaryreferent,shifting

tothelanguageof“flourishing,”whichis(apparently)moreeasilymeasurablein

materialterms.132FlourishingallowsSeligmantotalkaboutaccomplishmentas

wellasfeeling,althoughthisformulationtendstothesamepresumptionsofhis

accountofhappiness:howdowedecidewhatmakesaccomplishmentvaluable?

RichardLayardaskedthisveryquestioninareviewofSeligman’sFlourish,which

succinctlyexpressedthetensionsbetweenSeligman’sindividualisticconception

ofpositivepsychology(inwhich,again,democracyisapparentlyimportant

primarilybecauseitoffersaframeworkforprivatehappiness)againstLayard’s

staunchlyutilitarianapproach,whichIdiscusslaterinthisthesis.133Whatboth

thesetheoristshaveincommon,andwhatrepresentsthegreatestdifficultyfor

positivepsychology,isitsrefusaltowrestlewiththetransformationofsocial

institutionsandpublicconversationundertheriseofmarketlogic,andto

acknowledgeandaddressthewaysinwhichthatlogicreshapesthequestionof

valueinlifethroughtheimplementationofthis‘businessontology’oreconomic

framework.134

Elsewhere,workplacesandstatesalikehaveadoptedhappinessasa

productivitymeasure,asdemonstratedbyWilliamDaviesinTheHappiness

Industry(2015),andOliverJamesinAffluenza(2007).Scientificmodelsof

happiness,suchasthoseproposedinRichardLayard’swork,havesoughtto131Seligman.AuthenticHappiness,p.xiii.132Measurabilityis,asIhavesuggested,acoreelementofneoliberalhappinessdiscourse.133RichardLayard,‘FlourishReview,’TheObserver,15May2011,https://www.theguardian.com/science/2011/may/15/flourish-science-of-happiness-psychology-review134AsIhavewrittenelsewhereinthisthesis,Ibelievethereisastrongclassbiasinpositivepsychology,orany‘maximisation’approach,anassumptionthatameasureofhappinessexiststhatcanbemaximized,andfurther,thatthesubjecthasthetimeandresourcestodevotetothismaximisation.IalsotakeissuewithLayard’sapproach,however,whichemphasizestheneedforalleviatingsufferingusingpsychologicalstrategiesthatdonotandcannotaddressthematerialcontextofsuffering,thoughIacknowledgetheimmediateutilityofsuchstrategies.

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rationalisetheelevationofhappinessinpublicdiscourse,andtoestablishnew

methodsoftreatmentandintervention.135Thesemodelshaveacknowledgedthe

riseinconditionsofdistressandsoughttoestablishpracticalwaystoalleviate

thiswithinthefieldofpsysciences.Layard’sconclusionattheendofhis2005

work,Happiness:LessonsfromaNewScience,soundsnottoofarfromsomeofmy

reasoninginthesectionbeforethis,whenheemphasisestheneedforacommon

good,andwrites,“Thesecret[ofhappiness]iscompassiontowardsoneselfand

others,andtheprincipleofGreatestHappinessisessentiallytheexpressionof

thatidea.”136Ourworksdiverges,however,initsconcernregardingthe

frameworkinwhichsufferingoccurs.

Layard,Ithink,seeshismissionasremovingsufferingasitexists.In

suggesting,afterMarkFisher,thatstatesofaffectivedistressshouldbe

politicisedinsteadofpathologised,IseeLayard’slogic,well-meaningasitis,as

servingtonaturaliseandperpetuatethissuffering.WhenLayardwritesthat,“A

societycannotflourishwithoutsomesortofsharedpurpose,”heseemsto

overlooktheimpossibilityofsuchasenseofpurposeinourcurrentsociety.137

Thisisduenotonlytothevastwealthinequalitiesthatexist,butalsomore

mundanefacts,suchastheinabilityofsustainingsubstantiveintimate

relationshipswhenonemustmoveconstantlyforwork,orworkunsociableand

irregularhoursunderazero-hourscontract,ortheimpossibilityofsecuring

affordablehousingandbuildingarobustfamilylife(whateverformthatfamily

maytake).Inaddition,theapparentimpossibilityofthinkingpastthese

problems–ofimaginingnewwaysofworkingandlivingthatrespectthebasic

dignityofpeople–isattherootofthefeelingofpowerlessnessIsuggestforms

thebasisofmuchaffectivedistress.138Compassioniscoldcomfortifitcannot

135Layard’sworkhashadsignificantimpactongovernmentpolicy,particularlyunderthelastLabourgovernment,whenhebecameknownasa‘happinesstsar.’136RichardLayard.Happiness:LessonsfromaNewScience.London:Penguin,2005,p.235.137Layard.Happiness:LessonsfromaNewScience,p.234.138Imightalsoadd,here,thewayinwhichpoliticalresentmentsarestirredupandenflamedbythesametechnologiesoftheselfIexploreinmywork,particularlyina‘post-truth’landscape,wherepoliticalallegianceoftenbecomesamatterofpersonalidentitywithoutanytheoreticalobjectiveimaginary–apoliticsforone,ifyoulike.Thisisexemplified,Ithink,inthe‘alt-right’useofmemesasapoliticaltool.See‘Forgetfakenews–alt-rightmemescoulddomoredamagetodemocracy,’Salon,8July2017.http://www.salon.com/2017/07/08/forget-fake-news-alt-right-memes-could-do-more-damage-to-democracy/.

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moveusbeyondastateofbeinginwhichsufferingissonaturalisedwebuilditin

toourpublichealthpolicies.

Inthis,myworkagreeswithAhmedandBerlant,inrecognisingnotjustthe

inadequacyofthose‘positive’formsofhappinesspromotedbySeligmanorthe

medicalisedaccountsofLayardetal,butalsoinadvocatingforcloseattentionto

thewayinwhichhappinessispromotedasanapparentlyneutralgood,whenit

isinfactacomplexandmultifaceteddiscoursethatcreatesandlegitimises

normativeideasofthegoodlifeunderitsauspices,inaccordancewithneoliberal

‘values.’ModifyingBerlantandAhmed’sapproach,Ifocusontwopopular

mainstreamauthors,asopposedtochartingthenarrativesofthoseovertly

outsideoforinoppositiontothishappinessdiscourse.139Inselectingtwowidely

readandculturallyinfluentialauthors,Ihopetodemonstratetheculturalvitality

ofliterature.Iamalsoexploringthewayinwhichthisinfluenceisaccruedand

deployed;again,thisoccurswithabroadercontextinlookingatEgan’swork

thanBallard’s.PartofmythesisinreadingBallard’slatenovelsis,asstated,that

theymarkadeliberateshiftinhiswork,movingtoamoreovertlypolitical

positionthanisseeninhisearlynovels.Thisis,Ibelieve,tiedtotheaccrualof

culturalcapitalthroughouthiscareer,andhisuseofthosetropesandtechniques

forwhichhisworkisbestknown–forinstance,hisaffectlessnarrativestyle–

workstodrawattentiontotheinsidiousnessofneoliberalpower,andto

motivatethereadertoact‘offthepage.’Thefinalnovelofthisquartet,Kingdom

Come,makesplainthismove,aswewillsee.

Egan’sworkself-consciouslyemploysamuchgreaterrangeofliteraryforms

thanBallard’s,whichallowsmetoexplorehowthesedifferentformsworkin

relationtoneoliberalism.Ifocusontheneoliberalgothic,Egan’spostmodern

inheritance,andthenovelformitself.AsIhavesuggested,Egan’sworkoperates

underadifferentrubrictoBallard’s–itisdeliberatelyapolitical.Inmy

investigation,Iseektoexploretheimpactofthisapproach–whetheritmeans

139IfeelconfidentindescribingEganintheseterms,particularlyfollowingherreceiptofthePulitzerPrizeforAVisitfromtheGoonSquad,whichIdiscussinlookingatthatnovel.IthinktheculturalimpactofBallard’sworkingeneraljustifiesthischaracterisationtoo;think,forinstance,oftheinclusionof‘Ballardian’asatermintheCollinsEnglishDictionary-www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/ballardian.

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thatEgan’sworkreplicatesandrepeatsneoliberallogics,orwhetherformitself

stillofferssomeresistance,regardlessofcontentorauthorialintention.

Thecontrastbetweentheseauthorsisalsothereasonforthedesignofmy

thesis,whichisdividedintotwopartstoemphasisethecontrastbetweenBallard

andEgan.IlookatfournovelsbyBallardandfourbyEgan,analysingeachwork

individuallywhilstalsoseekingtoestablishanoverarchingframeworkformy

readingofeachauthor,asjustoutlined.Asmentionedearlier,mywork

acknowledgesandexploresthedistinctrelationshipbetweenneoliberalismand

Americanculturalvalues.Ihavesoughttoavoidmakinggeneralisationswith

regardtothis,andwouldbekeeninthefuturetoexplorethishypothesis

throughlookingatarangeofglobalauthors.Forthetimebeing,myworkaimsto

elucidatethoseconceptionsofhappinessthatflourishunderneoliberalism,to

sketcharoughoutlineofwhatconstitutes‘neoliberalhappinessdiscourse’in

theoryandpractice,toexplorehowcontemporaryliteratureintheU.S.andU.K.,

representedbytheworkofBallardandEgan,rebuts,repeats,orresiststhese

conceptions,andtoconsiderwhatthismightmeanforreaders.

CHAPTER2:BALLARD

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OnBallard

J.G.Ballard’sworkhasdemonstratedacovertpreoccupationwiththeriseof

neoliberalismanditsimpactonthesubjectificationoftheindividualsincethe

publicationofTheAtrocityExhibitionin1970.Theformofthistext–aseriesof

looselyconnectedchaptersthatroughlycharttheprotagonist’sbreakdown–

distortsconventionalnarrativestructure.Itsthematicpreoccupations–

celebrity,massmedia,makingstrangethepresentthrough‘futurising’it,

fragmentationoftheselfinthefaceofrapidculturalchange–havebecome

standardsincontemporaryliterature,particularlyliteraturethatworksinan

experimentalmode.ItisnothardtoseeBallardasaforebeartoauthorslike

GeorgeSaundersorDavidFosterWallace-indeed,theannotatededitionofThe

AtrocityExhibitionpublishedin2001couldnearlybeaDavidFosterWallace

collection.Thatthistextwaspublishedattheverybeginningofthe

contemporaryneoliberalturn,aswemightdescribeit,showstheuncanny

prescienceofBallard’swork,whichisanotablefeaturethroughouthisoeuvre.1

ThepublicationofTheAtrocityExhibitionmarkedadistinctshiftinBallard’s

work.Hisearlynovels-TheWindfromNowhere(1961),TheDrownedWorld

(1962),TheBurningWorld(1964),TheCrystalWorld(1966)–existcomfortably

inthesciencefictiongenre,inthesubsetofecologicalsciencefiction,oreco-

fiction.From1970,however,hisworklargelyconcentratedonunpackingthe

ideasthatinformedTheAtrocityExhibition(notableexceptionsareEmpireofthe

Sun(1984)anditssequelTheKindnessofWomen(1991),whichofferasemi-

autobiographicalaccountofBallard’slife).Theincreasingsenseofencroachment

feltbytheindividualunderthetotalisingeffortsofneoliberalismisattheheart

ofmostofBallard’swork.Inexploringthecentralideaofthisthesis-that

happinesshasbeentransformedfromafieldofsubstantivephilosophical

enquiryintoaregulatorydiscoursedesignedtopropagateneoliberalidealsand

closespacesofalterity.Theideaofhappinessasafieldofenquiryisthe

connectedtothedifficultyofhappiness–tothewranglingsanduncertainties

1Ballardisfamouslyreportedasdescribinghisprimaryinterest,whenwriting,as“thenextfiveminutes.”Generallythisisunattributed,butseemstohavecomefromalongprosepoementitledWhatIBelieve,originallypublishedinFrenchinajournalcalledScienceFictioninJanuary1984,republishedinEnglishthesameyearinInterzone:www.jgballard.ca/uncollected_work/what_i_believe.html.Thepoemissomethingofaprofessionoffaith,andtheactuallineis,“Ibelieveinthenextfiveminutes.”

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aroundwhathappinessis.Theseuncertaintiesarethemeat,ifyoulike,of

philosophiesofhappiness:thequestionofwhatconstitutesthegoodlife,after

Aristotle.2Iamnotsuggestingthatnoonediscusseswhathappinessisanymore

–thatwouldbefacile.WhatIamsuggestingisthatstate-centricandpublic

conversationsaroundhappinessassumethedesirabilityandneutralityof

happinesswhileatthesametimeobscuringtheinnateconnectionbetweenthe

riseofneoliberalismandtheriseofstatesofaffectivedistress:thatinsteadof

acknowledginganddiscussingthisconnectionandwhatitmeans,wetakethe

problemtobethepresenceofsuffering,andtheanswerorobjecttobeanendto

suffering,wheresufferingisatthesametimemeasuredaseconomic

malfunction.3Thisformulaobscurestheneedtolookattheformorcontentof

sufferingandaskhowitrelatestotheformof‘goodness’thatproliferates.4This

‘goodness,’byneoliberallogic,isrenderedineconomicterms,whereour

freedomtochooseexistswithintheboundariesandlogicofmarketchoice,

whichcannotnecessarilycontainordescribethoseimmaterialfacetsof

happiness.Thisisconnectedtothewiderframeworkofresponsibilisation

identifiedaspartofneoliberalgovernmentality,whichseesthesubjectas

responsibleforconstructingtheirlifethroughaseriesofrationalchoices–

where,onceagain,rationalityremainstiedtoeconomicfunctionality.

SaraAhmedwrites,“Happinessisconsistentlydescribedastheobjectof

humandesire,asbeingwhatweaimfor,asbeingwhatgivespurpose,meaning

andordertohumanlife.”5Ahmedsaysexplicitlythatherbookisnotdesignedto

offeranaccountofwhathappinessis,buttolookatwhatitdoes:thisistrue,too,

ofmywork.LaurenBerlantsays,“theaffectivestructureofanoptimistic

attachmentinvolvesasustaininginclinationtoreturntothesceneofthefantasy

thatenablesyoutoexpectthatthistime,nearnesstothisthingwillhelpyouor

2Mostoftheliteratureinthefieldof‘happinessstudies’takesAristotleasthefoundationalthinkerofthediscipline,asSisselaBokdiscussesinExploringHappiness:FromAristotletoBrainScience,Cambridge,MA:YaleUniversityPress,2010.3Thisisconnected,too,tothetotalisingeffortsofneoliberalism;theinsistence,perThatcher,thatthereisnoalternative–sowhyshouldorcouldweseektoformulatesomeotherideaofhowtolive?4Thatis,toconductanyphilosophicalenquiryintotheframeworkofoursociety.5Ahmed,ThePromiseofHappiness.p.1.

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theworldtobecomedifferentinjusttherightway.”6Inmyaccount,happiness

underneoliberalismbecomesoneofthese‘goodobjects,’anditscomplexityor

uncertaintyisremovedinthistransformationfromconceptto‘thing.’7

InAffluenza,OliverJamessoughttoseparatehimselffromthegrowingmass

ofpopular‘happinesstheorists’:

SincethepublicationofBritainontheCouch,manyAmericanauthors

–andmorerecently,Britishones–havefollowedmeintoits

worryingterrain,nearlyallofthemconcentratingonhappiness.I

wouldliketostressthatwhatIhavetosayisquitedifferent.Typical

ofourtimeinhistory,ratherthanfacingthefactthatwearetrulyinn

abadway,emotionally,thefactsofourdespair,frustrationandanger

arespun,andinplaceofitsrealcausecomeendlesstreatisesonhow

tohavepositivepsychologyandbehappy.8

Jamesalsosaysthat“theevidenceregardinghappiness,ratherthanemotional

distress,isanywaynotverysound”–howwouldweofferevidencefora

philosophicalconcept?9Therenderingofhappinessasmeasurablecastsitas

distancefromdistressorsufferingwhichisnot,exceptinthepoorest

imagination,whatwewouldhopeforinhappiness.Ineffect,Iamdiscussinga

happinessdiscoursethatseekstoremovethequestionofwhathappinessis

–undertheneoliberalrhetoricofchoice,itiswhatyouchooseittobe,afterall.

Instead,Ipositthisasapublicdiscourseinwhichhappinessistranslatedintoan

object–tohave,topursue,tomeasure.Thisemptiesoutpublicconversation

aroundwhathappinessis,turningitinsteadintoaquestionofhowwecangetor

obtainhappiness.10Thisyear(2018)hasseentherisetoprominenceof

6Berlant.CruelOptimism,p.2.7Thisalsoenablestheexpansionofhappinessdiscourseintounhappiness,wherethenearnesstohappinessbecomesanimplicitcomponentofthe‘happinessjourney’narrativeIdiscussasoneofthewaysinwhichsufferingisrecuperatedasproductive.8OliverJames,Affluenzap.xvii.IamnotsurehowfarJamessucceedshere,orwhetherheisquiteasinfluentialashesuggests;thatis,however,aquestionforanothertime.James’sworkmixesinstitutionalcritiquesthatfocusesoneconomicreformwithanecdotalevidenceintendedtosupporthisargumentsaroundinnatedesireandneed.Thistechniqueiscommontomany‘happinessexperts’andresultsinasomewhatstrangemixofstorytellingandsciencethatisagenreallitsown.9Asabove.10Atthemoment,asimilarshiftisoccurringaroundtheideaof“loneliness,”withtheappointmentofa‘ministerforloneliness’intheUKandabarrageofarticlesdescribingtheexperiencesofvariouspeoplewhoare“sufferingfromloneliness”who,oncloserinspection,

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CanadianacademicJordanB.Peterson,whopublisheda(controversially

received)bookcalled12RulesforLife:AnAntidotetoChaos.Oneofthecore

tenetsofPeterson’sworkisthatweshouldacceptinequalityandsufferingas

partoflife;thismightbetheclosestthingtoaphilosophicaldefenceofneoliberal

happinessdiscoursewehaveseenyet.11

Toexploremycontentionthatpublicdiscoursearoundhappinesshas

become‘hollowedout’inaneoliberalframework,Ihavechosentofocuson

Ballard’slastfournovels:CocaineNights(1996),Super-Cannes(2000),

MillenniumPeople(2003)andKingdomCome(2006).Thisworkfollowsasimilar

thematicveintotherestofBallard’soeuvre,outlinedabove,butthesefourlate

novelsworktogethermorecloselythanhisothertexts.Ibelievetheyconstitute

anextendedthesisontheexperienceofthesubjectunderneoliberalism,andthat

thetransformationofhappinessisacentralpartofthisexperience.12

MyreadingofBallarddepartsfromthosecriticalapproachesthatemphasis

the‘unreadability’ordifficultyofBallard’swork,suchasRogerLuckhurst’sThe

AngleBetweenTwoWalls,inwhichthatwriterpositedthelureofBallard’swork

as“generatedbyanirreduciblecoreofunreadability.”13Isuggestthat,if

Ballard’slatetextsseemsomehowunsatisfying–thecharactersrepetitive,the

plotsthin,climaxesinconclusive–itisbecausetheyaredesignedtobe.Theyare

unsatisfyingbecausetheywarnhowunsatisfyingthemodesoflifetheydepict

oftenturnouttobesufferingfromunemployment,socialandgeographicalisolation,andsoon.See,forinstance:MoyaSarner,‘Fellinglonely?Meetthepeoplewhosufferedextremeisolation–thenfoundhappiness,’TheGuardian,18January2018.https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2018/jan/18/feeling-lonely-meet-people-extreme-isolation-found-happiness.Thisisrelatedtothe‘psychologisationoflife’exploredelsewhereinthisthesistoo.11Althoughheisaclinicalpsychologist,Peterson’sworkdrawsonanumberofliterarytexts,andisheavilyinfluencedbyhisinterpretationofNietzscheanphilosophy.Hisinclusioninthisthesisisbynomeansanendorsementofthiswork,whichasIhaveassertsanarrativeofindividualresponsibilitythataccordsneatlywithneoliberallogic.Indeed,eventhetitleofhisbook–AnAntidotetoChaos–echoesthe“chaosofchoice”Ihavesuggestedisakeycomponentinstatesofaffectivedistress.Iamseekingtohighlight,here,thetimelinessofmyresearchinterests,andacknowledgingthatevennowashiftmaybeunderwayinhowwediscussorthinkabouthappiness:ashiftthatmayeveninvolvetheemergenceofacontemporaryphilosophyofhappiness(orunhappiness,orsuffering),asfarasPeterson’sworkgoes.12Iamnotthefirstcritictothinkthesenovelsconstituteadistinctthesis.InSamuelFrancis’ThePsychologicalFictionsofJ.G.BallardLondon:Bloomsbury,2013,thefourarelinkedinachapterentitledContemporaryPsychopathies,pp.155–83;SimonSellersalsorecognisesthemaspartofasubsetofBallard’soeuvreinhisintroductiontoExtremeMetaphors,FourthEstate:London,2012.13RogerLuckhurst,TheAngleBetweenTwoWalls.Liverpool:LiverpoolUniversityPress,1997.p.180.

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are.Theformalspaceofanovel,Ballardseemstobesaying,constrainsthe

imaginationtoo.Throughthis,heimplicateshisownworkindiscoursesof

control,withtheintentionofhighlightingthiscomplicityand,insodoing,

seekingtopushagainstit.IfreaderslikeLuckhurstseeksomerewardin

Ballard’sobscurity,hereheconfoundsthem:bythetimeofthelastnovelinthis

quartet,KingdomCome,hehastrulybecomevirtuallyunreadable,practically

parodyinghisownwork.14Thisisadeliberatepushingbackagainsthisposition

intheculturalcanon.AndrzejGasiorekreadsthisasadeclarationof

hopelessness:

Inasmuchasdeterministicsystemshavealwaysfiguredprominently

inBallard’stexts,intheselateworksthepowerofsuchsystems

appearstobeall-embracing.Thebelatedlyawakenedsubject

becomesawareofthesystem’scriminalitybutispowerlesstodo

anythingaboutit;thispersonalknowledge,inshort,makesno

difference,preciselybecausethesubjectisfiguredasapunyentity

whoseinterventionshavenocapacitytodisturbtheflowsand

exchangesofglobalisedmultinationalnetworksofpower.15

Itakeissuewiththisreading,andseektodemonstratethattheselatenovelsare

infactpoliticallyengaged,andthattheyurgethereadertoengageimaginatively

withtheworldoffthepage:thepenultimatechapterofKingdomComeiscalled

‘ExitStrategies,’anditseemstomethisiswhatBallardisurginghisreaderto

formulate.IftheprotagonistsofBallard’snovelsarepowerless(whichisnot,I

suggest,alwaysthecase),thereaderisnot.InaninterviewaboutKingdomCome,

TobyLittaskedBallardifhesawthingsasgettingexponentiallyworse(forthe

worldatlarge),towhichBallardreplied:“No,Idon’t.”16Hegoesontosaythatall

theformertotemsofpower–thechurch,theearliercapitalistsystem,the

monarchy–createdasortofplayofpowerthat“kepttheshowontheroad,”but

thattheseforcesnolongerexerciseanyrealpower,orinspireloyalty.Hesays

14SimonSellersalsonotedthisinconversationwithBallard,whoownedthecharge.pp.431-2ExtremeMetaphors.15AndrzejGasiorek,J.G.Ballard.Manchester:ManchesterUniversityPress,2005.p.174–itmustbehighlightedherethatGasiorek’sanalysiswasformulatedpriortothepublicationofKingdomCome.16ExtremeMetaphors.p.420.

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theonlyrealforcethatcontinuestoexercisepowerisconsumerism–theneedto

engageproductivelyinthemarket.

Forconsumerismtocontinuetoflourish,Ballardsuggests,weneedto

inventnewwaystospendmoney,totransformnewareasintomarkets.For

Ballard,thiscanonlymovehumanityintotherealmofthepsychopathic.Hesays,

“Wewantmoreexcitinglives.TherearelimitstothenumberofTVsetsyoucan

haveathome.Therearelimitstothenumberofcarsyoucanown.Onceyou’ve

gotallthosethings,whathappensnext?”17Ballardincipientlyrecognisesthe

innatetruthofneoliberalism,thatthemarkethasfarexceededitsfunctionasa

mechanismofsupply,andbecomeuntetheredfromthatprospectoffreedom

outlinedbyitsearlytheorists.18Althoughtheselatenovelspre-datetheriseof

socialmediaandthesmartphone,whenaskedtoselectakeyimagethatwould

representthetwenty-firstcenturyinthesamewaythecarhadthetwentieth,

Ballardsays,“It’shardtotell–it’ssoearly.IfIhadtopickanimagenow,it’d

probablybeaninternetscreen.”19Ballarddiedin2009,soonecanonlyspeculate

ontheinternetnovelhemighthavewrittenhadhelived–andtheimaginative

outstrippingevenhemightfeelatthewayinwhichnewtechnologieshave

becometechnologiesoftheself,andenabledtheopeningupofallpartsoflifeto

marketisation.

Inthissameinterview,LittasksBallardwhatadvicehewouldgivetopeople,

howhemightsuggesttheychange.TowhichBallardreplied,

WhatwouldIsaytothesepeoplethere[theinhabitantsofreal–life

motorwaytowns]?Quiteaquestion,becausetheobviousansweris:

‘Stopbuyingthings.’Youknow,thewholeeconomyisgoingto

collapse[whichitdid,tosomedegree,twoyearslater].Thisispartof

theproblem,ofcourse.Theengineisnowrevvingsofastthatyou

can’tapplythebreaks.You’djusttearoffthebrakedrumsandhurl

thewholevehicleintotheditch.20

17ExtremeMetaphors.p.420.18Hesays,inwhatwemightnowseeasaseriousunderstatement,“Marketsarenolongercontributingmuchtosocialcohesion.”ExtremeMetaphors,p.424.19ExtremeMetaphors.p.436.20ExtremeMetaphors.p.423.

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Ballardis,ashesaysexplicitly,issuingwarnings.Hegoessofarastodescribe

KingdomComeas“afull-frontalattackonEnglandtoday,”acountryhethinks

“haslostitsdirection.”21Despitethis,hesaysthathisworkisintendedtobe

affirmative,ratherthanbleaklydystopian:“Ithinkmyworkissuperficially

dystopian,insomerespects,butI’mtryingto,asyousay,affirmamorepositive

world-view.”22Hementionshisdesiretowritecharactersthatfindawayto

“makesomethingpositiveoutofthechaosthatsurrounds[them].”23Healso,as

statedelsewhere,statesthathehasbecomemoreleft-wingashehasgotten

older.24Thishasbeenrelativelyoverlooked,eveninrecentBallardscholarship,

suchasthe2008collectionofcriticismeditedbyJeanetteBaxter.Inamore

recentcollection,DavidJamesturnshisattentiontoBallard’slateworkwithan

emphasisonstyle,inachaptertitled‘LateBallard.’JakeHuntleyoffereda

readingofthedesignoftheclosedcommunitiesinthelatenovels,SimonSellars

lookedat‘non-place’and‘micronationalism’inBallard’sfiction.Noneofthese

readings,however,gosofarastotakeuptheexplicitlypoliticalcritiqueBallard

himselfacknowledgesasatworkintheselatenovels–acritiquethat,although

theauthordidnotusethetermhimself,Iwilldemonstratemustbereadinlight

oftheriseofneoliberalismandtheconcomitantmarketisationofalloflife.AsW.

WarrenWagar,whoalsorefusedthereadingofBallard’sworkashopeless,

wrote,“thewholepointof[Ballard’s]writingistoinvestigatehowthe

“hardware”ofobjectsandenvironmentsaffectsthe“software”ofhuman

psyches.”25Ourcurrent“hardware”isthecommon-senseofneoliberalism,and

Ballard’sworkbothdepictsandseekstoresistitseffects.

21ExtremeMetaphors.p.433.22ExtremeMetaphors.p.438.23ExtremeMetaphors.p.438.Theoriginalquotesays“he,”becauseBallard’sprotagonistsareinvariablymale.24ExtremeMetaphors.p.441.25W.WarrenWagar.‘J.G.BallardandtheTransvaluationofUtopia(J.G.Ballardetlatransvaluationdel'utopie),’ScienceFictionStudies18:1,1991,pp.53-70p.53.Inthissamearticle,WagarnotesBallard’ssuggestionina1983interviewwithGraemeRevellthatfewcriticsorreadershavenoticed“thegreatthreadofidealismrunningthroughmostofmyfiction”(p.55)andtheassociatedsuggestionofhisheroesasdrivenbytheideaofaworldwherethingsmakesense–considerthisincontrasttothe‘chaosofchoice’Ihavesuggestedproliferatesunderneoliberalism.IalsoacknowledgethatattimestheymayleadBallard’swritingintowhatseemlikeconservativeorretrogressivepositions–therepeatedmotifofthe1960sasakindof‘goldenera’inCocaineNights,forinstance–butthatthesepositionsaregenerallyunpickedorunderminedashiswritinggoeson–here,inthedeconstructionoftheculture

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WhereWagarreadsBallard’soptimisminautopianveinoftranscendence,I

connecthisemphasisontheimaginationtocallsbycontemporarycriticssuchas

LaurenBerlantandMarkFisher,whoemphasisethepoliticalpotentialof

fantasy,andofthehumanimagination,inconceptualisingnewworldsornew

waystoliveintheworld.Inseekingtowarnusoftheunsustainabilityoflife

underneoliberalcapitalism,intermsofboththeabsurdityofimaginingever-

increasingmarketsinaworldoffiniteresourcesandthedamagemarketisation

doestosubjectsininstitutingachaosofchoicethatIconnecttothestatesof

affectivedistressdescribedelsewhereinthisthesis,Ballardisaskingthereader

toimaginesomethingelse,someotherway.26Wagaraddressesseveralother

criticswhohavebemoanedBallard’slackofpoliticalengagement(with

reference,itshouldbenoted,tohisearlierfiction):H.BruceFranklin,Peter

Fitting,BrianAldiss.Hesuggeststhattheircriticismmaybewellgrounded;that

Ballarddoesnot“preachresistance”intermsofclearlyadvocatingforthe

overthrowofcapitalism,thewarfarestate,andsoon.Intheselatenovels,

however,Ballarddoesmovetowardsthis,highlightingtheviolenceandsuffering

endemictolatecapitalism(inSuper-CannesandKingdomComeparticularly)and

raisingquestionsabouttheefficacyofresistanceasitiscurrentlyimagined(in

MillenniumPeople).IfWagar’sreadingreliesonseeingpoliticalpotentialinthe

avant-garde,theselatenovelspushpasteventhat,asIhavesuggested,intheir

escalatingnonsensicality.This,asIarguethroughout,isaclearmovetoshiftthe

imaginativeactionawayfromthetextandontothereader–torequirearevision

oftheworld“offthepage”andtoworkoutsideofthemarketisationthatdictates

political,social,andculturallife.InKingdomCome,themostexcessiveand

pointedofthesenovels(Iseeitasakindofunderliningofthethesisoftheother

three),Ballardgivesthereaderwhoseeksdifficultyandunreadabilityexactly

whattheywant,andinsodoingconfoundstheveryformofpleasuretheyseek.

Thisformalapproachisechoedinthethemeofthenovel,andreturnsustoan

industryandthepost-’68generationinMillenniumPeople.26HeremyreadingdivergesfromWagar’s,whosuggeststhatBallard’sEmpireoftheSun(1984)is“notsomuchautopiaasakitofbuildingmaterialsfortheconstructionoffutureutopias.”(p.60)GiventhatthekindsofdangersWagaridentifiesasemancipatoryinthatnovelhave,bythetimeoftheselatenovels,becomecodifiedandinSuper-Cannesliterallyprescribed,theynolongerofferawaytoescape“ordinarybourgeoisexistence.”Theselatenovelsarenottoolkitsforescape,butmapstoshowuswhatwemustescape,ifyoulike.

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earlierquote,“TherearelimitstothenumberofTVsetsyoucanhaveathome.

Therearelimitstothenumberofcarsyoucanown.Onceyou’vegotallthose

things,whathappensnext?”27Inreferencetotheselatetexts,thisisnota

rhetoricaldevice–itistheveryrealquestiontheyaskthereadertoanswer.

ThePoliticsofPsychopathology?

Inconsideringtheselatenovelsasanextendedcritiqueofneoliberalism,Iam

seekingtoascribeanovertlypoliticalmotivationtoBallard.Thishasbeena

challengingareaformostcritics;despitetheeco-criticismofhisearlynovels,his

controversialpamphletWhyIWantToFuckRonaldReagan(1968,latercollected

inTheAtrocityExhibition)andhisscepticismabouttheimpactoftechnologyon

humanlife(oftencloselyalignedwithcriticismofadvertisingandconsumerism,

voicedinvariousinterviewsandstoriessuchasTheatreofWarandTheIntensive

CareUnit,bothofwhichappearinMythsoftheNearFuture(1994)),ithas

provendifficulttocategoriseBallardasapoliticalauthor.28Muchofthisisdueto

hisstatedambivalenceregardingpolitics.Ballardtendedtocharacterisepolitics

notastheprimaryframeworkfororganisinghumanlife,butasoneofanumber

ofdiscoursesactinguponsubjectsinthecontemporarymoment.29Throughhis

career,Ballardincreasinglysawpoliticsasfunctioninginthesamesphereas

advertising,markedfromthemomentofReagan’sascensionanddrivenhomeby

theBlairyearsintheU.K.Inacareerfilledwithexamplesofuncannyprescience

-thestoryof‘howJ.G.Ballardpredictedsocialmedia’hasbeenanonlinestaple

sinceitspublicationonBuzzfeedin2013-perhapsthemoststrikingistheway

inwhichBallard’sworkhasalwaysseemedtounderstandthemechanismsof

27ExtremeMetaphors.p.420.28MuchdiscomforthasbeenexpressedoverhisvocaladmirationforMargaretThatcher,forwhomheseemedtocarrysomethingofatorch.Inoneinterview,hecalledher“apublic-spiritedpsychopath”andinthenextbreathdeclaredthathe“foundherwonderfullyattractive.”J.G.BallardinterviewedbyDamienLove.‘1996:KafkawithunlimitedChickenKiev,’ExtremeMetaphors,pp.320-327,p.327.29Thisiswellexpressed,Ithink,ina1968interview,inwhichBallardtalksabouttheimportanceofsciencefictionasaliteraryform,basedonitsabilityto“interpretthepresentdayintermsofthefuture,ratherthanthepast.Itusesavocabularythatisonthewholeexclusivelyorientedtowardstheworldoftomorrow,withallitsscience,itstechnology,andwithallitsdevelopmentsinpolitics,sociology,advertisingandsoforth.”‘1968:UncreditedMunichRoundUpinterview,’ExtremeMetaphors,pp.10-21,p.11.

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neoliberalismthathaveledtothecurrentpoliticalmoment.30In1998,

commentingonthefallofcommunistRussia,Ballardclarifiedhisfeelings

towardsMargaretThatcher,sayingthatheadmired“herattempttoAmericanise

theBritishpeople.”31This‘Americanisation’refersinfacttoThatcher’s

neoliberalpolicies:heremphasisonentrepreneurship;herinsistenceonthe

primacyoftheindividual;andhercurbingoflabourpower,allaccomplished,as

DavidHarveypointsout,withpopularsupportgarneredthroughthe

constructionofmiddle-classconsent.32Inthissameinterview,Ballardwentonto

say:

Bourgeoislifehastriumphed,andthesuburbanisationoftheplanet

anduniversalacceptanceoftheshoppingmallhavenowvirtuallyput

anendtopolitics.Whatwehaveisthecommodificationofeverything,

includingideologies,andgovernmentbyadvertisingagency–asin

Blair’snewBritain.

Ithinkwe’vegonebeyondpoliticsnowandintoanewand

potentiallymoredangerousrealmwherenon-politicalfactorswill

pulltheleversofpower–thesemaybevastconsumertrends,strange

surgesintheentertainmentculturethatdominatestheplanet,quasi-

religiouseruptionsofthekindwesawatDiana’sdeath,mass

paranoiaaboutnewdiseases,aberrantmovementsinpopularised

mysticism,andthegrowingdominanceoftheaesthetic....Theonly

ballotboxcommontoalloftheseisthecashregister,anextremely

accurategaugeofconsumerpreferenceintheveryshorttermbut

uselessbeyondthenextfiveminutes.33

Ballard’sworkisaboutdiffusemanifestationsofpowerandthewayinwhich

subjectsseektoestablishsomesenseofpersonalsovereigntyinresponseto

thesemachinations.WhenBallardreferstotheendofpolitics,hemeanstheend

30LukeLewis.‘J.G.BallardPredictedSocialMediain1977’,BuzzFeed,June252013www.buzzfeed.com/lukelewis/jg-ballard-predicted-social-media-in-1977?utm_term=.rl4QM8ewZN#.fiW7BYP90d.31J.G.BallardinterviewedbyZinovyZinik,‘1998:RussiaonMyMind,’inExtremeMetaphors,pp.356-363,p.357.32DavidHarvey.ABriefHistoryofNeoliberalismOxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2008,p.57–63.33Ballard,‘1998:RussiaonMyMind.’ExtremeMetaphors,p.357.

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ofasubstantivepublicdiscourseaboutconstructionofthe‘goodlife’andthe

weakeninginfluenceoftraditionalpolitics,withaclearphilosophicalfoundation

anddiscernibleideologicaldifferencesbetweenbranches.Thislatter

circumstanceisduetothelarge-scalemovetotherightbyleftistpoliticiansin

theneoliberalera(Blair,again)andthefracturesinthecollectivistbaseofleft

wingpolitics–thesefracturesareimplementeddeliberatelythroughthe

decimationofcollectiverightsinthepublicsphere.Thisisthebasisofthe

‘common-sense’politicsthathascometodominatetheneoliberalera.This

understandingofcommonsenseisderivedfromGramsci’stheoryofcultural

hegemony.34

StuartHallandAlanO’Sheaofferacompellingreadingofthisphenomenonin

‘Common-senseneoliberalism.’WecanconnectthistoBallard’saccountofa

world‘beyondpolitics’wherethe‘non-politicalfactors’heenumeratesare

vehiclesforthetransmissionofcommonsenseand,afterFoucault,distinct

discoursesandrealmsofknowledge(andcontrol)themselves.HallandO’Shea

linkthesedisparatediscoursesthroughtheirrelianceonaffectivedimensions.

Theirworkaccordswiththecorebeliefofthisthesis,whentheysay,“Tofallill

withanxietyisitselfasymptomthatsomepeoplearefindingitdifficulttolive

withneoliberalculture.”35Theirreadingreliesonarecuperationofaffectasa

politicalrealm–theybelievethat,“Weneedtoacknowledgetheseaffective

dimensionsthatareinplay,andwhichunderpincommonsense.”36Thisisthe

clarioncallofthecontemporaryleft,andtheneedtocontroltheaffectiverealm

isoneofthecentralreasonsfortheconstructionofaregulatorydiscourseof

happinessunderneoliberalism(theother,whichwewillcometoshortly,isto

ensuretheproductivecapacityoflabour,particularlyinimmaterialeconomies).

ThepoliticsofaffectmightplayapartinconstructingabridgebetweenMarxist

andFoucauldianconceptionsofpower,connectingbodilyknowledgeand

34SeeAntonioGramsci.SelectionsfromthePrisonNotebooks,translatedbyQuentinHoareandGeoffreyNowellSmith.London:Lawrence&Wishart.1971.35StuartHallandAlanO’Shea.‘Common-senseneoliberalism,’Soundings,55,2013,pp.8-24,p.13.36HallandO’Shea.‘Common-senseneoliberalism,’p.12.

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materialconditionsinawaythatprivilegesexperiencewithoutsubstitutingitfor

expertise.37

LaurenBerlant’sreadingof‘affect’inadistinctlypoliticalcontextalso

supportsthesuggestionthataffectivestateshavepoliticalimplications,andthat

thisisakeyreasonwhyneoliberalismseekstodesignandpromoteaparticular

discourseofhappiness–inordertomanageandsubduetheconsequencesof

thesestates.38EarlyinCruelOptimism,BerlantreferencesBadiou’sconceptionof

theEvent,whichshepositsasdistinctfromthe‘situation,’whichisdescribedas,

“astateofthingsinwhichsomethingthatwillperhapsmatterisunfoldingamid

theusualactivityoflife.”39TheEvent,incontrast,constitutestheruptureof

normalitythroughtheappearanceoftheexcludedpart(ofsociety)–a“drama

thatshocksbeingintoradicallyopensituations.”40InBallard’sdeploymentofthe

Event,nonewrepresentationsareunfolded.TheEventinBallard’swork

precipitatestheexcluded,ratherthantheotherwayround–itisonlythrough

theirirruption,whichmostusuallytakestheformofsomeviolent

psychopathology,thatthesubjectsinBallard’sworksbecometheexcluded.As

such,theygeneratenothingthatwasnotalreadyimmanenttothedominant

system.Ballard’sdisruptionscannotberupturesbecausetheydonotdestroythe

dominantstateofthesituation;instead,theyaffirmitscentraltenetsbyre-

inscribingthemintheirownpatternsandbyreturningtoastateofstatusquo,

generallythroughthesacrificeofanindividualactor(anoutsider)whocanthen

37ThisisdemonstratedinLaurenBerlant’sreadingofJohnAshberythroughthelensofwhatwemightcallsensoryMarxism,basedonanexcerptfromtheEconomicandPhilosophicalPapers:“Theabolitionofprivatepropertyisthereforethecompleteemancipationofallhumansensesandqualities,butitisthisemancipationpreciselybecausethesesensesandattributeshavebecome,subjectivelyandobjectively,human.Theeyehasbecomeahumaneye,justasitsobjecthasbecomeasocial,humanobject–anobjectmadebymanforman.Thesenseshavethereforebecomedirectlyintheirpracticetheoreticians.”CruelOptimism,Durham,NC:DurhamUniversityPress,p.31.38Ibelievethereisworkyettobedoneonthewayinwhichthe‘altright’havecometousethetendencyofthelefttovocaliseemotionalinvestmentinpoliticalpositionsasapointofridicule.SeeNickPell,‘Thealt-rightmovement:everythingyouneedtoknow,’January42017,TheIrishTimeshttp://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/the-alt-right-movement-everything-you-need-to-know-1.2924658;AngelaNagle,‘WhattheAlt-rightisallabout,’TheIrishTimes,January62017http://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/angela-nagle-what-the-alt-right-is-really-all-about-1.2926929.39Berlant.CruelOptimism,p.5.40Berlant.CruelOptimism,p.5.

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bescapegoatedforthewiderunrest.41Anydisruptionoccursnotwithinthe

eventsofthebooks,butinthewayinwhichtheirnarrativeitselfworkstorefuse

theformsofpowerthecharacterscannot.

Thisrefusalfunctionsthroughthechallengeissuedtothereaderinforcing

themtoconfronttheimmanenceofrebelliontopowerandtorecognisetheway

inwhichthelimitationofimaginationunderneoliberalismhasservedtoneuter

thepossibilityofconstructingspacesofradicaldifference-spacesthatmight

resistmarketlogic.Ballard’sworklocatestheEventwithinthehorizonofcrisis

ordinarinessinordertodemonstratehowthepossibilitiesforscenesofradical

changeareminimisedunderthetotalisingnormativeforcesofneoliberalism,

whilstatthesametimeseekingtoestablishapossiblespacefortheEvent

beyondthetext.AlthoughBallardconcentrateson(literally)‘imagined

communities,’hisworkisgroundedinreality.Frequently,hisborrowingsfrom

realitytaketheformofechoingcrises:murders,riots,massshootings.42Ballard

seekstoexplorewhatitisaboutthecontemporarymomentthatprecipitates

thesecalamities,anddrawsthismomentasonemarkedbycrisis–though

notably,notnecessarilybyanyattendantsenseoftrauma.Ballard’sworkoffers

somethingofabridgebetweentheextremityofthesecrisesandthekindof

‘crisisordinariness’describedbyBerlant.Berlantusesthistermasarefutation

oftheideathatthecontemporarymomentshouldbereadintermsoftrauma

theory,whichunderstandstraumaorcrisisasashatteringoforder,abreakfrom

theordinary.Instead,sheposits‘crisisordinariness’asawayofrefusingthe

“exceptionalityofthetraumaticevent”and“betterkeep[ing]opentheproblem

oftheformheightenedthreatcantakeasitismanagedinthecontextofliving.”43

Followingthis,wecanconceptualiseBallard’saffectlessworldsasastylistic

commentonthe‘crisisordinariness’thatpervadestheeveryday,andthe

hyperbolisedviolenceandcriminalityofhis‘ordinary’subjectsasasatiric

readingoftheideaofadjustmenttothisstateofaffairs.

41AstowhyBallardchoosestoreturntopsychopathologyasthelocusofthenear-eventineachtext,abriefglossisthatitrepresentsbothafundamentallyalienandunknowablepartoftheselfandthatthisspeakstotheunintelligibilityofthemultipleformsofpoweractingonthesubject.42Forexample,themurderofJillDandoandthe1987HungerfordmassacrebothloomlargeinMillenniumPeople,whichalsoseemedtoanticipatethe2011riotsthatrockedLondon.43Berlant.CruelOptimism,pp.73,101.

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AfewfinalnotesonreadingBallard’sworkpolitically.Returningtohis

professedadmirationforThatcher’s‘Americanisation’ofBritain;thisisnota

wholesalesanctioningofneoliberalpolitics.Itis,primarily,themythologyof

ThatcherthatBallardadmires,thefigureshestrikes,disconnectedfromher

actionsintheformalrealmofpolitics:Thatcherassignifier.Ballardhas

describedherasa“public-spiritedpsychopath”andcomparedhertothe

charismaticbutinsanecommunityleadershedepictsintheselatetexts.44

However,hehasstatedhishistoricsupportforThatcher’seconomicpolicies,

thoughnotwhathecallsher“socialpolicies,”andrefusedtoidentifyas

straightforwardlyanti-capitalist.45Atthesametime,Ballardrebuffedthe

stereotypethatpeoplebecomemoreconservativewithage,sayingthathehadin

factbecomemoreleftwingashehadgottenolder.46Discussingtheexperienceof

thecurrenthistoricalmomentwithChrisHallin2003,Ballardsaid:

Attimes,Ithinkwe’regoingthroughquiteacriticalperiod.Idon’t

meanSeptember11,Iraq–they’reapartofit–Imeanwhatwehave

is…aresigns,Ithink,thatpeoplearen’tsatisfiedbyconsumerism

that…Peopleresentthefactthatthemostmoraldecisionintheir

livesischoosingwhatcolourtheirnextcarwillbe.47

IntheinterviewwithTobyLitt,mentionedearlier,Ballardtalkedatlengthabout

thedeclineincommunityincivicsociety,linkingittothedeclineofthe

traditionalforcesofdomination-specifically,traditionalpolitics,orParliament;

thearmedforces,andtheBritishEmpiretheysoughttoprotect;religion(the

ChurchofEngland);andpost-warcapitalism.Ballardsuggeststhattheseforces

providedsomemeasureofsocialcohesionthroughtheirinteractionsandtheir

impactonsubjects.48ThecentralconcernsmotivatingBallard’smovetoamore

politicallyengagedposition,then,areatleastvaguelyleftist.Theseconcerns

revolvearoundthedeclineofthecivicrealmasaspaceofsocialsolidarity,the

bankruptcyofformalpoliticsasatruthdiscourse,andthemoralvacuum

44Ballard.‘1996:KafkawithunlimitedChicken,’ExtremeMetaphors,p.327.45J.G.BallardinterviewedbyTobyLitt.‘2006:DangerousBendsAhead.SlowDown.’ExtremeMetaphors,pp.415-430,p.419.46J.G.BallardinterviewedbyChrisHall.‘2003:Allwe’vegotleftisourownpsychopathology,’ExtremeMetaphors,pp.396-406,p.399.47Ballard.‘2003:Allwe’vegotleftisourownpsychopathology,’ExtremeMetaphors,p.399.48Ballard.‘2006:DangerousBendsAhead.SlowDown.’ExtremeMetaphors,p.420.

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occasionedbyaconsumeristormarketisedsocietywhichplacesnoworthon

anyintangibleconstructofgoodnessorhappiness,andisinsteadonlyconcerned

withmaterialpossessions.Ballard’swork,aswewillsee,depictseruptionsof

psychopathologyasaresultoftheatomisationandpressureexperiencedasa

resultofthestructuralconsequencesofneoliberalism,perHallandO’Shea.

Frequentlyabsurdandoftenmeaningless,violenceinBallard’snovelsisafoilto

theboredom,anxietyanddepressionincurredbythevacuumofmeaningatthe

heartofneoliberalismandtheinsubstantialityoftheeconomicasaframework

ofsubjectification.

‘InnerSpace’:Ballard,ScienceFictionandthe‘Psy’Sciences

IfwefollowHall,O’Shea,andBerlantinreadingaffectasapoliticallysignificant

realm,andacceptBallard’sownstatements,andthethematicevidenceofhis

shifttotheleft,wemustbewillingtomovebeyondthegeneralpsychoanalytic

approachthathasconstitutedmuchcriticalworkonBallard.Ballardiswell

knownforhisengagementwithpsydiscourses,notablypsychoanalytic

discourse.Theterm‘psy’hereistakenfromtheworkofNikolasRose,whouses

ittoreferto“thehumansciences,inparticularpsychologyanditsaffiliates.”49

Rose’sworkexploreshowpsydisciplineshavecometoshapethewayinwhich

subjectsconceiveofthemselves,withanemphasisonhowtheseknowledge

formscometorendersubjectsgovernable,inaccordancewithliberaldemocratic

principles-Rosedescribesthisasbearingtheburdenofliberty.50Rose,writing

fromaFoucauldianperspective,suggeststhat,“[t]hepsyscienceshaveplayeda

keyroleintherationalitiesandtechniquesofgovernment,”impactingnotjust

theframeworkofgovernmentalknowledgebutalsolegitimisingtheexertionof

powerandauthorityataparticularhistoricalmoment.Thisapproachunderpins

theworkofthisthesis,althoughthepsysciencesasadisciplineconstituteonly

onepartoftheneoliberalhappinessdiscourseIseektoexplorehere.51Ballard

49NikolasRose.GoverningTheSoul.1989London:FreeAssociationBooks,1999.p.vii50Rose.GoverningTheSoul,p.viii.51Whilstthepsysciencesareahugepartofthisdiscourse,giventheirroleincreatingandperpetuatingnormativeunderstandingsofemotionalstates,Ibelievethatother,lessformal,movementshaveanimportantroletoo:the‘wellness’industry,forexample.Iamalsocommentingonahappinessdiscoursethatworksintheculturalarena,lookingatfactorssuchas

81

wenttogreatlengthstoleave‘mentaldistress’uncategorisedinhiswork,in

ordertoavoidtyinghischaracterisationtonarrowlydefinedandchangeable

‘definitions’,ashestatedinhis2006interviewwithTobyLitt.52

So,whilstIacknowledgetheimportanceofthepsychoanalyticinsituating

Ballard’sworkinacriticallandscape,itisnotmyintentiontounpackor

delineatehispreciseengagementwithpsysciences.SamuelFrancis’swork

rendersthatlargelyunnecessary,unpackingthespecificengagementsof

Ballard’sworkwithpsyframeworksquitecomprehensively.Rather,Iam

interestedintheintersectionbetweenFrancis’workandRogerLuckhurst’s

readingofBallard,inwhichhedescribesBallard’sworkasescapinganalysis,

althoughIprefertheterm‘resistinganalysis’,suggestingasitdoesamore

deliberatefunction.53Thisescape,orresistance,servestodisruptthe

“overdeterminedframes”ofreferencethatconstitutethe“dominantcritical

approachtoBallard.”54ThisdisruptionisimportanttomyreadingofBallard–I

believethatoneofBallard’scentralargumentsreliesontheimportanceof

imaginationasaformofresistanceinthefaceoftotalisingsystems,andthat,on

thetermsjustdescribed,hisworkpracticallydemonstrateshowliteraryfiction

canenactsuchadisruption.Thisunderstandingoftheredemptivepowerof

imaginationmaysoundabstract,butitisthefoundationofconstructingan

alternativetothetotalisingforceofneoliberalism.Neoliberalismrelieson

constructingconsentthroughthereiterationofthecommonsensebeliefthat,

perThatcher,“thereisnoalternative.”ThisisthesubjectofMarkFisher’s

CapitalistRealism,inwhichFishersuggeststhatthevitalityoftheculturalsphere

isnecessarytoexpandthe“horizonsofpossibility”underneoliberalism.55

Ballard’sworkbothexploresandenactsthisidea;thevirtuallyinterchangeable

theriseofimmaterialindustryandchangingattitudestoandtypesofwork,especiallyincreativeindustries.52LittaskedBallard:“Youhaveaclinicalbackgroundinunderstandinginsanityorpsychopathology-or,atleast,morethanthelaymandoes.Butwhenyousay'mad'or'insane'youdon'treallydiagnoseveryoften.Youwouldn'tsaythatoneofyourcharacterswasparanoidschizophrenicor,morerecently,bipolar.Yousaythattheywere'mad'or'insane'.Whyisthat?”Ballard’sresponseclearlylaidouthisoppositionto‘diagnostic’writing,sayinghepreferredto“leaveitopen.Becausethesepsychiatricdefinitionsseemtoshiftaround.”‘2003:DangerousBendsAhead:SlowDown,’ExtremeMetaphors,pp.417-8. 53Luckhurst.TheAngleBetweenTwoWalls.p.xix.54LuckhurstTheAngleBetweenTwoWalls,p.48.55MarkFisher.CapitalistRealism.London:ZeroBooks,2009,p.81.

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charactersandplotsoftheselatenovelsplaywiththeideaofsterility,ofsurface,

ofculturalrepetition,whileatthesametimeinterrogatingtheculturalspherein-

text.AnaccountofBallard’s‘innerspace’isusefulheretoo,inunderstandingthe

movefromstrictpsychoanalyticreadingsofhiswork.‘Innerspace’hasoften

beenusedtodenotethewaysinwhichBallard’sworkconfoundsthegeneric

conventionsofsciencefiction;insteadoffocusingonalieninvaders,futuristic

technologyorspaceexploration,Ballard’sworkturnstothenow,tothe

human.56TheclosedcommunitiesofBallard’sworkreflecttheclosingofspaces

underlatecapitalismandtheprivatisationofthecommons,theindividualisation

ofspace,inkeepingwiththeatomisticlogicofneoliberalism.

Inassessingthis‘inner-space’,wemustalsoattendtothesurface/depth

dichotomythatmarksmostpsychoanalyticreadingsofBallard.Suchreadings

oftenserveassomethingofanapologyfortherepetitiveaffectlessnessof

Ballard’swork,orasaneutralisationoftheextremityofhiswork,achieved

throughrenderingitrepresentativeratherthanactual.InStephenBestand

SharonMarcus’s‘SurfaceReading:AnIntroduction’,theauthorsofferaccountsof

variousmethodsof‘surfacereading’,throughwhichtheyhopetogenerate

discussiononthepedagogyofreadingandtheworkofliterarycriticism.57

Lookingattheconceptof‘surfaceasliteralmeaning,’evacuatingcritical

assumptionsthatmaydeformtheactualcontentofthetext,theyquoteFoucault

onhisrelationshiptoarchives:

…ratherthandigfor“relationsthataresecret,hidden,moresilentor

deeperthan...consciousness,”hedescribedhimselfasseeking“to

definetherelationsontheverysurfaceofdiscourse”andto“make

visiblewhatisinvisibleonlybecauseit’stoomuchonthesurfaceof

things.”58

56ThisisonereasonIprefertheterm‘speculativefiction’whendiscussingBallard’swork–itmoreaccuratelycapturesthefocusofhiswriting.Thisisnottosubscribetoanypejorativeorlimitingreadingofgenre,butsimplytoattempttoofferaclearerpictureofBallardasanauthor.57StephenBestandSharonMarcus.‘SurfaceReading:AnIntroduction,’Representations,108:1,2009,pp.1-21.58BestandMarcus.“SurfaceReading:AnIntroduction.’p.13.WhilstIappreciatethelargerconversationaroundsurfacereading,reparativereading,etc.inthecontextofseekingtoestablishthecontemporaryroleofthehumanitiesandtounpacktheepistemologicalprejudicesofthehermeneuticsofsuspicion,myuseofthisconstructdoesnotendorseonespecificcourseofreading.However,inasmuchastheoriesofaffectaretiedtosurfacereading(anditseemstome,

83

ThisistheoperatinglogicofBallard’slatenovels,andtheveryreasonfortheir

insistenceontheobvious,thehyperbolicandevenontheabsurd.Ballard’s

depthlessspacesofferusaFoucauldianvisionofaworldinwhichtheconditions

ofoppressionanddominationexistontheverysurfaceoftheeverydayandare

renderedinvisiblebytheirveryvisibility.Thelogicof‘noalternative’isinscribed

intheclosenessoftheseconditionstoourexperienceassubjects.Work,leisure,

travel,consumerism,andsoonareall‘natural’totemsofcontemporarylife,in

thecommonsenseunderstandingoftheword.Thisisnottodenyinterpretive

readingoftheselatenovels,buttohighlightthewayinwhichtheirthematic

interestsalsoconstituteastructureinthemselves,andthewayinwhichthis

structuremimicsthespaceoftheworldbeyondthetext.Ballard’sworkis

immediatelyconcernedwiththematerialcircumstanceoftheworld,andthe

impactthishasonthehorizonsofpossibilityforindividualsubjects,ashe

confirmedinaninterviewinTheGuardianin2008:

WithallduerespecttoKingsleyAmisandothers,Ididn'tfeelthatthe

angryyoungmenwererespondingtowhatwasreallyimportant

aboutsociety.ThesamegoesforJohnOsborne'splays.Thelaying

downoftheM1wasmuchmoreimportantthananythingJimmy

Porter'sfather-in-lawthoughtaboutthisorthat.Themotorway

systemhadamuchbiggerinfluenceonfreedomandpossibility.59

Thephysicalspacesofthesenovelsdrawthematerialparametersofpossibility.

EvenMillenniumPeople,whichlargelyconcentratesonacritiqueofthecultural

sphere,situatesthiscritiqueinanactualspace,anelitegatedcommunitywhich

physicallyseparatesthemiddle-classresidentsfromtherestofLondon–the

bourgeoissettingofthenovellogicallyrulesthatitconcentratesonthecultural

sector.Thereisanobviouscontrast,too,betweentherationalityofthesespaces

andtheescalatingirrationalityoftheactorsinthesenovels,fromCocaineNights

toKingdomCome.Thatspacesofcapitalaredesignedtorationalisethesubject

andtocontaindesire-ormanufacturean‘acceptable’formofdesire-isnewsto

thetwoarelargelyinextricable,aseachseekstodescribeorallowforformsofknowledgethatdonotrelyontheassumptionsofformaldiscoursesofknowledge),Iacknowledgetheimportanceofbothtomycriticalefforts,particularlywhenitcomestoexploringthecommonsenseemotivedimensionofcontemporary(bourgeois)happinessdiscourse.59J.G.BallardinterviewedbyJamesCampbell.‘StrangeFiction’June142008.TheGuardian.www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jun/14/saturdayreviewsfeatres.guardianreview10.

84

noone;inBallard’swork,however,thesespacesaredestinedtorevealthe

limitationsofhumanrationalitythroughtheirfailuretoanticipatethescopeof

theselimitations.Therationalisingforceofcontemporaryhappinessdiscourseis

amarkerofthesespaces,aswewillsee.

85

BetterOffTogether:Leisure,Criminality,andtheConstructionof

CommunityinCocaineNights

CocaineNightsisthefirstofthesenovels,andlaysoutmanyofthemotifsthat

recurthroughoutthequartet-deterritorializedcitizens,extremeviolenceand

closedsocieties.SetontheCostadelSol,ittellsthestoryofCharlesPrentice,a

travelwriterwhosebrotherFrankhasbeenimprisonedforarsonandmurder.

FormerlythemanagerofapopularsocialclubinatowncalledEstrelladeMar,

Frankfindsfewallieswhenheisimprisoned,andhisbrotherfliesintoofferhim

support.DespiteFrank’sguiltyplea,Charlesdoesnotbelievethatheis

responsibleforthefire,ortheresultantdeaths-neitherdomostofthe

charactersinthenovel.60Charlesisdeterminedtouncoverthe‘truth,’andthe

novelfollowshisattemptstodoso.Itsform,then,isdrawnfromdetective

fiction.Thisstructureiscommontoallfouroftheselatenovels.InCocaine

Nights,Francisseesthisformassituated“withinabroadernarrativeaboutthe

psychologyofthesocial,underlinedas[Charles]Prentice’sattemptstounravel

hisbrother’sallegedcrime[arson,resultinginfivedeaths]areincreasinglyside-

linedbyhisfascinationwiththestrangepsychologicalclimateofBallard’sCosta

DelSol.”61Theconnectionbetweenthedetectivenovelandthepsychoanalytic

processisapparent–usingaprocessofreasoninginordertorevealacentral

truth,resolveuncertainty,andreturnorder.However,whereFrancisfollowsthis

logicthroughapplyingaFreudianframeworkthatseesthecentralcrimeasa

sociallybinding(andnecessary)momentofcollectiveguilt,areadingwhichhas

meritonhisterms,myinterpretationofthedetectiveframeworkhereisthatitis

partofadeliberatedétournementofnarrativeconventionandadestabilisingof

thelogicofpower.Thedetectiveformisnotastand-inforthepsychoanalytic

processhere,butisdeployedinsteadtosubverttheassumptionsoftheform,

particularlyitsemphasisonahomogenisedconstructofstatepower,andthe

centralityofrevelatorytruth.62

60Infact,ittranspiresthatFrankisguilty,butthatheisnotaloneinthisguilt;thefireandresultantdeathsaretheworkofacoregroupofallegedlyupstandingcitizens,dupedintotheircrimesbythecharismatictennispro(and“public-spiritedpsychopath”)BobbyCrawford.61Francis.ThePsychologicalFictionsofJ.G.Ballard,p.157.62SeeAndrewPepper,UnwillingExecutioner:CrimeFictionandtheState.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2016,foramoredetailedunsettlingofthepresumptionsofcrimefiction-inparticular,thereadingcontraFoucaultpp.5-6.

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The“strangepsychologicalclimate”oftheCostadelSolrevealsitselffirstwhen

CharlesPrenticearrivesinGibraltar.Prenticeisatravelwriter,andmuchis

madeofhisprofessioninthenovel.Thisisarecurrentfeatureoftheselate

novels,wherethejoboftheprotagonistsignifiessomeessentialpartoftheir

identity.Prenticecharacteriseshimselfasa“professionaltourist”withadriving

fearofpsychologicalexposure:“Asthecustomsofficialsrummagethroughmy

suitcasesIsensethemtryingtounpackmymindandrevealacontrabandof

forbiddendreamsandmemories.”63If,asUlrikeBrissonhasasserted,spacesof

travelarespacesofpoliticalagency,wecanreadintothesefearsapolitical

dimension;acommentaryontheassessmentofintentionthataccompanies

bordercrossings,nowcommonplaceafterthe9/11attacksonAmerica,butnota

newphenomenonanymorethanairpiracyitself.64Theopennessofglobal

boundariesreliesonthecorrectnessofasubject’sintentions,orrather,onthe

perceptionofthecorrectnessoftheseintentions.Travelwritingandtourismalso

underpinthenarrativesofSuper-CannesandMillenniumPeople.InKingdom

Come,theairportfeaturesinthesettingofBrooklands,aflyovertown,andinthe

figureofStuartPearson,aretiredpilotandthefatherofprotagonistRichard

Pearson.Airports,accordingtoBallard,representthe“truecityofthetwenty

firstcentury.…Airtravelmaywellbethemostimportantcivicdutythatwe

dischargetoday,erasingclassandnationaldistinctionsandsubsumingthem

withintheunitaryglobalcultureofthedeparturelounge.”65Thespacesof

discontinuitythatmakeupthegeographyofcontemporarylifeareeradicatedby

thenon-spaceoftheairport,inthisaccount.Ofcourse,thiscouldbetrueonlyin

thespaceoftheairportitself,asBallardshowsusinhiswork;the‘globalcitizen’

ceasestoexistatcustoms,anddespitetherhetoricofglobalisation,the

differentialweightofcitizenshipisstronglyfeltatthelevelofstatelines.66The

neoliberalsubjectexperiencestravelasbothaspaceofinfinitepossibilityanda

curtailingofthispossibility;thepotentialityofglobalidentityisdeniedbythe

63J.G.Ballard.CocaineNights.London:Flamingo,1996.p.9.64UlrikeBrisson.‘Naked’PoliticsofTravelWriting,’1-17inNotSoInnocentAbroad,editedbyBrissonandBernardSchwizer.NewcastleUponTyne:CambridgeScholars,2009,p.1.65J.G.Ballard.‘Airports:TheTrueCitiesofthe21stCentury,’Blueprint,1997.UTNEReader.www.utne.com/politics/homeiswherethehangaris.66BallardreturnstothisthesisinKingdomCome,aswewillsee.

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realityofnationalborders.Ballarddepictsairtravelasoneofthegreatillusions

oftheneoliberalera;theideathathappinessliesjustajourneyaway,andthata

differentplacemightofferusadifferentlife,wheninfactalllifeissubsumed

underthegenericisinglogicofglobalcapitalanddemarcatedbylinesof

economicpropriety.CharlesPrenticesays,

IpreferlonghaulflightstoJakartaandPapeete,thosehoursofclub-

classair-timethatstillgivemethesenseofhavingarealdestination,

thegreatundyingillusionofairtravel.Infactwesitinasmallcinema,

watchingfilmsasblurredasourhopesofdiscoveringsomewhere

new.Wearriveatanairportidenticaltotheoneweleft,withthe

samecar-rentalagenciesandhotelroomswiththeiradultmovie

channelsanddeodorizedbathrooms,side-chapelsofthatlayreligion,

masstourism.67

Althoughthisreadingofcitizenshipinsistsonthecentralityofthestate,and

maythusseemcontradictorytotheFoucauldianfoundationsofmyapproach,

theconceptionofthestateinuseherestillrefersprimarilytothecontrolof

economicborders.Underneoliberallogic,thestatelargelydivestsitselfofother

responsibilitiesofnationhood.68Thus,thediffusenatureofpowerandthe

conditionsbywhichitcirculatesmaystillbereadinanextra-statecontext.

Tourismisalsoakindofeconomiccolonialism,andBallardleansheavilyonthis

uncomfortableunderstanding.Notonlydoesherepresenttheresidentialspaces

oftheCostadelSolasself-containedcolonies,lateoninthenovel,weseeCharles

Prenticebeginworkonabookentitled,‘MarcoPolo:theWorld’sFirstTourist?’

Prenticedescribeshisagentas“bombardinghimwithfaxes”abouttheproject,

whichseemsasunlikelyasitdoesoutdated.69ThisisjustoneofBallard’ssly

critiquesofthebanalityofthemiddleclasscultureindustry.Inanother

uncomfortableanalogy,andindictmentoftheself-centerednessofthemiddle

classandcolonisingimpulseofthebourgeoisie,Prenticealsolikensthe

deadenedResidenciaCostasoltothe‘ThirdWorld’:“Refugees?Yes…insome

waystheplaceremindsmeoftheThirdWorld.It’slikeaveryup-marketfavela67CocaineNights,p.10.68Whichisnottosaythatsuchconceptsautomaticallybecomepoliticallyredundant,asweseeintheriseofnationalistpoliticalrhetoricdiscussedelsewhereinthisthesis.69CocaineNights,p.289.

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inRio,oraluxurybidonvilleoutsideAlgiers.”BobbyCrawfordcorrectshim,

however:“It’sthefourthworld,Charles.Theonewaitingtotakeover

everything.”70

ThecentralpreoccupationofCocaineNights,however,isnotjusttourism,but

leisuremoregenerally.Ballardseekstoexploretheconditionofsubjectstrapped

inthenon-placeofindefiniteleisure,consumersofthepromisethat‘getting

awayfromitall’(namely,work)isthe‘truemeaning’ofhappiness.Wemustlook

carefullyatthenuancesofBallard’saccountofleisureinthenoveltounderstand

itsrelationshiptothecontemporaryneoliberaldiscourseofhappinessandtrace

thewaysinwhichthemarketisinglogicofneoliberalismrevealsitselftobeat

workinthisdiscourse.Thespecialplaceofworkinunderstandingtheneoliberal

discourseofhappinesswasexploredinmyintroduction,whereIsuggestedthe

workplacehasadistinctroleasasiteofsubjectification.Thisisframedwith

regardtotheriseofimmateriallabourthatreliesonandcommodifies

intangiblessuchasknowledge,personalityandexperience,andtheshifting

conceptualisationofwork,inwhich:

Theworkerisanindividualinsearchofmeaning,responsibility,a

senseofpersonalachievement,amaximised‘qualityoflife’,and

henceofwork.Thustheindividualisnottobeemancipatedfrom

work,perceivedasmerelyataskorameanstoanend,buttobe

fulfilledinwork,nowconstructedasanactivitythroughwhichwe

produce,discoverandexperienceourselves.71

Thedefinitionofsicknessundercapitalismreliesonfitnesstowork,asper

Harvey’sdefinition,andalsoextensivelydemonstratedinRose’swork,aswellas

WilliamDavies’sTheHappinessIndustry(2015).72Thisresultsininvestmentin

‘happiness’thatreliesonmaximisingeconomicutility.Rosecategorisesthis

workerasan‘entrepreneurofthemselves.’Developingthis,LoisMcNay’s

definitionof‘selfasenterprise’encapsulatesthewayinwhichrelationships

70CocaineNights,p.216.71Rose.GoverningtheSoul,p.104.NotehowneatlythisalignswithSeligman’spositivepsychologyPERMAmodel(Positiveemotions,Engagement,Relationships,MeaningandAchievement):MarianaPascha.‘ThePERMAModel:YourScientificTheoryofHappiness,’PositivePsychologyProgram,24February2017.positivepsychologyprogram.com/perma-model/.72SeeinparticularChapter4,‘ThePsychosomaticWorker,’pp.105-39.

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betweensubjectsarealsotransformedanddictatedbythistransformation.73

Rosedescribesleisureas,“thedomainoffreechoiceparexcellence”–thatis,the

ultimatedomainoftheconsumingsubject(whohasreplacedthe‘doing’subject

asthedefinitionoftheproductivesubject).74Ballard,however,offersamore

complicatedreadingofleisureunderneoliberalism,inwhichwebegintosee

howtheconflictbetweentheprimacyofleisureunderneoliberalismandthe

traditionalworkethicofcapitalismcontributestotheaffectivedistressof

subjects.

CocaineNightsissetinaleisuresociety,aninter-zonefilledwithex-patsand

blow-ins.Withinthisbroadsetting,therearetwosettlementsonwhichthestory

isfocused.TheimmediatelocusisEstrelladeMar,hometoFrankPrentice

beforehisarrestandthesettingformuchoftheactioninthetext.Thesecondary

settingis,broadlyspeaking,thecommunitiesoutsideofEstrelladeMar,focusing

onanewerdevelopmentcalledResidenciaCostasol.TheResidenciaisinthe

processofbecominganotherEstrella.Bothareownedbylocalentrepreneur

BettyShand.Throughoutthenovel,EstrelladeMarisdescribedasathrivinghub

ofcommunity,organisedaroundClubNautico,undertheunofficialleadershipof

BobbyCrawford.Thevibrancyofthiscommunityisusuallydescribedintermsof

itslivelycultureindustry.Thisiscontrastedwiththestasisoflifeoutsideofthe

community,asinthisdescriptionbyCharlesPrenticeonhisfirstapproach:

EstrelladeMar,Idecided,possessedfarmoreattractionsthanIhad

guessedwhenFrankfirstarrivedtomanagetheClubNautico.The

monocultureofsunandsangriathatbecalmedthepuebloresidents

hadnoplaceinthisvibrantlittleenclave,whichseemedtocombine

thebestfeaturesofBelAirandtheLeftBank.75

Fromtheoutset,leisureandboredomareconnectedinthenovel.Boredomis

characterisedasaconstantspectreloominglargeoverlifeoutsideofEstrellade

73Rose.GoverningtheSoul,p.230.LoisMcNay‘SelfAsEnterprise:DilemmasofControlandResistanceinFoucault’sTheBirthofBiopolitics,’Theory,CultureandPolitics,26:6,2009,pp.55-77.74Rose.GoverningtheSoul,p.231.75CocaineNights,p.37.

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Mar,asasicknessorevenatypeofdeath.76Theanomieofthisleisuresociety

resultsinanexistentialennuithatreducessuffererstothestatusofanhedonic

spectators,disengagedanduninterestedintheirownlives.Theyare

dehumanised,notbywork,butbyleisure,withtheirveryrighttopersonhood

calledintoquestion.If,asRosesuggests,theneoliberalleisurezoneisthe

domainoffreechoiceparexcellence,thesesubjectsareincapableof

participatinginitassuch.Theirstatemightseemtobematchedbythecondition

of“affluenza”describedbyOliverJames,CliveHamilton,RichardDennissetal,in

thattheyareallaffluentmembersofacapitalistsociety,sufferingdespitetheir

plenty.77However,CocaineNightsisnotoperatingasacritiqueofmaterialismor

evenofconsumerculture-thatoccurslater,inKingdomCome.Themostnotable

characteristicofthesepueblo-dwellersisnottheirwealthassuch,butrather

theirprofounddisconnectionfromtheproductiveworld.

Ifworkistheactivitythroughwhichthesubjectgivesmeaningtotheirlife,not,

perMarx,inthesenseofbeingtheactivitywhichrealisesormatchestheessence

oflife,butinsteadfollowingRose’sdefinitionabove,inaneoliberalframework

theabsenceofworkremovesthecapacityofthesubjecttoparticipateinany

productivesearchformeaning.InChapterNineteen,‘TheCostasolComplex’,

BobbyCrawfordtakesCharlesPrenticeonatouroftheResidencia.Bythisstage,

PrenticehasdiscoveredtheflagrantcriminalitythatliesattheheartofEstrella

deMar.Incontrast,theResidenciaisstultifying;therearenovisiblesignsoflife,

barafewshoppersintheofflicence,seekinganaesthesiafortheirmisery:

Tothesouthoftheplazalayamarinafilledwithyachtsand

powerboats,mooredtogetherlikeamothballedfleet.Anaccesscanal

ledtotheopensea,passingacantileverbridgethatcarriedthecoast

road.Ahandsomeclubhousepresidedoverthemarinaandits

boatyard,butitsterracewasdeserted,awningsflaredovertheempty

tables.Thenearbysportsclubwasequallyunpopular,itstennis

courtsdustyinthesun,theswimmingpooldrainedandforgotten.

76Specifically,“brain-death”,asEstrelladeMarresidentsaystoCharlesPrenticeearlyon,“Thepeopleofthepueblos...Brain-deathdisguisedasahundredmilesofwhitecement.”CocaineNights,p.43.77SeeOliverJames.Affluenza,London:Vermillion,2007andCliveHamiltonandRichardDenniss,Affluenza:WhenTooMuchisNeverEnough,CrowsNest,AUS:Australia,2005.

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Asupermarketstoodinsidetheentrancetotheshoppingmall,next

toabeautysalonwithshuttereddoorsandwindows.Crawford

parkednearasportsequipmentstorefilledwithexercyclesand

weightliftingcontraptions,computerizedheartmonitorsand

respirationcounters,arrangedinawelcomingifsteelytableau.78

Thedeathlessunhappinessofthiscommunity,castadriftfromtheframeworkof

meaningimposedbywork,resultsintotalcessationofproductiveactivity.

Travelissuspended,horizonsarenarrowed:noneedfortheaccesscanalorthe

coastroad.Thefleetispowerless,thecantileversunopened.Theneoliberal

imperativetoself-careembeddedinthewellnessdiscourseofhappiness

discoursegoesunheeded–subjectsdonotattempttokeepfit,ortomake

themselves‘presentable’inthebeautysalon.Thesesubjectsnolongerperceive

themselvesasintheworld,duetotheirimmediatedisplacementfromthe

activityofwork.Ratherthanalienationoflabourtheysufferalienationofleisure,

whereleisureisprivatisedinextremis:inCrawford’swords,“Spaceistotally

internalized….”79Thespaceofsociality,ofpossibility,ofdesireisturnedinwards

andneutralisedthroughtheinabilityofsubjectstoanchorasenseofselfinthe

worldbeyondworkandtheabsenceofanyeffectivestimulustoconsume.Even

thenascentleisureindustryoftheResidenciacannotoffersufficient

reorientationoftheself–therearelimits,itseems,tothelengthstowhich

subjectscanbecompelledtoconsume.Someaffectivemalaiserendersthese

subjectsuntouchable.Thiscrisisofstasisisthegreatfearofneoliberalism,anda

centralreasonitmustevolveastrategytomanagetheproductiveenergiesof

subjectsthroughhappinessdiscourse.Alittledepressionmaybegoodfor

business,spurringsuffererstoconsumemore,inlinewiththemarketlogicthat

offersmaterialismasthecureforallthatails,buttoomuchofitrenderssubjects

useless,unfitforthelogicofcompetitionandaccumulationthatunderpins

neoliberalisedsociety.80Theregulatoryfunctionofneoliberalhappiness

discourseisdesignednotjusttoperpetuateaparticularideaofhappiness,but

morecrucially,toguidethesubjecttothe‘correctform’ofunhappiness,as78CocaineNights,p.214.79CocaineNights,p.210.80Wemightdrawaparallelwiththeneedtomanagethosewhoareunemployed(andinmaterialneedofemployment)inneoliberalisedsocieties.

92

toucheduponearlierinlookingataffecttheory.Ballard’svisionofthisinCocaine

Nightsisstillinitsearlystages,butisfleshedoutconsiderablyinSuperCannes,

withitsprecisefocusontheculturesofmanagementthatinformandshapethe

neoliberaldiscourseofhappiness,asweshallsee.81

Theeradicationoftheselfasproductivesubjectbasedonabsenceofworkasa

frameworkformeaning,andtheattendantsocialdisconnectionthatremovesthe

imperativetomaintainthe‘selfasenterprise,’areattheheartofthefailing

societyoftheResidenciaCostasol.What,then,ofthethrivingEstrelladeMar?

Afterall,ittooisaleisurecommunity,arationalandwell-managedspace:

Purposebuiltinthe1970sbyaconsortiumofAnglo-Dutch

developers,[it]wasaresidentialretreatfortheprofessionalclasses

ofnorthernEurope.Theresorthadturneditsbackonmasstourism,

andtherewerenoneoftheskyscraperblocksthatrosefromthe

water’sedgeatBenalmadenaandTorremolinos.Theoldtownbythe

harborhadbeenpleasantlybijouized,andthefishermen’scottages

convertedtowinebarsandantiqueshops.82

Intheapportionmentoftheresidencesofworkersandtheirtransformationinto

consumeroutlets,weseethecoloniallogicoftourismatwork.Furthertothis,it

showsanostalgisingimpulsepresentthroughoutthenovelwithregardtothe

culturallifeofEstrelladeMar.83Affirminghisdesiretobuypropertyinthetown

-andpointingtothecapitalistethicunderlyingthisapparentlybohemian

wonderland,whereentranceisreliantonmeansandownership-Prenticesays:

InmanywaysEstrelladeMarwasthehalcyoncountry-townEngland

ofthemythical1930s,broughtbacktolifeandmovedsouthintothe

sun.Heretherewerenogangsofboredteenagers,noderacinated

suburbswhereneighboursscarcelykneweachotherandtheironly

civicloyaltiesweretothenearesthypermarketandtheDIYstore.As

everyonewasnevertiredofsaying,EstrelladeMarwasatrue

81Theriseof‘managementculture’aspartofthechangingconceptionof‘happinessstrategies’isaddressedbyRose,James,Davies,andmanyothertheorists.82CocaineNights,p.34.83Theuseoftheterm‘nostalgising’hereisemployedinthesenseexploredbySedikidesetalin‘ToNostalgize:MixingMemorywithAffectandDesire’,AdvancesinExperimentalSocialPsychology,51,2015,pp.189–273.Thisaccounttakesintoconsiderationtheutilityofnostalgiaasasocialforce.

93

community,withschoolsfortheFrenchandBritishchildren,a

thrivingAnglicanchurchandalocalcouncilofelectedmembers

whichmetattheClubNautico.Howevermodestly,ahappier

twentiethcenturyhadrediscovereditselfinthiscorneroftheCosta

delSol.84

AsPrentice’spersonalinterest(andfinancialstake)inEstrelladeMargrows,so

toodoeshistendencytomythologiseboththeplace,andtheidyllicpastit

represents.Initiallycontentwithseeingthetownastherebirthofthesixties,

withallthepromisesofthatdecademadegood,helikensitnowtothe“mythical

1930s,”inapassagethatdripswithirony.85The1930sinBritainaremost

notableasatimeofeconomiccrisis,withtheeffectsoftheGreatDepressionfelt

inforceacrossthecountry,includinghighunemployment,frequentmarchesand

protests,andincreasedrelianceongovernmentsupport.Althoughthedecade

alsosawthearrivalofrapidtechnologicaladvances,theimpactofthiswasnot

fullyfeltuntilthepost-waryears.86Thegovernmentofthe1930scomprised

membersofallparties,knownastheNationalGovernment,whowerebrought

togetherinanefforttomanagethesecrises.Politically,thisgovernment,under

Chamberlain,isrememberedforpursuingthepolicyofappeasementpriortothe

outbreakofworldwartwo.Thefascistmovementfoundahome-grownleaderin

OswaldMosley,whoformedtheBritishUnionofFascistsin1932,bringingthe

movementtothemainstream.87Prentice’swordsevokethegreatdisparitiesof

1930sBritain,noddingtothefactthatareasoftheU.K.suchastheSouthEast

andtheMidlandswerelargelyunaffectedbytheDepression,andthattheseeds

ofconsumerculturewerebeingplantedwherethesoilwasfertile.88Thisis

broughtbacktoustowardstheendofthenovel,inadiscussionbetweenCharles

PrenticeandBobbyCrawford,whenPrenticelikensthecommunityspiritof84CocaineNights,p.66.85Thefrequencywithwhichtheidealised1960sareinvokedinBallard’sworkisconnectedtothepreoccupationoftheontemporarymomentwiththesixtiesasbothpre-neoliberalandprototypicallyneoliberal,whichistosay,themomentthatcontainedalltheingredientsfortheincipientneoliberalisationofsociety.Thisisexploredindetailelsewhereinthisthesis.86‘ThirtiesBritain:TheDepressedDecade?’TheNationalArchives,www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/thirties-britain/87AndrewThorpe.Britaininthe1930s:ADeceptiveDecade.London:JohnWylieandSons,1992.88BretRubin.’TheRiseandFallofBritishFascism:SirOswaldMosleyandtheBritishUnionofFascists,’intersections11:2,2010,pp.323-80;JulietGardinerTheThirties:AnIntimateHistoryHarperPressLondon2011.

94

EstrelladeMar(and,bythisstage,eventheResidenciaCostasol)to,“Londoners

intheBlitz...Wartimecamaraderie.”89Crawfordinsiststhatsubjectsneeda

stimulus:anaffectiveshocktospurthemintocreative(productive)action.There

aretwoimportantstrandstothistheory:thefirstisthenatureoftheshock-

widespreadcriminality,oftenintheformofattacksonproperty,theftanddrug

use.Thesecondisthemeasureofthesuccessofhistheory,countedasthe

developmentofa‘civicallyminded,’sociallyengagedandartisticallyproductive

community.90Thisassociationcontainstheembryoniccritiqueoftheculture

industrythatisgivenfullvoiceinMillenniumPeople.Inmanyways,Cocaine

Nightsisatravelguidetotheselaternovels,signpostingtheturnsthatareyetto

comeor,asBallardmightsay,the‘dangerousbendsahead.’

Sowhathascriminalitygottodowithhappiness?Aswithsomuchinthe

Ballardianworld,theanswer,itseems,liesinthepoweroftransgression.To

explorethis,letuslookattherulesbywhichEstrelladeMarisbound.Thesocial

lifeofthesettlementisstructuredaroundtheClubNautico,ostensiblyorganised

bythepsychopathicBobbyCrawford(forsomeonewhoprofessedtoavoid

diagnosesinhiswork,Ballardwascertainlyfondofusingpsyterminologyin

theselatenovels,albeitthroughthediscussionsbetweencharactersaboutwhat

constitutesorjustifiessuchdefinitions).91Crawford’sformulationoftheworld

seesitas‘allagame,’asweseefromhisownframinginthenovel.92Prentice’s

firstsightingofthislocalheroisatthetennisclub,whereCrawfordispracticing

againstatennismachine:

Watchinghim,Irealisedthathewasurgingonthemachine,willingit

tobeathim,beamingwithpleasurewhenanaceknockedtheracket

fromhishand.YetIfeltthattherealdueltakingplacewasnot

89CocaineNights,p.260.90SomeallowancemustbemadeforBallard’sdefinitionof‘civicmindedness,’whichincludesexcretinginyourneighbour’sswimmingpooltosavehimfromhistorpor.91ThereareseveralsuchdiscussionsinCocaineNights:seepp.176-9,271,280.92WhenPrenticefollowshimonhis‘crimespree’throughEstrelladeMar,itisadepictedasaspreeinthetruestsenseoftheword;alightheartedandcarefreelark,ofwhichPrenticesays,“…Iassumedthatthiswhirlwindcruisewasprimarilyinspirational,anextensionofhischeerleader’sroleattheClubNautico.”CocaineNights,p.165.WelaterseeCrawfordasanactualcheerleader,trainingateamofswimmers,“asifhegenuinelybelievedthateveryoneofhispupilshadtheabilitytobecomeanOlympicgoldmedallist.”CocaineNights,p.166.

95

betweenthemanandthemachine,butbetweenrivalfactionswithin

hisownhead.93

Crawfordisrepeatedlyfiguredinrelationtothistennismachine:“Crawford

wouldhavefoundthismoodyandsharp-tongueddoctorevenmoredifficultto

playthanhistennismachine”;“Justashehadwilledthetennismachinetobeat

him,henowurgedtheCostasolcomplextorallyitselfagainstthesecretenemy

withinitswalls.”94Attheendofthenovel,Crawfordismurdered.Themostlikely

suspectsarepsychiatristDrSangerorgeneralpractitionerPaulaHamilton,both

ofwhomdisapproveofCrawford’s‘techniques,’pittingCrawfordagainstthe

normativeconventionsofmedicine/biologyandpsychology.ItisCharles

Prenticewhofindshimandwho,likehisbrotherbeforehim,assumestheguilt

foracrimethatisnothisown.Duetomeetthetennisproforagameatthe

sportsclubinthenewlyinvigoratedResidenciaCostasol,Prenticefindsthe

tennismachineerraticallyfiringshots,theballslandinginapoolofCrawford’s

bloodasheliesdeadbesideit.Crawford’sgamesaredeadlyandheis,intheend,

theghostinthemachine,recallingtheworkofGilbertRyleandArthurKoestler.

Ryle’sTheConceptofMind(1949)critiquesCartesiandualism.Koestlerbuilton

thiscritiqueinTheGhostintheMachine(1967)whichsoughttoexplainthe

irrationalityofthehumanmind–violenturges,paranoia,insanity:Ballard’s

workingpalette.

ThegamestructureofCrawford’sCostadelSolkingdomalsorecallsgame

theory,abranchofappliedmathematicsthathasbeenusedtoexplorebiological

andeconomicpatterns,seekingtomakesenseofhumanbehaviours.Cocaine

Nightshasitsowngametheory,anasymmetricone,wherestrategiesare

constantlychangingandwheretheultimateoutcomeiszero-sum.Thezero-sum

outcomeofthegamerelatestotheeconomicbackgroundofthenovel,whichis

subtlybutpersistentlyfiguredthroughoutinthecharacterofclubownerand

entrepreneurBettyShand.InkeepingwithBallard’spenchantforsymbolic

names,‘Shand’apparentlymeans“ignomity,shame,disgrace”,or“acounterfeit

93CocaineNights,p.40.94CocaineNights,pp.120,254.

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coin.”95ItisBetty’shand,too,thatguidestheschemesofeconomicdevelopment

inEstrelladeMarandtheResidenciaCostasolandbeyond.96Weseethiswhen

PaulaHamiltonexplainstheeconomicsofEstrelladeMar’sdrugstradeto

CharlesPrentice,intendingtodisillusionhimofhisbeliefthatCrawfordis

‘callingtheshots’:

[BobbyCrawford]isn’ttryingtomakemoneyfromdrugs-Betty

Shandtakesalltheprofits.Medicinal-qualityheroinandcocaineare

Crawford’sanswertothebenzo-diazapineswedoctorslovesomuch.

HeoncetoldmeIwasputtingpeopleunderhousearrestintheirown

heads.97

Crawforddisdainstheeconomicsofcriminality.Hepubliclyreturnsthesmall

thingshesteals,leavingthemwheretheprivatesecuritystaffwhopolicethe

residencieswillfindthem,abandonsorsetsfiretothecarshetakes,and

vandalisesproperty,destroyingitsvalue.98HeseesShand’scapitalistturnas

limited,andhisown‘work’asa“largerhorizon.”99

CrawfordexplainsthismissiontoCharlesPrenticeatlength,whenPrentice

saysthatifhewereburgled,hewouldjustcallthepolice.Crawfordinvokesthe

ineptitudeofthepolice,andsaysthatfollow-upcrimesproduceaheightened

needforsecurity–andan‘awakening’:

Thebreak-insarelikethedevoutCatholic’swristletthatchafesthe

skinandsharpensthemoralsensibility.Thenextburglaryfillsyou

withanger,evenaself-righteousrage.Thepoliceareuseless,fobbing

youoffwithvaguepromises,andthatgeneratesasenseofinjustice,a

feelingthatyou’resurroundedbyaworldwithoutshame.Everything

aroundyou,thepaintingsandthesilverwareyou’vealwaystakenfor

granted,fitintothisnewmoralframework.You’remoreawareof

95SeeDictionary.comwww.dictionary.com/browse/shand;CollinsDictionaryOnlinewww.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/shand.96CocaineNights,p.63.97CocaineNights,p.19998CocaineNights,p.236-24.99CocaineNights,pp.240.

97

yourself.Dormantareasofyourmindthatyouhaven’tvisitedfor

yearsbecomeimportantagain.Youbegintoreassessyourself....100

Thisreassessment,accordingtoCrawford,leadstoarecommitmenttoart,

beauty,andcommunity:

Crimeandvandalismareeverywhere.Youhavetoriseabovethese

mindlessthugsandtheoafishworldtheyinhabit.Insecurityforces

youtocherishwhatevermoralstrengthsyouhave,justaspolitical

prisonersmemorizeDostoyevsky’sHouseoftheDead,thedyingplay

Bachandrediscovertheirfaith,parentsmourningadeadchilddo

voluntaryworkatahospice.101

Crime,apparently,isthespurtoactionbecauseitistheonlyspaceof

“possibility”left–politicsisover,religionisdead.102Crawfordbelievesthat

peopleneedtotransgressrulesaround“sexandpropertyandself-control”–the

dictatesofproprietyundercapitalism,andtheverydisciplinarydiscourses

outlinedbyFoucault,where“propertyandself-control”areunderstoodas

referringtothebodyasmuchasanyexternalproperty.103Theculturalrealm

representsaspaceofimaginativeproductionthatCrawforddepictsasbeyond

thebaseinstinctsofcapitalism.Thisignoresthewayculturalproductionitself

functionstoinstituteandtransmitparticularnormativeandeconomicvalue(s).

Ballardhighlightsthisomissionthroughhisfrequent‘branding’ofculturein

CocaineNights.TheopenaircinemaPrenticeseesonhisfirstapproach

advertises,“aseasonofKatherineHepburnandSpencerTracyfilms,thevery

heightofintellectualchicofacertainkind”;aftertheformationofatheatre

groupinthereinvigoratedResidenciaCostasol,wehear,“TheMarinaPlayers

wereabouttolaunchtheirfirstproduction,aperformanceofTheImportanceof

BeingEarnest,whichwouldalternatewithWho’sAfraidofVirginiaWoolf?”104

Thespurofcrimecontributestothecreationofasolidmiddleclass.Forallthe

potentialCrawfordimagines,itisdifficulttodiscernanythingrevolutionaryin

thisrecyclingofmodernistclassics,ortoseehowthisrepetitiveandreferential

100CocaineNights,p.244.101CocaineNights,p.244.102CocaineNights,p.245.103CocaineNightsp.245.104CocaineNights,pp.37,43,251.

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formofself-expressionservestoalleviatethediscontentofthepueblodwellers

(again,wewillseethiscritiquemadeexplicitinMillenniumPeople).Instead,it

showsagainthenostalgicimpulseatworkinCrawford’sutopianism,which,

despiteitsmiddle-classtrappings,iseffectivelyatabloidutopianism.Likethe

‘imaginedcommunities’oftabloidnewspaperreaders,whoareunitedunderthe

languageofthreatandstronglynationalisticrhetoric,thesubjectsoftheCosta

delSolareencouragedtoharkenbacktoafictive‘simplertime’,likePrentice’s

accountof“mythical1930s”where,onceagain,“…therewerenogangsofbored

teenagers,noderacinatedsuburbswhereneighboursscarcelykneweachother

andtheironlycivicloyaltiesweretothenearesthypermarketandtheDIY

store.”105Thepurportedsimplicityofthishalcyonpastmarksadesirefora

returntoaworldinwhichpowerseemedintelligible,knowableandthuscapable

ofbeingresisted–atimeoutsideofthe‘chaosofchoice’ofneoliberalism.After

allthat,BobbyCrawford’srevolutionturnsouttobedeeplyconservative–and

this,intheend,isitsappeal.106

ThisisalsotrueofthewayinwhichBallardshowsushowthepowerof

‘transgression’isunderminedbyitseconomicutility.AlthoughDrSanger’s

understandingoftransgressivebehaviourasthatwhichcan,“provokeusandtap

intoourneedforstrongemotion,quickenthenervoussystemandjumpthe

synapsesdeadenedbyleisureandinaction”seemstolocateitintheaffective

realm,andthereforetoascribeatruesenseofpotentialtoit,thispotential

cannotberealised.107BettyShand’sneoliberalismrecuperatesanydangerous

elementsthroughmakingthemsubjecttomarketlogic,remindingusagainof

neoliberalism’sremarkablecapacityfortoleranceintheprivatesphere.Shand

makesmoneyfromthesaleofdrugs,asseenabove;sheownstheclubsaround

whichthesociallivesofEstrelladeMarandtheResdienciaCostasolare

organised(ofwhichonemustbeamembertoparticipate–communityonthese

105CocaineNights,p.66.Formoreonthis‘tabloidutopianism’seePaulGilroy,ThereAin’tNoBlackintheUnionJack.London:Routledge,1987;MartinConboy,TabloidBritain:ConstructingaCommunityThroughLanguage.London:Routledge,2006;SofiaJohansson,ReadingTabloids:TabloidNewspapersandTheirReaders,Södertön:SödertönAcademicStudies,2007.106WemightcomparethistothestruggletorestoreclasspowerthatHarveyseesasthecruxofneoliberalism:aconservativeaimforaradicallydestabilisingproject.107CocaineNights,p.180.Sanger’saccountseemstofollowintheveinofMassumi’saccountof“intensities”inParablesfortheVirtual:Movement,Affect,Sensation.Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress,2002.

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termsisworthlessifitisnotbasedonexclusion);sheoperatesthebarsand

restaurantstowhichpeopleflockoncetheir‘appetiteforlife’hasbeen

stimulatedbyCrawford’s‘treatment.’CharlesPrenticeisinstinctivelyawareof

thiscontradiction:hesaystoCrawford,“Youcan’tplaytenniswithoutobserving

therules.”108Theimmanenceoftransgressiontothesystemittransgresses

followsFoucault’sexplanationofcounter-conductintheTheBirthofBiopolitics,

andiscontainedherebythemutuallyconstitutiverelationshipbetweenthis

conductandcounter-conduct-afterall,thelawsCrawfordtransgressesare

mostlythoseofproperty.109Crawfordthinkshis‘mission’isprimary,andfailsto

seethatShandetalareexploitinghim.Hisunwittingroleistorestoresubjectsto

productiveactionandreinsertthemintonetworksofcapital,tomakepossible

theneoliberalisationoflifeontheCostadelSol.Undertheguidanceofthe

capitalistclass,thesystemseekstomakesureofitself-notfornothingisthe

mottooftheResidenciaCostasol,“Investment,Freedom,Security”.110Crawford

turnsouttobenotahappinessmessiah,buta“publicspiritedpsychopath”inthe

spiritofBallard’sThatcher-as-signifiercharacter.Hissystemoftransgressions,

intheend,resemblesthe‘shockdoctrine’of‘disastercapitalism’,asidentifiedby

NaomiKlein.111KleinidentifiesMiltonFriedman,oneofthefoundational

thinkersofneoliberaleconomics,asaleadingproponentofthis‘disaster

capitalism’,referencinghisinfluentialworkCapitalismandFreedom(1962),in

whichhewrote,“Onlyacrisisactualorperceivedproducesrealchange.”112

Crawford’sprogrammeescalatesthemomentofcrisisnecessaryforthe

economictransformationoftheCostadelSol.

Crawfordisapparentlyseentoinsistonthe“freedomtobeunhappy”,indirect

contraventionoftheneoliberaldiscourseofhappinesswhichseesunhappiness-

stress,depression,anxiety-asastatesubjectsshouldchoosetoovercome.113We

seethisthroughoutthenovelinvariousways:earlyon,CharlesPrenticedecides

totakeupsmokingagain,afterhavingquitsometimebefore,violatingthe108CocaineNights,p.245.109MichelFoucault.TheBirthofBiopolitics:LecturesattheCollègedeFrance,1978-1979,translatedbyGrahamBurchell.London:Palgrave,2008,pp.256–283.110CocaineNights,p.211.111NaomiKlein.TheShockDoctrine,London:PenguinBooks,2007.112MiltonFreidman.CapitalismandFreedom,Chicago:ChicagoUniversityPress,1962.p.3.113CocaineNights,p.283.

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wellnessimperativeofneoliberalhappinessdiscourse.114Thereisafemale

character,LoriAnderson,introducedtowardstheendofthenovel.Whenshe

firstappears,sheisunderthecareofpsychiatristDrSangerandrecoveringfrom

adrugaddiction.Crawfordencourageshertorunaway,feedsherdrugs,enlists

hertomakepornographyandeggsheronwhensherepeatedlyinjuresorhurts

herself.115Despitethis,andtheaffectivepotentialrousedbycriminalbehaviour,

thesubjectsoftheCostadelSol-Crawfordincluded-aretoodeeplyenmeshed

intheculturallogicofneoliberalismtoresistthenormativeimperativesof

productiveengagement.Intheend,Crawfordperpetuatestheregulatory

functionofneoliberalhappinessdiscourse,duetothelimitationsofhisutopian

vision.Thecycleofcapitalcontinues,justasthenovelclosesasitbegan,witha

Prenticebrotherassumingaguiltthatisnotis.BobbyCrawfordnevergetsthe

chancetoimagineaworldbeyondthedictatesofproductiveimperatives,andso

diesamartyroftheneoliberalisedconceptionofhappiness.Afterall,inhis

words,“Oneneedsagreatdealofidletimetofeelreallysorryforoneself.”116

114See‘WhyEveryoneLovestoHateSmokers’inCarlCederströmandAndréSpicer,TheWellnessSyndrome.Cambridge:Polity,2015,pp.26–31.115CocaineNights,pp.286-96.Iwillexpandonthefiguringofself-destructivebehaviourinrelationtoneoliberalismlaterinthethesis.116CocaineNights,p.176.

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AllWorkandNoPlay:GlobalElitesandtheHappinessImperativeinSuper-

Cannes(AnEdenFullofSnakes)

AfterCocaineNights’sustainedfocusontheleisuresocietiesofneoliberalism,

Ballardmakesavolte-faceinSuperCannes.Thisnovelfocusesontheworldof

work,atitshighestlevel-the‘executiveclass.’Continuinghisemphasison

materialcircumstance,Ballard’ssettingthistimeistheexclusivebusinesspark

ofEden-Olympia,modelledonthereallifeSophia-Antipolis,whichmakes

frequentappearancesinthenovelasacontemporaryofthefictivepark.Itis

evenmentionedseveraltimesinthenovelthatthetwoparksaretobelinkedin

aprojectdesignedtocapturethebiometricinformationofallresidents.117

Sophia-Antipolisisatech-focusedbusinesspark,completewithacademic

campus.Itswebsitedescribesitas“anecosystemdevotedtoinnovation.”118Its

primaryreasonforexistingisexplicitlyeconomic,tostrengthencommercial

innovationandencourage“cross-pollination”betweenindustries,althoughthe

websitealsofocusesemphaticallyontheuniquequalityoflifeoffered:asection

ofthewebsiteentitled‘Highlife’tellsthereader,“Allthosewhomoveheresay

thesamething:peoplegladlymovetotheCôted’Azurandtheyneverwantto

leave.”119Althoughtheslightlythreateningtoneofthisstatementmaybedueto

thevagariesoftranslation,itaccordsneatlywithBallard’sfictionalaccountof

lifeatEden-Olympia.

TheprotagonistofthisnovelisPaulSinclair,aformerpilotwhosuffereda

planecrashthatlefthimgrounded,andseriouslyinjured,ashorttimebeforethe

beginningofthenovel,hissubsequenthospitalisationintroducinghimtohis

now-wife,youngdoctorJane.120TheimpetusfortheirmovetoEden-Olympiais

Jane’scareer:thereisanopeningforapaediatricianatthepark,asDavid

Greenwood,thepreviousincumbentandanoldfriendofJane’s,recently

embarkedonamurderousrampage,endinginhisownsuicide–orsotheofficial

117J.G.Ballard.Super-Cannes2000,London:HarperPerennial,2006,pp.168,277.118OverviewofSophiaAntipolis,TeamCôteD’Azurwww.investincotedazur.com/en/sophia-antipolis/.119LivingontheFrenchRiviera,TeamCôteD’Azurwww.investincotedazur.com/en/highlife/living-on-the-french-riviera/.120MuchismadeofJane’syouthinthenovel,wherecharactersfrequentlyrefertothefactshelookslikeateenager.SeeSuper-Cannes,pp.11,34,228,andelsewhere.Thespectreofpaedophiliahauntsthenovel,althoughPaulSinclairturnsouttobeinnocentofanysuchpredilection.

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storygoes.Asinalltheselatenovels,thetruthturnsouttobemorecomplicated:

criminalityis,onceagain,the‘darkheart’ofthissociety,anditisPaulSinclair

whomustuncoverit.Thistime,theringleaderisWilderPenrose,resident

psychiatristofEden-Olympia,whooverseestheinstitutionofaprogrammeof

prescribedpsychopathology,encouragingresidentstotakepartindrugdealing,

prostitution,andracistassaults.Theimpulsebehindthistreatmentisfinancial:

whenEden-Olympiafirstbegan,itsinhabitantsfoundthemselvesplaguedby

illnessandexhaustion,aproductivemalaisethatthreatenedtheefficiencyofthe

park.Afteranalysingthedesperatedreamsofthisprofessionalclass,Penrose

cametobelievethata“carefullymeteredmeasureofpsychopathy”couldprovide

thevitalstimulustojumpstartEden-Olympia.121

Greenwoodwasonamissiontoexposethiscriminalitywhenhewaskilled–

not,asittranspires,byhisownhand,butbyathen-rookiesecurityguard,Frank

Halder.Hisspurwasself-loathing.Hewasapaedophile,involvedinexploiting

vulnerableyounggirlsinapaedophileringorganisedthroughaLewisCarroll

lendinglibrary.122Theheavy-handednessofthesereferencesisadeliberate

technique,occurringaspartofBallard’sframingofEden-Olympiaasa

Baudrillardianhyperreality.Thenovelwearsthisonitssleeve–orrather,onits

shirt,whenPaulSinclairtellsus,“Isatdownandorderedavinblancfromthe

youngFrenchwaitress,whoworejeansandawhitevestprintedwitha

quotationfromBaudrillard.”123TheBaudrillardianframeworkofthenovel

reflectsthehyperrealityoffinancecapitalandriseofinformationeconomies.

ThisisfiguredeventhroughtheAlicebooksinthenovel:itisnotAlicein

WonderlandthatGreenwoodgivestothegirls,butAliceThroughtheLooking

Glass.124UpondiscoveringthetruthaboutEden-Olympia,PaulSinclairsaysto

WilderPenrose,“It’sanotherAliceworld–corporateprofitsarehigherthan121Super-Cannes,p.259.122Super-Cannes,p.347.123Super-Cannes,p.88124LookatEmilRøyrvikandMarianneBlomBroderson’sdescriptionoftheattitudeoftheChinesegovernmenttotheworldofdervatives:“AtthebeginningofthemillenniumZhuRongji,thenChina’spremier,hostedasecretmeetingoftopCommunistofficials.Senioracademicsandfinanceofficialswereinvitedtoteachthetopbrassesacrashcourseoncomplexfinancialinstruments.Thebestexplanationoffinancialderivativestheexpertscouldsummonthatday,wastodescribeitas‘likeputtingamirrorinfrontofanothermirror,allowingaphysicalobjecttobereflectedintoinfinity.’”‘RealVirtuality:PowerandSimulationintheAgeofNeoliberalCrisis’,CultureUnbound,4,2012,pp.637-659,p.638.

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anywhereinEuropeandthepeopleearningthemaregoingmadtogether.”125

Referencestomirrorsaboundinthenovel,reflectinganddistortingwherever

theyarefound.

Withregardtothisinformationeconomy,PenrosetellsPaulSinclair,

“Companiesherearen’tinvolvedwiththeThirdWorld.Noneofthemare

sweatingrubberorbauxiteoutofacoolieworkforce.Therawmaterial

processedatEden-Olympiaishighgradeinformation.”126Penrosedeliberately

ignoresthewayinwhichthisinformational,orimmaterial,labourprocess

exploitstheworker.Inexploringthecollapseoftheproductivesphereintothe

sphereofconsumption,whichfunctionsinthesameveinasRose’saccountofthe

movefrom‘doing’subjectto‘consuming’subject,Baurdillardwritesofthe

wastefulnessoftheunmanagedimagination:“Theimaginationshouldbe

realisedasaforceofproduction,itshouldbeinvested.Thesloganofthe

technocracyis:‘PowertotheImagination!’”127Inanaffectiveeconomy,this

captureismadereal:theactualimagination(alsointellectualproperty)ofthe

workerbelongstotheprocessesofcapital.128ThisunderlinesBallard’s

insistenceontheimaginationasapotentiallydisruptivespace.Thisis

representedherebyPaulSinclair,throughhisstatusasex-pilot-flightisclosely

linkedtotheimaginativerealm-andhisroleasoutsiderinEden-Olympia.

Sinclairisanoutsiderbecausehisinjurymeanshedoesnotwork,andthisplaces

himoutsidethenetworksofproductivitythatdefineidentityinthebusiness

park.WemightnoteheretoothatthenatureofSinclair’sinjury,whilst

125Super-Cannes,p.250.126Super-Cannes,p.29–theword‘coolie’isusedonafewoccasionsinthenovel,andisintendedasanindictmentofthecasualracismofEden-Olympia,andthesystemitrepresents.127JeanBaudrillard,SymbolicExchangeandDeathtranslatedbyMikeGaneLondon:SagePublications,1993,p.36.128Thisisastrueintheneoliberalisedacademyasitisintheworkplace:atthebeginningofmyPhD,Iwasrequiredtosignacontractassertingtherightsoftheuniversitytotheintellectualpropertyproducedbymyresearch(thisdespitethefactIwasnotinfactanemployeeoftheuniversity:myfundingcamefromtheAHRC).Asahumanitiesstudent,thisseemsparticularlynebulous(itislucky,perhaps,thatIamunlikelytoproduceworkofanycommercialvalue!).Thisispartofapolicyof‘commercialisation’thathasbecomewidespreadthroughoutHigherEd.institutions–Queen’sproudlyannouncedits‘achievement’inplacingfirstintheU.K.forintellectualpropertycommercialisationinApril2016–seewww.qub.ac.uk/Business/News/Queensplaced1stintheUKforintellectualpropertycommercialisation.html.Introducingthissystemof‘commercialisation’encouragesstudentstoseethemselvesasproto-workersevenbeforetheyentertheworkplace,andtoframeanyintellectualendeavoursprimarilyintheserviceofthemarket.Investtheimagination,indeed.

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undoubtedlyphysicalinorigin,seemstohaveapsychosomaticorpsychological

component,whichaffectsitshealing.Theco-optionoftheimaginationinSuper-

Canneshasthreeprimarystrands.Thefirstistheinstitutionofworkasprimary

siteofsubjectification;thesecondisthedelineationofahyperrealspace,based

onthe‘simulatedviolence’ofsecurity;thethirdistherationalisationand

managementofthesubjectthroughtheinterventionofauthority,primarily

figuredintermsofmedicaldiscourse,withanemphasisonpsysciences.These

strandsworktogethertoeffectivelyremovetheconceptoftheprivatesphere,

demonstratingBallard’scontinuedpreoccupationwiththedisappearanceofcivil

society.Runningthrougheachofthesestrands,too,isasatiriccommentaryon

theriseofmanagementcapitalism,theverystrainofneoliberalthinkingthathas

organisedandshapedmuchoftheneoliberal(re)conceptualisationofhappiness

Iamcritiquinginthisthesis.129

TheBaudrillardianframingofthenovelbeginswithBallard’sintroductory

foreword,wherehelaysoutthe(real)geographyofSuper-Cannesand

acknowledgesSophia-AntipolisastheinspirationforEden-Olympia.Sophia-

AntipolisisafinancialDisneyland.Earlyinthenovel,Ballardmakesitclearthat,

asDisneylandisthe“objectiveprofileofAmerica,”Eden-Olympiaisthe

“objectiveprofile”of‘new’France,asPaulSinclairtellsus:

...theFranceofthe1960s,withitsRoutierlunches,anti-CRSslogans

andtheCitroënDS,hadbeenlargelyreplacedbyanewFranceof

high-speedmonorails,MacDo’s,andthelavishair-showsthatmy

cousinCharlesandIwouldvisitinourrentedCessnawhenwe

foundedourfirmofaviationpublishers.AndEden-Olympiawasthe

newestofthenewFrance.130

Eden-OlympiaisasimulacrumofSophia-Antipolis,creatingaframeworkof

hyperrealitywithintheworldofthenovelitselfthroughthisreflexivity.Thefact

thatSophia-AntipolisalsofeaturesinthenovelensuresthatEden-Olympiaisnot

129WilliamDaviesoffersaloosehistoricalaccountoftheriseofthismanagementculture,exploringhowthescientificmanagementtechniquesofTaylorismhavemorphedandbeenadaptedinaneraofaffectiveorimmateriallabour.TheHappinessIndustry.LondonandNewYork:Verso,2015,pp.115-37.130JeanBaudrillardSimulacraandSimulation,translatedbySheilaGlaser.Michigan:UniversityofMichiganPress,1994.p.14.Super-Cannes,p.5.‘MacDo’s”–theFrenchslangforMcDonald’s,supremesignifierofsimulation–underlinesBallard’semphasisontheBaudrillardianhyperreal.

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simplyadoubleofthatplace;Ballardaimstomakeplainthedistinctionbetween

thetwo.Insodoing,hehighlightsthewayinwhichhisnovelsworktoproduce

reality,partofhisobliquestrategyofresistingincorporationintorational

productivelogicthroughemphasisingthedisruptivepotentialoftheimaginative

realmandhisownimbricationinmodesofcultural(re)production.

ThenameofEden-Olympiaextendsthisapproach,institutingitsown

symbolicorder.Sophia-AntipolisdrawsitsnamefromtheGreekwordfor

wisdom,Sophia,andtheancientGreeknameforAntibes,Antipolis,the‘opposite’

(anti)city,socalledbecauseitwasgeographicallyoppositeNice.Thenameisapt

inotherways,whichfeedintoBallard’sconstructionofEden-Olympia:the

businessparkistheanti-city,acarefullyplannedandmanagedspacewherethe

contingentisoutlawed.AsJaneSinclairsaysuponarrivalinEden-Olympia,“It’s

allverycivilizedhere,inaEurokindofway.Notadriftingleafinsight.”131This

aversiontocontingencyisechoedbypsychiatristPenroseshortlyafter,upon

seeinga“trioofSenegalesetrinketsalesmen”whohavebreachedthebordersof

thepark;hesays,“it’sirritatingtoberemindedofthecontingentworld.”132The

sightingofthistrioisourfirstencounterwiththeregulationofbordersinEden-

Olympia.PaulSinclairasksPenroseabouttheincidenceofcriminalityinthe

park,saying,“Itlooksasifsecuritymightbeaproblem.”Penrosereplies,

“Securityisfirstclass.Orshouldbe…Wehaveourownpoliceforce.”133Policing

inEden-Olympiarefersnotjusttothecontrolofbordersbutalsotothepolicing

ofaffect.Afterwitnessingthedeath(murder)ofPascalZander,Eden-Olympia’s

chiefofpolice,PaulSinclairreflects,“…IrealisedthatonceagainIhadyieldedto

thegreaterstatusquothatwasEden-Olympia.Thebusinessparksetitsown

rules,andhadeffectivelyswitchedoffouremotions.“134Thisispartofasystem

ofcontrolthatmirrorstheregulatorystrategiesofneoliberalhappiness

discourse.

Penrose’sstrategyhighlightstheworstpartsofneoliberalism,relyingon,“…

increasedclassdivision,intensifiedpolicing,increasedsurveillance,and

131Super-Cannes,p.9.132Super-Cannes,p.19.133Super-Cannes,p.19.134Super-Cannes,p.306.

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heightenedsecuritymeasures,whichinevitablyarisefromstrainedrelations.”135

PaulSinclairglimpsesthisearlyoninthenovel,whenhewitnessestwomen

beingbrutallybeatenbyEden-Olympiasecurityinthecar-parkoftheclinic

wherehiswifeworks.OneofthemenisanotherSenegalesetrinketsalesman,

theotheraRussian–neitherbelonginEden-Olympia.Severalmembersofthe

Eden-Olympiaelitekeenlyobservethisbeating,includingaccountantAlain

Delage,aprotégéofPenrose’s,wholatergoesontobecomechiefofsecurity.At

thisstage,PaulSinclairdoesnotfullyunderstandthesignificanceofwhathe

sees.Likealltheprotagonistsoftheselatenovels,hemustactasdetectiveto

piecetogetherwhatishappening.Hemistakenlybelievesthesecurityforcesare

attackingtheRussianmanbecausetheyhavetakenhimforadifferentRussian,

withwhomhehadaconfrontationearlierintheday.136Whenheattemptsto

imparttheseconcernstoHalder,theguardresponds,“OneRussian,another

Russian...exampleshavetobemade.Wecan’tbeeverywhere.Thisisthedark

sideofEden-Olympia.WeworkhardsoyouandDr.Janecanenjoythesun.”137

WecanreadthisinteractionintermsofSpringer’saccountofthewayinwhich

theOtheringofneoliberalviolenceenablesexclusionsthatserveto‘normalize’

exceptionalviolence:

Exceptionalviolencealwaysrunstheriskofbecomingexemplary,or

soroutinized,quotidian,ordinary,andbanalthatwenolongerfeelan

emotionalresponsetoitsappearancepreciselybecauseitisthenorm.

Wemayrecogniseitasviolence,butweremainindifferent.138

Springersuggests,“…itisthroughtheconstructionofanewneoliberalnormative

frame–whereinmaliceandmalevolencebecomethenewrule–thatthe

exceptionalviolenceofneoliberalismistransformedintoexemplaryviolence.”139

Ballard’sworkliteralisesthis–Penrosemakesmaliceandmalevolencetherule,

throughassertionofhismedicalauthorityandtheclosingdownofimaginative,

135SimonSpringer.‘TheViolenceofNeoliberalism,’inTheHandbookofNeoliberalism,editedbySpringeretal.NewYork:Routledge,2016,pp.153-64,p.159.136ThefirstRussian(whoSinclaircalls‘Alexi’,confusedbytheman’seffortstosay‘Alice’)ispartofacrimesyndicatewhowereinleaguewithGreenwood’spaedophilering.Super-Cannespp.57-9.137Super-Cannes,p.73.138Springer.‘TheViolenceofNeoliberalism,’p.158.139Springer.‘TheViolenceofNeoliberalism,’p.158.

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oraffective,space.Thistakesplaceinthenameofrevitalisingtheexecutiveclass

–ensuringtheir‘happiness,’wherehappinessisreadasproductivity.Eden-

Olympiaresidentsbecomeprogrammaticallyindifferenttothesufferingof

othersundertheguidanceofPenrose,whoensuresthattheirempathetic

capacityisundonethroughtheirimaginativestasis.

Inthefinalchapterofthenovel,asheisonhiswaytofinishDavidGreenwood’s

missionandexposethehorrorsofEden-Olympia,PaulSinclairobserves:

FlightwasanelementmissingfromEden-Olympia,thecertaintiesof

wind-speed,gravityandlife.Absent,too,wastheneedtoexploreany

interiorspace,topioneerthemailroutesinsideourheads.Only

WilderPenrosehadfurnisheduswithanatlasofdestinations,ablack

geographysketchedonhisprescriptionpads…140

Penrose’s“atlasofdestinations”hereissurelyareferencetotheDiagnosticand

StatisticalManualofMentalDisorders,theclinicalhandbookofthepsysciences.

InRose’saccountofthefunctionsoftheDSM,hewritesoftheattitudeofBritish

psychiatricclinicians:

Adiagnosticmanualinpsychiatry,theysay,isjustaprovisionalmap

oftheterritory...AmanuallikeDSMisakindofroughguidethatwill

helpthepractitionergetoriented,maybetoreadontheplanebut

bestputtoonesidewhenoneisactuallyontheground....141

Rose’simageryechoesthatofthenovel,suggestingBallardmayhavebeeneven

closertothelanguageofpsythanherealised.Inwiderpractice,however,the

DSMtoooftenfailstofunctionasaroughguideorprovisionalmap.Itsdiagnoses

havematerialconsequence:theyactonsubjectsinawaythatisundeniablyreal.

Rosehighlightsthewayinwhichdiagnosis,

isalsoapsychological,social,economic,politicalreality,heldinplace

bymanysocialpractices.Doctors,researchers,patients,pressure

groupsandbureaucratsbecomeattachedtothesecategories,shaped

140Super-Cannes,p.387.141NikolasRose.‘WhatIsDiagnosisFor?,’InstituteofPsychiatryConferenceonDSM-5andtheFutureofDiagnosis,June2013,King’sCollegeLondon.http://nikolasrose.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Rose-2013-What-is-diagnosis-for-IoP-revised-July-2013.pdf,p.1.RosealsoidentifiesadistinctlyBritishattitudetotheDSM,incontrasttotheAmericanapproach:thedifferencesbetweentheculturalattitudesofpractitionersofpsysciencehaveimportantimpactsonthoseundertheircontrol(orcare,asneoliberalhappinessdiscoursewouldpreferit).

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bythem,sometimesdependentuponthemfinancially,professionally,

politically,morally.Psychiatriccategoriespartakeofthisreality,

despitethedisputabledefinitionsandfuzzybordersthatframeso

manydiagnoses.142

Thisillustratesthewaysinwhichpsyscienceisenmeshedinnetworksof

subjectification,control,andnormativepractice.Ofinteresthereisnottheway

inwhichthesediagnosesimposeidentityonsubjects,butthewayinwhich

subjectsthemselvescometotakethemasidentityreferents,andtousethemas

frameworksforconstructingconceptionsofselfhood–thisispartoftheself-

regulatorydimensionofthepsy.143Thisisalsolinkedtounderstandingsof

sufferingassiteofidentity,mentionedearlierinrelationtoWendyBrown’s

work,andparodiedbytheperverseidentitiesascribedtosubjectsinEden-

OlympiabyPenrose’sprogramme.Charactersinthenovelfrequentlyasserttheir

happinessevenastheyparticipateinandendurebehavioursthatareclearly

distressing.JaneSinclair,druggedanddistant,isbadlybeatenbyPascalZander,

afterhetriestorapeherbutistoodrunktomaintainanerection.Immediately

after,sheavowsherdesiretostayinEden-Olympia,sayingtoherhusband,“I’m

reallyhappyhere.Aren’tyou?”144

Itseemstomethatthisisalsoaclearreferencetothecognitivedissonanceof

neoliberalsubjects,adissonancethatisdeliberatelypromotedbytheneoliberal

programme.PhilipMirowskilaysthisoutatpaceinhisaccountofhow

neoliberalismsurvivedthefinancialcrashof2007/8:

...peoplereacttopotentialdisconfirmationofstronglyheldviewsby

adjustingtheirownunderstandingsofthedoctrineinquestionto

accommodatecontraryevidence;thishasbeendiscussedinthesocial

142Rose.‘WhatisDiagnosisFor?’p.4.143Whenitcomestodiagnosis,thisself-shapingmaybeatwowaystreet,asisshownbyRose’sdiscussionsofadvocacygroups.Infact,thebest-knownexampleofthismaybethemodificationandeventualremovalofhomosexualityfromtheDSM(in1973),whichDavieschartsinacompellingaccountofthejointhistoryoftheDSMandtheriseofneoliberalism,TheHappinessIndustry,pp.167-79.144Super-Cannes,p.302.

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psychologyliteratureundertherubricof“cognitivedissonance,”and

inthephilosophyliteratureasDuhem’sThesis.145

Mirowskialsoreferstothesocialdimensionofthispractice,suggestingthat,

“peoplecannotvetandvalidateevenasmallproportionofknowledgetowhich

theysubscribe,andsomustofnecessitydependheavilyuponotherssuchas

teachersandexpertsandpeerstounderwritemuchoftheirbeliefs.”146Itis

usefultoreflectonthiswhenconsideringthepervasiveriseofemotivepolitical

discourseoutlinedintheintroductiontothisthesis.Ishouldsay,too,thatI

recognisethattheremaybesometensionbetweenMirowski’srelativedismissal

ofgovernmentalityasunhelpfulandmyeffortstotracehappinessdiscourseasa

formofneoliberalgovernmentality.Toanswerthis,Istressthespecificremitof

thisthesis–Iamnotseekingto‘explain’neoliberalism,asMirowski(valiantly)

attemptsto,butinsteadtofocusononesmallpartofthewayinwhichits‘values’

havecometobetransmittedas‘normal’andapparentlywillinglyadoptedby

subjects,throughaninvestigationofcontemporaryliterature.Iamnotan

economist(if,perMirowski,theyevenexist),butsomethingmorelikeamember

ofthe“motleyclique”hedescribes,whoseektoexplore“neoliberal

consciousness.”147

MirowskigoesontoquotepsychologistLeonFestinger,originatorofthe

theoryofcognitivedissonance,whoassertsthatthosewhofaceamajor

challengetotheirbeliefsystemsmayinfactbecomeincreasinglyattachedto

thosebeliefs,evangelicaleven.ThisiscertainlythecaseinSuper-Cannes,where

evenwaryPaulSinclairisdrawnintoWilderPenrose’spsychopathological

underworld.TheonlythingthatdrawshimoutisthemurderofFrancesBaring,

andhisrealisationthatheisbeingsetupto‘takethefall’forit.148Unlikethe

figureofBobbyCrawfordinCocaineNights,itisnotPenrose’spersonalcharisma

thatdrawsdisciplestohim:infact,heisfrequentlydescribedbyother

145PhilipMirowski,NeverLetASeriousCrisisGoToWaste,LondonandBrooklyn,NY:Verso,2014,p.33.146Mirowski,NeverLetaSeriousCrisisGoToWaste,p.34.147Mirowski,NeverLetaSeriousCrisisGoToWaste,p.91.148Super-Cannes,p.371-5.

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charactersinunpleasantterms,vergingonthegrotesque.149Instead,itisthe

comprehensivenessofhisvision,andthewayinwhichheencouragessubjectsto

actonthemselvesinitsconstruction,implicatingthementirelyinthemicrocosm

ofviolenceandexploitationofwhichheseeshimselfasarchitect.

Returningtothequestionofpsyscienceanddiagnosis,RosereferencesCharles

Rosenberg’swork,whereRosenbergsays,

Wehaveneverbeenmoreawareofthearbitraryandconstructed

qualityofpsychiatricdiagnoses,yetinaneracharacterizedbythe

increasinglybureaucraticmanagementofhealthcareandan

increasinglypervasivereductionismintheexplanationofnormalas

wellaspathologicalbehavior,wehaveneverbeenmoredependent

onthem.150

Bureaucratisationisafeaturenotjustofhealthcareunderneoliberalismbutof

lifeasawhole.Ihavepreviouslyintimatedthewayinwhichneoliberal

happinessdiscoursetendstoconnectthebiologicalandthepsychological,asis

evidentinthelanguageof‘wellness’or‘holistichappiness’seeninCederström

andSpicer’swork.InSuper-Cannes,thismanifestsinJaneSinclair’sprojectof

accumulatingthemedicaldataofthepark’sresidents.Shedescribestheproject

toherhusbandearlyinthenovel,withahintofincredulity:

“Everymorningwhentheygetuppeoplewilldialtheclinicandlogin

theirhealthdata:pulse,bloodpressure,weightandsoon.Oneprick

ofthefingeronasmallscannerandthecomputersherewillanalyse

everything:liverenzymes,cholesterol,prostatemarkers,thelot.”

“Alcohollevels,recreationaldrugs…?”

“Everything.It’ssototalitarianonlyEden-Olympiacouldeventhink

aboutitandnotrealisewhatitmeans.”151

Later,whenJanebecomesfully‘integrated’intoEden-Olympia,theprojecttakes

onadifferentsignification:PaulSinclairsays,“shehadfoundprofessional

successatEden-Olympia.ShehadbeenprofiledintheLondonmedicalpress,and149PaulSinclaircallshim,variously,a“psychopomp”(p.3),“almostobsequious”(p.30),an“amiablebully’(p.279),andmakesreferencetohis“badlybittenfingernails”(avisiblebreachofthewellnessimperative!)(p.244),andhis“hugebody”(p.295).150CharlesRosenberg.‘ContestedBoundaries:Psychiatry,Disease,andDiagnosis’,PerspectivesinBiologyandMedicine49:3,2006,pp.407-424,p.417.151Super-Cannes,p.67.Wealsoseereferencestothisprojectpp.98,122,25,67,154.

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wascompletingdiagnosticteststhatwouldlinkeveryemployeeinEden-

OlympiaandSophia-Antipolis.”152Somefifteenyearsaftertheoriginal

publicationofSuper-Cannes,wemightseeJane’sprojectasdated–whoneedsa

doctortomonitorandrecordtheirmedicaldatawhenwecanbuyaFitbitand

paytodoitourselves?Evenbetter,ouremployermightgiveusone,allowingus

tomeasureourownwellnessandassessitincomparisontoourfellow

employees,asweourselvesareassessed,combiningworkplaceprimacy,

competitionandself-regulationinoneneatneoliberalpackage.153Whilstthisis

trueinsomerespects,Rose’swritingonbiologicalcitizenshipmightgiveus

pause,consideringtheprojectofbelongingthatexistsatthecoreofPenrose’s

effortsandthecoreofBallard’sthematicconcerns.Giventhattheexpress

purposeofEden-Olympia’sOther,Sophia-Antipolis,isthe“crosspollination”of

ideas,andthepreviouslystatedinterestofthisworkintheco-optionofthe

imagination,thepassagebelowontheeffortsofstatestomanagethe‘resource’

ofthe“specifichereditarystockoftheirpopulation”isstriking:

[Techniquesofmanagingthehereditarystockofpopulations]are

groundedinthehopethatspecificcharacteristicsofthegenesof

groupsoftheircitizensmaypotentiallyprovideavaluableresource

forthegenerationofintellectualpropertyrights,forbiotechnological

innovationandthecreationofwhatwewillterm…biovalue.154

ThisexpandsourunderstandingoftheimplicationsofJane’sproject,andallows

ustoenvisionthescopeofpracticesintendedtoproduceself-regulatingsubjects

–evendowntothelevelofgenetics.155Althoughthisgeneticapplicationisnot

explicitinthenovel,wecanseehowtheunderpinningsofbiologicalcitizenship

152Super-Cannes,p.227.153ChristinaFarr.‘HowFitBitBecametheNextBigThinginCorporateWellness,’FastCompany,18April2016.www.fastcompany.com/3058462/how-fitbit-became-the-next-big-thing-in-corporate-wellness.Daviesdescribessimilarinterventionsin‘Taylor’sRevenge’,pp.134-7inTheHappinessIndustry.154NikolasRoseandCarlosNovas,‘BiologicalCitizenship’GlobalAssemblages:Technology,Politics,andEthicsasAnthropologicalProblems,editedbyAihwaOngandStephenJ.Collier.OxfordandMalden,MA:BlackwellPublishing,2005,pp.439-463,pp.440-1.155Interestingly,RoseandNovasalsodescribehowtheriseofgenomicsasafieldinwhich‘disorders’likemanicdepressioncanbe‘explained’throughgeneticreasoninghasledto‘genehunting’andalsogivesvaluetothosewith‘badgenes’(thoughthisvaluecan,byitsnature,beonlytemporary.)Neoliberalhappinessdiscourseapparentlyfindsawaytomakeasilkpurseofasow’sear,again.

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mightliebeneathJane’swork,alertingustotheever-moreinsidiousworkingsof

theneoliberalhappinessagenda.

IfsisterparkSophia-Antipoliscontainsthepossibilityofitsownoppositein

itsownname,likethesecretsofhappinesspotentiallyhiddeninourgenes,

BallardmakessureofitinnamingEden-Olympia.Thesignificanceof‘Eden’is

obviousinitsbiblicalsense;incaseweareunsureaboutthis,aconversation

betweenPaulSinclairandWilderPenroseabouttheinitialillnessandapathyof

thefirstparkresidentsilluminatesitforus:PaulSinclairsays,“They’dforgotten

theywerelivinginparadise?”Penrosetellshim,“ThiswasEdenwithouta

snake.”156PenroseseeshimselfasthesnakeinEden,embodyingthetwofold

meaningoftheserpent,asymbolofhealingandevil,chaosandfertility,and

raisingtheimageoftheouroborosofcapitalism.The‘Olympia’inthepark’s

namelinkstheresidentsofthepark,thosemembersoftheeliteprofessional

class,totheOlympiangods,aswellasinvokingtheOlympicGames,linkingthis

noveltothegamesofCocaineNights.ThereareseveraloccasionsinSuper-

CanneswhentheperversepursuitsofEden-Olympiaresidentsarereferredtoas

games.ThecharacterofFrancesBaring,apropertymanageratEden-Olympia

withwhomDavidGreenwoodwasromanticallyinvolved(andwithwhomPaul

Sinclairhasanaffair)isconnectedtotheterm,describing,“thegameswe[she

andGreenwood]played”andtellingSinclair,“Soonerorlater,though,allgames

becomeserious.”157Baringisalsoconnectedtothemotifofflyinginthenovel,

anditsassociatedthemeofresistance.Atthestartofchaptertwenty-five,

Sinclairsays,“NowFrancesBaringhaddealtherselfbackintothegame,playing

withhermarkedcardsandherriggedshoe.”158Thislanguageforeshadows

Baring’slaterroleinresistingthewellbeingimperativesofEden-Olympia(ifwe

canrefertoprescribedpsychopathologyassuch),andremindsusthat,asin

CocaineNights,thesegamesareneverfair.

WilderPenrosecontinuesthisassociativereference,likeninghistreatmentto

“agameoftouchrugby.”159Thosewhoparticipateinthetreatmenthaveevolved

intoakindofalternativesportinggroup,onewhosemaininterestisviolent156Super-Cannes,258157Super-Cannes,218.158Super-Cannes,213.159Super-Cannes,259.

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ratissages.Theword‘ratissage’isdeliberatelychosenhere:originatinginthe

1950s,itreferstoamilitarysweeporraid,particularlyusedfortheactionsof

theFrenchinAlgeria.Itssecondarymeaningiseconomic,referringtothegiving

upofnationalresourcestoacentralbank.160Ratissageisaloadedword,with

distinctlyracistovertones–overtonesthatripplethroughthenovel,asthe

racismofpurportedlyneutralEden-Olympia,andtheneoliberalcapitalistsystem

thatshapesthepark,isexposed.Attheirfirstmeeting,duringtheirexchangeon

thestateofsecurityatEden-Olympia,WilderPenrosetellsPaulSinclair:

“There’snothingracist,bytheway.We’retrulymultinational–

Americans,French,Japanese.EvenRussiansandeastEuropeans.”

‘BlackAfrica?”

“Attheseniorlevel.We’reameltingpot,astheRivieraalwayshas

been.Thesolventnowistalent,notwealthorglamour.Forgetabout

crime.”161

Thisistheneoliberalargument:freemarket‘equality’fostersacosmopolitan

multiculturalismthatprecludesracism.JodiMelamedcallsattentiontotheway

inwhichneoliberalism’suniversalism,“remakescategoriesofracialprivilege

andstigmabeyondcolourlinesbyrepresentingtheadvantagesthatareenjoyed

byneoliberalism’swinnersasthejustdessertsofglobalmulticultural

citizens.”162Ballardrevealstheanti-racistrhetoricofneoliberalismtobeno

morethanaweakposture.Penrosecontinuestoinsistontheanti-racismof

Eden-Olympia,defendingtheracistselectionofthevictimsoftheratissages

throughtheinvocationoftrickle-downeconomics.WhenSinclairsuggeststheir

racialprofilingis,“ToughontheArabs,”Penrosereplies,“True.Butonthewhole

theimmigrantcommunitybenefits.Eden-Olympiaisascrupulousequal-

160AngusMaddison,EconomicGrowthintheWest:ComparativeExperienceinEuropeandNorthAmerica,London:Routledge,1964;AlistairHorne,ASavageWarofPeace:Algeria1954-1962.NewYork:NewYorkReviewofBooks,1977.161Super-Cannes,p.19-20.ThemythoftheRivieraas‘meltingpot’isparodiedinthenoveltoo,withmultiplereferencestoF.ScottFitzgerald’sRiviera–shortlyafterthisexchange,Halder(whoisblack)isrevealedtokeepacopyofTenderistheNight(1934)onhispassengerseat.PascalZander’sdeathinacaraccidentfollowsaGatsby-esqueparty,thekindthat“doesn’thavehosts.”p.291.162JodiMelamed,RepresentandDestroy:RationalizingViolenceintheNewRacialCapitalism,Minnesota:UniversityofMinnesotaPress,2011,pp.139-40.

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opportunitiesemployer,withnoracialbias.Wehireadisproportionatenumber

ofnorthAfricansasgardenersandroadsweepers.”163

Theperpetratorsoftheseratissagesarereferredtoasabowlingclub

throughoutthenovel,firstmentionedbyPaulSinclairduringtheattackonthe

Russianinthecarpark:“[AlainDelage]andtheotherexecutivesweredressedin

leatherjacketszippedtotheneck,likemembersofanEden-Olympiabowling

club.”164Theimageofthe‘bowlingclub’callstomindRobertPutnam’sinfluential

study,BowlingAlone(2000),inwhichthetheoristimaginesthedeclinein

bowlingleaguesintheUnitedStatesassymbolicofthedeclineofcivicsociety.In

contrasttothevibrantEstrelladeMarofCocaineNights,Eden-Olympiahasno

civilsociety–bydesign:“CivilityandpolityweredesignedintoEden-Olympia,in

thesamewaythatmathematics,aestheticsandtheentiregeopoliticalworldview

weredesignedintotheParthenonandtheBoeing747.”165Thisisconnectedto

thepark’sintentiontomaketheworkplacetheprimarysceneoflifeitself,as

PenroseexplainstoPaulSinclair:“AtEden-Olympiaworkistheultimateplay,

andplaytheultimatework.”166Thisprimacyofworkislinkedtoanabdicationof

morality,orrather,asubmissiontothemoralityofthemarket:

AgiantmultinationallikeFujiorGeneralMotorssetsitsown

morality.Thecompanydefinestherulesthatgovernhowyoutreat

yourspouse,whereyoueducateyourchildren,thesensiblelimitsto

stockmarketinvestment.Thebankdecideshowbigamortgageyou

canhandle,therightamountofhealthinsurancetobuy.Thereareno

moremoraldecisionsthanthereareonanewsuperhighway.Unless

youownaFerrari,pressingtheacceleratorisnotamoraldecision.

FordandFiatandToyotahaveengineeredinasensibleresponse

curve.Wecanrelyontheirjudgment,andthatleavestherestofus

freetogetonwiththerestofourlives.We’veachievedrealfreedom,

freedomfrommorality.167

163CocaineNights,p.260.164Super-Cannes,p.72.165Super-Cannes,p.38.166Super-Cannes,p.94,Seealsop.264.167Super-Cannes,p.95.

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Thisphilosophyisatoddswiththeconventionalwisdomofpopularneoliberal

rhetoric:thatchoicewillsetyoufree,orrather,thatitisonlythroughchoosing

thatthesubjectcanconstructanyideaoffreedom.InThatcher’swords,“Choice

istheessenceofethics:iftherewerenochoice,therewouldbenoethics,no

good,noevil;goodandevilhavemeaningonlyinsofarasmanisfreeto

choose.”168(Althoughremember,please,whenitcomestothemarketeconomy,

“thereisnoalternative”tochoose.)PaulSinclairhighlightsthetensionbetween

Penrose’sthesisandtheprimacyofindividualchoiceinneoliberalrhetoric,

saying,“Ithoughttheorganizationmandiedoutinthe1960s.”169The

OrganizationManreferstoWilliamH.Whyte’s1956managementguide,which

promotedthecreativityoftheindividualovercollectivistactionanddecision-

makingintheworkplace,andsuggestedthatrelianceongrouplogicmade

executivestimidandunadventurousintheirwork.PenroseagreeswithSinclair,

andclaimsthatthe‘newbreed’ofworkerisquitedistinct:forthese,the

abdicationofchoiceintheprivatesphereallowstheworkplacetotakeits

rightfulplaceasthelocusofself-construction,whichistosay,therealmof

choice.

Thereareechoes,too,ofWhyte’sroughcontemporary,HerbertMarcuse,

whoseOneDimensionalMan(1964)critiquestheauthoritarianismofconsumer

capitalism,andtheunfreedomofchoiceinthissystem,anticipatingtheriseof

neoliberalismandtheonedimensionalityoftotalmarketlogic.Marcuse’swriting

onconscienceseemsapthere,andcontributestooutlininghowsubjectscometo

accepttheradicalinequalitiesoflifeinEden-Olympiaandlifeunder

neoliberalism.Hesays,“Conversely,lossofconscienceduetothesatisfactory

libertiesgrantedbyanunfreesocietymakesforahappyconsciousnesswhich

facilitatesacceptanceofthemisdeedsofthissociety.”170Marcuseseesthis

acceptanceassignallingdecliningautonomy,counteringPenrose’sassertionthat

theself-motivatedprofessionalsoftodayaresomehowmoreliberatedthanthe

“earlyofficedwellinghominid,acorporateversionofDawnmanwhoassumeda

168MargaretThatcher.SpeechtoZurichEconomicSociety(‘TheNewRenaissance”),March1977.MargaretThatcherFoundation.www.margaretthatcher.org/document/103336.169Super-Cannes,p.95170HerbertMarcuse.OneDimensionalMan.London:RoutledgeandKeganPaulLtd,1964,p.76.

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sedentarypostureinordertosurvive.”171Notethedoublemeaningof‘self-

motivated’here,referringtoapparentlyintrinsicmotivation,butalsotothe

motivationofselfhood,definingtheparametersofidentitythroughproductive

engagementwiththeworldofwork.Marcuse’stheoryof“institutionalized

desublimation”isineffectanaccountofPenrose’sprogramme:

Institutionalizeddesublimationthusappearstobeanaspectofthe

‘conquestoftranscendence’achievedbytheone-dimensionalsociety.

Justasthissocietytendstoreduce,andevenabsorbopposition(the

qualitativedifference!)intherealmofpoliticsandhigherculture,soit

doesintheinstinctualsphere.Theresultistheatrophyofthemental

organsforgraspingthecontradictionsandthealternativesand,inthe

oneremainingdimensionoftechnologicalrationality,theHappy

Consciousnesscomestoprevail.172

Theabsorptionofoppositionistheprimarytechniqueofneoliberalcontrol,asI

havepreviouslystated:thesubsumptionofallintomarketlogic.The‘instinctual

sphere’herereferstotherealmofaffect,notexplicitlydescribedassuchin

Ballard’sworkbutclearlyrecognisable,aswesawfirstinBobbyCrawford’s

proclamationsinCocaineNights.The“atrophyofmentalorgans”canbeseento

refertotheclosingdownofspacesofimaginativepotential,astrackedinthis

studyandtheworkofothers-Fisher,HardtandNegri,Sennett.

DespitePenrose’sassertions,then,hisownprogrammeatteststothepaucity

ofhisprofessedworldview,highlightingasitdoestheaffectivedeadnessofthe

contemporaryworker.AsBallardsaid,quotedatthestartofthischapter,

“Peopleresentthefactthatthemostmoraldecisionintheirlivesischoosing

whatcolourtheirnextcarwillbe.”173Withnocivicorprivatesphereinwhichto

giveventtoself-expression,theexecutivesofEden-Olympiaatfirstfellvictimto

the‘malaise’mentionedearlier;a‘bluntingofthecreativeedge,’inPenrose’s

terminology.174Thesubsumptionofsubjectivitybytheproductiveimperative

171Super-Cannes,p.96.172Marcuse.One-DimensionalMan,p.79.MyreadinghereismoregenerousthanFoucault’s,whosawMarcuseasplacingtoomuchemphasisonrepression.Iwouldarguewithsuchareadingofthequotedpassage:the‘absorption’Marcusetheorisesisnotthesameas‘simple’repression.173Ballard.‘2003:Allwe’vegotleftisourownpsychopathology,’ExtremeMetaphors,p.399.174Super-Cannes,p.257.

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leadstoaspacewherenothingis‘outsideof’work,andsothereisnospacein

whichexecutivescanconceptualisea‘realself,’asdictatedbythenormative

imperativesofpsyrationales.Penroserecognisesthis:“AtEden-Olympia,there’s

nointerplayofanykind,noneoftheemotionaltrade-offsthatgiveusasenseof

whoweare.”175TheworkperformedbytheresidentsofEden-Olympia,despite

Penrose’sassertionstothecontrary,doesnot–andcannot-representcomplete

‘self-actualisation’.Atthesametime,thedrivetolocatetheselfinworkisso

completethatsubjectshavenoalternativeframeworkinwhichtoconstruct

identity.Anytimethatisnotproductiveisseenastheft,inthelanguageofthe

businesspark,asPaulSinclairrecognisesofhiscovertrelationshipwithFrances

Baring:“Wehadstartedanaffair,butourtimetogetherhadbeenstolenfrom

Eden-Olympiaandwouldhavetobereturned.”176Thustheideaoffinding

reprieveinleisurebecomesunthinkable,thespectreofthedeathlessleisureof

thepueblosofCocaineNightshauntingthesehigh-poweredexecutives.Penrose

saystoSinclair,“Ifyoudon’tkeepbusy,it’seasytofindyourselfinastateclose

tosensorydeprivation.”177Asitturnsout,thisismorethanjustfriendlyadvice.

PaulSinclair’sabundanceoffreetimemakeshimatargetofsuspicioninEden-

Olympia,andleaveshimwiththetimetoinvestigateitsdarkunderbelly.Asa

resultofhissleuthing,hisleginjuryisslowtoheal,oratleastheclaimsitis;as

mentionedearlier,theinjuryseemstohavesomevaguepsychological

component.178Hiswifebeginstogivehimmedicineforthepain,whichturnsout

tobeeighty-fivepercentamitriptyline,adrugusedasalong-termsedativein

mentalhospitals.179Whenobediencecannotbewon,itisadministered

intravenously,andfailuretoadheretotheproductiveimperativeresultsin

permanentexclusion.

Despitethis,Super-CannesismoreexplicitlyoptimisticthanCocaineNights

whenitcomestothepossibilityofresistingneoliberalisation,andtheneoliberal

175Super-Cannes,p.255.176Super-Cannes,p.332.177Super-Cannes,p.246.178ItissuggestedthatitisthisvulnerabilitythatleaveshimopentoPenrose’sinsaneseductions:“Ifanyoneneededmenow,itwasPenroseandhisfalteringdreamofsocialmadness,alargerversionofthatplanecrashfromwhosewreckage,asJanehadsaid,Ihadyettofreemyself.”Super-Cannes,p.304.179Super-Cannes,p.327.

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happinessimperative.Thefiguringofflightasanextendedmetaphorthroughout

thenovelcreatesaliteralspaceofpotential,outsidethebordersofEden-

Olympia,asthespacebeyondthepagemayrepresentarealmofpotentialforthe

reader.FromthemomentofPaulSinclair’sentryintoEden-Olympia,heislinked

toAntoinedeSaint-Exupéry,pilot,warheroandauthoroftheclassicchildren’s

book,TheLittlePrince(1943).TheLittlePrincetellsthestoryofapilotwhohas

crashedandisintentonrebuildinghisengine,andthetitularlittleprincehe

meets,whoregaleshimwithstoriesofhisinterplanetarytravels.Itisastory

aboutthepoweroftheimagination.Thenoveldrawsadistinctionbetweenthe

capacityofchildrenandadultstoseetheworld,whereitsnarratorfears

becomingreallyadult.ThisremindsusofthefrequentreferencestoAlicein

Super-Cannes,andthedestructionofchildhoodenactedbytheresidentsofEden-

Olympia,Greenwoodinparticular.Thepilotsaysheiswritingthestoryofthe

littleprincesohedoesnotforgethim:“AndifIforgethim,Imaybecomelikethe

grown-upswhoarenolongerinterestedinanythingbutfigures…”180Theprince

recountsthestoriesofmenhehasmetwhoaredefinedbytheirfunction:

geographer,lamplighter,businessman–asthoseinEden-Olympiaaredefinedby

theirs.Theirviewoftheworldhasbeennarrowedbythisidentity,blindingthem

topossibility–thegeographercannotseethemountainsherecords,becausehe

isboundtohisdesk;thelamplighterissointentonfollowingordersthathe

cannotseethereisnoneedforhimtolightthelamp,ashisworldissosmallitis

possibletoexistinperpetualdaylight;thebusinessmanspendsallhistime

countingthestarstoasserthisownershipofthem,andcannotseetheirbeauty.

PaulSinclairmustlookbeyondtheofficialnarrativetouncoverwhatreally

happenedtoDavidGreenwood,aswereadersmustlookbeyondtheostensibly

conventionaldetectivenarrativeofSuper-Cannestounderstandhowthenovel

impelsusto(re)discoverrealspacesofpotential,andtoresistthecommon-

sensecalltoindividualisedhappiness.

AsthecontingentworldbeginstocreepintoEden-Olympiathrough

campaignsofdisruptionstagedbyFrankHalderandFrancesBaring,thelimitsof

Penrose’scontrolarestretched.Inthefinalchapterofthenovel,Sinclaircomes

180AntoinedeSaint-Exupéry,TheLittlePrincetranslatedbyKatherineWoods,1943NewYork:Harcourt,BraceandWorld,1960,p.12.

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tofillGreenwood’srole,puttingintoactionhisoriginalplottorevealEden-

Olympia’sheartofdarkness.Thisplotinvolvesroundingupthosewhoarekeyto

Penrose’sprogrammeandforcingthemtoparticipateinalivebroadcastfrom

thepark’sTVcentre–atrulyBaudrillardianexposé.Beforeembarkingonthis

plan,SinclairenliststhehelpofthebrotherofoneofGreenwood’saccomplices,

onePhilippeBourget.TheymeetoutsidetheshowroomofNostalgicAviation,a

shopdedicatedtotherelicsofflighthistory.Thisshopisinfactreal,asBallard

notesinhisforeword:“NostalgicAviation,acheerfulmuseumofaircraft

memorabilia,standsattheentrancetoCannes-MandelieuAirport,andisahaven

forflyingbuffs.OnthenewRiviera,evenaviationisnowconsignedtoafondly

rememberedpast.”181Sinclairsays,“Twentyyardsawaywastheshowroomof

NostalgicAviation,withitscollectionofmemorabilia,ejectionseatsandradial

engines,anAladdin’sCaveofpossibilitiesfarmorepotentandenduringthan

anythingWilderPenrosecouldoffer.”182Ballardseemstounderlinehisown

tendencytonostalgiseinthisscene,althoughhealsointimatesthattheremaybe

somethingusefulindoingso,despitetheconcernshedisplayselsewhere.This

explorationisdevelopedinthefollowingnovels,too,whereBallardofferssome

depictionofhowboththerightandtheleftfallvictimtopoliticalnostalgising,

andhowthiscanproblematicallylimitthepoliticalimagination,aswellasthe

personal.183

Here,however,Sinclair’sconnectionbetweenmemorabiliaandejectorseats

signalssomepotentialityinthepast–aglimpseofawayoutofthetotalising

systematworkinEden-Olympia.ThismightremindusagainofMarcuse’swork,

whereheunpicksthe‘marchofrationality’thatunderpinstheadvanceof

technologicalcapitalistsociety,andthewayinwhichthisseeksto“exorcize”the

ghostsofthemetaphysical,whichwemighthereunderstandastheimaginative,

orthehorizonsofpossibility.184WecanfollowthisthroughinreadingMarcuse

181Super-Cannes,p.1.182Super-Cannes,p.390.183Again,theuseoftheterm‘nostalgising’hereisemployedinthesenseexploredbySedikidesetalin‘ToNostalgize:MixingMemorywithAffectandDesire.’184Marcuse.One-DimensionalMan,p.203“Contemporaryanalyticphilosophyisouttoexorcizesuch‘myths’ormetaphysical‘ghosts’asMind,Consciousness,Will,Soul,Self,bydissolvingtheintentoftheseconceptsintostatementsonparticularidentifiableoperations,performances,powers,dispositions,propensities,skills,etc.”

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onthe“chanceofalternatives,”ashisfinalchapterisentitled.Marcusewrites

prescientlyonthewayinwhichprotestisrenderedineffectivethroughits

absorption.Thisisareadingwemightextendinacontemporarycontext,

returningagaintothe‘siteofsuffering’asbasisforpoliticalidentityandtheway

inwhichinscriptionoftheseidentitiesinlawminimisesthepossibilityfor

collectivistaction,inaccordancewiththeindividualisingthrustofneoliberalism.

Marcusewritesthat:

...underneaththeconservativepopularbaseisasubstratumofthe

outcastsandoutsiders,theexploitedandpersecutedandofother

racesandothercolours,theunemployedandtheunemployable.They

existoutsidethedemocraticprocess[or,inSuper-Cannes,outsidethe

productiveprocesswhichhassupplantedpoliticaldemocracy];their

lifeisthemostimmediateandthemostrealneedforending

intolerableconditionsandinstitutions.Thustheiroppositionis

revolutionaryeveniftheirconsciousnessisnot.Theiroppositionhits

thesystemfromwithoutandisthereforenotdeflectedbythesystem;

itisanelementaryforcewhichviolatestherulesofthegameand,in

doingso,revealsitasariggedgame.185

TheconnectiontoSuper-Cannesisclearinboththefigureofspeechandintentof

thispassage:unemployedandunemployable,PaulSinclairremainsanoutsider,

andachampionofthecontingentworldofOthers.Thefinalimagewehaveisof

hisembarkationonthejourneybacktoEden-Olympia.Heremains,inclosing,

outsidethepark,connectedtothecontingentworldbeyonditsrational(ising)

borders.Thesearethefinalsentencesofthenovel:

Thebeachesbesidethecoastalroadwerelitteredwithforgottenfilm

magazinesandemptybottlesofsuntancream,thedebrisofadream

washedashoreamongthedriftwood.Idroveon,thinkingofJaneand

FrancesBaringandWilderPenrose,readytofinishthetaskthat

DavidGreenwoodhadbegun.

Thenovelendsinaspaceof(tentative)hope,asdoesMarcuse’swork,which

finisheswithaquotefromWalterBenjamin:”Itisonlyforthesakeofthose

185Marcuse.One-DimensionalMan,p.257.Emphasismine.

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withouthopethathopeisgiventous.”186Hopeisfiguredasaresponsibilityhere,

asitisinSinclair’smission,whichechoesBallard’sartisticenactmentofwhat

MarcusemightcallaGreatRefusal.UnlikeCocaineNights,whichemployeda

pessimisticcircularity,thisnovelleavesspacetobelievethataradicalbreakmay

occur,asPaulSinclairremainsoutsideoftheproductivesystemandPenrose’s

programme,throughhisownliminalposition:anti-racist,unemployed,capable

ofsomedegreeof‘freethought.’

Ballard’soptimism,however,isqualified.Wecloseonasceneinwhichthe

revolutionhasyettotakeplace,andweknowthatthelasteffortfailed,andwas

co-optedintoPenrose’snarrativequiteneatly.Earlierinthechapter,Penrose

describeshowtheresidentsofEden-OlympiafailedtoreacttoDavid

Greenwood’sattackinatimelyorappropriateway:“Theirmoralperceptionof

evilwassoerodedthatitfailedtowarnthemofdanger…TheAdolfHitlersand

PolPotsofthefuturewon’twalkoutofthedesert.They’llemergefromshopping

mallsandbusinessparks.”187ThisisacommonthemeofBallard’s–thatthe

primacyofself-interestblindsustothewaysinwhichwearemanipulatedby

andbecomecomplicitinsystemsofinjusticeandexploitation.Springerwrites,

History’sprofoundestmomentsofinquiryarenotperformedby

extremistsorpsychopaths,butbyordinarypeople–potentiallyyou

andme–aswecometoacceptthepremisesoftheexistingorder.The

banalityofevilisthusanerasurethatdeprivesusofourabilityto

recognizeviolenceasamomentthatisatoncebothexceptionaland

exemplary.188

AsPaulSinclairfindshimselffinallyrecognisingthecorruptandderangedreality

oftheexistingorderofEden-Olympia,thereaderismovedwithhim,to

recognisethewayinwhichthisreflectsandrepeatsthosesamecorruptionsin

theeconomicsystemthatgivesshapetooureverydaylives.ViolenceinBallard’s

novelsissocommonplacebecauseitremindsusoftheexceptionaland

exemplarypracticeofviolencethatconstituteseverydayrelations,ourstateof

unexceptionalcrisis.Atthesametime,Ballardclearlydirectsthereader,through

186Marcuse.One-DimensionalMan,p.257.187Super-Cannes,p.256.188Springer.‘TheViolenceofNeoliberalism,’p.158.

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Sinclair’sjourney,torefusethepalliativeofpersonalhappiness,thecomplacency

ofmaterialcomfort,andtherationalisationofindividualismthatserveto

enmeshusintheexistingneoliberalorder.AsPaulSinclairsetsoutat6.45am,

wemustdetectsometraceofhopeforanewdawn.Thegivingofhope,following

Marcuse’sreading,comeswithresponsibility.Ballardoffersthereaderthis

glimmerofpotential–butleavesthefuture,asyet,unwritten.

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MillenniumPeople:TheCultureIndustry,ClassandPrecarity

Inthethirdoftheselatenovels,MillenniumPeople(2003),Ballard’seffortto

“makevisiblewhatisinvisibleonlybecauseit’stoomuchonthesurfaceof

things”seeshimturnhisattentiontotheclassofcharacterswhopopulatenot

justtheselatenovels,buthisentirebodyofwork.Thistime,ourmystery-solving

protagonistisDavidMarkham,whointroduceshimselfthusatthebeginningof

thenovel:“EvenI,DavidMarkham,atrainedpsychologistinfiltratedintoChelsea

Marinaasapolicespy–adeceptionIwaslasttodiscover–failedtoseewhat

wasgoingon.”189ChelseaMarinaisthesettingfortheriseofamiddle-class

rebellionthatbothabsurdlyandprescientlyoffersavisionofthebourgeoisieas

the‘newproletariat.’Markham’sinvolvementwiththeMarinaset,anunlikely

allianceofpriests,lecturers,artsfundraisersandex-MoDbombmakers,is

occasionedbythedeathofhisex-wife,killedasaresultofabombonabaggage

carouselatHeathrowairport.Itlatertranspiresthatthiswasnotexactlyan

accident.Thisnovel’s‘public-spiritedpsychopath,’DrRichardGould,choseto

placethebombnexttoasuitcaselabelledwithMarkham’sname(arelicofhis

firstmarriage).Markhamwastargetedforhissemi-celebritystatus,having

participatedinaBBCprogrammecalled‘ANeuroscientistLooksatGod’,which

alsospawnedabook,givinghimamodestpublicprofile.Althoughthisis

ostensiblythemysteryonwhichtheplothinges,asintheseotherlatenovels,

thismysteryismoreorlesssubterfuge,acoverfortherealworkofthenovel,

whichinthisinstanceistheunravellingofthemythofthemiddle-classgoodlife,

theprecarityoflifeunderneoliberalismandthewayinwhichtheculture

industryisinvolvedinconstructingconsentandcontainingdissatisfaction.

Thisframeworkisintimatelyconnectedtomythesis:thenormativevaluesof

themythicalmiddleclassaretheoptimal‘wellness’pointofcontemporary

neoliberalhappinessdiscourse.Themiddleclassareidealisedbecausetheyare

interpellatedasself-governingsubjects,asRoseelaboratesinpartfourof

GoverningtheSoul,undertheheading‘ObligedtobeFree’:“thelater

developmentofmoderndemocracyisdependentupontheexistenceofcertain

typesofsubjects,whodidnotrequireacontinualexternalpolicing.”190Rose

189J.G.Ballard.MillenniumPeople2003London:HarperPerennial,2004,p.3.190Rose.GoverningtheSoul,p.227.

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exploresvarioustechnologiesofcontrolinthisassessment.Mostpertinentlyto

thisdiscussion,helooksatthosefoundedonthedriveforself-improvement:

[Theinjunctiontoself-government]wasembeddedinthecivilizing

projectsofurbanphilanthropists,theestablishmentofmuseumsand

exhibitions,thedesignofshopsandstreetsandother‘public’places

wherestandardsofdressandconductwereexpected.Notonlycould

authoritiesinspectandjudgecitizens,butparentscouldscrutinize

andcriticizechildrenandfamiliescouldevaluateeachother.191

ThislogicechoesthroughoutMillenniumPeople,andisrepeatedlyespousedby

KayChurchill,thepublicfigureheadoftheMarinarebellion.RichardGould,its

firstanimus,hashisownagenda,andpreferstoworkasthemanbehindthe

curtain.Fairlyearlyinthenovel,ChurchilltakesMarkhamonatriptoconductan

entirelyfictivemarketresearchsurveydoor-to-door,designedtounsettle

middle-classTwickenhamresidents,featuringquestionssuchas“Wouldyou

considerwashinglessfrequently?”and“Soyou’dsignapetitiontorevokelaws

againstsexualintercoursewithanimals?”192Duringthis,shesays:

…themiddleclasshavetobekeptundercontrol.Theyunderstand

that,andpolicethemselves.Notwithgunsandgulags,butwithsocial

codes.Therightwaytohavesex,treatyourwife,flirtattennisparties

orstartanaffair.Thereareunspokenrulesweallhavetolearn.193

Thisalsodemonstratesthewayinwhichbehaviourandtastearelinkedasclass

markers,arecurrentconcernintraditionaldebateaboutconceptionsof

happiness,asSaraAhmedrecogniseswhenshediscusses‘goodtaste’in

Bourdieusiantermsandseekstoproblematiseattachmentsto‘goodobjects’that

relyon“afantasyofamoralandmiddleclasssubjectastheonewhoiswithout

habit,whowillandcanchoseinsofarastheyareimaginedfreefrom

inclination.”194

IshouldsayherethatwhilstIappreciateAhmed’swork,Ithinkitsfocuson

unhappinessandondissentersfromthenormative(liberal)conceptionofthe

191Rose.GoverningtheSoul,p.227-8.192MillenniumPeople,pp.88,92.193MillenniumPeople,p.89.194SaraAhmed.ThePromiseofHappiness,Durham,NCandLondon:DukeUniversityPress,2010,p.35.

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goodlifepaystoolittleattentiontothewayinwhichthe‘goodobjects’she

frames(e.g.secureintimaterelationships,personalsafety,fulfillingwork)may

actuallybeusefulinestablishingsubstantiveframeworksoftheselfandare

objectswhichareconstantly,ifcovertly,underattackintherubricof

neoliberalism.InframingtheseobjectsaspositiveIamreferringnottoany

specificfiguringofeach–forexample,Idonotmeanthatintimatepersonal

relationshipsmusttaketheformoftheheteronormativemarriagecontract.

RatherIamdrawingonSennett’swork,andhissuggestionthatpeopleneeda

“sustaininglifenarrative.”195Take,forexample,Ahmed’saccountofthe

characterPoppyinMikeLeigh’sfilmHappy-go-Lucky.Ahmedassertsthatthis

character’slifeisnotshapedby‘happyobjects’:“shedoesnotownherhouse,

sheisnotmarried,andshedoesnothavechildren.”196Shortlyafter,however,

shequotesPoppyassaying,“Ilovemylife.Yeh,itcanbetoughattimes,that’s

partofit.I’vegotagreatjob,brilliantkids[sheisaprimaryschoolteacher],got

lovelyflat,gother[afriend]tolookat,gotamazingfriends.Ilovemy

freedom.”197DespiteAhmed’sassertionstothecontrary,Poppy’sloveoflifeis

facilitatedbythetypeofgoodobjectssheispresentedasdisdaining:astablejob,

asettledhome,secureintimaterelationships(withfriends).Infact,inthisscene,

Poppy’sfriendsuggeststhattheyrentbecausethey“don’twantthehassle”of

buyinghomes:eventhis‘rejection’isachoice,andachoiceshapedbythekindof

neoliberal‘flexibility’thatSennettpresentsasultimatelydamaging.198Ithink

Ahmed’sworkfailstoaccountforthewaysinwhich‘dissenting’figuresare

subsumedbyneoliberalism,duelargelytohersustainedfocusonakindof

personal-functionalaccountofhappiness,whichfailstofullyinterrogatethe

subsumptionofhappinessdiscourseunderneoliberalism.Ithinkthiscanbe

buttressedthroughconsideringBerlant’swork.Theconceptof‘crueloptimism’

speakstothedistressofdesiringthesegoodobjectsevenwhilstrecognising

theirstructuralimpossibility,andthedifficultyofconstructingnewconceptsof

195RichardSennett.TheCultureoftheNewCapitalism.NewHaven:YaleUniversityPress,2006,p.5.196Ahmed.ThePromiseofHappiness,p.221.Sic.197Ahmed.ThePromiseofHappiness,p.221.Sic.198‘SallyHawkinsinHappy-Go-Lucky(2008)sceneatHelen’shouse,’YouTube,uploadedbySallyHawkinsfan,October62016www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pqj6w0yW_Xc.

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thegoodwhilstretainingsuchanattachment.Iwillreturntothisthroughoutmy

discussioninthisthesis.

ThroughKayChurchill’sinterventions,Ballarddemonstratestheobviousand

invisibletruththatthemiddleclassarenotfreefrominclination,butrather

conditionedtoproprietythroughself-regulatorysocialcodes,organised

accordingtotheneoliberaldiscourseofhappinessIamtracinginthisstudy.This

isalsolinkedtothewayinwhichtheidealneoliberalselfiscompelledto

accumulatesocialcapital,asintimatedinRose’saccountabove.Thisisechoedin

variouscriticalapproaches,includingMcNay’sconceptof‘self-as-enterprise’and

Brown’saccountofthetransformationfromhumanbeingto‘humancapital’

underneoliberalisminUndoingtheDemos(2015).KayChurchillrailsagainst

this,too:

Thisisn’tthegoodlife,fullofpossibility.Yousooncomeupagainst

thebarrierssetoutbythesystem.Trygettingdrunkataschool

speechday,ormakingamildlyracistjokeatacharitydinner.Try

lettingyourlawngrowandnotpaintingyourhouseforafewyears.

Trylivingwithateenagegirlorhavingsexwithyourstepson.Try

sayingyoubelieveinGodandtheHolyTrinity,orgivingafreeroom

toarefugeefamilyfromblackAfrica.Trytakingaholidayin

Benidorm,ordrivingabrand-newCadillacwithzebraupholstery.Try

badtaste.199

Kay’s‘trybadtaste’monologuerecallsRenton’s‘chooselife’passagefromIrvine

Welsh’sTrainspotting(1993),whichalsounpacksthenormativeframeworkof

middle-classvalues,asfiltereddowntotheworkingclass:“Chooseus.Choose

life.Choosemortgagepayments;choosewashingmachines;choosecars;choose

sittingoanacouchwatchingmind-numbingandspirit-crushinggameshows,

stuffingfuckinjunkfoodintaeyirmooth.”200Thisinvectiveagainstlifeis

promptedbyRentonreflectingonasessionofcourt-mandated

“therapy/counsellingshite”–‘rehabilitation’-toaddresshisdrugaddiction;psy

interventionatapointofcrisis.201

199MillenniumPeople,p.86.200IrvineWelsh.Trainspotting,London:MartinSecker&Warburg,1993,p.187.201Welsh.Trainspotting,p.187.

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SuchinterventionisdescribedinSallySayles’silluminatingarticle,‘The

MakingofDocileWorkingClassSubjects’(2011),whereshedemonstratesthat

animportantdistinctionbetweenthemiddleclassandtheworkingclassisthat,

incontrasttothismiddle-classself-regulation,theworkingclassaregovernedby

“outsideinterventions.”202ThisisalsoexposedinBallard’sworkhere.Onthe

secondpageofthenovel,DavidMarkhamtellsusthatthe‘newproletariat’ofthe

Marinaaresubjecttothesesameinterventions:

Theconstableswereunmoved,refusingtoletthedriverintothe

estate.Theysensedsomethingdeeplysuspecthadtakenplaceinthis

oncelaw-abidingcommunity,aneventthatrequiredthepresence

[intervention]ofacabinetministerandhisretinueofworthies.The

visitors–HomeOfficeadvisors,concernedchurchmen,seniorsocial

workersandpsychologists,includingmyself–wouldbegintheirtour

atnoon,inanhour’stime.203

Sayleswrites:

Whilstmiddleclasssubjectsmaychoosetogototherapytofurther

theirselfformation,workingclasssubjectsaremorelikelytogo

eitherunderconditionsofenforcement–viasocialservices,

probation,childguidance–orasaneffectoftheirinevitablefailures

withinasystemthathasremainedirreduciblymiddleclassinterms

ofitssystemsofadvancementandprivilege.204

ThesectioninTrainspottingtheaboveexcerptistakenfromisironicallytitled

‘SearchingfortheInnerMan’andexcludesanextendedtranscriptofRenton’s

sessionwithhispsychiatrist,DrForbes,inwhichthetragediesofRenton’slife

(includingthedeathofhisdisabledbrother)arerevealed,althoughRenton

professesheis,“Fuckedifahcouldseetheconnectionbetweenanyaythatand

metakinsmack,but.”205WelshinterweavesRenton’snarrativevoicewiththe

languageofwellness,usingthepsyframeworkofdruguseasselfharmandthus

202SallySayles.‘TheMakingoftheDocileWorkingClassSubject,’JournalofPsycho-SocialStudies,5:1,January2011,pp.126-138,p.128.203MillenniumPeople,p.4.204Sayles.‘TheMakingoftheDocileWorkingClassSubject,’p.128cont.“Ofcourse,thisisnottooverlooktheregimesofself-formationthatoperateinandacrossworkingclasslife.However,theseregimesareincreasinglymodelledonanimitationofthemiddle-class‘norm’.”205Welsh.Trainspotting,p.184.

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aformofsocialdeviancewhichmustbecorrected.206Renton’schoice“notae

chooselife”isarefusalofthesamepervasiveimperativetoproductivitythatwe

sawinSuper-Cannes,parsedinthe“immediateandreal”termsofMarcuse’s

“substratumoftheoutcastsandoutsiders”anddemonstratingthenascent

revolutionaryconsciousnesstowhichtheMarinasetseekaccess.207The

obstaclestothisconsciousnessareprimarilydepictedasthediversionary

outputsofthecultureindustry,asweshallseeshortly.Inthisreading,Iam

seekingtodrawattentiontothemostobviouspartofBallard’swriting–his

sustainedfocusonthemiddleclass–andtounderstandthistooasatechnique,

asadeliberatecriticalframeworkthat,asIhavesaid,seekstohighlightthe

relationsonthesurfaceofdiscourse.

ItispatentlyabsurdwhenVeraBlackburn,Marinaresidentandexplosives

expert,says,

Myneighboursarethenewpoor.Thesearen’tCityhigh-flyers,or

surgeonswiththeirownclinicsandrichArabpatientsflyinginfrom

theGulf.Veryfewareself-employed.They’remiddlemanagers,

journalists,lecturerslikeKay,architectsworkingforbigpractices.

Thepoorbloodyfootsoldierintheprofessionalarmy.208

Despitethisabsurdity,intheeraofzero-hourscontractsandthe‘gigeconomy,’

theseprofessionals,whoconstituteanincreasinglylargesectoroftheworkforce,

aresubjecttothetypesofconcernstypicallyassociatedwiththeworkingclass–

rampantexploitationintheworkplace,poorlabourprotection,inabilityto

dictatethedirectionoftheirworkinglifeand,subsequently,oftheirprivate

206Theactuallogicbehindinterventionindruguseismuchmorecomplex,butpublicdiscussionofinterventiontendstofigureitineconomicterms,likethementalhealthinterventionsintheworkplacewehaveseenpreviously.ThebranchoftheNHSthatpreviouslymanagedintervention,theNationalTreatmentAgencyforSubstanceMisuse,wassubsumedbyPublicHealthEnglandin2013/14,butthelanguagearoundinterventionfordrugusehasremainedlargelythesame,withanemphasisonreducingthecostofcrimeandpublicbenefitsbill.Thejustificationforinterventionisframedintheterms‘WhyInvest?’asseeninthe2014PublicHealthEnglandreportofthesamename,accessibleat:www.nta.nhs.uk/uploads/why-invest-2014-alcohol-and-drugs.pdf.Notestatisticssuchas:‘Atypicalheroinuserspendsaround£1,400permonthondrugs(2.5timestheaveragemortgage)”(p.11,p.10),andpage15,onwhichthereisalistofthebenefitsof‘investing’intreatment–thirdis“Ithelpsdrugusersovercomeaddiction”,justedging“Ithaspublicsupport”asarationale.207Marcuse.One-DimensionalMan,p.203.Thisrecalls,too,the‘prescribed’transgressionsofEden-Olympia,andhighlightstheabsurdityofPenrose’sprogramme,andthewayinwhichitcovertlyreliedonthefetishisationofthe(working-class)Other.208MillenniumPeople,p.78.

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lives.209Ballardmayhavebeenhalf-jokingwhenheincludedtheline,

“Knowledge-basedprofessionsarejustanotherextractiveindustry,”butithas

turnedouttobemoretruethanhemighthaverealised.210Evenmorestrikingis

thatthisnovelwaswrittenandpublishedbeforethebankingcollapseof2008,

which,occasionedbythesubprimemortgagecrisisintheU.S.,destabilisedthe

conventionallogicofmiddle-classresponsibility,tiedtototemssuchashome

ownershipandpersonalsavings.Lateoninthenovel,Markhamdescribesthe

plightoftheTurners:

oneofthemanyfamilieswhorefusedtopaytheirmaintenance

charges,defaultedontheirmortgageandignoredalldemandsfrom

theutilitycompaniesandthelocalcouncil.TheTurnerswerenowa

testcase,andaformidablecoalitionofbanksandbuildingsocieties,

councilofficialsandpropertyexecutivesweredeterminedtomakean

exampleofthem.211

JustfouryearsafterBallardwrotethis,thespectacleofmiddle-classfamilies

defaultingontheirmortgagehadceasedtoberidiculous;by2008,then-Prime

MinisterGordonBrownhadannouncedspeciallegalmeasuresforfamilies

unabletomaintainmortgagepayments.212Therecessionthatbeganatthattime

sawawidespreadincreaseinrealconditionsofprecarity,intermsof

unemployment,fallinginterestrates,andausteritypoliciesacrosstheU.K.213

Variousreportsalsoconnectedtherecessionwithconcernsaboutrisingmental

209Thereisawealthofliteratureonthis,asaglobalcondition.See,forexample:NewLabourinNewYork,editedbyRuthMilkmanandEdOtt,CornellUniversityPress:IthacaandLondon,2014;AntonioAloisi,‘CommoditizedWorkers:CaseStudyResearchonLabourLawIssuesArisingfromaSeton‘OnDemand/GigEconomy’Platforms,’ComparativeLabourLaw&PolicyJournal,37:3,2016,pp.653-690;InterrogatingtheNewEconomy:RestructuringWorkinthe21stCenturyeditedbyNorenePupo,MarkPrestonThomas,Toronto:UniversityofTorontoPress,2010.210MillenniumPeople,p.79-80.211MillenniumPeople,p.197.212MatthewWatson.‘HeadlongintothePolanyianDilemma:TheImpactofMiddle-ClassMoralPanicontheGovernment’sResponsetotheSub-primeCrisis,’TheBritishJournalofPoliticsandInternationalRelations,11:3,2009,pp.422-37,p.422.Watson’saccountofthe‘culturalpolitics’surroundingthesub-primecrisismakesforinterestingreadingalongsideMillenniumPeople,notleastforhisassertionthatitwas“sub-primeborrowersandnotthebanksthatcametoformthesociallyexcludedgroup”(p.435)–thisshows,onceagain,therecuperativepowerofneoliberalism,inherentlyrecognisedinBallard’swork.213SherVerickandIyanatulIslam.‘TheGreatRecessionof2008–2009:Causes,ConsequencesandPolicyResponses,’IZADiscussionPaper4943,May2010;RomeshVaitilingam,‘RecessionBritain,’EconomicandSocialResearchCouncil,2009,www.esrc.ac.uk/files/news-events-and-publications/publications/themed-publications/recession-britain/.

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healthdisorders,asrecognisedbytheFacultyofPublicHealth(thestandard-

settingbodyforpublichealthintheU.K.),whowriteontheirwebsitethat“There

isevidencetosuggestthattheU.K.recessionmayresultinanincreaseinmental

healthproblemsandlowerlevelsofwellbeing,withawideningof

inequalities.”214Thisisonlyoneoftheirkeyfindings,andmanyoftheir

recommendationsseememinentlysensible,despitetheirpredilectionforcasting

allsufferingintermsofmentalhealth–forexample,“Livinginacold,damp

homeleadstohigherriskofpoormentalhealthinallagegroups.”215Despite

theserecommendations,however,andpromisesthatNHSfundingwouldbe

ring-fencedeveninaneraofgovernmentspendingcuts,undertheausterity

measuresoftheConservativegovernmentsince2010theU.K.recessionhas

enabledtheriseofneoliberalpoliciesofprivatisationandwelfarecutsthathave

activelyharmedthemostvulnerableinsociety.216Meanwhile,in2009theFirst

WorldCongressonPositivePsychologywasheld,andtheNHScontinuestogrow

itsrangeof‘lifecoaching’treatments,suchasthe‘Certificateincoachingfor

DevelopingPsychologicalResilienceandEnhancingPerformance’,whichtakesa

meresixdaystoearn.217

Thisconditionofeconomicprecarityhasresultedinablurringofboundaries

betweenthemiddleclassandworkingclassinrealterms.WendyBrown

recognisesthisshift,describingthefirsteffectofneoliberalismasanintensified

inequality:

214BetterMentalHealthForAll,‘TheimpactoftheU.K.recessionandwelfarereformonmentalhealth,’TheU.K.’sFacultyofPublicHealth,www.fph.org.uk/the_impact_of_the_uk_recession_and_welfare_reform_on_mental_health.215Theverypervasivenessofthisterminologyisanexampleofthewidespreadrhetoricofneoliberalhappinessdiscourse.216PatrickButler.‘Thousandshavediedafterbeingfoundfitforwork,DWPfiguresshow,’TheGuardian,27August2015.www.theguardian.com/society/2015/aug/27/thousands-died-after-fit-for-work-assessment-dwp-figuresThereissubstantialevidenceofthenegativeimpactoftherecessiononpeople’slives,generallyparsedintermsofthekindof‘mentalhealthissues’thatIseektorecastinanovertlypoliticallight.See,forexample,DavidGunnelletal,‘The2008GlobalFinancialCrisis:effectsonmentalhealthandsuicide,’PolicyBristol,2015.www.bris.ac.uk/media-library/sites/policybristol/documents/PolicyReport-3-Suicide-recession.pdf?_ga=2.18921786.347650579.1503490811-663049441.1503490811;BrianCooper,‘EconomicRecessionandMentalHealth:anOverview,’Neuropsychiatr.25:3,2011,pp.113-7.217‘NHSCoachTraining,’CentresofExpertisehttp://centresofexpertise.com/page_1211906889836.html.

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…inwhichthetopstrataacquiresandretainsevermorewealth,the

verybottomisliterallyturnedoutontothestreetsorintothe

growingurbanandsuburbanslumsoftheworld,whilethemiddle

strataworksmorehoursforlesspay,fewerbenefits,lesssecurity,

andlesspromiseofretirementorupwardmobilitythanatanytimein

thepasthalfcentury.218

Brown’suseoftheterm‘strata’maybeausefulwaytoconceptualisethe

collapseofdistancebetweentheworkingandmiddleclasses,alsopointedtoin

theriseofdescriptorssuchas‘precariat’or‘salariat’.219Thiscollapsewas

undoubtedlytotheforefrontofBallard’smindwhenwritingthisnovel;ina2003

interview,heassertedthatthemiddleclass“includesaboutninetypercentof

thepopulation.”220Whilstthisisclearlyuntrueintermsofself-identification,

traditionalclassmarkers,andpoliticalidentification,itspeakstotheriseofthe

idealneoliberalsubject,constructedasapparently‘neutral’,butinfactrelyingon

thekindofmiddle-classnormsKayChurchillevisceratesinheroutburst–the

kindofself-regulatorycontrolsinstitutedbypsypractices.221Sayles’spaper

specificallylooksatthewayinwhichthewidespreaduseofCognitive

BehaviouralTherapy(CBT)intheU.K.hasenactedan“injuriousinterpellation”

ofworkingclassidentity,throughitsatomisticandindividualisticapproachto

narrativisingselfhood.222In2007,Ballardtoldaninterviewer,“Idon’tknowif

economicsliesattheheartofeverything–sometimesIthinkitdoes–butasthe

workingclassbecamebetterpaid,theybecamefreer.”223Inthelanguageof

neoliberalism,economicfreedommeanstherighttomakechoicesinamarket

framework.Italsomeansthefreedomtoimitatethematerialcircumstanceofthe

middleclass,whoare,asthisnovelpointsout,farfromfreeand,morethanthis,

actuallycomplicitintheirownunfreedom:“TherearenoMr.Bigs.Thesystemis

218WendyBrown.UndoingtheDemos:Neoliberalism’sStealthRevolution.NewYork:ZoneBooks,2015,p.28.219See,forexample,GuyStanding’sThePrecariat:TheNewDangerousClass.London:Bloomsbury,2014.‘Salariat’isusedbyBallard,p.216.220Ballard,‘2003:Allwe’vegotleftisourownpsychopathology,’ExtremeMetaphors,p.397.221PaulKellner,‘TheChangingPoliticsofSocialClass,’YouGov,June92014,yougov.co.uk/news/2014/06/09/changing-politics-social-class/222Sayles.‘TheMakingoftheDocileWorkingClassSubject,’p.131.223J.G.BallardinterviewedbyHariKunzru.‘2007:HistorianoftheFuture,’ExtremeMetaphors,pp.463-472,p.466.

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self-regulating.Itreliesonoursenseof[depoliticised]civicresponsibility.”224

Here,wemaybegintomapthewayinwhichneoliberalhappinessdiscourse

operatesdistinctlyaccordingtoclass,andtoseehowtheideaoftheclassneutral

neoliberalsubjectisasmuchamythaspost-racialcapitalismwasexposedtobe

inSuper-Cannes.

Theimprintofthisclass-stratifiedselfinpsychologicaltermscanalsobeseen

inthenovel’sfrequentreferencestotheself,andmorepointedlythe‘quest’for

‘true’selfhood–acoremotifofneoliberalhappinessdiscourse,asparodiedin

thetitleoftheTrainspottingexcerptabove.Referencestoself-loathing,orlossof

the‘realself’,aboundinthenovel:“The‘you’you’vebecomeisn’tyourrealself”;

“Butthentheselikeableandover-educatedrevolutionarieswererebelling

againstthemselves”;“Wedon’tlikethekindofpeoplewe’vebecome.”225The

compulsiontoknowoneselfistheatomisticcryofpositivepsychology,awayto

divertthepossibilityofwidersolidaritythroughrephrasingeverythinginthe

languageoftheself.ThisreturnsustoNguyen’saccountofthe‘politicsof

intimacy’asaforminwhichtheimperativetoself-knowledgesupplantsthe

imaginaryofanobjectivesphereofpoliticallife.Howeverimpossiblesuchan

imaginarymayseem,itisdoubtlessnecessaryforanytheoreticalbasisof

solidaritytoemerge.Self-knowledgeis,however,unfeasibleunderthestructures

Ballarddepicts.Alltheselatenovelsdepictanimpossibilityofintimacy;the

prohibitivedifficultyofsustainedrelationshipsandother-knowledgethatleaves

protagonistswithnointimateprivatespaceinwhichtoconstructselfthrough

processessuchasprojection,transference,recognition(ironically,perhaps,

processesassociatedwithpsychoanalysis).Otherfactorsfeedintothis,too,in

theprecariousnessoflifeunderneoliberalism,suchasthereductionoftime

outsideofproductivefunctioninwhichtoestablishandtendtopersonal

relationships;theimperativetocompetewithotherhuman‘capitals’for

economicreward;theproductionofindividualisingnicheidentities,whichare

sometimestiedtositesofsuffering,aswehaveseen,butalsoparsedintermsof

competingpersonal‘truth’:‘findyourtruth’,etc.

224VeraBlackburntoDavidMarkham,MillenniumPeople,p.104.225MillenniumPeople,pp.138,3,154.

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WemightalsotraceBallard’spsyscepticisminDavidMarkham’sprofession–

Markham’sbrandofpsychologyistheveryonegesturedtowardsinSuper-

Cannes,thatofcapitalistmanagement:“AsamemberoftheAdlerInstitute,

whichspecializedinindustrialrelationsandthepsychologyoftheworkplace,I

wasnominallyanexpertontheemotionallifeoftheofficeandthemental

problemsofmiddlemanagers.”226Despite-orperhapsbecauseof-his

profession,Markhamisobtuse,failinguntilthelastpossiblemomenttoseethat

Gouldwasbehindhisex-wife’sdeath–lookagainatMarkham’sintroduction:

“EvenI,DavidMarkham,atrainedpsychologistinfiltratedintoChelseaMarinaas

apolicespy–adeceptionIwasthelasttodiscover–failedtoseewhatwasgoing

on.”227Heconfessestobeingdoublydeceived–unawarefirstofhisown

complicitywiththepolice,andthenagainofthetruenatureoftheMarina

revolution-thatis,ofRichardGould’sdeepcommitmenttoactsofmeaningless

violence.Itisthisdisconnectionfromanysubstantiveandsustainingconception

ofselfhood,andblindnesstothematerialrealitiesoftheworldthatattracts

MarkhamtoGould,anddrawshimintotheworldoftheMarina.Hiscurrentwife,

Sally,encourageshiminthis,saying,“Followthetrail.GuildfordtoTerminal2.

Somewherealongthewayyou’llmeetyourself…”228

RichardGouldcouchesthisuneasytorelationshiptotheselfinthekindof

cognitivedissonancereasoningseenearlierwhenlookingatSuper-Cannes:

Peopledon’tlikethemselvestoday.We’rearentierclassleftover

fromthelastcentury.Wetolerateeverything,butweknowthat

liberalvaluesaredesignedtomakeuspassive.Wethinkwebelievein

Godbutwe’reterrifiedbythemysteriesoflifeanddeath.We’re

deeplyself-centredbutcan’tcopewiththeideaofourfiniteselves.

Webelieveinprogressandthepowerofreason,butarehauntedby

thedarkersidesofhumannature.We’reobsessedwithsex,butfear

thesexualimaginationandhavetobeprotectedbyhugetaboos.We

believeinequalitybuthatetheunderclass.Wefearourbodiesand,226MillenniumPeople,p.8.227MillenniumPeople,p.3.Markham’sprofessionisonlyhalfthisstoryinthisnovel:heandhiswifealsorelyheavilyonpatronagefromherfathertosupporttheirlifestyle,frequentlyreferencedinthenovel,whereMarkhamisfrequentlyreminded,“oftherolethatmoneyplayedinmylife,otherpeople’smoney”p.110.228MillenniumPeople,p.115.

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aboveall,wefeardeath.We’reanaccidentofnature,butwethink

we’reatthecentreoftheuniverse.We’reafewstepsfromoblivion,

butwehopewe’resomehowimmortal...229

Gould,inthenovel,offersacounterpointtoChurchill’sbadtasterevolution:an

efforttoforgeanoutsidetothetotalisingsystemthrougharebellionthatisnot

immanenttothatsystem,whichheseesasachievableonlythroughmeaningless

actsofviolence.Thequestionofmeaningreverberatesthroughoutthenovel,not

justintermsofpersonalmeaningorselfhood,butalsoineffortstoconstruct

somelargersocialmeaninginaworldwheretheindividualissubjectto

immenseglobalforcesthatactbeyondtheirimmediatecomprehensionand

renderpowerunintelligibleevenasitactsandisenacted.Gould’sunderlying

suggestionisthatthereissomeanswertothisinarefusalofself,intheveinof

Foucault’ssuggestion,“Maybethetargetnowadaysisnottodiscoverwhatwe

arebuttorefusewhatweare.”230

Earlyinthenovel,DavidMarkhambeginstoinfiltratevariousprotestgroups

aspartofhisefforttodiscoverwhokilledhiswife,touncovermeaninginthe

seeminglyrandom.Hesays,“Protestmeetings,saneandinsane,sensibleand

absurd,touchedalmosteveryaspectoflifeinLondon,avastwebof

demonstrationsthattappedadesperateneedforamoremeaningfulworld.”231

Thedisparatenatureoftheseprotestsparodiesthefracturedidentityofthe

contemporaryleft,andofasearchformeaninginopposition.Itseemstomethis

followsfromAhmed’ssuggestion,followingLocke,thatwemayidentifysome

formofhappinessinattachmenttogoodobjectsandthatthoseoutsideofthis

attachmentmayofferaspaceofalteritythatrefusesthenormativeimperatives

oftheseobjects.Ahmeddescribeshowourlikes“mightevenestablishwhatwe

arelike.”232Ouroppositions,then,mighttakethesameform,atleastasfaras

theyremainattachedtothesystemthatprecipitatesthem.

ThisisthemotivationbehindKayChurchill’sattackonthecultureindustry,

whichimplicatesbothBritishmiddle-classculture-theBBC,theNationalFilm

Theatre,andtheTateModernarealltargetsofhercampaign-andtheinfluxof229MillenniumPeoplep.139.230MichelFoucault.‘TheSubjectandPower,’CriticalEnquiry,8:4,1982,pp.777-795,p.785.231MillenniumPeople,p.37.232Ahmed.ThePromiseofHappiness,p.24.

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Americanculture:“Americainventedthemoviessoitwouldneverneedtogrow

up.Wehaveangst,depressionandmiddle-agedregret.TheyhaveHollywood.”233

Thegoodobjectsofmiddle-classattachmentareseentoensuretheircomplicity

intheirownoppression,throughcloakingthewiderrealityoflife,andoffering

somespaceofconsolationthatdis-incentivisessubjectsfromdetachingfrom

theseobjects.Thisconstitutestheoperatingfieldofneoliberalcognitive

dissonance.ThisispartofthefunctionalityofneoliberalhappinessdiscourseI

amtrackinginthisthesis,andreturnstoBallard’scovertcritiqueoftheculture

industryinCocaineNights,andhisstatementearlieraboutthefrequentfailureof

thecultureindustrytoaccountforthereal,orthematerialsubstanceoflife:“The

layingdownoftheM1wasmuchmoreimportantthananythingJimmyPorter's

father-in-lawthoughtaboutthisorthat.”234Churchill’simpetusisthattheseare

nolonger,andperhapsneverwere,culturalspaces;rather,theyarespacesof

production.Othertargetsinclude:

aPretaMangerintheKing’sroad,TateModern,aConranrestaurant

scheduledfortheBritishmuseum,thePromenadeConcerts,

Waterstone’sbookshops,allofthemexploitersofmiddle-class

credulity.Theircorruptingfantasieshaddeludedtheentireeducated

caste,providingadangerouspabulumthathadpoisonedaspoon-fed

intelligentsia.Fromsandwichtosummerschool,theywerethe

symbolsofsubservienceandtheenemiesoffreedom.235

Inlifeunderneoliberalism,itisnolongernecessarytocritiquesomecovert

“marketorientedrationality”ofthecultureindustry;marketisationisvisiblein

theproliferationofmuseumrestaurants,gallerygiftshopsandchainbookshops

thatliterallytransformspacesofculturalproductionintothoseofeconomic

productivity.236

Churchillgoesfurtherthanthis,however.Duringtheplantingofabombinthe

NFT,Markhamasksiftheyreallyneedtodestroytheentirebuilding:

233MillenniumPeople,p.53.234Ballard.‘StrangeFiction.’www.theguardian.com/books/2008/jun/14/saturdayreviewsfeatres.guardianreview10235MillenniumPeople,p.120.236GeneRay.‘CultureIndustryandtheAdministrationofTerror,’pp.167-182inCritiqueofCreativity,Precarity,SubjectivityandResistanceinthe‘CreativeIndustries,’editedbyGeneRayandUlfWuggenig.London:MayflyBooks,2011.p.170.

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“Thisplaceholdsalotofmemories.”

“Starttoforgetthem.Inanhourthey’llbeash.”

“Doweneedtogothatfar?BurtLancaster,Bogart,Lauren

Bacall…they’rejustmovieactors.”

“Just?Theypoisonedawholecentury.Theyrottedyourmind,David.

Wehavetomakeastand,buildasanerEngland...”237

ThisattitudeistypicaloftheMarinarebels,whoseethecultureindustryas

deliberatelycolonisingtheimaginative/affectiverealmofmiddle-classsubjects.

Oneoftheset,JoanChang,whodiesattemptingtopreventanexplosioninthe

Tategiftshop,worksasafundraiserfortheRoyalAcademy.ShetellsMarkham,

“It’saneasyjob.AllthoseCEOsthinkartisgoodfortheirsouls.”Whenheasksif

thisistrue,shereplies,“Itrotstheirbrains.TateModern,theRoyalAcademy,the

Hayward...they’reWaltDisneyforthemiddleclasses.”238Tourismfacessimilar

criticismfromChurchill,whodenouncestouristswhothinktheyarehappybut

remain,“salaryslaves,withheadsfullofAmericanrubbish.”Shecontinues,

“Travelisthelastfantasythe20thCenturyleftus,thedelusionthatgoing

somewherehelpsyoureinventyourself.”239Despitethesomewhatoptimistic

endingofSuper-Cannes,theimaginativerealmhereappearsasonewhichmust

befoughtforifitistohaveanyvalueasaspaceofalterity.Eventhisfightis

fraughtwithdifficulty,giventheimmanenceofoppositionalidentitiestothe

systemtheyoppose.

InMillenniumPeople,flightisagainafrequentmotif.LapsedpriestStephen

Dexterisalsoapilot,onewhohas“groundedhimself”followinghislossof

faith.240Thissymbolisestheinabilityofreligiontoaddressthespiritualmalaise

oftheneoliberalsubject.Laterinthenovel,afterthefailureoftheMarina

revolutionandthedeathofhislover,welearnthatDexterisflyingagain,

rebuildinganoldTigerMothandconstructingarunwayinhisnewparish–

nodding,again,toBallard’ssuggestionthatwemayyethavesomethingtolearn

237MillenniumPeoplep.118.238MillenniumPeoplep.61.239MillenniumPeople,pp.54-5“Tourismisthegreatsoporific.It’sahugeconfidencetrick,andgivespeoplethedangerousideathatthere’ssomethinginterestingintheirlives.…Travelisthelastfantasythe20thCenturyleftus,thedelusionthatgoingsomewherehelpsyoureinventyourself.”240MillenniumPeople,p.57.

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fromthepast,despitethelimitationsofnostalgicattachment.However,muchof

thesignificationofflightinthisnovelispessimistic,writtenasitwasafterthe

attackontheWorldTradecentrein2001,whichtransformedpublicimagination

and,forBallard,complicatedthefiguringofflightasrepresentativeof

imaginativepotential.Itismycontention,too,thattheshiftinpublicdiscourse

after9/11toanemphasisonsafety–bothpersonallyandculturally–istiedinto

theriseofcontemporaryneoliberalconceptionsofhappiness,andthe

depoliticisationofstatesofsuffering.Thisislinkedtootothere-emergenceof

nationalismasapoliticalforce,regardingthepolicingofbordersandthe

invocationofnarrativesofsuspicionregardingthosewhoareperceivedas

Other.BallardexploresthismorecomprehensivelyinKingdomCome,asweshall

see.

RichardGould,messiahofmeaninglessness,takesflyinglessonsinthenovel,

learningtopilotaglider.Asanenginelessplane,thegliderisremovedfrom

modernpoweredflight,whichhecharacterisesas,“Theworldturnedintonoise;

lifeanddeathmeasuredbylegroom.”241Heseesflightas,“partofthegreat

search,”whichforhimconstitutesaquestnottofinda‘true’self,assuch,butto

connecttothatimaginativerealmbeyondtheforcesofproductionthatdictate

everypartoflifeunderneoliberalism.Tothisend,Gould,apaediatricianlike

DavidGreenwood,isconnectedtothefigureofPeterPanthroughoutthenovel.

Gouldworkedwithbrain-damagedchildren,thosewithwhom,“Socialservices

didn’twanttocope.”242Markhamsays,“GouldwasPeterPan,mentally

maroonedonhisasylumisland,searchingforhislostboysasrealitymoved

241MillenniumPeople,p.175.242MillenniumPeople,p.131.Gouldwassuspendedfromhisworkongroundsofsanctioningimpropriety;oneofthenursesunderhismanagementwasmolestingthechildren,onthebasisthatitgavethempleasuretheymightneverexperienceotherwise.ItislatersuggestedthatGouldtoomayhavebeeninvolvedinthis,andthereisanambiguousscenewherehemayormaynotmasturbateathreeyearold(p.173).Heinsiststhatthiskindofmoralityisirrelevant,amattertobetakenupwithStephenDexter–inshort,betweenoneandone’sGod.Moregenerally,thisseemstobepartofadisturbing–anddisturbed–naivetydisplayedbyGould.Whetherthisisaffectedornotisneverreallyclearinthenovel.BallardseemstobeparallelingMichaelJackson,theinternationalpopstarwholivedonaDisney-likeranchcalledNeverland,whoserelationshipswithyoungboyswereoftensubjecttospeculation.Thereismorethatcouldbeexploredhere,intermsofBallard’srepresentationsofthecorruptionofchildhoodundercapitalism,astoucheduponwhenlookingatSuper-Cannes.

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towardshiminthemenacingformofathousandstarterhomes.”243PeterPanas

culturalreferentdoesnotescapetheattentionoftheMarinaprotestors,who

blowupastatueofPeterPan:“J.M.Barrie,A.A.Milne,brain-rotting

sentimentalitythatsapsthemiddle-classwill.We’retryingtodosomething

aboutit.”244Gouldaimstobethegreatrefusenikofthesevalues,withhis

Baudrillardianinsistenceonmeaninglessviolenceastheonlywaytocounterthe

neoliberalproductiveimperativeandtheimpositionofadiversionaryhappiness

discourse.Hesays,“…killsomeoneatrandom,firearevolverintoaMcDonald’s–

theuniversestandsbackandholdsitsbreath.Betterstill,killfifteenpeopleat

random.”245Despitehisassertionthatpoliticalviolenceisuselessbecauseits

motivationiseasilyascribedandthuseasilyreincorporated,Gouldseesthe

spectacleof9/11asanexampleofmeaninglessviolence:“Somehowwehaveto

breakfree.TheattackontheWorldTradeCenterin2001wasabraveattemptto

freeAmericafromthe20thCentury.”246Gouldexplicitlydescribestheattackasa

meaninglessact,bywhichheseemstomeananactofdisruptionwithnodirectly

discernabledemands–anactofaffectiveterrorism.Contrastthistothebombing

campaignsoftheIRAduringtheNorthernIrishTroubles,whicharefrequently

obliquelyreferencedinthenovel,suchasMarkhamtellingKayChurchillthatthe

policewon’tattackciviliansintheMarina:“Kay,don’texpecttoomuch.Thisisn’t

NorthernIreland.”247DespitethebrutalityoftheconflictinNorthernIreland,the

aimsoftheIRAwerealwaysdefinedinoppositiontotheBritishstate-thatis,

againstavisibleandintelligiblepower.Theirdisruptiveactionswereintendedto

achieveadistinctsetofaimswithapoliticaldimension,whichmeantthattheir

integrationintothesystemtheyopposedthroughtheGoodFridayAgreement,in

243MillenniumPeople,p.166Thesestarterhomesrepresenttheintrusionofthenormativevaluesofthemiddle-classgoodlife.244DavidMarkhamtohiswife,MillenniumPeople,p.220.245MillenniumPeople,p.176–fullquote:“Absolutely.Killapoliticianandyou’retiedtothemotivethatmadeyoupullthetrigger.OswaldandKennedy,PrincipandtheArchduke.Butkillsomeoneatrandom,firearevolverintoaMcDonald’s–theuniversestandsbackandholdsitsbreath.Betterstill,killfifteenpeopleatrandom.”cfBaudrillardinSymbolicExchangeandDeath,“Wewillnotdestroythesystembyadirect,dialecticalrevolutionoftheeconomicorpoliticalinfrastructure.Everythingproducedbycontradiction,bytherelationofforces,orbyenergyingeneral,willonlyfeedbackintothemechanismandgiveitimpetus,followingacirculardistortionsimilartoaMoebiusstrip.Wewillneverdefeatitbyfollowingitsownlogicofenergy,calculation,reasonandrevolution,historyandpower,orsomefinalityorcounter-finality.“p.36.246MillenniumPeoplep.139.247MillenniumPeople,p.224.

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1998,wasultimatelypossible.Thissameimmanencetosystemsofcontrolis

depictedasthedownfalloftheMarinarebellion,whichfailsatthepointof

violentaction,whenthepolicestormtheMarina.

Gould’semphasisontheneedformeaninglessprotestalsoseeshimshoota

minortelevisioncelebrityonherdoorstep,anechooftheJillDandomurder,

downtothewrongfularrest.Markhamsaysthatthisdeath,“promptedan

outpouringofgriefthatremindedmeofPrincessDiana.”248Diana’sdeath,

althoughanaccident,registersonthesameaffectiveplaneasthe9/11attacks.

The‘outpouring’ofpublicmourningfollowingthedeathcertainlyimpacted

publicdiscoursearoundemotioninBritain,starklycontrastingthe‘stiffupper

lip’generallyascribedaspartofBritishnationalcharacter.249Itmaybethatwe

cantracetheriseofemotivepublic/politicaldiscourse,connectedtoneoliberal

happinessdiscoursethroughthemanipulationofaffectcommontoboth,

throughthesekindofaffectivespectacles.TheHungerfordmassacreof1987is

alsoreferencedinthenovelafterGouldmakesashortvisittothetown,wherehe

accomplisheshisfirstsoloflight,whereMarkhamsays:“Anewkindofviolence

hadbeenborn,springingfromnothing.”250

AttheendofMillenniumPeople,violentstateinterventioncontainsthe

rebellion,andlifeintheMarinareturnstothestatusquo,thankstotheprimacy

ofeconomiclogic:“Money,alwaysharder-wearingthanasphalt,helpedtorepave

thestreets.”251Ballard’sclosingextendshisparodyofoptimisticliberalleftist

attachments.Hewrites,“Publicconcernthatlower-paidworkerswerebeing

pricedoutoftheLondonpropertymarketshelvedallplansforacomplexof

luxuryapartments.Likenurses,busdriversandtrafficwardens,themiddle-class

professionalsofChelseaMarinawerenowseenaspoorlypaidbutvital

contributorstothelifeofthecity.”252OfallBallard’swildimaginings,thisisthe

mostunlikelybyneoliberallogic–theprotectionofpeopleagainsttheinterests248MillenniumPeople,p.209.249Beyondeventhis,thesymbolismofDianaherselfmightbeseenasacontributoryfactor,notablyherinfamousPanoramainterviewwithMartinBashir,inwhichshepubliclyaddressedherhusband’sinfidelity,herownaffair,andherpost-nataldepression.Thedeploymentofemotional‘truth’asastrategyforaccumulating‘personalcapital’fallswellwithintheremitofneoliberalhappinessdiscourse.250MillenniumPeople,p.279.251MillenniumPeople,p.290.252MillenniumPeople,p.290.

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ofprofit–andthisunderlinestherealhopelessnessofaleftistcritiquethat

cannotovercomeitsdamagingattachments.ThisisWendyBrown’sconcernin

‘ResistingLeftMelancholy’(1999)towhichIwillreturnwhenlookingatEgan’s

work.Thiscritiqueoftheleftcontinues,asMarkhamaddressesthequestionof

whytheMarinaresidentswouldreturntothingsastheywere,despitethe

upheavaloftheirrebellion.Heconcludesthattheirreturnmustbeseenasan

inevitablepartoftherebellion,astheveryjustificatorylogicforit,even:

ChelseaMarinawastheblueprintforthesocialprotestsofthefuture,

forpointlessarmeduprisingsanddoomedrevolutions,for

unmotivatedviolenceandsenselessdemonstrations.Violence,as

RichardGouldoncesaid,shouldalwaysbegratuitous,andnoserious

revolutionshouldeverachieveitsaims.253

Gould’sWildeanstatementisanotherofthenovel’sabsurdities,butitservesto

highlightBallard’seviscerationoftheimaginativefailingsoftheleft.Without

movingtowardssomemoreconcretevisionofalterity,resistanceremainstiedto

thatwhichitseekstoresist.Violenceisnotgenerative,andthesenselessnessof

reactionaryoppositionalpoliticscannotpresentachallengetodominantsystems

ofpower.TheChelsearebelsneverdetachfromthoselimitedandlimitingideas

ofthegoodlifethatkeepthemtiedtothesystemtheyoppose;the

commodificationofprotestistoopervasive,asweseewhenKayChurchill

becomesa“successfulcolumnistandTVpundit”offthebackofherpartinthe

rebellion.254Bythispoint,theresidentsofChelseaMarinaaremovingtowards

thelifestyledepictedinCocaineNights–Markhamtellshiswife,“They’vebuilta

sportsclubandenlargedthemarina.There’salmosteverythingyouwant

here.”255

Ballardrecognisesthathisworkhasthepotentialtobeabsorbedintoextant

frameworksofpower,andtobesubsumedasasalvetothesocialconscience–to

become,itself,acomfortinggoodobject,throughwhichsubjectsmaysignaltheir

dissatisfactionwiththestatusquowithoutactuallydoinganythingtochangeit.

ThisisattheheartofMillenniumPeople,andthegrowingpoliticisationof

253MillenniumPeople,p.290.254MillenniumPeople,p.290.255MillenniumPeople,p.291.

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Ballard’sworkIhavemarkedintheselatenovels.Byforcingthereaderto

confrontthispossibility,IthinkBallardisseekingtoincitesomemore

substantivepoliticalaction.AsIhavemaintainedthroughoutmyexplorationof

hiswork,heseemstoseethisaspossibleonlywhenweliberateour(personal

andpolitical)imaginariesfromtheapparentlytotalisingneoliberalframeworkin

whichtheycurrentlyoperate.Thislatequartetofnovelspushesthereaderever

hardertoconfronttherealitiesofneoliberalcapitalism,andtodosomething

aboutit,beyondthetext.

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KingdomCome:‘LostintheSupermarket’256

ThelastnovelinthisquartetisKingdomCome,publishedin2006.Ittellsthe

storyofRichardPearson,aformeradvertisingexecutivewhohasrecentlylost

hisjob,throughthemachinationsofhisex-wife.HisfatherwasStuartPearson,a

retiredpilotwhomovedtothe‘motorwaytown’ofBrooklandstoseeouthis

twilightyears.ThemotorwayinquestionistheM25,althoughtheconceptofthe

‘motorwaytown’refersmoregenerallytothesuburbansprawlbeyondLondon.

Muchoftheactionofthenoveltakesplacein,around,orbecauseof,ashopping

centre–a‘supermall’calledtheMetro-Centre,whichdominatesBrooklandsand

seemstolurkinthebackgroundofeveryscene.Asitsnameimplies,the

shoppingcentreisseenasanewciviccentreforthedisconnectedcitizensofthe

motorwaytowns.ThelocalBrooklandsresidentsareunhappyattheinfluxof

outsidersthisbringsintotheirtown,construingtheirrampantconsumerismas

anattackonthe“realcommunity”ofthetown.GeoffreyFairfax,StuartPearson’s

solicitorandtheexecutorofhiswill,explainsthistoRichardearlyoninthe

novel:

HereinBrooklandswehadarealcommunity,notjustapopulationof

cashtills.Nowit’sgone,vanishedovernightwhenthatmoney-factory

opened.We’reswampedbyoutsiders,thousandsofthemwith

nothinglargerontheirmindsthanthenextbargainsale.Forthem,

Brooklandsislittlemorethanacarpark.Ourschoolsareplaguedby

truancy,hundredsofchildrenhauntingtheMetro-Centreeveryday.

Theonehospitalwhichshouldbecaringforlocalresidentsis

overwhelmedbydrivingaccidentscausedbyvisitors.Neverfallill

neartheM25.257

Fearofthedestructionofcommunityisattheheartoftheconspiracythatdrives

theactionofthenovel.Fairfaxandseveralotherupstandingcitizens,including

doctorJuliaGoodwin,psychiatristTonyMaxted,andheadmasterWilliam

Sangster,colludetohavelocal‘misfit’DuncanChristiestageanassassination.

ChristieisanavowedenemyofallthingsconsumeristandMetro-Centre,

especiallysincehisyoungdaughterwasinjuredduringtheconstructionofthe

256TheClash.‘LostintheSupermarket,’LondonCalling,CBS,1979.257J.G.Ballard.KingdomCome,2006London:HarperPerennial,2007,p.32.

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centre.ThetargetoftheirplotisDavidCruise,presenteroftheMetro-CentreTV

channel.Duringtheassassinationattempt,Cruisefailstoappear,andChristie

releaseshisfrustrationsbyfiringatastatueofthreefairytalebearsthatsitsat

thecentreofthemall.Intheensuingchaos,StuartPearsonisfatallywounded,

anditishisdeaththatbringshissontoBrooklands.Aswiththeseotherlate

novels,theplotlooselyfollowsthedetectiveform,withPearsonJr.vowingto

avengehisfatheranddiscoverthereasonforhisdeath.Onceagain,this

investigationbecomesincreasinglysuperfluousasourprotagonistfindshimself

willinglydrawnintotheclosedcommunityhesoughttoinfiltrate.

Theconceptofcommunityhasbeenattheheartoftheselatenovelsinvarious

guises,usuallyevidentintheirsettings:theclosedandrationalspacesofthe

leisureresort,thebusinesspark,andthegatedcommunity.InKingdomCome,

thespaceswherepeoplelivearesubjugatedtothenon-spaceoftheMetro-

Centre,whichrecallsthedepictionofthenon-spaceoftheairportinBallard’s

earlierwork,andhisassertionthatairportsrepresent,“thetruecitiesofthe21st

century.”258Ballardsuggestedthattheout-of-place-nessofairportsmight

constitutetheidealspaceinwhichthepostmodernsubjectcouldenjoy

somethinglikeafeelingofhappiness.InlookingatCocaineNights,wesawhow

Ballard’sworkmovedtoexposethemateriallimitationsofthesespaces.The

hijackingsof9/11alsochangedthecharacterofairportsandairtravelmore

generally:itwouldbeimpossibletodaytodescribea“unitaryglobalcultureof

thedeparturelounge,”eveninjest.259Wemightalsoinferthattheincreased

emphasisonrecognisingdifference,throughsecuritymeasuressuchasracial

profiling,materiallyunderminedthefigureofthecosmopolitanpostmodern

‘worldcitizen,’aboutwhomBallard’sworkhasalreadyexpresseditsdoubts,in

bothCocaineNightsandSuper-Cannes.

RepresentationsofflightarenottotallyabsentinKingdomCome,andtheir

figuringoftenhighlightstheincreasedsecuritisationofairtravel,asinascene

wheretheprotagonistencounterspoliceandarmyonthedisusedBrooklands258Ballard,‘Airports:TheTrueCitiesofthe21stCentury.’259Seethe2014IATAreport,‘TheImpactofSeptember112001onAviation’www.iata.org/pressroom/Documents/impact-9-11-aviation.pdf;alsotheACLUreport‘SanctionedBias:RacialProfilingSince9/11’(2004).Althoughvolumeofairtraffichassubstantiallyrecoveredsince2001,securitymeasurescontinuetobeimpacted,andhavebeeninfluencedbysubsequentterroristicattacks.

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racingtrackandassumestheyarerehearsingtheirresponsetoaterroristattack

onHeathrow.260Fromthisfiguring,wemayrecogniseacertainanxietyaboutthe

waysinwhichtheseprocessesofsecuritisationco-optandrestrictthe

imaginativepotentialwithwhichBallard’sworkisconcerned.Whereairports

andflightpreviouslyrepresentedanimaginativerealmthatmightallowsubjects

totranscendtherepressiveandoppressivepowerstructuresinwhichtheywere

enmeshed,thecentralityoftheshoppingmallinthisnovelrepresentsBallard’s

fearthatconsumerismhasco-optedthisimaginativerealmentirely,in

conjunctionwiththoseprocessesofsecuritisationwhichhaveredrawnnational

boundarieswithunanticipatedforce.Thenovelisalsoanexaminationoftheway

inwhichconsumeristdesireconstructsconsent:asRosehighlightsinhiswork,

thechoosingsubjectofneoliberalismcolludesintheirownun-freedom.Ballard

linksthis,too,tothefascisticdesirefordominationFoucaultdescribedas“the

majorenemy,”inhisintroductiontoAnti-Oedipus(1972):

themajorenemy,thestrategicadversaryisfascism…Andnotonly

historicalfascism,thefascismofHitlerandMussolini–whichwas

abletomobilizeandusethedesireofthemassessoeffectively–but

alsothefascisminusall.Inourheadsandinoureverydaybehavior,

thefascismthatcausesustolovepower,todesiretheverythingthat

dominatesandexploitsus.261

Ballard’srepresentationofthisloveofdominationandthecollusionof

subjectsinconsumeristsystemsisfiguredthroughtheovertlyfascistic

tendenciesofMetro-Centre‘supporters.’Thisframesthenovelfromits

beginning;thefirstchapter,inwhichRichardPearsonrecountshisjourneyto

Brooklandsthroughthemotorwaytownshecharacterisesas“theempiresof

consumerism,”iscalled‘TheStGeorge’sCross.’262Pearsongetslostalmost

immediatelyonthisjourney,facedwithnear-identicalnondescripttownsanda

260KingdomCome,p.200.261MichelFoucault.PrefaceinGilesDeleuzeandFelixGuattari,Anti-Oedipus,1972,translatedbyRobertHurley,MarkSeemandHelen.R.Lane.Minneapolis:UniversityofMinnesotaPress.1983,pp.xi-xv,p.xiii.Theideaofthisoccurring‘naturally’mustbeseeninthesamewayasanyoftheformsofaffectivedistressdiscussedinthisthesisareseentobe‘natural’-asFisherhasit,inthesamewayweatherisnolongeranaturalfactsomuchasitisapolitical-economiceffect.CapitalistRealism,p.19.262KingdomCome,p.3.

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barrenlandscapeofroadsignstonowhere,emphasisingtheblandemptinessof

suburbanexistence.StoppingatanIndianrestauranttoascertainhis

whereabouts,Pearsonwatchesthetownheisinthroughtherestaurant’ssemi-

shatteredwindow,observingitscleanlinessandorderliness(despitethecracked

window)andfeeling“acertainpridethat[he]hadhelpedtosetitsvalues,”asan

advertisingexecutive.263Pearsonseesconsumerismasaplacidend-state,in

whichdesiremaybeartificial,butisatleasteasilysatisfied.Consumercitizens

are,hebelieves,asrationalandorderlyasthemarketsbywhichtheirlivesare

decided.Heobserves,“Historyandtradition,theslowdeathbysuffocationofan

olderBritain,playednopartin[these]people’slives.”264Almostimmediately,

thissenseofpeaceisshattered.Observingsomedisruptionafoot,Pearson

followsafireenginethroughagatheredcrowd.Itleadshimtothegardenofa

councilestate,inwhichaVolvohasbeensetalight.ThreemeninStGeorge’s

shirtsseemtobetheleadersofthegatheredcrowd,andPearsonthinksatfirst

thisisanattackonarehousedcriminal.Itsoontranspires,however,thatthe

houseisinfactasmallmosque;thisisa“religiouscleansing.”265ThisisPearson’s

firstintimationofthefascisticviolencethathauntsthesemotorwaytowns.

Hisnextencounterwiththese‘supporters’clubs’occurswhenhetakes

possessionofhisfather’sflatwhichlikemostofthebuildingsinBrooklands

offersanexcellentviewoftheMetro-Centre.ThisviewleadsPearsontoreflect

onhowhegrewupafterhisfatherlefthismother.Pearson’schildhoodwas

middleclass-adjacent;therewasrarelyanythingnewinhismother’slarge

house,andhebelievesthattheabsenceofconsumergoodshas“inoculatedhim

againsttheconsumerworld[he]longedforsoeagerly”asachild.266Welearn

thatPearsonwasnotclosetothisfather,ashesearchesthroughtheolderman’s

belongingsforsomesenseofwhohewas.Tohissurprise,hediscoversastashof

FascistliteratureandStGeorge’sparaphernalia,includingpicturesofhisfather

atsportingclubdinners,inwhichpresenterDavidCruisefeaturesprominently.

InthissectionBallardinvokesthelooselyNietzscheanunderpinningsofthe

novel,asPearsonmodelshisfather’sStGeorge’sshirtagainstthebackdropofa263KingdomCome,p.8.264KingdomCome,p.8.265KingdomCome,p.11.266KingdomCome,p.54.

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BrooklandsEaglesfootballflag.Lookingathisreflection,heruminatesonthe

psychopathologyofHitler’s“elitecorps”:

Forthem,theblackuniformsanddeath’s-heademblemsrepresented

aviolenceofthemind,whereaggressionandcrueltywerepartofa

radicalcodethatdeniedgoodandevilinfavourofanembraced

pathology.Moralitygavewaytowill,andwilldeferredtomadness.267

Theconceptofwillishintedatbythenovel’stitle,too,whichisborrowedfrom

theLord’sprayer:“ThyKingdomcome,thywillbedone.”268Whosewillisbeing

doneisacentralquestionofthenovel,whichposestheparodicNietzscheanwill

topowerwehaveseeninBallard’sotherpublic-spiritedpsychopathsagainstthe

willtoconsumepropagatedbythemarketrationalesoftheneoliberalsubject.269

IntheNaziappropriationofNietzsche’sphilosophy,thewilltopowerbecamea

rationalebywhichdominationwasjustifiedandevenframedasnatural.Inthe

Metro-Centresupporters’vision,thelogicofconsumerismsupplantsany

conceptionofindividualwill,embeddingself-regulationinserviceofmaterial

consumptionasanaturalpartof(neoliberalised)existence.Thisisemphasised

byaconversationbetweenRichardPearsonandDavidCruise,whichoccursafter

Pearsonhasdecidedtoinfiltratethesupporters’clubsinthehopeoffindingout

moreabouthisfather,unawarethathisfatherwasinfiltratingthemhimself,in

thehopeofstemmingtheemergenttideofviolence.Duringthisconversation,

Pearsonmakesaspeech,attemptingtopersuadeCruisetotakeonthemantleof

leadershipfortheMetro-Centresupporters;persuasionis,afterall,hisstockin

trade.Hesuggeststhatconsumerismisthe“greatestdeviceanyonehasinvented

forcontrollingpeople,”insistingthatshoppinghasreplacedpolitics.270

267KingdomCome,p.56.268Ballardhighlightedthisinhis2006interviewwithTobyLitt,‘2003:DangerousBendsAhead.SlowDown.’:“IquotetheLord’sPrayer.”ExtremeMetaphors,p.421.269IidentifythisapplicationofNietzscheanphilosophyasparodicbecauseinterpretingthewilltopowerassimplyaliteraldesiretowieldpoweroverothersdeliberatelytakestheideaoutofitslargerphilosophicalcontext,whereitissomethingmorelikeaforcethatallowsabeingtoexertitselfonlifeandmaybereadmetaphysically,organically,orpsychologically.270KingdomCome,p.191.

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Pearson’sNietzsche-inspiredspeechsuggestsnotjustthatshoppinghas

supplantedpoliticalinterestinthepublicsphere,butthattheprimacyof

consumerismhasdrasticallyreshapedtheconceptofthepolitical:

Thenewpoliticsisaboutpeople’sdreamsandneeds,theirhopesand

fears.Yourroleistoempowerthem.Youdon’ttellyouraudiences

whattothink.Youdrawthemout,urgethemtoopenupandsaywhat

theyfeel…Noslogans,nomessages.Newpolitics.Nomanifestos,no

commitments.Noeasyanswers.Theydecidewhattheywant…You

steerthembysensingtheirmood.Thinkofaherdofwildebeeston

theAfricanplain.Theydecidewheretheywanttogo.271

HerePearson’svisionrevealsitselftodivergefromthehistoricalformof

Fascism,whichisgenerallycharacterisedastheimpositionofadespoticvision

onthemasses,throughtheexerciseofdictatorialpowerandsuppressionof

opposition.AlthoughtheseelementsgoontobecomefeaturesofCruise’sregime,

Pearson’soriginalconceptionofthis‘newpolitics’substitutesFoucault’s(and

DeleuzeandGuattari’s)modelofeverydayfascismforthemodelofimposed

domination.ThedescriptionoftheherdofwildebeestinvokesNietzsche’s

accountofherdmorality,wherethemoralfrailtyofthesesubjectsisduetothe

‘newreligion’ofconsumerism.KingdomComemarksBallard’smostdirect

explorationofthequestionofhowwecomenotjusttotoleratetheconditionsof

oursuffering,butalsotoactivelyparticipateinperpetuatingandsustaining

them.AsBallardseesit,consumergoodsarenotinthemselvesstand-insfor

community,orsubstantiveintimaterelationships,orpoliticalaction,but

processesofconsumptionmaybeseentobe.AsDavidCruisesaysinoneofhisTV

addresses,“consumerismisaboutalotmorethanbuyingthings…It’sourmain

wayofexpressingourtribalvalues,ofengagingwitheachother’shopesand

ambitions.”272Ballarddepictsanascentneoliberalconsumeristhyperrealityin

KingdomCome,groundedinhistoricalandsocialrealities.Thebandoflocalswho

opposetheMetro-Centredoitonthegroundsthatithasdestroyedthe“real

community”thatexistedbeforeitsopening,aswesawinearlierinsolicitor

GeoffreyFairfax’sspeech.Ballard’sunderlyingsuggestionisthatthis“real

271KingdomCome,p.146.272KingdomCome,p.78.

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community”alsoreliesonexclusionandinequality.Thisisthesameindictment

oftabloidutopianismwesawinMillenniumPeople,areminderthatthe

“communities”ofupperandmiddleclassEnglandhaveinformalborderstoentry

thatareasrigidasthefinancialdemandsofmembershipoftheMetro-Centre

community.273

DavidCruiseplaysonthisinarantheembarksonafterassuminghisroleas

leaderoftheMetro-Centresupporters,duringwhichhederidestheinsistenceon

communityaspositive:“Community?IknowwhatanAsiancommunityis.I

knowwhataMuslimcommunityis.…Yes...Ihatecommunity.Forme,theonly

realcommunityistheonewe’vebuilthereattheMetro-Centre.”274Cruise’s

racismaccordswithexistingstrainsintheStGeorge’sshirt-wearingsupporters’

clubs,whosedisregardforthoseseentobeOtherwasglimpsedintheattackon

themosquedescribedearlier.FortheMetro-Centresupporters,theseOther

communitiesrepresentathreatbecausetheyareinvestedinopposingbelief

systems–thisisanotherreasonwhythemosquebecomesatargetofviolence.

Asasystemofbeliefamongstothersystemsofbelief,theconsumerismof

KingdomComelackstheabilitytosubsumeanddétournétheseothersystems

thatneoliberallogicallowsforinitsvalorisationofchoice.Neoliberalismasks

subjectsnottobelieveinit,buttoreframeallotherbeliefsinitsapparently

irresistibleeconomiclogics.

Thenovelmovestowardsthispositionasitprogressestowardstheannexing

oftheMetro-Centre,whicheffectivelyconstitutesaneffortbysupportersto

establishanewstate,makingrealtheMetro-Centre’stransformationintoa

symbolofnation.Justbeforethis,PearsonasksCruisetotonedownhis

virulence,apleaCruiseallbutignores,saying:“They[theMetro-Centre

supporters]believeintheMetro-Centre,andtheAsiansdon’tcomehere.They

haveaparalleleconomy.They’veexcludedthemselves,andthey’repayingthe

price.”275Usingeconomiclogic,CruiselaysouttherealsenseofOtherness

behindtheressentimentoftheMetro-Centresupporters:the‘paralleleconomy’

ofthesecommunitiesidentifiestheminoppositiontotheWest,withitshistory273ThiscanalsobeconnectedtothepolicingofbordersexploredinSuper-Cannesandelsewhere.274KingdomCome,p.176.275KingdomCome,p.179.

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ofcolonialismandcommodification.Theseare‘real’communities,boundedby

substantiveaffectivebondsnotyetsubsumedbytheendlessappetitesof

consumerism.276ForMetro-Centresupporters,theirimaginations,their

relationshipsandtheiractionsareincreasinglycircumscribedbyeconomic

logics.Theyarecapableoffeelingonlythroughconsuming,itseems.

ThisisincipientlyrecognisedinPearson’sdescriptionofthenewpolitics,

concernedwith“people’sdreamsandneeds,theirhopesandfears.”277Thisisa

politicsoffeeling,inwhicheventheoreticalobjectivityisdispensedwithin

favourofanindividualistic,subjective,emotionallybasedpolitics;Ihave

elsewhereidentifiedthisasade-radicalisedpoliticsofintimacy.InBallard’s

work,theendresultoftheprimacyofconsumerismisseentobeeruptionsof

destructivepsychopathologythatseektodisrupttheboredomofexistence.

PsychiatristTonyMaxtedtellsPearson:“Peoplearedeliberatelyre-primitivizing

themselves.Theyyearnformagicandunreason,whichservedthemwellinthe

past,andmighthelpthemagain.They’rekeentoenteranewDarkAge.”278In

manyways,thisseemstoforeshadowtheriseofright-wingpopulismacross

EuropeandtheU.S.A,whichhasspawnedaconcomitantriseinracistviolence.279

However,therootsofthisriseareconnectednottoadesirefor“magicand

unreason,”buttothereassertionofworking-classidentitiesthatrelyonthe

samestrandoftabloidutopianismBallardcritiquesinhiswork.AsIhave

mentionedelsewhere,working-classcharactersrarelyfeatureinBallard’swork,

atechniquebywhichtheauthorillustratesthewidermarginalityoftheworking

classinsociety,andparticularlyinthecontemporarycultureindustry.This

marginalitywasexacerbatedduringthe2008financialcrisis,whenthecollapse

ofthesub-primemortgagesectordisproportionatelyaffectedlow-income

276Itisapparentthattheremaybesomeelementofidealisationinthisrepresentation:Idonotdenythis,buttheconstraintsofmywordcountprecludealongjourneydownthatrabbithole.IhavesoughttoshowthatBallarddoeshisbesttoexposetheinvisibleracismofneoliberalismelsewhereinthisthesis(seemyreadingofSuper-Cannes),butnotethatanotheravenueofstudymightbetoinvestigatetheserepresentationsmorethoroughly.277KingdomCome,p.146.278KingdomCome,p.105.279See,forexample,Slate.com’srunninglistofhatecrimesintheU.S.A.sincetheelectionofDonaldTrump,‘HateinAmerica,’ortheincreaseinhatecrimesaroundtheE.U.referendum:eseeKatieForester,‘Hatecrimessoaredby41%afterBrexitvote,officialfiguresreveal,’TheIndependent13October2016www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/crime/brexit-hate-crimes-racism-eu-referendum-vote-attacks-increase-police-figures-official-a7358866.html.

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households,whofurthersufferedduetosubsequentstate-mandatedausterity

measures.280InKingdomCome,theresidentsofthemotorwaytownsarecloser

toworking-classfiguresthanmostofBallard’scharacters,althoughthey

generallyappeartoberelativelyaffluent.TheinclusionofDuncanChristieasa

characterisonesuchexample,ayoungmanwithahistoryof“[p]ublicmischief

cases[and]antisocialbehaviourorders.”281Ballard’saccountofthesesubjects’

distress,then,isclosertoanaccountofworkingclassresentment;ressentiment,

inNietzscheanterms.282

InStatesofInjury(1995),WendyBrownsuggeststhecontemporarysubject’s

experienceofapparentlytotalisingcapitalistpower,inconjunctionwiththe

neoliberalimperativetoindividuationandresponsibilisation,constitutesan

“incitementtoressentimentthatmighthavestunnedeventhefinestphilosopher

ofitsoccasionsandlogics.Starklyaccountableyetdramaticallyimpotent,the

latemodernliberalsubjectquiteliterallyseetheswithressentiment.”283In

Brown’saccount,theexperienceofressentimentgivesrisetoidentitypolitics,an

efforttoovercomeordisplacethesufferingthatistheessentialconditionoflife,

inaccordancewithNietzsche’swork.Thisdisplacementisaformofrevenge,

achieved,inBrown’sconception,throughtheproductionofguiltandthe

“establishmentofsufferingasameasureofsocialvirtue.”284Brownillustrates

thattheinscriptionofidentityinastate-centricsystemoflawfailstocritiquethe

frameworkinwhichitisinscribed,andsosuchanidentitymaybeincorporated

intothatframeworkofdominationwithease.Themostrecentmanifestationsof

right-wingpopulismhaveinvokedidentitypolitics,inaninversionofleftist

politicalstrategy,particularlyundertheleadershipofRichardSpencerin

America.285InconservativespokespersonMiloYiannopoulos’saccountofthis

280AlexCallinicos.‘Conditionsofausterity,’CambridgeJournalofEconomics,36:1,2012,pp.65-77.281KingdomCome,p.31.282Thisis,ofcourse,notanewphenomenon.See,forexample,Hans-GeorgeBetz,‘TheNewPoliticsofResentment:RadicalRight-WingPopulistPartiesinWesternEurope,’ComparativePolitics,25:4,1993,4pp.13-427.283WendyBrown.StatesofInjury.Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,1995,p.69.284Brown.StatesofInjury,p.71.285ShujaHaider,SafetyPinsandSwastikas,’TheJacobin1May2017www.jacobinmag.com/2017/01/safety-pin-box-richard-spencer-neo-nazis-alt-right-identity-politics/.

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appropriationofidentitypolitics,the“alt-rightbelievethatsomedegreeof

separationbetweenpeoplesisnecessaryforculturetobepreserved.AMosque

nexttoanEnglishstreetfullofhousesbearingtheflagofSt.George,accordingto

alt-righters,isneitheranEnglishstreetnoraMuslimstreet….”286Thisis

Ballard’svision,legitimatedthroughthevacuityofaleft-wingpoliticsthatseeks

onlytosafeguardsuchprotectionsasarealreadypermittedbythestate,rather

thanseekingtoradicallyreformtheseprotections,oreventhestateitself.Thisis

alsowhymorerecentleftistassertionsthatpracticingaradicalpoliticsoflove

cancounterright-wingpopulismandracismareflawed.Nguyen’soriginal

conceptualisationofthepoliticsofintimacy,althoughlimitedbythespecific

contextofherwork(theriotgrrrlmovement),identifiedasoneofitscentral

characteristicsthecollapseofexpertiseandexperience.Thisisconnectedtothe

capacityforchangeimaginedbysuchapolitics,whichNguyendescribedasthe

“adjustmentoftheindividualsubject–recalibratinghercapacityforshameor

love,forinstance-tothestructuraldemandsthatconstitutethehistorical

present.”287

Theconceptofloveasradicalintheframeworkofthepoliticsofintimacy

cannothelpbutpresentopennessasapoliticalend;thatis,throughadoptingan

attitudeoflove,oneopensoneselftothepossibilityofunderstandingtheOther,

thusremovingressentiment.288Theindividualaccrualofknowledgeamounts,in

thisreasoning,tothegatheringofexpertise,withaconcessiontotherelativising

tendenciesofpostmoderndeconstructionisminitspseudo-empiricism.The

problemswiththisasapoliticalframeworkaremultiple.PerNguyen’swork,it

problematicallydemandsthattheoppressedsubjectmusteducatetheoppressor

inordertoallowthemtoaccumulatethenecessarypersonalknowledgeto

286MiloYiannopoulosandAllumBokhari,‘AnEstablishmentConservative’sGuidetotheAlt-Right,’Breitbart29March2016www.breitbart.com/tech/2016/03/29/an-establishment-conservatives-guide-to-the-alt-right/287MimiThiNguyen.‘RiotGrrrl,RaceandRevival,’Women&Performance:ajournaloffeministtheory,22:2-32012,pp.173-196.p.174.288See,forexample,TomDickinson,‘VanJones:Onlya‘LoveArmy’willConquerTrump,’RollingStoneDecember62016www.rollingstone.com/politics/features/van-jones-only-a-love-army-will-conquer-trump-w454026;AlyssaLandau,‘ThisIsWhyLoveWillAlwaysTrumpHate,’ThoughtCatalog,9November2016,thoughtcatalog.com/alyssa-landau/2016/11/this-is-why-love-will-always-trump-hate/.Thequestionofthepoliticalforceoflovehasbeenputfirmlybackontheacademicagenda,too,particularlybyMichaelHardtandAntonioNegri’swork,aswellasthatofLaurenBerlant.

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change.Itquietscritiquethroughcastingtheprocessofeducationasaprocessof

politicalimprovementthatmustnotbedenigrated,undertherubricof

individual‘understanding’asprimary.Withregardtotheright-wing

appropriationofidentitypolitics,theframeworkofthepoliticsofintimacy

reasonsthatthe‘identity’ofwhitesupremacistsandsoonisalsoonethatmust

beunderstoodtoenabletransformation-suchadaptationsforeclosethe

possibilityofobjectivecritique.Itisthisabsenceofpoliticalobjectivitythat

underminesthepoliticsofintimacymostseverely.Myargumentinthisthesisis

thatliteraturehasaroletoplayincounteringthisabsence,throughitsabilityto

offeraspaceofimaginativeempatheticunderstandingthroughwhichthe

necessityoftheobjectivepoliticalimaginarymaybeartisticallyrestatedand

enabled.Literaturealsohasadistinctroleinitsabilitytodemonstrate

consequencethroughitsnarrativeform,establishingaframeworkinwhichthe

meaningofactionsisbothsignificantandintelligible,andlocatedwithin,or

designedtoexpose,recognisablepowerstructures.Withoutthis,thepoliticsof

intimacybecomes,essentially,apersonalpoliticsofhappinesswherebythe

psychotherapeuticrationaleof‘workingontheself’becomestheguidingforceof

publiclife.Thisisincontrasttothetheoreticallyradicalpotentialofthepolitics

ofintimacy,asoutlinedbyNyugen:

Throughtheradicalreinterpretationofindividualexperiencesas

socialphenomenawithhistoriesandpoliticalconsequences,andthe

subsequentrejectionofthesestructuraldeterminations,anindividual

mightbecomearadicalobjectofknowledge,asovereignsubjectwho

tellsthe(albeitever-changing)truthaboutherselfinordertoknow

herselfandbeknownbyothers.289

Byvacatingtheobjectivepoliticaldimension,andprivilegingfeeling,the

possibilityofintimacyasanoppositionalframeworkisdrasticallylimited.Thisis

oneofthedifficultiesfacedbytheNewSinceritymovement,aswewillseein

exploringEgan’swork.

Thethemeofself-discoveryisrepresentedinKingdomComethroughRichard

Pearson’s‘journey’inthenovel.Hisfather’sdecisiontobecomeinvolvedwith

theMetro-Centresupporterswastheresultofadesiretoinfiltrateandexpose289Nguyen.‘RiotGrrrl,RaceandRevival,’p.175-6.

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theviolenceofthemovement.Pearson’squestispersonalinhisdesireto

discoverhisfather’skiller,butalsoinhisdesiretodiscovermoreabouthis

father,whichisinturnconnectedtohisdesireforself-knowledge.Thisisparsed

intherubricofpsychoanalysisthatBallardoftenemploysasshorthandfor

characterdevelopment–anothersystem-orientedtendency.Ihavealready

mentionedthatthenarrativerevealsPearson’ssenseofdisconnectionfromhis

father,stemmingfromtheolderman’sabandonmentofhiswifeandchild.When

ourunwittingnarratorsuggestshisinoculationagainstconsumeristdesirestems

fromhisSpartanchildhood,wecansupposethatitisdue,too,totheemotional

barrennessconnectedtotheabsenceofconsumergoods,thetrappingsof

normativegoodlife.Pearsondoesnotdesirethesegoodsbecausehelives

outsideoftheemotionalspheretheysignify.Hetellsusthereader,“Iwasforever

showingmymotheradvertisementsfornewtoastersandwashingmachines,

hopingtheywouldeasethestrainofexistenceforher.”290This‘strain’isrelated

toherexistenceasasinglemother,thefinancialstrainofraisingachildona

singleincome.Hisfather’seconomicabandonmentisneverfullyexplained,butis

clearlyconnectedtoPearson’sloveofadvertising.Wecanobservethisinthe

paternalsenseofpridehefeelswhenobservinghowhisindustry,asheseesit,

hasallowedotherpeopletodiscernandfulfildesireinawayhe,withhis

emotionaldisconnection,nevercan.Thefirstresultofthisjourneyof(self)

discoveryisPearson’salliancewithCruise,andhisreinventionasa“suburbanDr

Goebbels”–thatis,theadvertisingdirectoroftheMetro-Centre.291Pearson

becomesvulnerabletotheworldofsupporters’clubswhenheallowshis

subjectivitytobecometheguidingprincipleofhislife.Hisfather’sdeathleaves

himradicallyunmoored,particularlygivenitsnearnesstotheterminationofhis

employment,andheuseshisinvestigativemissionasanexcusetoindulgehis

recently-awakenednihilistictendencies.

Thismanifestsinthedesignofaseriesofdisturbedanddisturbing

advertisementsfortheMetro-Centre,whichPearsonbelievesplayon“a

suppressedneedforthebizarreandunpredictable.”292Theseadvertisements

290KingdomCome,p.54.291KingdomCome,p.209.292KingdomCome,p.155.

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featurenonsensicalscenariosthatimplicitlyinvokeasenseofexistentialdread,

spurringthosewhoviewthemtoconsumeinorder,itseems,toasserttheir

(consumer)rationalityinthefaceofanotherwiseirrationalworld.DavidCruise

thrivesonPearson’sstrategy,givingevermoredesperateandextremeaddresses

ontheMetro-CentreTVchannel.ForCruise,thisturnsouttobetheidealwayto

ventyearsofpersonalfrustrationandunhappiness,andhisviewersseemtolove

it.Hediscussesintroducingasegmentonhisalcoholismanddrugusewith

Pearson,whoremindshimthatheisnotanalcoholicordruguser.Tothis,Cruise

replies,“‘That’snotthepoint…Alcoholism,drugaddiction.They’retoday’s

equivalentofmilitaryservice.Theygiveyouakindof…”Pearsonresponds,

“’Man-to-manauthenticity?’”293Ballardrecognisesherehowtheconfessional

cultureinstitutedbythepsychotherapeuticrationalesofneoliberalhappiness

discoursecanservetovalorisesuffering,atleastaslongasitispresentedasa

problemoftheselfandframedintermsofanindividualjourney.294Inthis,

Ballardalsogesturestothepervasivenessofproblemsofaddictionandtheway

inwhichtheyreplicateprocessesofconsumption.295

ThisexchangeseesCruisementionthathehasbeenreadingabookgivento

himbyPearson,writtenbyKrafft-Ebing.RichardvonKrafft-Ebingwasa

nineteenth-centuryscientistwhoseworkfocusedonhumansexualityand

criticisedthecriminalisationofsexual‘deviance,’givingvoicetosubjectsnot

usuallyrepresentedinscientificdiscourseatthattime.296Cruisewantstoco-opt

someofKrafft-Ebing’sideasintohisprogramme,andPearsonsuggeststhathis

“sofaladies”–theever-changingrosterofsuburbanhousewiveswhoappear

alongsideCruiseon-air–wouldhaveaheartattack.297Ihighlightthisshort

exchangebecauseIbelieveitisusefulinunderstandingBallard’sdepictionof

sexuality,whichisoverwhelminglyconstitutedbyheterosexualrelationshipsin

theselatenovels.TheinvocationofKrafft-Ebbing’sworksuggeststhatthe

293KingdomCome,p.179.294IwilldiscussthisinmoredetailinthesectiononEgan’swork.295OleBjergandothershavesuggestedthatdruguseisaproblemforcapitalismpreciselybecauseitexposesthewidervacuityofcapitalistdesire;see‘DrugAddictionandCapitalism:TooClosetotheBody,’Body&Society,14:2,2008,pp.1-22.296SeeHarryOosterhuis,‘SexualModernityintheWorksofRichardvonKrafft-EbingandAlbertMoll,’MedicalHistory,56:2,2012.pp.133-55.297KingdomCome,p.179.

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normativecompulsiontoheterosexualityisanotherofthesystemsof

subjectificationcritiquedbytheselatenovels.Ballardrecognisesthetension

betweentheneoliberalemphasisonindividualchoiceandthepersistenceof

normativeaccountsofgenderandsexuality,holdoversfromFordistcapitalism.

Thisislinkedtootoright-wingconservativemorality.DavidHarveyhas

suggestedthatthere-emergenceofsuchstrainsofpoliticalthinking,as

exemplifiedbythepost-9/11riseofneo-conservatisminAmerica,canbe

connectedtothechaosallowedbythepermissivenessofneoliberalism,andthe

problemthisposesforthestate.298HarveyspecificallyreferstoMargaret

Thatcher’sdeploymentofnationalistsentimentinsupportofherstrategiesof

neoliberalisation.299Althoughauthoritarianismistechnicallycontrarytothe

sanctityoftheself-sovereigntyneoliberalismpromotesasitsgreateststrength,it

ispossibleforthetwotoco-exist,bythisaccount,andthisconservatismmay

appearasa‘solution’totheproblemofthenon-existenceofneoliberalism’s

politicaldimension.Thissolutionislimited,however;thelimitationsofneo-

conservativepoliticaloutlooksmustbeultimatelyunacceptabletoneoliberal

subjectswhohavebeeninterpellatedtothinkofthemselvesasfreelychoosing

subjects,howevermisguidedsuchanunderstandingmightbe.

InKingdomCome,RichardPearson’sjourneyforself-discoveryis‘actualised’

throughhisinvolvementwithdoctorJuliaGoodwin.HeandJuliaembarkona

relationshipaftershegoesbacktohisfather’sflatwithhimwhenbothare

caughtinthefalloutfromabombthatkillsGeoffreyFairfax.Sheinsiststhatthey

havesexinhisfather’sbed.Pearson,likethereader,learnstowardstheendof

thenovelthatshefeelsguiltyforhavingbeeninvolvedintheoriginal

assassinationplotthatresultedinStuartPearson’sdeath;sleepingwithhisson

inhisbedisanactofself-flagellation.Despitethis,itisRichardPearson’s

relationshipwithJuliathatoffershisbestchanceatredemption,atovercoming

hisfixationonhisfatherandestablishinghisownidentity.Juliais,asher

surnamesuggests,a‘goodone.’HerinvolvementwiththeplotagainstCruisewas

minimal.ShebelievedthatChristiewouldbelettingoffasmokebomb,rather

thanshootingtokill.Asavolunteeratalocalwomen’scentre,Goodwinsawfirst-

298Harvey.ABriefHistoryofNeoliberalism,p.81-6.299Harvey.ABriefHistoryofNeoliberalism,p.86.

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handthewayinwhichexclusionaryviolencewasinscribedonthebodiesof

women,especiallythosefromAsiancommunities,i.e.thevisibleOther.Believing

thataspectacularassaultontheMetro-Centrewoulddrawattentiontotheacts

ofviolenceperpetratedbyitssupportersinthenameof‘community,’she

acquiescedtotheplot,givingChristiebeta-blockerstocalmhimdownand

reassuringhimthathewasdoing“therightthing.”300Julia’srolehereisa

typicallyfeminineoneofcaregiver.EvenduringthesiegeoftheMetro-Centre,to

whichsheisfundamentallyopposed,shelooksafterDavidCruisewhenheis

shot,sacrificingherbeliefsforthegreatergoodofpublicorder–allthose

presentbelievetheincitementtoviolencewillbeunstoppableifChristiedies.

Thereis,however,anotherdimensiontoherworkwiththewomen’srefugein

thenovel,inwhichsheistheprotectorofthosewomen,inwhomthemale

charactersshownointerest–theywouldratherfocusontheirplantoreturn

Brooklandstoitsmiddle-class,middle-English‘glory.’

ThesiegeoftheMetro-Centreisaconvolutedclosingacttothenovel,which

seesloyaltiesandmotivationsbecomeincreasinglymurkyastheexcuseof

ideologygiveswaytothebareexerciseofpower.Previously,RichardPearson

hadrecognisedtheeffortsofthosewhosoughttounderminetheMetro-Centre,

andcharacteriseditasaresultoftheirsenseoffeelingthreatenedbythecentre.

Theirassassinationplot,andlater,Fairfax’sdoomedbombingcampaign,were

effortstoamplifytheviolencealreadyoccurringinanefforttoforcestate

interventionsothat‘order’mightberestored:

Onlyadirectattackonthegreatshoppingmallwouldrouseadeeply

sedatedpopulation.Novandalizedchurchorlibrary,noransacked

schoolorheritagesite,wouldtouchanerve.Aviolentrevolt,the

corditeofcivilstrifeinsuburbanSurrey,wouldforcethecounty

councilandtheHomeOfficetoreact.Theretailparkswouldclose,the

foxwouldreturntohishaunts,andthehuntwouldgallopagainover

abandoneddualcarriagewaysandthroughtheforecourtsofforgotten

fillingstations.301

300KingdomCome,p.260.301KingdomComep.127-8

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Again,thisdemonstratesthelimitedconstructionofcommunityonwhichFairfax

etalrelied–theworldoffoxhuntingandpastoralidylls.Theideathatthe

spectacularviolenceofanattackontheshoppingcentrewouldeffectively‘reset’

Brooklandsandthesurroundingtownsturnsoutnottobesostraightforward.

WiththeMetro-CentrescepticsorganisingadeputationtotheHomeOffice

(stateintervention,again),asimulatedattackoccurs,withtheintentionthistime

ofallowingtheconsumeristloyaliststorallysupport.Ballard’sdepictionofthis

attackdrawsfrom9/11,asweseeinPearson’sdescriptionofit:

Likemostpeople,Ispenttheafternoonwatchingmytelevisionset.

Fromtheliving-roomwindowsIcouldseethenarrowcolumnof

whitesmokethatrosefromanemergencyventintheroofofthe

Metro-Centre.Inthestillairitclimbedvertically,trembledandthen

dispersedintothecloudcover.302

ThevisualdepictionhererecallstheimagesoftheTwinTowersthatwere

broadcastgloballyfollowingthe9/11attacks,ofwhichBaudrillardwrote,“what

stayswithus,aboveallelse,isthesightoftheimages.”303Thereferenceto9/11

iscontinuedinBallard’sdepictionofDavidCruise’sbroadcastfromtheMetro-

Centrefollowingthe(non)attack.Hegivesastirringspeechtoviewers,

beseechingthemtocomeoutandshowtheirsupportfortheCentre,and

referringtoavagueenemy:

Thepeoplewhodidthiswilltryagain.Iwantyoualltobeready.You

createdthis,don’tletthemtakeitaway.Thereareenemiesoutthere,

andyouknowwhotheyare.IfIdon’tseeyouagain,youcanbesureI

wentdownfightingfortheMetro-Centre…304

BoththetoneandcontentofthisshortspeechechoBush’sStateoftheUnion

addressafter9/11,excerptsfromwhichinclude:“Tonight,weareacountry

awakenedtodangerandcalledtodefendfreedom.Ourgriefhasturnedtoanger

andangertoresolution.Whetherwebringourenemiestojusticeorbringjustice

toourenemies,justicewillbedone,”and“[ThegoalofAlQaeda]isremakingthe

302KingdomCome,p.202.303JeanBaudrillard,TheSpiritofTerrorism2002,translatedbyChrisTurner.LondonandNewYork:VersoBooks,2012,p.20-21.304KingdomComep.203.

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world–andimposingitsradicalbeliefsonpeopleeverywhere.”305Thisis

anotherexampleofBallard’sborrowingfromreality,oreven,hisinventionofthe

real.InPearson’saccountofthereactiontoCruise’sspeech,hesuggeststhatthe

audiencepreferbeingliedtobecauseitallowsthemtobeknowinglycomplicit:

Theyknewtheywerebeingliedto,butiflieswereconsistentenough

theydefinedthemselvesasacrediblealternativetothetruth.

Emotionruledalmosteverything,andliesweredrivenbyemotions

thatwerefamiliarandsupportive,whilethetruthcamewithhard

edgesthatcutandbruised.306

Here,Ballardidentifiesthewayinwhichtheadvertisingcultureofconsumer

capitalismwouldcometofeedintotheriseof‘post-truth’neoliberalpolitics,

withitsemphasisontruthiness,inwhichthefactualcontentofastatementis

lessimportantthanthelistener’sfeelingofitstruth.Ballard’sworkquickly

exceedstherealityfromwhichitisdrawn,however,whenDuncanChristieat

lastmanagestoshootDavidCruise,duringalivebroadcastfromtheMetro-

Centre.

Bythispoint,Pearsonhasdiscoveredtherealityofhisfather’sinvolvement

withtheMetro-Centresupporters,andindoingsohasfreedhimselffromthe

obligationtorepeatthisinvolvement:“Ihadreliedonmyfathertojustifymy

supportfortheMetro-Centreanditssportingmilitias.”307Itturnsoutthathehas

beenclosertohisfatherthanheeverknew;StuartPearsonalsoupsettheplans

oftheMetro-Centreopponentsbyhiseffortsatinfiltration,thoughneveras

drasticallyashisson.Atthispoint,Pearsonbecomescapableofrecognisingthe

realdangeroftheclubs,whoaredestroyingschoolsandlibrariesanddefecating

oncricketgrounds,suchistheirdisdainforthetraditionalpillarsofBritish

community.PearsonattemptstocontactGoodwintowarnherthatthewomen’s

refugeislikelyindanger,butisinterruptedbytheshooting,whichhewitnesses

305Also:“Americansareasking,whydotheyhateus?Theyhatewhatweseerighthereinthischamber–ademocraticallyelectedgovernment.Theirleadersareself-appointed.Theyhateourfreedoms–ourfreedomofreligion,ourfreedomofspeech,ourfreedomtovoteandassembleanddisagreewitheachother.”;“Eitheryouarewithus,oryouarewiththeterrorists.”;“ThehouriscomingwhenAmericawillact,andyouwillmakeusproud.”‘TextofGeorgeBush’sspeech,’21September2001,TheGuardian,www.theguardian.com/world/2001/sep/21/september11.usa13306KingdomCome,p.205.307KingdomCome,p.197.

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onliveTV,inanechooftheKennedy/Oswaldassassinations.Herushestothe

Metro-Centre,wherepsychiatristMaxtedupbraidshimforhisroleinfacilitating

thespreadandcohesionoftheconsumer-fascistmovement.LearningthatJulia

Goodwinisalreadyinthecentre,tendingtoDavidCruise,thetwoenter,andfind

themselvesamongstthemixofsupportersandshopperswhoaretrappedinthe

mallwhentheentrancesaresealed.Thisisthefinalstageoftransformation,

wheretheMetro-Centreostensiblymovesfromshoppingcentretosovereign

state:“TherepublicoftheMetro-Centrehadatlastestablisheditself,afaith

trappedinsideitsowntemple.”308

Thissetsthestageforachaoticendingtothenovel,astagedcrisismadereal,

whichrepeatstheworstaspectsofconsumercapitalismandfailingfascism.The

situationinsidethecentreisabsurd:despitethevastarrayoffoodandconsumer

goods,peoplebegintofallillandstarveaftertheyrunoutofmoney,fornooneis

totakeanythingtheycannotpayfor,pertherulesofcapitalism.Aswehaveseen

earlier,thosetrappedinthedomebegintoidentifywiththeconsumergoodsby

whichtheyaresurrounded,someevendrawingbarcodesontheirhands-a

parody,too,ofthedesirefordesignerclothesandgoodsthat‘brand’thewearer.

Shrinesappear,modelledonshopdisplays,underliningBallard’sthesisthat

consumerismisanewreligion.309Inachapterentitled“WorkMakesYouFree,”

hostagesarecompelledtorestoreordertothemall,whichhasbythisstage

becomeabject,anechoofNaziconcentrationcamps.310Someofthehostages

changesides,comingtoidentifywiththeircaptors.Theelderlyperish,deemed

uselessinthenewregime.311Thearmyattempttotakethecentre,butendup

killinganumberofhostages,whohavebeendressedinStGeorge’sshirtsby

theircaptors,promptingSangstertomaketheobservationthat,“Violenceisthe

truepoetryofgovernments.”312TomCarradine,theheadofPRwhohastaken

overasleaderinCruise’snecessaryabsence,decidesthattheyshouldclaim

responsibilityforthesedeathsthemselves,andspreadwordthattheyhaveshot

308KingdomCome,p.218.309KingdomCome,p.247.310KingdomCome,p.230.311KingdomCome,p.237.312KingdomCome,p.251.

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evenmore;“Astheoccupyingmilitarypower,weareentitledtoretaliate.”313

Violencebegetsviolence;or,asHannahArendtmightcorrectSangster,“Poweris

indeedtheessenceofallgovernment,butviolenceisnot.…Violencecandestroy

power;itisutterlyincapableofcreatingit.”314ThisseesBallardtakinghisown

thesistoitsfurthestpoint.Heeffectivelyshowsthereaderthelimitationofhis

ownthematicinsistenceonviolence;thisfollowsfrommyearlier

conceptualisationofBallard’sworkasfilledwithEventsthatfailtounfoldnew

representations.Therelianceonviolencetoopenspacesofpotentialisfutile,

becauseitonlyrepeatstheviolenceoftheneoliberalcapitalistsystem,and

additionally,lacksthecollusiveconsentthatlegitimatestheofficialstatesofthat

system.

Cruisedoesnotrecover,andCarradinepositionshimselftotakeover,withthe

Centresurroundedbymediawhodescribethesiegeas“apopulistuprising,the

struggleofconsumermanandhisconsumerwifeagainstthemetropolitanelites

withtheirdeeploathingofshoppingmalls,”evokingtheanti-elitistrhetoricupon

whichright-wingpopulismrelies.315Bythisstage,opponentsandsupportersare

virtuallyindistinguishable,allcaughtupinthepowerfluxesofthefaux-state,

justasfactshavebecomeindistinguishablefromfiction,aswhenCarradine

insiststheyclaimresponsibilityforthedeathsofthosehostagesshotbythestate

army.WhenCruisefinallydies,JuliaGoodwinatlastconfessestoPearsonherfull

involvementinhisfather’sdeath.Thisopensupanewspaceofhonestybetween

them,whichseemsasthoughitmightbeaspaceofaffectivepotential.Thisis

demonstratedattheliberationoftheCentre,inachaptertitled,‘ExitStrategies,’

whichbegins,“ATLASTTOGETHER,ourhandsgrippingtheheadrail,JuliaandI

propelledthebedthroughthedoorwayofthefirst-aidpostandsetoffforthe

SouthGateentrance.”316Thisuniongesturestothegenerativepossibilitiesof

intimacy,andisenabledbythatverylogicwesawinNguyen’sworkearlier,“the

radicalreinterpretationofindividualexperiencesassocialphenomenawith

historiesandpoliticalconsequences,andthesubsequentrejectionofthese

313KingdomCome,p.252.314HannahArendt.OnViolence,SanDiego:HarcourtBrace&Co,1970.p.241-242.315SeeJonathanPolkandJanRovny,‘Anti-Elite/EstablishmentRhetoricandPartyPositioningonEuropeanIntegration,’ChinesePoliticalScienceReview,2,2017,pp.356-371.316KingdomCome,p.272.

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structuraldeterminations,”whichallowsthesubjecttobecomea“radicalobject

ofknowledge.”317RichardPearsonhas,itseems,atlastseentheerrorofhis

waysandovercometheghostofhisfather.HehasrecognisedhisroleinCruise’s

rise,andwitnessedtheconsequencesoftheviolenceheinstigated,includingits

repetitionofextantpoliticalframeworksanditshistoricalprecedents.This

recastingofself-knowledge,whichunderstandsone’sselfaslocatedwithinthe

structuraldeterminationsofpowerandthusrenderstheselfabletoresistthese

determinations,issomethinglikeanethicsoftheself,intheFoucauldian

model.318Asitstands,RichardPearsonisnotnecessarilyquiteatthispoint,but

weleavehimatthepointwherehemayatlastbeabletoknowhimselfandbe

knownbyothersinaframeworkofaccountability.

Thisoptimismistempered,aseverinBallard’swork.Theredemptionofthis

onecharacterdoesnotmeanthesalvationofall.Atthecloseofthenovel,

PearsongazesoverthewreckageoftheMetro-Centre,andobserves:

Iwatchedthespectatorsaroundme,standingsilentlyattherailing.

TherewerenoStGeorge’sshirts,buttheywatchedalittletoo

intently.OnedaytherewouldbeanotherMetro-Centreandanother

desperateandderangeddream.Marcherswoulddrillandwheel

whileanothercableannouncersangoutthebeat.Intime,unlessthe

sanewokeandralliedthemselves,anevenfiercerrepublicwould

openthedoorsandspintheturnstilesofitsbeckoningparadise.319

Ballardissuesacalltothereadershere,towakeandrally,tobewaryofdanger.

Beyondthis,Ithink,isanothercall:torefusedespairandressentiment.During

thesceneinwhichJuliaGoodwinconfesses,psychiatristTonyMaxtedexplains

howeventheopponentsoftheMetro-Centrecametofeelacertainregardfor

DavidCruise’snihilisticrants,suggestingthattheyrevealedthecoreofself-

loathingattheheartofconsumeristsubjectidentity:“we’retotallydegenerate.

Welackspine,andanyfaithinourselves.Wehaveatabloidworld-view,butno

317Nguyen.‘RiotGrrrl,RaceandRevival,’pp.175-6.318SeeMichelFoucault,‘TheEthicsoftheConcernfortheSelfasaPracticeofFreedom’Ethics:SubjectivityandTruth,editedbyPaulRabinow,NewYork:TheNewPress,1997,pp.281-303.319KingdomCome,280.Readingthis,andconsideringtheconnectionIhaveposedbetweenBushandCruise,IcannothelpbutwonderwhatBallardwouldhavemadeoftheriseofDonaldTrump.

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dreamsorideas.”320SuchanaccountisechoedelsewherebyBaudrillard,who

writes:

Whatwedetestinourselves,theobscureobjectofourresentment,is

thisexcessofreality,thisexcessofpowerandcomfort,thisuniversal

availability,thisdefinitivefulfilment…Asmuchasterrorismrests,

then,onthedespairofthehumiliatedandinsulted,itrestsalsoonthe

invisibledespairoftheprivilegedbeneficiariesofglobalisation,on

ourownsubmissiontoanintegraltechnology,toacrushingvirtual

reality,tothegripofnetworksandprogrammes,whichperhaps

representstheinvolutiveprofileoftheentirespecies,ofthehuman

racebecome‘global’(doesn’tthehumanrace’ssupremacyoverthe

restoftheplanetresembletheWest’ssupremacyovertherestofthe

world?}.Andthisinvisibledespair–ourdespair–isterminal,sinceit

arisesoutofthefulfillmentofalldesires.321

IfBaudrillardandBallardarecorrect,anditisour‘true’selves,asconstructed–

ormadetrue-bytherubricofneoliberalismandthehappinessdiscourseby

whichitdisseminatesits‘commonsense,’thatwedespise,itmayagainbe

Foucaulttowhomweturn,rememberingthewordswesawearlierinthis

chapter:“Maybethetargetnowadaysisnottodiscoverwhatwearebuttorefuse

whatweare.”322Todothis,Ballardsuggests,takesbothatremendous

imaginativeeffortandanactoffaithinothers–asenseofsolidarity–thatis

madevirtuallyunthinkablebythevaluedeficitofneoliberalism.Forsucha

refusal,wemustdétournéthepsychotherapeuticneoliberalrhetoricofself-

knowledgetoinstituteasystemofself-criticismthatrecognisesourenmeshment

inpowersystemsand–crucially–seekstoresistdeterminationbythese

systems.Suchaself-critiquemustalsobeacritiqueofthesepowerstructures,

otherwiseweareleftinthesamepositionasBrowndescribesinheraccountof

identitypolitics.Toavoidthis,onemustavoidthetemptationsofressentiment,

andofthevalorisationofsufferingaspoliticalidentity.Knowingourselvesinthis

way,toputitbriefly,isthebestconditionbywhichwemayimagineourselvesas

320KingdomCome,p.263.321Baudrillard,TheSpiritofTerrorism,pp.78-9.322Foucault.‘TheSubjectandPower,’p.785.

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Other–andthisistheverycoreofimaginingasystembuiltontheidealof

equality.Itisonlyonthisbasisthataspaceofobjectivesolidaritymightbemade

possible,evenagainsttheapparentlytotalisingforceofatomisticneoliberal

accountsoftheself.

CHAPTER3:EGAN

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OnEgan

If,asIstatedatthebeginningofthepreviouschapter,J.G.Ballard’sworkhas

demonstratedapreoccupationwithneoliberalismanditsimpacton

subjectificationsincetheverybeginningoftheneoliberal‘turn’,this

preoccupationhas,aswesawinthatchapter,primarilybeenexpressedthrough

explorationofthetotalisingsystems(corporate,state,psy)thatintervenein

subjectificationinordertoshapethe‘idealneoliberalsubject’,asrhetorical

device,legalfigure(citizen),andlivedexperience,concentratingparticularlyon

thepolicingofaffect.ThroughBallard’sworkwesawhowthesesystems

cooperateandcolludetoconstructaseeminglyimpenetrablenetworkof

(im)possibility,andhowlegitimatelydangerousBallardconsiderssucha

constructiontobe.462Ihavepositedneoliberalhappinessdiscourseasthe

connectingrationaleofallthesesystems–thespaceinwhichprogrammesof

subjectificationmayberenderedintothe‘commonsense’bywhich,aswehave

seen,neoliberalismseekstonormaliseandevennaturaliseitsvalues.463Ihave

suggestedthatthepraxisofneoliberalhappinessdiscourse,primarily

representedthroughthepromotionofmanagement-strategy-basedmental

healthinterventions,aswellasthrough‘commonsense’wellnessimperatives

thatcooperatewiththeneoliberalconstructionofselfas‘capital’or‘enterprise’

(cf.WendyBrownandLoisMcNay)requiressubjectstobecomecomplicitin

thesesystems,andtoperpetuatethemthroughtheirengagement.Thismaybe

bestdemonstratedbythewayinwhichwehaveseenunhappinessbuiltinto

neoliberalhappinessdiscourse–thatis,adistinctframeworkofunhappiness,

whichrequiresthesubjecttoparticipateinproductivenetworksof

individualisedchoicethatdiscourageanyefforttolocatecausesofsufferingin

structuralterms,depoliticisingtheaffectivedistressengenderedbytheinherent

462Aswesaw,Ballardisnotaloneinthisconcern.Fisher,HardtandNegri,Massumi,Berlant,andothersallpointtosimilarfearswithregardtothereductionofspacesofpotential,figuredasspacesofaffectivefreedom:generativeimaginativespacesthatresisttheproductiveimperativeandtotalisingmarketisationthroughwhichneoliberalismseekstosubsumealldifference.463AsperStuartHallandAlanO’Sheain‘Common-senseneoliberalism,’Soundings,55,8-24,2013.pp.8-24.

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inequalitiesofneoliberalismandtheattendantprecarityoflifestronglyfeltby

theneoliberalsubject.464

Inshort,myreadingsofarhasexploredthewayinwhichsystemsacton

subjectsinordertoimbricatetheminaself-regulatorydiscourseofhappiness

whichisbothdepoliticisedanddepoliticising.Whathasgoneunaddressed,so

far,isthewayinwhichcontemporarysubjectsparticipateinthisconstruction–

whatwemightcallthe‘everydaypractices’ofneoliberalhappinessdiscourse,or

the‘self’partofthisself-regulatorydiscourse,ifyoulike.Thisisthe‘inside’of

neoliberalhappinessdiscourse-anaccountofhowthesubjectactsontheir‘self.’

Itcallsforanexplorationofthose‘technologiesoftheself’notablyabsentfrom

Ballard’swork:thetoolsofvirtualidentitythathavebecomeaneverydaypartof

subjectificationandselfexpression.JenniferEgan’sworkissaturatedbythese

technologiesandourobsessionwiththem–perhapsunsurprisingly,giventhat

theauthorfamouslydatedApplefounderSteveJobswhilststillincollege,

sometimearound1984,duringwhichtimehereportedlysetherupwithoneof

theearlyMacintoshcomputers.465Egan’sownjournalisticworkhasinvolved

directexplorationsofmodesofpracticeofneoliberalhappinessdiscoursesuch

as‘mindfulness’andtheuseofpsychoactivemedicationintreatingchildreni.e.

the‘biologisation’ofanyaberranceundertherubricof‘mentalhealth.’466I

believethatexplorationofEgan’sworksupplementsthereadingofBallardthat

constitutedthefirstpartofthisthesis.Suchareadingallowsustomovefrom

‘system’orientedaccountsoftheregulatoryfunctionsofneoliberalhappiness

discoursetothe‘self’oriented.Thismovemightalsobeconstruedintermsof

nationaldifference;itiseasiertotracksystemicapproachesintheU.K.because

oftheN.H.S,whichmakesplainthepathofstateinterestandinterventionin

464N.B.Iuse“felt”heredeliberately,andthatthisshouldbeunderstoodasdistinctfrom“experienced,”incontextofthisdiscussion.465Theydatedforaboutayear,afterJobshadendedhisrelationshipwithcounterculturallegendJoanBaez.EgantoldIsaacson,Jobs’biographer,oftheir“exuberantdebates”,whereshechallengedJobstoreconcilehisprinciplesofnon-materialismtohisproductionofhighlydesirableconsumergoods–whichwemightsupposehesoughttomanageinhisminimalisticdesign(forwhichconsumershappilyforkouthundredsofdollarseverytimeanewmodelisreleased).WalterIsaacson.SteveJobs,Simon&Schuster:NewYork,2011,p.156.466Egan’sjournalisticworkiscollectedonherwebsite,www.jenniferegan.com.‘WalkingTowardsMindfulness’,NewYorkTimesMagazine,May7,2000;‘TheBipolarPuzzle’,NewYorkTimesMagazine,September14,2008.

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‘mentalhealth’(and‘wellness’)practices.467Theabsenceofanysimilarly

comprehensivesystemintheU.S.(andthecurrentuncertaintyaroundthe

replacementofthe2010PatientProtectionandAffordableCareAct)makesit

moredifficulttotrackgovernmentstrategies,asdoesthediffusenatureofU.S.

government,dividedasitisbetweenfederalandstatepowers.468Asnotedinthe

previouschapter,too,muchofthetechniqueandattitudethatinformsneoliberal

happinessdiscourseisassociatedwithacertainsenseofAmericancultural

imperialism,mostvividlydemonstratedinKingdomCome.Althoughthissection

willinvolvesomeconsiderationofsystemicframeworksofsubjectification,then,

focusontheselfseemsmostapt,aswellasallowingilluminationofaspectsof

neoliberalhappinessdiscoursenotaddressedinBallard’swork.Eganherselfhas

explicitlyrecognisedthistendencyinherwork,assheexplainedina2014

interview:“Mass-mediaasaneverevolvingmeansofself-objectificationandan

invitationtoself-objectify,issomethingthathasbeenanovertinterestofmine

rightfromthebeginning.”469This‘self-objectification’isintimatelyconnectedto

self-regulation,asweshallseethroughthecourseofthischapter.

Duringthissection,IwillexplorethefournovelsEganhaspublishedtodate:

TheInvisibleCircus(1995);LookatMe(2001);TheKeep(2006);andAVisitfrom

theGoonSquad(2010).TheserunroughlycongruouslytoBallard’slatenovels.

Assuch,wecanbroadlyassumethemtobereactingtothesameglobalevents

andculturalshifts,albeitfilteredthroughanAmericanperspectiveratherthana

Britishone.Despiteaccountsofthe‘deterritorializedsubject’or‘globalcitizen,’it

isfairtosay,asIarguedintheprevioussectionwhenlookingatCocaineNights

andKingdomCome,thattheweightofinternationalbordershasnotyetbeen

entirelynegated.Asstated,therecentriseofnationalismacrosstheU.S.,U.K.and

467Thiswasoutlinedextensivelyinthepreviouschapter,lookingattheimplementationof‘cost-effective’strategiessuchasCognitiveBehaviouralTherapy,andtheneedfortheNHStorationalisetreatmentsthroughtheuseofmarketlogic,aswellastheneoliberalrhetoricof‘patientchoice’whichhascometodeterminehealthcareintheU.K.468Thatisnottosayidentifyingsuchprogrammesisimpossible,asthewhiteHousestillhasconsiderablepowertoinfluencepublicdiscussionandpolicyaroundhealthissues,oftenthroughthe‘specialinterests’oftheFirstLady:LaurenBerlantlooksatMichelleObama’s“signatureactivistissue”ofchildhoodobesityinCruelOptimism,Durham,NC:DurhamUniversityPress,p.103;thecontinuedexistenceoftheBettyFordCentreistestamenttoFord’sawarenessraisingworkaroundaddiction.469JenniferEganinterviewedbyZaraDinnen“Thisisallartificial”Post45May202016,post45.research.yale.edu/2016/05/this-is-all-artificial-an-interview-with-jennifer-egan/.

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WesternEuropehaspromptedsuggestionsthatweareinthemidstofare-

evaluationofnationalidentity.Itiseasytoseehowwemightimaginea‘special

relationship’betweenanypurportedlyglobaldiscourseofhappinessandthe

UnitedStates,acountryfoundedonthe“self-evident”truth,“thatallmenare

createdequal,thattheyareendowedbytheirCreatorwithcertainunalienable

Rights,thatamongtheseareLife,LibertyandthepursuitofHappiness.”470Ifthe

‘invisible’idealneoliberalsubjectwasrevealedbyBallard’sworktobethe

middle-classsubject,Egan’sworkextendsthattowhichBallard’sworkhas

gestured:thatthisidealsubjectisalso‘American,’inthesensethattheyaccord

withacertainsetofvaluesheldtobecorefacetsofAmericannationalidentity-

primarilythecapacityforself-reinvention,asweshallseeineachofthese

novels,mostnotablyinLookatMe.Wecantracethiscultureofindividualismin

AmericaasfarbackasTocqueville’sanalysis,whereheunderstoodittobethe

fundamentalfactofAmericandemocracy.ForTocqueville,theconditionof

‘generalequality’uponwhichAmericawasfoundedthreatenedaninwardturn

ofeveryman;thatis,aturntoindividualism.Hebelievedthatindividualismwas

distinctfromegoism,thoughnotincompatiblewithit,andthatit“atfirst,only

sapsthevirtuesofpubliclife;but,inthelongrun,itattacksanddestroysall

others.”471Theseindividualists:

owenothingtoanyman,theyexpectnothingfromanyman;they

acquirethehabitofalwaysconsideringthemselvesasstandingalone,

andtheyareapttoimaginethattheirowndestinyisintheirown

hands.Thusnotonlydoesdemocracymakeeverymanforgethis

ancestors,butithideshisdescendants,andseparateshis

contemporariesfromhim;itthrowshimbackforeveruponhimself

alone,andthreatensintheendtoconfinehimentirelywithinthe

solitudeofhisownheart.472

ForTocqueville,thisindividualismwasmediatedbysubstantialinterestin

publicaffairs,aninterestonlysensibleinlightoftheinteractionbetween470TheDeclarationofIndependence,U.S.History.orgwww.ushistory.org/DECLARATION/document/.Asweknowbynow,neoliberalismlovesthesekindof“self-evident”truths,whichcanbeusedtohideallmannerofills.471AlexisdeTocqueville.DemocracyinAmerica1835,1840NewYork:RandomHouse,2004,p.618.472Tocqueville.DemocracyinAmerica,p.618.

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personalinterestandpublicaffairs:“Menattendtotheinterestsofthepublic,

firstbynecessity,afterwardsbychoice:whatwasintentionalbecomesan

instinct;andbydintofworkingforthegoodofone’sfellow-citizens,thehabit

andthetasteforservingthemisatlengthacquired.”473Whatweareconfronted

withnowistheriseofagovernmentalrationalitythatdiscouragesanysuch

substantiveengagementand,throughitsprivilegingoftheeconomicaboveall

else,restructuresboththeparametersofthegoodandthewayinwhich

relationshipsbetweensubjectswork(wherethesearesubjecttotherationalof

‘selfasenterprise’).Tocqueville’sindividualist,thebogeymanlurkingatthe

marginsofAmericandemocracysinceitsinception,isgivenfullflightinthe

figureoftheidealneoliberalsubject,confinedentirelywithinthesolitudeofher

owneconomicbestinterest.

Themiddle-classcodingoftheidealneoliberalsubjectrelatestothewayin

whichsubjectsareinterpellatedtobecomeself-governing,andhowneoliberal

happinessdiscoursefunctionsasaformofgovernmentality.Whilstthecitizen

subjecthasalwaysbeenexpectedtoself-regulateinaccordancewiththelawsof

thenationstateorriskpunishment,themovetoself-maximiseasaformofself

governanceisrelativelynew,asRosehastracedinGoverningtheSoul(1989).

Thishasoccasionedthedevelopmentofacitizenwhosebelongingisnot

dependentonthedirectinterventionorshapingofthestate,althoughthe

pervasivepowerofnationalmythhasnotbeendiscardedorrenderedirrelevant

bythismove.After9/11,thefigureoftheAmericancitizenwasthrustbackinto

thepublicimaginationwithavengeance,asbothstateandsubjectssoughtaway

tocontainthepsychicshockofthespectacularbreachofnationalspecialty.474

Thereis,clearly,aninherenttensionbetweenthecitizensubjectasonewith

rightsanddutiesandtheidealneoliberalsubjectasonewhochoosesfreefrom

inclination.475ForAmericansubjects,thistensionissomewhatmediatedbythe

473Tocqueville.DemocracyinAmerica,p.627.Thisis,inshort,the“principleofinterestrightlyunderstood.”474MichaelSilkgivesaconvincingaccountofthisinTheCulturalPoliticsofPost-9/11AmericanSport,LondonandNewYork:Routledge,2012.475Asimilartensionmaybetracedinthepersistenceofworking-classidentity,wherecircumstancesofmateriallimitationcircumscribechoice.Furthertothis,thestrongbondsofcommunitiesbasedonclasssolidaritystandinoppositiontothechameleonselfofneoliberalism,whoseskillsareendlesslyadaptableandwhoseverylifeisflexible.

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distinctwayinwhichfreedomtochooseisinscribedasafoundationalcitizen

right.Furthermore,theconceptualspaceoccupiedbyAmericaastheprimary

consumeristnation,landofCocaColaandDisneyland,meansthatthereisless

dissonancebetweentheseaccountsofselfhoodthaninanationsuchas

Britain.476WemightsaythattheAmericancitizenhasalwaysbeenthe

economisedcitizen;thatis,accountsoffreedominAmericahavealwaysbeen

connectedtoeconomicpotential.WecanseethisinJ.HectorSt.Jeande

Crèvecoeur’saccountofAmericainLettersFromanAmericanFarmer(1782),

whichconcentratesonthewaysinwhichthisnewnationdiffersfromtheOld

WorldofEurope:

WhatattachmentcanapoorEuropeanemigranthaveforacountry

wherehehadnothing?Theknowledgeofthelanguage,theloveofa

fewkindredaspoorashimself,weretheonlycordsthattiedhim:his

countryisnowthatwhichgiveshimland,bread,protection,and

consequence...TheAmericanisanewman,whoactsuponnew

principles;hemustthereforeentertainnewideas,andformnew

opinions.Frominvoluntaryidleness,serviledependence,penury,and

uselesslabour,hehaspassedtotoilsofaverydifferentnature,

rewardedbyamplesubsistence.ThisisanAmerican.477

TobeAmerican,then,istobefreeofobligationexceptperhapsthatfeltas

gratitudetothelargesseofthelandthatenables(whiteEuropean)newcomers

toreinventthemselvesaseconomicallyfreemen.Theselfwhomayimagine

himselffreeisthefoundationalAmericansubject.Morethanthis,theinscription

ofthisfreedominthelanguageofhappiness,pertheDeclarationof

independence,suggeststhattobeanAmericanistoimagineoneselfasasubject

withthepotentialtobehappy.AnAmericansubjectshouldbeself-governing

becausetheyarefreefrominclination,andimaginedinessenceasfreefromthe

weightyemotionalandeconomicbondsoftheOldWorld.Theinterventionofthe

statetoshapeaparticularkindofcitizenisapparentprimarilyatmomentsof

476Wemightconsiderthisinlightoftheconsumeristunderpinningsoftheschismbetweenthetwocountries,andthefoundationalnatureoffreetradeinAmerica’snationalself-conception.477J.HectorSt.JeandeCrèvecoeurinLettersFromanAmericanFarmer1782J.M.DentandsonsLtd:LondonandNewYork,1926,pp.43-44.CrèvecoeurwasaFrenchnative,whodidnotvisitAmericauntilhewastwenty.

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crisis,althoughitisalwaysworkingthroughbiopoliticalgovernance,asFoucault

illustrated.Theprimacyof‘beingAmerican’inthepopularimaginationisinitself

astrategyofgovernance,wherethis‘ideal’orabstractidentitycomestobear

materiallyonsubjectsinregulatingandmanagingtheirbehaviour.Althoughthis

istruetogreaterandlesserextentsinothernations,theself-consciousmyth-

makingofAmericaelevatesthisdiscourseofindividualself-creationtoa

foundationalpositionnotnecessarilypresentinmostEuropeancountries.

ContemporaryAmericanLiteraryCulture:NewTimes,NewSelves,New

Sincerity?

This,then,iswherewebegininsituatingEgan’swork:asAmerican.Inthe

previoussection,Istartedbyofferingsomeaccountofthecriticallandscape

surroundingBallard’swork,inordertoexplainbothwhatisuniqueinmy

readingofhiswork,andhowItrackBallard’sengagementwiththediscourseI

amoutlininginthisthesis.ThebodyofcriticalworkonEganis,asonemight

imagine,considerablysmallerthanthatonBallard.ThefournovelsIsurveyhere

(alongwithone‘Twitfic,’BlackBox(2012),andacollectionofshortstoriesIwill

notbeexploring)accountforherentireliteraryoeuvre;Ballard’squartet

compriseaboutafifthofhis,nottomentionthenumerousshortstorycollections

publishedduringhislifetime.ThesubstantialityofBallard’sbackcatalogue,as

wellashisrevisitingofthemes,characters,andmotifsthroughouthisoeuvre,

createsadistinctfictionalworld–theBallardian–thatinformsreader

expectation,interpretationandanalysis.Thisisunderlinedbytheselatenovels

which,asIhavesoughttoshow,seemtobedesignedtoworktogethertooffer

thereaderawarning:“DangerousbendsRIGHTNOW.”AlthoughIwouldargue

thatEgan’sworkalsodemonstratesthesamerevisitingofthemesandmotifs,

thereisnocomparable‘Eganian’universe,duebothtothenewnessofherwork

andtherelativelackofscholarshiponitthusfar.

Anotherimportantdifferenceinsituatingtheworkoftheseauthorsistheir

distinctculturalheritage.Aswesawinthepreviouschapter,Ballard’sworkis

stagedglobally,althoughitsfocustendstobeona‘typicallyBritish’middleclass,

representationofwhichmaybeextendedtoaglobalbourgeois,asinSuper-

Cannes,reflectinghisconcernsregardingthe‘bourgeoisation’oflifemore

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generally.BallardalsoseekstotracetheinfluenceofAmericancultureon

WesternEurope,whilstatthesametimerecognisingthattraditionalideasof

bordersandnationalitymaystillholdweight,despitetheneoliberalrubricof

‘globalcitizens.’Incontrasttothis,Egan’sworkisfirmlysituatedasAmerican,

althoughittooutilisesglobalstaging,acrossEurope,AfricaandSouthAmerica.

Americanliteraturehas,asisfrequentlynoted,beenheavilyinvolvedintheself-

consciouscreationofanationalidentity.AsGreilMarcusandWernerSollorsput

itintheirintroductiontoANewLiteraryHistoryofAmerica(2009),“thisisthe

storyofamade-upnationthatinmanywaysprecededitssociety.Itsliterature

wasnotinheritedbutinvented,asifitwereatooloramachine,anddiscovered,

asifitwereagoldstrikeorthenextwonderoftheLouisianaPurchase.”478

Americanidentity,initsearliestincarnation,waspredicatedondenyingthe

socio-politicalsystemsthatgaveshapetoEurope,particularlyBritainand

France.479TobeAmerican,accordingtoitsnationalmythology,istobeaself-

determiningindividual,evenaspartofthewhole(epluribusunum,indeed).This

individualisingtendencyofAmericanidentityaccordsneatlywiththeatomistic

agendaofneoliberalism,andisexploredextensivelythroughoutEgan’swork-

thisisanexplicitthemeofLookatMe,thoughitrecurstosomeextentineachof

hernovels.InseekingtolocateEganinamorespecificcontemporarycritical

framework,Iwilllookbrieflyatthewayinwhichherworkhasbeententatively

situatedinthecontextofpostmodernity,NewSincerity,andthe‘neoliberal

novel,’inordertoteaseoutthemostusefulcriticalstartingpointfor

understandingwhatEgan’sworkistryingtodo–oreven,whatishappeningin

478GreilMarcusandWernerSollorseditors.ANewLiteraryHistoryofAmericaBelknapPress:Cambridge,Ma,London:2009.’Introduction’pp.xxi–xxvii,p.xxiii.Ifeelsafeinsayingtheseassertionsarefairlyuncontroversial,formingastheydothebasisonmostintroductoryAmericanliteraturecoursesand,likewise,theframeworkformostliteraryanthologies,eventhosethatseektowrestlewiththeartificialityofthisnationhoodandthehistoricallyexclusionarynatureoftheAmericanliterarycanon,asMarcusandSollors’workdoes.479AsisevidentinJ.HectorSt.JeandeCrèvecoeur’sdescriptionsofthearrivalofanEnglishmantonewAmerica.Crèvecoeurwrites:“Whatatrainofpleasingideasthisfairspectaclemustsuggest;itisaprospectwhichmustinspireanewcitizenwiththemostheartfeltpleasure.Thedifficultyconsistsinthemannerofviewingsoextensiveascene.Heisarrivedonanewcontinent;amodernsocietyoffersitselftohiscontemplation,differentfromwhathehadhithertoseen.Itisnotcomposed,asinEurope,ofgreatlordswhopossesseverything,andofaherdofpeoplewhohavenothing.Herearenoaristocraticalfamilies,nocourts,nokings,nobishops,noecclesiasticaldominion,noinvisiblepowergivingtoafewaveryvisibleone;nogreatmanufacturersemployingthousands,nogreatrefinementsofluxury.”LettersFromanAmericanFarmer,p.39-40.

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Egan’swork,whichmightnotbebestdescribedinthelanguageofintentionality,

aswewillsee.

Therangeoftermsgivenaboveasastartingpointsignalsoneofthe

foremostdifficultiesofdiscussingEgan’swork,whichisitsvery

contemporaneity.Thatis,itispossibletoregardBallard’sworkinsomesortof

historicalcontext,becausethemomentonwhichitcommented,therealityit

invented,hassincepassed.Ballard’sworkisboundedbyitsinscriptionand

immanencetothematerialcircumstanceinwhichitwaswritten,evenasit

pushestowardsthe‘nextfiveminutes.’Egan’sworkoccupiesadifferent

temporalmodality,whichIwillseektooutlinehereandexplainthroughclose

readingofherworkbelow.Thisisalsopartofamoregeneraldifficultyin

categorisingcontemporaryliteratureafterpostmodernity,whichhasbeenthe

subjectofconsiderablediscussionamongstliteraryscholars,someofwhom,

suchasMarkMcGurlandMathiasNilges,informmyeffortstosituateEgan’s

work.Tostart,then,wewillbeginatthebeginning–thatis,AdamKelly’s

accountofEgan’swork,in‘BeginningwithPostmodernism’(2011).Thisessay

concentratesonunpackingtherelationshipbetweenEgan’sLookatMeandher

postmodernliteraryinheritance.Kellyusesthisasanexemplaryreadingwith

whichtomakeaseriesoflargerpointsaboutthewayinwhichwedoormight

‘beginwith’postmodernisminoureffortstooffercriticalaccountsofboth

contemporaryfiction,broadlyspeaking,andindividualcontemporaryfictions.480

Inalaterpieceofwork,Kellycontinuesonfromthisbeginning,tentatively

claimingEganfor‘NewSincerity,’thecriticalschooldescribedinhisessay,

‘DavidFosterWallaceandtheNewSincerityinAmericanFiction’(2010).WhatI

wanttodohereistodrawalinefromthesereadingsthroughtoNilges’s

invocationofAVisitFromtheGoonSquadasa‘neoliberalnovel,’inorderto

connecttheextantcriticaldotsonreadingEgan.Thisisalsoanefforttoworkout

thegroundingforreadingEgan’sworkinapoliticalcontext,asanyapproachthat

connectsittoneoliberalismmustinevitablyseekto.Thisexamination,then,is

twofold:whatisthisworktryingtodo?Andthen,whatdoesthisworkdo?

480Inaway,LookatMeistheexemplaryproblematicofEgan’snovelstoo,initsovertuseoftheformsandtechniquesofpostmodernliteratureandfrequentandintrusiveinsistenceonforegroundingitsowntextuality(aswewillseeinclosereading).

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Egan’sworkisdifficulttosituatebecauseitenactsarepeateddisavowalof

seriousnessinitsconstantrecoursetoirony–typicallypostmodern-butalso

demonstratesasustainedengagementwiththewayinwhichpeopleliveunder

neoliberalism–apparentlysincere,andalso,perhaps,incipientlypolitical.Here

tooliesthecruxofthedifferencebetweenBallard’sworkandEgan’s.Where

Ballardfocusesonoutsiders,onthosewhostruggleagainsttheapparently

totalisingsystemsofneoliberalism,Egan’sworkconcentratesoninsiders–on

thestruggletoliveinsideofthesesystemsandofthewayinwhich,as‘insiders,’

thesecharactersareoftencomplicitintheirownimbricationinneoliberalism,

andtheneoliberalhappinessdiscourseIamtracinginthisthesis.Eganalso

continuestheextensivethematisationofimaginationmarkedinBallard’swork,

categorisedinmyreadingofhisworkasaspaceofaffectivepotential(after

Massumi).

Themoststraightforwardwaytobeginto‘drawaline’betweenthesecritical

accountsofEganis,Ithink,toconcentrateonthetemporalmodeinwhichher

novelsoperate.In‘BeginningwithPostmodernism,’Kellycharacterisesthe

relationshipbetweenEgan’snovelsandthepostmoderntraditionasbest

describedasgothic.481Towit,hesuggeststhatthewayinwhichEgan’swork

invokesthetropesandtechniquesofthegothicproducesasenseoftheuncanny,

whichreintroduces“resonancesandspectersofhistoryintothenovel’sformas

wellasinitscontent.”482Thisis,infact,commontoEgan’snovels,almostallof

whichoperateinwhatIwillcallherethe‘neoliberalgothic’anddemonstratea

similarpreoccupationwithtimeandhistory,expressedthrough‘haunted’

narrativesinwhichtemporalityisconstantlyuncertain.Forexample,inThe

InvisibleCircus,towhichwewillcomeshortly,theprimarynarrativeofPhoebe

O’Connorisconstantlyshaped,underpinned,andinterruptedbythatofherlong-

deceasedsister,Faith;thisispartofalargerthemenegotiatingthetransition

fromthenineteensixtiestothenineteenseventiesinAmerica.Novels

demonstratingthisformalpreoccupationwithtimearedescribedbyNilgesas

Zeitroman,andheincludesAVisitFromtheGoonSquadasanexampleofthe

481AdamKelly.‘BeginningwithPostmodernism,’Twentieth-CenturyLiterature57.3&57.4,2011,pp.391-422,p.394.482Kelly.‘BeginningwithPostmodernism,’p.394.

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genre.483Thisisafeatureofwhathecallsthe‘neoliberalnovel’becauseofthe

changingnatureoftimeunderneoliberalism,describedasa“temporal

immediacy,”referringtothecontractionoftherelationshipbetweenworkerand

capital(nolongermediatedthroughthesalaryrelationship),afterMarazzi.484

Thisisalsoconnectedtothe‘paceoflife’enabledbynewtechnologies:

“Neoliberalismproducesandrequiresanewformoftimeandtemporalitythatis

moredirectlytiedtoactivitiesthatwerepreviouslyindependentofthe

productionprocess[includingintellectualandemotionalactivity].”485Nilges

continues,suggestingthatneoliberalismrequires“astructuralliteralisationof

temporalimmediacy,thatis,forinstance,connectedtothespeedoftradeand

communicationinthecontextofwhichwewitnessthecontractionoftimeinto

instantaneity.”486NilgesfollowsthiswithFrancoBerardi’sconceptof

‘hypercomplexity,’whichexpressesthebombardmentofinformation

experiencedbytheneoliberalsubjectandthedifficultyofprocessingthis

informationduetoitsrateofarrivalandstructuralcomplexity.487Nilgesis

seekingtore-establishtheantagonisticfunctionofliteraturewithinculture,

throughemphasisingitsabilitytocreateaspaceinwhichthefuturemaybe

imaginedasdifference:thisismyfundamentalapproachtoo.488Partofthis,

Nilgessuggests,istodowiththeformofthenovel.Thisformcanresistthe

immediacyofotherartforms,suchascinemaandphotographyand,

unmentioned,butimplicit,andimportant,allandanyartmadeonline,onemust

assume.Thisoccurs,Nilgessuggests,throughthenovel’s,

483MathiasNilges.‘Neoliberalismandthetimeofthenovel,’TextualPractice,29:2,2015,pp.357-377,p.372.484Nilges.‘Neoliberalismandthetimeofthenovel,’p.368-9.ItisMarazzi’sterm,“newtimes,”thatIhaveborrowedforthetitleofthissection.485Nilges‘Neoliberalismandthetimeofthenovel,’p.368.486Nilges‘Neoliberalismandthetimeofthenovel,’p.368.487Thereismoretobesaidhere,Ithink,asregardsthewayinwhichinformationisreceivedasamassornetworkduetotheaccessibilityofallinformation(theoreticallyatleast),butformycurrentpurpose,thespecificsofthisoperationarelessimportantthantheimpactithasonsubjects–engenderingakindofinformation‘daze,’ifyoulike,thatreplicatesthesamechaosofchoicebywhichsubjectsareobligedtoimbricatethemselvesinneoliberalnetworksofproductionandconsumption.488Iwillexplorethespecific‘case’forliterature,andthenovelinparticular,astheidealvehicleforthis(and,indeed,forthekindofcriticalapproachIamtakinginthisthesisasthebestwaytounderstandthispotential),intheintroduction/conclusion.

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reconfigurationofthetemporallimitofneoliberalismasahistorically

specifictemporalimaginary,onethatisdirectlyrelatedtospecific

historicalconditionsandthatassuchdoesnotmarktheendoftime

itselfbutratherthecrisisofoneofneoliberalism’sconstitutive

dimensions.489

Theoppositionalformoftheneoliberalnovelisseenheretolieinthenovel’s

processualaccountoftherelationshipbetweensubjectandworld,which

demonstratesaresistancetothetemporalimmediacycharacterisedaboveasa

constituentfeatureofneoliberalismandanabilitytoworkthrough(orwrite

through)temporalcrises.490Thisoppositionalfunctionrevealsthatsame

contradictionattheheartofneoliberalismthatIhaveoutlinedthroughoutthis

thesis:theneedforfuturity-toguaranteecontinuedproductiveparticipation-

andtheforeclosureofitspossibilitygiventhelimitationsofconstantimmediacy

-shortterm,orprecarious,lifenarratives.Wecanseethis,too,inNilges’s

accountofwhatheidentifiesasthetwotypesofneoliberalnovel,distinguishing

betweennovelsthat“reproducethesymptom(alackoftimeandfuturity,

seekingrefugeinthepastintheabsenceofbeingabletoimaginethefutureas

difference)andthosethatengagewithneoliberalismasboundupwiththe

questionofthenovel’spossibilityasanartform.”491Thenovelcaninventour

ownrealityandthusforceustoconfrontit,oritcanattemptanimaginative

investigationoftheconditionsofthisreality.AlthoughIfindNilges’sworkvery

useful,Iamnotsosurethatthereisaharddistinctionbetweenthesetwo‘types’:

infact,myreadingofBallardsuggestedthatthefirstmightactuallyenablethe

second,whereBallarddesignedthisconfrontationinordertopushthereader

towardsexploringtheirownimaginativecapacity,oraffectivepotential.Wewill

seehowthisworksinEgan’snovels.

Egan’sinterest,asIhopetodemonstratethroughoutthissection,liesfirstand

foremostinthenovelasform.Kellyhassuggestedthatherworknegotiatesthe

largerquestionsofsincerityhehasidentifiedasshapingtheworkofDavid489Nilges‘Neoliberalismandthetimeofthenovel,’p.372.490Thisunderstandingalsodemonstrateswhyapocalypticnovelsmayhavelimitedutilityinrepresentingneoliberalism,underpinningtheemergenceofthis‘newspeculativefiction,’asIhavetentativelydescribedtheworkofBallardandEgan,aswellasothers,suchasMichelHouellebecq.491Nilges‘Neoliberalismandthetimeofthenovel,’p.372.

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FosterWallace,whicharethequestionsofhowtherelationshipbetweenauthor

andreadermightbesincere,inaroughlypostmodernframework-thatis,how

doesthereflexivelyself-awareauthorwritetheirwayoutofthedoublebindof

postmodernirony?Whileacknowledgingthatthisisthecontextfromwhich

Egan’sworkemerges,Iamnotconvincedthatthisiswhatisactuallyatstakein

herwork;infact,asIintendtodemonstrate,thepreoccupationofherworkis

thefunctionoffictionforfiction’ssake.Thus,positinganintendedrelationship

withthereader,sincereorotherwise,overlooksherowndisavowals,bothwithin

hernovelsandininterviews,etc.492Iamuneasyaboutendorsingthepolitical

potentialofliteratureconceivedundertheheadingof‘NewSincerity’becauseit

seemstomeitmightaccordtooneatlywiththede-radicalisedpoliticsof

intimacyIhaveelsewheresuggestedbridgesthewayforpost-truthpolitics

throughitsequivalencebetweenfactandfeeling.493Nilges’saccountofthe

functionoftheneoliberalnovelallowsawaytoreadEgan’sworkinapolitical

contextwhilststillacknowledgingthatthismaybeunintentional–itoccursdue

toapreoccupationwithform,andthepotentialofthisform,ratherthanasan

extendedthematicexploration,perBallard’swork.Inthisway,Eganherselfcan

dodgeattemptstogeta‘criticalhandle’onherwork(whichshefrequentlydoes),

but,atthesametime,theworkmaystillhaveapoliticalfunction.Thisisthe

backdropagainstwhichIamstartingmyexplorationofneoliberalhappiness

discourseinEgan’snovels-withadisavowalofmyown.Weshouldbecareful,I

think,inattributingtoomuchtowhatEganistryingtomakehappenoffthepage,

492JenniferEganinterviewedbyChristopherCox.TheParisReviewJune252010,www.theparisreview.org/blog/2010/06/25/qa-jennifer-egan/-here,Egandiscusseshowhernovelsareoftena‘workingout’ofliterarytheory;JenniferEganinterviewedbyHeidiJulavits,Bomb,112,2010.bombmagazine.org/article/3524/jennifer-egan-thesamepointemergeshere.493Thisisnotintendedtodismisstheutilityofthetermentirely,butIthinkmyscepticismissupportedbythewayinwhichithasbeenappropriatedasacommercialform;see,forexample,thefilmsofWesAnderson,orthemusicofVampireWeekend,towhomthelabelhasbeenapplied.Greaterconsiderationisrequiredoftheutilityoftheformagainsttheuncertainboundariesofthepersonalandpolitical,particularlywhenitcomestodefiningselfhoodthroughpreference.Ithinkthesekindofpreferencesalsohaveimplicationsforshapingsubjectagencyinapoliticalsense,asIhaveintimatedelsewhereinthisthesis(“it’swhatyoulike,notwhatyouarelike”).Theunderlyinglogicofvulnerabilitythatshapespopularunderstandingoftheconceptneedstobeinterrogatedinthissamevein,andattendedtothroughconsideringhowthe‘middleclassification’Ihavepointedtoelsewhereisplayedoutintheseattachmentsoridentifications.

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toparaphraseZadieSmith,asquotedbyKelly.494Despitethis,itmaystillbethat,

againstallintention,somethingdoeshappen.ThisistheframeworkinwhichI

willexplorehowEgan’sworkwrestleswithconceptionsofhappinessunder

neoliberalism.

494OriginallytakenfromSmith’sintroductiontoashortstorycollectioncalledTheBurnedChildrenofAmericaeditedbyMarcoCassiniandMartinaTesta,LondonandNewYork:HamishHamilton,2003,pp.xi-xxii,p.xx.

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TheInvisibleCircus:PromisesWeCouldn’tKeep

JenniferEgan’sfirstnovel,TheInvisibleCircus,waspublishedin1995,andtells

thestoryofPhoebeO’Connor,aneighteenyear-oldAmericanwhoembarksona

pilgrimagetoEurope,retracingajourneymadebyhersister,Faith,whokilled

herselfinasmalltowninItalyadecadeearlier.LikeBallard’snovels,theplot

seemstolooselyfollowtheconventionsofthedetectiveform.Phoebeuses

postcardssentbyhersisterasclues,followingherjourneyinaneffortto

discoverthereasonforherdeath.Wemightalsoreadthesepostcardsasakind

ofgothicepistolaryframing,permysuggestionthatmuchofEgan’swork

operatesinthemodeoftheneoliberalgothic.ThenovelissetinSanFranciscoin

1978,alandmarkyearintheriseofneoliberalism,accordingtoDavidHarvey:

“Futurehistoriansmaywelllookupontheyears1978-80asarevolutionary

turning-pointintheworld’ssocialandeconomichistory.”495IfBallard’swork

demonstratedanawarenessofthe‘neoliberalturn’fromitsveryinception,Egan

takesitasherfictionalstartingpoint,situatingthereaderattheprecipiceofthe

seismicchangeaboutto“remaketheworldaroundusinatotallydifferent

image.”496Morethanthis,inTheInvisibleCircus,Eganexpandsonthe

relationshipbetweentheculturalrupturesofthenineteensixtiesandthe

evolutionofneoliberalismandits‘new’subject,alsotoucheduponinBallard’s

work.Eganplacesemphasisontheideaof‘self-objectification’andthewayin

whichthisisrootedintheriseofmediatedselfhoodemergentinthesixties,as

wewillsee.Eventheprimarysettingofthenovel–seventiesSanFrancisco–is

involvedintheseculturalshifts.Oncetheholygrailofhippyculture,thelocation

oftheSummerofLove,SanFranciscoisnowwidelygentrified,thankstothetech

industryofSiliconValley,withincomeinequalityandhousingscarcityrising

yearonyear.497ThereisanodtothisinthefigureofBarryO’Connor,Phoebe’s

495DavidHarvey.ABriefHistoryofNeoliberalismOxford:OxfordUniversityPress,2008,p.1.496Harvey.ABriefHistoryofNeoliberalism,p.1.Theword“image”isimportanthere,too,reflectingasitdoesboththedeliberatevisionofneoliberalismandanemphasisonappearance;anemphasisthatinformsmuchofEgan’swriting,which,aswewillsee,returnsagainandagaintothespectacle,theaudience,andthewaysinwhichself-perceptionismediatedandshapedbyother-perceptionengenderedbynewtechnologiesoftheselfwhichrenderthesubjectatoncecentralandperipheral,performerandobserver.497MariaLLaGanga.‘Ordinarypeoplecan’taffordahomeinSanFrancisco.Howdiditcometothis?’TheGuardian5August2016www.theguardian.com/business/2016/aug/05/high-house-prices-san-francisco-tech-boom-inequalityThereisastrongrelationshipbetweenhippieculture

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brother,anewlyrichSiliconValleyentrepreneur,andintheshiftingmoodofthe

cityEgantracesinthenovel.

Thisistheleast‘experimental’ofEgan’snovels,operatingmoreorlessina

straightforwardlyrealistmode.Nevertheless,asIhavesuggested,itoffersan

uncertaintemporalitythroughitsconstantnarrativenegotiationbetweenFaith

andPhoebe-betweenthesixtiesandtheseventies,even-atypicallygothic

doubling.MyreadingofEgan’sworkasneoliberalgothictiesintoNilges’s

readingoftheneoliberalnovelbutreachesformorespecificityregardinghow

neoliberalinfluenceoperatesinEgan’searlynovels.EmilyJohansenoffersa

compellingaccountoftheneoliberalgothicinwhichsherecognisesthe

narrowingofhorizonsofpossibilityasstructurallyessentialtosucha

conception:“iftraditionalgothicnarrativesworkedtoobscureandexorcisethe

crueltiesofliberalcapitalism,inneoliberalgothicnarrativesthecrueltiesare

recognizedasinevitableandinescapable.”498Thisreadingrecognisesthesame

foreclosureoffuturityIhavetracedasthedominantfeatureoflifeunder

neoliberalism.Thisowesmuchtotherhetoricof‘noalternative,’thesource,by

myaccount,ofmuchoftheaffectivedistressneoliberalhappinessdiscourse

seekstomanageandcontain.Thereareotherfeaturesofthegothicthatinflect

TheInvisibleCircusandEgan’slaternovels:thefrequentappearanceofcastles,

andruins;thenarrativeencroachmentoftheOldWorldofEurope;theparanoia

thatinfectsbothnarrativesandcharacters;andthepreoccupationwiththe

fragmentedsubject.AsJoelFaflakandJasonHaslamputit,“thegothicexpresses

paranoiathatreasonmightbeasvolatileoranachronisticasthehistoriesand

customsitforcedunderground,whichiswhythegothicitselfappearsatonce

anachronisticandfreakishlynovel.”499ThissupportsmycontentionthatEgan’s

novelsmaybedoingmorethantheyareostensiblyintendedto,andmoves

andthetechindustry,too,asexploredbyFredTurnerinFromCounterculturetoCyberculture:StewartBrand,theWholeEarthNetwork,andtheRiseofDigitalUtopianism,Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2006.498EmilyJohansen.‘TheNeoliberalGothic:GoneGirl,BrokenHarbor,andtheTerrorofEverydayLife,’ContemporaryLiterature,57:1,2016.pp.30-55.p.30.Myemphasis.Iwillalsonoteherethattheverylanguageofthissentence–theterm“recognized”–demonstratestheexacttotalisinghorizonofhopelessnessneoliberalismseekstoenact,andbetraysthenaturalisationofthisinevitability,evenasJohansenworkstounpackhowliteraturemayseektodestabilisethese‘inevitabilities.’499JoelFaflakandJasonHaslam.AmericanGothicCulture,Edinburgh:EdinburghUniversityPress,2016,p.5.

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towardsaddressingKelly’sassertionthat“itcanbedifficulttoidentifyexactly

whatEgan’sworkbringstothepostmoderntablethatwehaven’tseen

before.”500

The“anachronisticandfreakishlynovel”seemstomeagooddescriptionof

theeffectofEgan’sformstraddling.FaflakandHaslam’sdescriptionalso

demonstrateshowtheneoliberalgothicworksasanexemplarygenrewithinthe

morebroadneoliberalnovelformoutlinedbyNilges.Iftheparanoidturnin

gothicliteratureexpressesfearattheinadequacyofreason,itspeaksperfectlyto

thedistressofsubjectswhoareinterpellatedto(re)makethemselvesaccording

tothepurportedlyrational‘businessontology’ofneoliberalismandfindthat

theycannot.Thisisthedisjuncturebetweentheoriesof‘marketlogic’andthe

experienceofthe‘chaosofchoice,’theparanoidtoneofthegothicexpressingthe

unspeakableexperienceofbecomingneoliberal,asitwere.Althoughnoneof

thesenovels,barTheKeep,aredeliberatelywrittenasgothic,therecurrenceof

gothicfeaturesbetraysthisdistinctlyneoliberalanxiety,perJohansen’swork.In

fact,itmaybethattheunintentionalgothicismofthenovelsenactsan

expressionofthisanxietythatisnotovertlydealtwithintheirtext.Johansen

alsoassertsthatitisnotnecessarilythe‘typicallygothic’thatmakeswork

operatinginthismodegrotesque,butinstead,“thewaythedemandsof

neoliberalsubject-formationcannothelpbutcreatemonstersorasenseof

decline,despitearhetoricofcontinuousevolutionaryimprovement.”501Again,

thisgoestotheheartofmyaccountofthewayinwhichthefigureoftheideal

neoliberalsubjectisonewhomostpeoplearenotlike,perRichardSennett.This

willberevisitedextensivelyinexploringLookatMe,whichexplicitlythematises

thisdisjuncture.

ThegothicdoublingsanduncertaintemporalmodalitiesofTheInvisibleCircus

areapparentfromitsbeginning.Phoebearrivesattheadvertisedsiteofthe

‘RevivalofMoons,’aneventmarkingtenyearssincea‘FestivalofMoons.’Half

thepostersadvertisingtheeventwereprintedwiththewrongdate,andasa

result,shehasmissedit.Theseuncertaintextualartefactsaretypicallygothic,

too.Atthesite,sheencountersKyle,orCatnip,whowasafriendofhersister’s.

500Kelly.‘BeginningwithPostmodernism’p.392.501Johansen.‘TheNeoliberalGothic,’p.31.

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Almostimmediately,hesaystoher,“Man...youlookalotlikethisgirlIusedto

know.”502EvenPhoebe’snameconsignshertoasecondaryposition,emphasised

bythenameofthefestival:thegoddessPhoebe(alsoArtemis)isassociatedwith

themoon,alight-borrower.Phoebe’snamingalsoplacesherintheliterary

lineageoflittlesisters,linkinghertoHoldenCaulfield’sroller-skatingkidsister,

Phoebe,oneofthefewpeoplethedisaffectednarratorofJ.D.Salinger’sThe

CatcherintheRye(1951)canstand.ItistoPhoebethatHoldenrecountsthe

titularfantasyofthatnovel,hisdreamofkeepinglittlechildrenplayinginafield

ofryefromrunningofftheedgeofanearbycliff,inspiredbyamisremembered

RobertBurnspoem.Holden’sfantasyrepresentsadreamofpreserving

innocence,ofkeepingsafetheincorruptibilityofchildhood,inthesameway

Saint-Exupéry’snarratorinTheLittlePrincesoughttoresistthestricturesof

adulthood.InTheInvisibleCircus,Phoebehasbecometrappedinakindof

perpetualpre-adolescence,afraidtoparticipateintheteenageritesofpassage

intowhichhersistersorecklesslythrewherself-sex,drugs,rebellion.Her

brothercriticisesthedomesticsituationenjoyedbysheandhermother:“Imean,

Jesus,Phoebe,it’sbeenyearsandnothing’schanged;it’slikeGreat

Expectations.”503Phoebe’sliminalselfhoodistiedtotheuncertaintyofAmerican

identityasawholeinthenineteenseventies,throughthe‘hangover’ofthe

sixties.Acommoncharacterisationofthesixtiesisasthedecadethatsawthe

‘endofinnocence’inAmerica,oftenlinkedtotheassassinationofPresidentJohn

F.Kennedy.504Theassassinationisdirectlyreferencedinthenovel,whenPhoebe

ispackingupsomeofhersister’sbelongingsandcomesacrossamagazine

spreadfeaturing,“JohnF.Kennedy’sshootinginaseriesoffreeze-frames–Jackie

holdingthePresident’shead,thencrawlinginhershortskirtoverthebackofthe

movingcar–eachmomentsostill,sodeeplyfamiliar,likeimagesfromPhoebe’s

owndreams.”505ThefrozenmomentofdisasterechoestheshapeofPhoebe’s

502JenniferEgan.TheInvisibleCircus1995London:Corsair,2012,p.4.503TheInvisibleCircus,p.23.504ThereisextensiveliteratureavailableontheupheavalsofthesixtiesandthewayinwhichthisreshapedAmericaandtheAmericansenseofself.See,forexample,DavidFarber’sTheAgeofGreatDreams:Americainthe1960s,NewYork:HillandWang,1994,orToddGitlin,TheSixties:YearsofHope,DaysofRage,NewYork:Bantam,1989.505TheInvisibleCircus,p.83.

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ownlife,andthedream-likequalityoftheimagesspeakstothewayinwhichthe

assassinationisetchedintheAmericanpublicimagination.

Thismomentisrepresentativeofthewidercharacterisationofthenineteen

sixtiesasamomentofhistoricalruptureinAmericanculture,particularlyinthe

popularconservativeimagination,asThomasFrankdescribesinTheConquestof

Cool(1997).506Frank’sworkhighlightstheriseofyouthcultureasaconsumer

demographicduringthisperiod,intimatingtheriseofmediatedidentityfor

thosecomingofageduringtheseupheavals.Thiswasreflectedinmediacontent

too,whichgavesubstantial(oftendisapproving)coveragetothemovement,as

JohnAnthonyMorettadescribesinTheHippies:A1960sHistory(2017),andas

gesturedtowardsearlyinthenovel:

InthepubliclibraryPhoebehadspenthoursporingoveroldOracles,

leafingthroughscholarlyandjournalisticaccountsofthe‘Love

Generation’.Butshereadwitharestless,uneasysuspicionthatthese

analyseswereleadingherfurtherfromthemystery’score,not

towardit.507

InTheInvisibleCircus,Egandrawsaparallelbetweenthehippieexperienceof

mediaattentionandthecurrentconditionshebroadlyreferstoas‘self-

objectification,’whichisinpracticeconnectedtonewformsofselfhoodenabled

(orrequired)bycontemporarytechnologiessuchasrealitytelevisionandonline

socialmedias.ThiscomparisonisevidentwhenFaith’sex-boyfriend,Wolf,

describestheInvisibleCircuseventtoPhoebe:

Theideawasforeveryonetoliveouttheircraziestfantasiesatonce.

Meanwhilethese‘reporters’weretakingnotesoneverythingthat

happened,thenRichardBrautigan–nojoke,Brautiganhimself–

wouldtypeupthenotesinto‘newsbulletins’andmimeograph

hundredsofcopiesthatgotpassedaroundinstantly,sonotonlywere

peopledoingallthiscrazyshit,butalotoftimestheywerereading

aboutthemselvesdoingitbeforethey’devenfinished.508

506SeeThomasFrank.TheConquestofCool:BusinessCulture,Counterculture,andtheRiseofHipConsumerism.Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1997,pp.1-5.507TheInvisibleCircus,p.31.508TheInvisibleCircus,p.194-5.

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AfterWolfrecountsthisanecdote,Phoebesaysitsoundslikeadream,andWolf

says,“That’sexactlyhowitfelt.”509Whereshemeansthatitsoundsdreamy,

exciting,novel,hemeansitinreferencetothesensationofbeingmadeunreal

throughtheexperienceofreflexiveself-objectification.Throughthisprocess,the

subjectbecomesperipheralevenwhilstapparentlycentral,astheuncertainand

changeablerealityoftheembodiedselfisinscribedintothepermanenceoftext

andmadevisibleinthisway.510WolfandFaithareofagenerationwhoself-

consciouslysawthemselveswrittenintohistory,andWolf,likeEgan,isnotsure

thiswasapositivedevelopment.

Thisdescriptionalsolinkstheemergenceofthismediatedselftotheriseof

literarypostmodernism,invokingBrautigan,amemberoftheBeatgeneration

andanearlypostmodernist.511Egan’sobsessionwithtextualityandwiththe

literaryantecedentsofherworkisnotgivenfullexpressioninthisnovel–todo

sowhilstadheringtothebroadlyrealistmodeinwhichthenovelworkswould

straintheform,asisthecaseinherlaternovels,aswewillsee.Inthispassage,

Wolfdescribestheprocessbywhichthesixtieswerehistoricised,andbetrays

Egan’sprimarycharacterisationofsixtiescounterculture–“Theideawasfor

everyonetoliveouttheircraziestfantasiesatonce.”Egan’sdepictionofthe

nineteensixtiesemphasisesdesirefortranscendenceastheguidingaegisofthe

counterculturalmovement.Thereissomeimplicationherethatpostmodernism

emergedasaliteraryformalongsidethisdesire–notasanattempttotranscend

realityitself,butasaliteraryefforttocapturetheseeffortsattranscendence,or

todocumenttheupheavalsoftheera.Assuch,itmaybethatthisliteratureoffers

acloserencounterwiththe“mystery’score”thanthosejournalisticaccounts

Phoebemistrusts.Thelargerimplicationofthisreadingisthatliteraturehas

bothamaterialgroundingandaresponsibilityofrepresentation,bothofwhich

areproblematicareaswithinEgan’sownwriting;thisbecomesevidentasher

oeuvreprogresses,andthetensionsbetweentherealistandpostmodernist

impulsesinherworkareincreasinglyexposed.

509TheInvisibleCircus,p.195.510Thistooisconnectedtonewtechnologiesoftheself,aswillbeexploredindetailwhenlookingatLookatMeandTheKeep.511SeeBrianMcHale,PostmodernistFiction,LondonandNewYork:Routledge,1987,particularlypp.110-1,156-7.

185

Incontrasttothepassageabove,whichforegroundsself-reflexivetendencies

withincounterculturalartisticpractice,Faith’sexperienceofbecomingamedia

objectisexplicitlyconnectedtoheremergentpoliticalactivism.Amongstthe

sameclippingsfromwhichshepluckstheJFKimages,Phoebefindsothernews

stories,ontheTetOffensive,theMarchonthePentagon,andonewiththe

headline‘OAKLANDDRAFTPROTEST,ABLOODYATTACKBYPOLICE-CLUBS,

TEARGAS,BOOTS.MANYAREINJURED.20ARRESTED.’512Accompanyingthe

headlineisaphotographofFaith,takenmomentsbeforeapoliceofficerhither

overtheheadwithabillyclub.FormanyyoungAmericans,thedraftforceda

personalconfrontationwithpoliticalreality,andprotestingit,andtheVietnam

War,wasalocusofstudentactivismthroughoutthenineteensixtiesand

seventies.513ForFaith,thispoliticalactivismistiedtoamoregeneralangerat

theworldafterherfather’sdeath.ShedescribestheincidenttoPhoebeand

Barry:“’Ihardlyfeltathing,’Faithsaidfromunderherhair,andPhoebeheard

theexcitementinhervoice.‘Myteethknockedtogether.’”514LikeBallard’s

characters,violenceexcitesFaith.Inthisencounter,sherunsupagainstaforce

thatshecanrecogniseas‘bad’andactivelyresist;shehassomepowerhere.The

mediacoverageoftheeventservestounderlinethis.Phoebemarvelsatthe

minorcelebrityitbestowsonhersister:

Phoebe…foundhereyeswanderingagainandagaintothe

newspaperpicture.Faithwashereinthiskitchenbutshewasthere,

too,inthenews.Phoebestaredattheimage:protestorsandpolice,

thebillyclubdescendingtowardshersister’sheadlikeamagic

wand.515

Thishead-oncollisionwithviolenceprovestobeprophetic;whilstinEurope,

Faithbecomesinvolvedwithaterroristgroup,andparticipatesinplantinga

bombthatinadvertentlykillsaman.Phoebelearnsthislateoninthenovel,from

Wolf,whoneverreturnedtoAmerica.Itwas,ostensibly,theguiltshe

experiencedfollowingtheman’sdeaththatdroveFaithtokillherself.WhenWolf

512TheInvisibleCircus,p.84.513SeeSherryGershonGottleibHellNo,WeWon’tGo!ResistingtheDraftDuringtheVietnamWarNewYork:VikingPress,1991.514TheInvisibleCircus,p.85.515TheInvisibleCircus,p.85.

186

describesFaith’sinvolvementwiththesegroups,however,heevincesthesame

senseofenthrallmentPhoebefeelswhenshethinksofhersister:“Everything

they[theRedArmyFaction]didwentstraightintothenews–instantly,this

druggyout-of-bodything,seeingyourselffrommilesaway,knowingzillionsof

peoplewerefollowingeachlittlethingyoudid…imagineit.”516Wolf,too,is

dazzledbyFaith’snotoriety,whichinthenoveltranslateseasilytocelebrityin

counterculturalterms,likethatofthe“ultimatechiclefty,”UlrikeMeinhof.517

ThisinterestincelebrityisarecurrentthemeinEgan’swork,whereshe

tacitlylinkstheriseofcontemporarycelebrityculturetotheurgetoself-

objectify.EarlyoninTheInvisibleCircus,welearnthatPhoebehassleptinher

sister’sroomforthepastthreeyears,maintainingitinexactlythestateinwhich

Faithleftit.Forthisreason,sherarelyhasvisitorstoherhome;sheisawareof

hereccentricity,buttoherminditisstilllessstrangethantheidolatryof

celebrityculture:“howwaslivinginyoursister’sroomanycrazierthan

surroundingyourselfwithlife-sizepostersofRogerDaltrey…orfollowingthe

personallivesofStarskyandHutch…?”518Phoebetreatshersister’sroomasa

shrine,andherattachmenttoitandtothememoryofFaiththreatenstodoom

hertoapermanentliminality,asBarrysuggestsinhisimplicitconnection

betweenhissisterandDickens’sMissHavisham.UnlikeFaith,whoindeathcan

neverbedifferent,Phoebestillhasthechancetogrowup–orwouldifshecould

letgoofthepast.

‘Growingup’isanideatowhichEganreturnsthroughoutherwork,andher

accountofgrowingupisapoliticallyconsequentialone,evenifitisnotframed

assuch(perhapsevenmoresobecauseitiscovert).InEgan’snovels,growingup

meansacceptingtherealitiesoftheworldandconstructingalifeforoneselfin

whichimmediatenormativegoodobjects-family,homeownership,marriage-

offerthepossibilityofmomentsofgrace,throughwhichindividuallifeisseento

accruevalueandmeaning.ThisiswhyWolfisabletoescapefromthe‘wreckage’

ofFaith’ssuicideandhisentanglementinthecounterculturalmovement-he

realisesthis‘secret’:“maybetherealthingwasjustdoingwhathisparentshad

516TheInvisibleCircus,,p.245.517TheInvisibleCircus,p.230.518TheInvisibleCircus,p.29-30.

187

done,paytherent,readthepaper,hell,maybethatwasthedare.Tolive–dayin,

dayout.Justlive.Itfeltlikearevelation.”519Thefirstdifficultywiththis

formulationisitspoliticalquietism:inassertingtheimpossibilityofenacting

change,itacquiescestotheneoliberallogicof‘noalternative.’Thesecondisthat

itignorestheideologicalfunctionofthesegoodobjects,treatingthemas

apparentlyneutralanduniversallydesirable,andignoringthewaysinwhich

theyinterpellatesubjectsincapitalistprocessesofproductionandconsumption,

aswellascircumscribingalteritythroughtheirlimitedaccountofthe‘goodlife.’

ThisistheassumptionSaraAhmedchallengesinThePromiseofHappiness

(2010)whenshelooksatthoseexcludedfromthe‘historyofhappiness,’suchas

thefeministkilljoy,theunhappyqueer,andthemelancholymigrant.

Relyingonconstructionsofthe‘goodlife’whicharenotavailabletomany

subjectsbecauseofthefragmentingimpactofneoliberaleconomicpolicies,and

theattendantsocialandculturalchangestrackedthroughoutthisthesis,only

perpetuatesdistress.Ascribinguniversalitytothesegoalsignorestheirlimiting

functions,whichmayfurtherdamagesubjectswhodonotseethemaseither

goodordesirable.ThedamagethisinflictsisdiscernableinEgan’swork:the

characterofFaithisonlythefirstinstanceofmanyinwhichcharacterswhowill

notorcannotconformdie,oftenthroughcommittingsuicide.520Egan’swork

reproducestheconditionsofheteronormativepatriarchalcapitalistcultureas

thoughtheyarenatural.Morethanthis,throughvestinginterestinthe

protagonists’journeyto‘maturity,’Egan’snovelsbecome,ineffect,narrativesof

‘becomingneoliberal.’ThisisnotfullymanifestinTheInvisibleCircus,wherewe

leavePhoebeonthevergeofadulthood,butnotyetthere;anascentneoliberal,

likeAmericaitselfin1978.Inherlaternovels,Egandepictsaworldinwhich

neoliberalmarketlogicisalreadyprimary,anditisthiswhichdictatesthetype

519TheInvisibleCircusp.325.ThisaccordswithAnisShivani’saccountoftheprimacyoftheextraordinarymeaninggiventotheordinaryinagenrehedescribesas“plasticrealism.”Inhisview,thisinintimatelyconnectedtotheneoliberalisationofAmericanliteraryculture.IreturntohisworkinlookingatAVisitFromtheGoonSquad.SeeAnisShivani‘PartII:TheNewGenreofPlasticRealisminAmericanFiction,’HuffingtonPost.June162016www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/part-ii-the-new-genre-of-_b_7577230.html.520SeealsothecharactersofRobandRolphinAVisitFromtheGoonSquad.AlthoughRob’sdeathisnominallyaccidental,hehaspreviouslyattemptedsuicide,andtheimplicationisthathismindsetissuicidalatthetimeofhisdeath.

188

ofpersonherprotagonistsmustbecomeinordertoacceptrealityandbecome

grownup.

Letusturn,then,tonascentneoliberalPhoebeO’Connor.Towardsthe

beginningofthenovel,welearnthatPhoebehasimmensedifficultyin

understandingthewiderworld:

herownliferemainedstubbornlyapartfromtheworldofevents.

Governments,armies,networksofundergroundcrooks–theirvery

existencestruckherasimpossible,dizzying.Howhaditallbeen

organized?Whowasincharge?Shewasleftfeelingthatthenews

tookplaceinanotherworld,farfromthequietincrementalonein

whichsheledherlife.521

Phoebecannotlocateherselfinhistory;sheperceivesthepoliticalrealmas

radicallydisconnectedfromherownexperience.Wecanconnectthistothede-

radicalisedpoliticsofintimacy,inwhichsubjectsarediscouragedfromlocating

themselveswithintheframeworkofstructuraldeterminations.Inthissame

framework,theonlyhistoricaleventPhoebefeelsanyconnectiontoisonein

whichsherecognisesherself–thatis,thekidnappingofPattyHearst,which

occurswhenPhoebeisfourteen.EganexplainsPhoebe’sfascinationinhervision

ofPatty:“Patty’slateraccountofrapeandtortureandbrainwashinghaddone

littletoalterPhoebe’svisionofher:adull,privilegedgirldrawnirresistibly

towardaninvisibleborder,thencrossingitintoadark,transcendentworld.”522

PhoeberecognisesherselfinthefigureofHearst.Thisisthelimitofher

imagination.Thisrepresentsarealprobleminthisnovel,andinEgan’swriting

moregenerally–itisdifficulttotellifherworkiscritiquingorexcusingthe

limitedempatheticandimaginativefunctionsofthecharactersitportrays.In

anotherexample,whenCharlotteSwenson,thefashionmodelprotagonistof

LookatMe,istoldthatheractualfriendshipwithahomelessblackmanwould

straincredulityincontextofheronlinelifestory,werecognisethathis

appearanceinthenovellikewisestrainstheboundariesofitssemi-realistform.

Onthesurface,Phoebeappearstobeaconventionallysympathetic

protagonist.Shehaslostherfather,andhersister;sheseemsunabletomove

521TheInvisibleCircus,p.88.522TheInvisibleCircus,p.88.

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pastthesetragediesandfindaplaceintheworld.Evenhermotherseemstobe

movingon,havingrecentlyembarkeduponarelationshipwithherboss.Itis

Phoebe’sdiscoveryofthisthatpromptsthefightduringwhichhermother

revealsthatherfather,Gene,wasneveragoodpainter,whichresultsinPhoebe

followinginFaith’sfootstepsandrunningawaytoEurope.Oncloser

examination,however,Phoebeisadecidedlyunsympatheticcharacter.Thelimit

ofherunderstandingorinterestintheworldisherself.Shehasafightwithher

mother,andvanishes.WhenshefindsWolf,Faith’sex-boyfriend,shebeginsa

sexualrelationshipwithhim,despitethefactthatheislivingwithawomanto

whomheisengaged-thatrelationshipbreaksdownoverhisinfidelity.Weare

expectedtosympathiseoridentifywithPhoebedespitethefactthatherevery

moveismotivatedbyextremeself-interest.Inthissympathy,wevalorisethe

sameselfishnessandindividualismpropagatedbythecompetitiveandatomising

ethosofneoliberalism.ForPhoebe,itseems,therereallyisnosuchthingas

society–otherpeoplematteronlyastheyrelatetoher.

Lateoninthenovel,PhoebeandWolfgotoNeuschwansteinCastle,which

sparksanuncannyfeelingofrecognitioninPhoebe.Wolfexplainsthatitserved

asthemodelforDisney’sSleepingBeauty’scastle.Besidesthegothic

significationsatworkhere,thissceneseesextensivecommentonPhoebe’s

fondnessfornostalgia,withwhichWolfhaslittletonopatience.Thisnostalgic

tendencyisthesameonetracedbyWendyBrownin‘ResistingLeftMelancholy,’

whichcontainsapithydescriptionofmelancholiathatsumsupPhoebe’s

attachmenttothepast,figuredthroughherrelationshiptohersister:“Theirony

ofmelancholia,ofcourse,isthatattachmenttotheobjectofone’ssorrowfulloss

supersedesanydesiretorecoverfromthisloss,tolivefreeofitinthepresent,to

beunburdenedbyit.”523ForBrown,thismelancholyspeakstotheLeft’sinability

tocontemporiseandunwillingnesstoletgoofitsromanticisedattachmenttothe

past.ThisissomethinglikeBerlant’s‘crueloptimism,’whereattachmenttothe

unattainablebecomesanobstacleto‘flourishing,’withthenotabledifference

thatinmelancholiatheremaybeaperversesenseofpleasureinthefutile

attachment.Whatiscrucialintheseaccountsistheirsympathyforthesubject,

andtheurgencyofformulatingnewpoliticalpraxisandpracticeinformingboth523WendyBrown.ResistingLeftMelancholy,boundary2,26:3,1999,pp.19-27,p.20.

190

critics’work.ForBrown,thisisfiguredintermsofacallforareinvigoratedLeft;

forBerlant,suchavitalisationisaboutreimaginingthepoliticalonthetermsof

theeveryday,recognisingthe“newidiomsofthepolitical.”524BothBrownand

Berlantmakethedistressengenderedbythecognitivedissonancerequiredby

neoliberalismacentralgroundofinterrogation.ThissympathyislostinEgan’s

work,wherethenaturalisationofindividualisticself-interestastheguiding

ethicalprincipleoflifecastsselfishnessascommonsense,replicatingneoliberal

logic.IdentifyingwithPhoebe,oralmostanyofEgan’scharacters,meansnot

onlyacceptingneoliberalcommonsense,butalsorecognisingthisacceptanceas

essentialforhappiness.

Returningtothesceneinthecastle,PhoebeandWolffindthemselvesunable

toagreeonhowtoseeit.Phoebe,thenostalgic,iscaptivatedbythe‘tragic’life

storyof‘mad’KingLudwig,whobuiltthecastle:“AsPhoebewanderedthe

gleamingrooms,aswellofemotionroseinher,asweetsorrow[thevery

definitionofmelancholy].Sheunderstoodhim,thatwasall.Sheunderstoodthis

sweetking.”525Phoebe’ssentimentalreactionrecallsagainthede-radicalised

politicsofintimacy.Wolf’sresponseisquitedifferent–heasksPhoebeifshe

reallythinksafairytalecastlewasworthbankruptingakingdom.WherePhoebe

says,“PoorLudwig,”Wolfreplies,“PoorBavaria.”526Thisexchangesuccinctly

demonstratesthelimitsofPhoebe’simaginativecapacity,andherinabilityto

constructaspaceofobjectiveempathy,outsidetheidiomofintimatepersonal

understanding.Thereisnoroomforstructuralcritiqueinanaccountofthe

worldbasedentirelyonpersonalfeeling.

Phoebe’ssolipsisticoutlookisemphasisedonherreturnfromEurope,when

sheanticipatesahero’swelcome,commencementatuniversity,andanewfound

respectfromothersgivenhernow-establishedindependence.Noneofthis

happens:hermotherisangryatherabruptdepartureandlackof

communication;Berkleyhavenotacceptedherrequesttodeferforayear;her

mother’sboyfriendseesherasimmatureandselfish.Noneofthisispermanent,

however,andPhoebeiseventuallyreinsertedintolifeassheimaginedit,which

524Berlant.CruelOptimism,pp.260-2.525TheInvisibleCircus,p.199.526TheInvisibleCircus,p.199.

191

sheexperiencesasasenseofherlife“right[ing]itself.”527Phoebegraciously

acceptstheeasewithwhichlifearrangesitselfifoneiswhite,wealthyand

middleclassinAmerica.Egan’sworkconcentratesfairlysolidlyonaffluent

middle-classsubjects.Anycharactersnotthusconstitutedusuallydieorgainthe

prospectofeconomicadvancement.Thispresumptionofmiddleclass-nessis

anotherinstanceofthewayinwhichEgan’snovelsreproduceneoliberallogic.It

alsocircumscribesthetypesofproblemsEgan’scharactersface.Wesawearlier

inthesectiononBallardhowpsydiscourseoperatesdifferentlyinclasscontexts.

Broadlyspeaking,self-managementforthemiddle-classsubjectispresentedas

self-maximisation;fortheworking-classsubject,itismoreoftenacorrective

interventiontorestoreproductivecapacity.528Bythislogic,suchproblemsas

thesecharactersareconfrontedwitharetobeunderstoodasproblemsofthe

self,andthereforeassolvablewithinthissameframework.529AlthoughBallard

alsofocusesonthemiddleclass,wesawinMillenniumPeopleandelsewhere

howhisworkconfrontsthe‘bourgeoisation’ofsociety,denaturalisingthe

middle-classcodingofneoliberalism.Thisdenaturalisationalsoquestionsthe

desirabilityofmiddle-classidentity,whereasEgan’sworkdepictsitas

aspirational;growingupmeansgrowingintomiddle-classidentity–andthisis

theonlywaytobehappy,asPhoebediscovers.

Phoebe’sjourneytohappinessisconnectedtoapessimisticunderstandingof

thetransformationofsixtiescounterculturethathasperhapsbeenmost

persistentlyexploredinfictioninMichelHouellebecq’sreactionaryaccountsof

thelegacyofthesoixante-huitegenerationinFrance.Inexploringhiswork,

CaroleSweeneydrawsontheworkofLucBoltanskiandEveChiapelloinThe

NewSpiritofCapitalism(2005).Thisappliesequallyhere,withregardtowhat527TheInvisibleCircus,p.354.528Thisisnotsetinstone,andinterventioncanoccurregardlessofclass.However,themiddle-classsubjectislikelytohaveaccesstopsychologicaltherapythatmaybeforeclosedtotheworking-classsubject,aswellastotheculturalcapital/emotionalvocabularyonwhichitoftenrelies.Inamiddle-classcontext,therapeutictreatmentisoftendepictedaspartofself-care,whereworkingontheselfisseenastheprimaryresponsibilityofthesubject.Thisreproducestheindividualisticlogicofneoliberalism,asdescribedintheworkofRoseandothers.SeealsoLauraSmith‘Psychotherapy,Classism,andthePoor:ConspicuousbyTheirAbsence,’AmericanPsychologist,60:7,2005,pp.687-696;HeatherKugelmass,‘”Sorry,I’mNotAcceptingNewPatients”:AnAuditStudyofAccesstoMentalHealthCare,’JournalofHealthandSocialBehavior,57:2,2016,pp.168-183.529Shivanimakesasimilarpoint,aswewillseelater,suggestingthatforprotagonistsin‘plasticrealism,’allproblemsoriginateinternally.

192

BoltanskiandChiapelloterm‘artisticcritique’andhowithascometoactasits

ownantithesis,duetothefactthat:

...manyoftheidealspromulgatedbytheartisticcritique,asopposed

tothesocialcritique,wereactuallyusedtodisarmanddiffusethe

veryoppositiontocapitalismthrownupby‘68santi-establishment

stance.Thedemandwasformorefeeling,lessstandardisationand,

aboveall,foranexpansionofindividualfreedom.530

Bythisunderstanding,theculturaldemandsofthenineteensixtieswerenot

opposedtocapitalism,butwereratherrangedagainstarestrictivehive-mind,9-

5,Fordistversionofcapitalism.ThistooisborneoutbythetriumphoftheWhole

EarthNetworkhippiesturnedtechbillionaires,suchasSteveJobs,andthose

MarkFisherhascalled‘liberalcommunists,’suchasGeorgeSorosandBill

Gates.531Byforegroundingthisartisticcritique,Iamhighlightingthetypeof

engagementEgan’snovelmakeswiththenineteensixties,whichistosay,its

moreorlesscompletedissociationfromthematerialsocialandpoliticalgainsof

theperiod,suchasthosefoughtforbytheCivilRightsMovement,orsecond

wavefeminists.Thequestionhereiswhetherthismightbecharacterisedaspart

ofanefforttoexposethelimitationsofartisticcritique,orwhetheritrepresents

aninstanceofEgan’sdisavowalofthepoliticalfunctionofthenovel–andifitis

thelatter,mightsuchadisavowallimitanyothercriticalfunction?

Confusionastowhetherthisnovelfunctionsascriticalcommentaryor

shouldbetakenas‘simple’literarydescriptionpermeatesmyreadingofThe

InvisibleCircus.Nowhereisthismorefraughtthaninthenovel’saccountof

Faith’sinvolvementwiththeRedArmyFaction,andlatertheJuneSecond

movement,underwhoseaegisshetakespartinthebombplot.Upuntilthis

point,FaithandWolf’sEuropeanodysseyischaracterisedasatrip,inthemost

sixtiessenseoftheword.Theyarelookingforaction,forsomethingtohappen,

forawayofbeingthattranscendstheeveryday–recallWolf’saccountofthe

530CaroleSweeney.MichelHouellebecqandTheLiteratureofDespair,BloomsburyAcademic:LondonandNewYork,2013.p.98.531MarkFisher.CapitalistRealism.London:ZeroBooks,2009,p.27

193

senseofpossibilityofthetime.532WhatFaithseeks,however,isdifferentfrom

Wolf’sdesire.Herattachmenttoherpersonallossfuelsherwithanangerthathe

doesnotexperienceandoftenfailstounderstand,suchasthescenewherehe

triestoproposetoherwhensheappearstobeonthevergeofabreakdown.533

Faithisarebelinsearchofacause,andwhensheandWolfgettoGermany,she

thinksshehasfinallyfoundone.WhenWolfdescribestheatmosphereinBerlin,

Phoebethrillswithrecognition,havingbeenevacuatedfromHarrodsduringher

ownrecentvisittoLondon:“Phoeberememberedthethrillofexcitementshe’d

feltinHarrodsduringthebombscare.Peopleherownagechangingtheworldby

force.Whatgutsittook.”534EganhighlightsPhoebe’snaivetyhere,aselsewhere;

thisthrillofexcitementoccursonlybecauseshehasnoconceptionofthe

consequenceofviolence.AsWolfcontinuesthestoryofFaith’srecruitment(or

application,even),hetellsPhoebe:

ShesaidthingsWolfhadneverheardbefore:howitfelttowatchher

fatherdie,howtherewasnothingshecoulddo,she’dtriedeverything

shecouldthinkof,buthediedanyway.Allherlifeshe’dbeentryingto

fightback,shesaid,allherlife,butshewasgettingsotired–you

couldn’tdoitalone,whatyoudidalonewasalwaystoosmall....Sure

enough,Eric[theRAFconnection]wasstaringatFaithasif

mesmerized,Wolfflashingonhowshemustlooktohim:apassionate

Americankid,light-yearsfromhome,who’driskanything,everything,

who’dgiveitallaway.Andsuddenlyhewasterrified.535

Faithischaracterisedasincapableofformulatingpoliticalopposition,motivated

byasenseofinjusticethatstemsnotfromangeratinequalityorabuseofpower,

butattheveryuncertaintyoflifeitself.Faith’shatredofIBMismotivatedbyher

father’shatredofhisjob,ratherthaninanyframeworkoflabourrights,or

environmentalconcern.Inthissense,Faithiscastasacautionaryfigure.Unable

to‘manage’heraffectivedistress,shedirectsitintoprotestthatisrepresentedas

532“Wewereaftersomething...wetrulywere.Inawaythat’shardtoadmit,itsoundsfoolishnowbutitdidn’tthen,that’sthedifference.Hundredsandthousandsofus,allreaching.It’sapowerfulthing,thatmanypeoplebelievinginsomethingatonce.”TheInvisibleCircus,p.226533TheInvisibleCircus,p.247.534TheInvisibleCircusp.232.535TheInvisibleCircusp.236–note,again,theemphasisonhowFaithappearstoherobserver.

194

futileandself-defeating.Thismisdirectionofanger–herinabilitytobe

recuperatedwithinnormativesocialstructures–guaranteesherself-

destruction.WhenWolftriestoproposetoher,shebeseecheshimnotto,

refusingthatpotential‘salvation.’Wolfremainsattachedtothetraditional

totemsofthegoodlife,andseekstoresolveFaith’sdistressthroughofferingher

the‘solution’ofmarriage.Faithissofarremovedfromthepossibilityofthekind

oflifeWolfimaginesforherthatshewillnotevenlistentohisproposal,saying,

“Don’t,Wolf,please,I’mgoingcrazy.There’snothingleftinme.”536Faithhas

becomeoneofAhmed’sfigures,removedfromnormativeaccountsofhappiness.

ThisislinkedtoFaith’sevasionofcapture;shenevertakespublicresponsibility

forherpartinthekillingofthejanitor,andthisrefusaltotakeresponsibility

foreclosesanypossibilityofreinsertionintonormativenetworks,whichshould,

accordingto‘commonsense,’occurthroughpunishmentandrehabilitation.

ItisinthisaccountofFaith’sradicalisation,terroristicinvolvementand

ultimatedeaththatthenovelrunsintoitsgreatestdifficulty.Asmentioned

above,thereisnosustainedengagementwiththesocialorpoliticalclimateofthe

nineteensixtiesinthenovel.Thismightbeexplainedbythepositioningof

Phoebeasprotagonist,andthesuggestionthatitisheraccountofthesixtieswe

areengagingwith,butitbecomesproblematicwhenthenovelventuresintothe

‘real’territoryoftheRedArmyFactionetal.Byscrubbingthenovelofwider

politicalreference,Eganmakesitverydifficultforthereadertogaugetheir

readingofthesefictionalisedaccountsofrealactsofviolence.AlthoughtheJune

SecondMovementbombattackinwhichthemandiesisfictional,thegroupdid

infactplantabomb,attributedasanactofassistancefortheIRA.537Bysituating

Faith’sinvolvementwiththesegroupsaspartofasearchfortranscendence,and

repeatedlyemphasisingtheconflationofherpersonalsufferingwithpolitical

intent,Egan’sworkreplicatesthisdepoliticisation.Thisreturnsustothe

questionoffunction,again.Isthisacommentonthelimitsofartisticcriticism?

Orasideeffectofartisticappropriation,whereweshouldnotseektoread

politicalintent?536TheInvisibleCircusp.247.537‘TheBaader-MeinhofGangattheDawnofTerror.’Baader-meinhof.comwww.mustardayonnaise.com/baadermeinhof/timeline/1972.html

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Toresolvethis,inasmuchasitcanberesolved,wemightlookatthefigureof

Phoebeattheendofthenovel,andatthepromiseofhappinessthatseemsto

unfoldbeforeher.Asdiscussedearlier,whenshefirstreturnstoSanFrancisco,

sheanticipatesresumingherlifemoreorlessassheleftit;althoughthereare

someminordisruptionstoherplan,thesearesoonsmoothedover.Forthefirst

time,Phoebeseemstohavetheabilitytolocateherselfinlife,orinhistory,even,

havingfinallyletgoofheridealisedmemoryofhersister:

Somethingwasgone.Butsomethingalsowasbeginning.Phoebefelt

thismorethanunderstoodit–ajitterypulsethatseemedtoflutter

belowthecity.Anewdecadewasuponthem.InBarry’soffice[in

SiliconValley]themoodofmanicanticipationinfectedPhoebeat

timeswithawildcertaintythattheworldwasinthegripof

transformation.Everyoneseemedtofeelit–theclean,inarguable

powerofmachines,thepromiseofextraordinarywealth.Itfilled

themwithhope.Phoebewasamazedthattheworldcouldeverfeel

thiswayagain,muchlesssosoon.Yetshefeltitherself.538

Thisbuddingchange–thebeginningofthe1980s,andneoliberalisminearnest–

isalsomarkedherebywomencuttingtheirhairinto“sparser,tighter”styles:“In

frontofthemirrorPhoebewouldgatherherownreamsofhairandholdthem

behindher,awayfromherface.Theideaofcuttingitoffappealedtoher,the

lightnessofit,likesteppingoutfrombehindapairofheavydrapes.”539Faithwas

forcedtocutoffherhairbytheRedArmyFaction,andhateddoingso.Phoebe,

however,isfreetochoose,andfreetootoimagineandlookforwardtothe

future.ThiscontrastcastsFaith’sfateassomesortoffailureonherpart,linking

ittoherinabilitytoadapt.ThinkhereofJefferyEugenides’sVirginSuicides

(1993),anovelsetinasimilartimeframe,offeringamorenuancedaccountof

affectivedistress.WhendiscussingCecilia,thefirstoftheLisbonsistersto

commitsuicide,thereisatendencytocharacteriseherasa‘freakofnature’:“Mr

Hillyersummedupthemajoritysentimentatthetime:‘Thosegirlshaveabright

futureaheadofthem.Thatotheronewasjustgoingtoendupakook.’”540This

538TheInvisibleCircus,p.354.539TheInvisibleCircus,p.354.540JefferyEugenides.TheVirginSuicides.NewYork:Picador.1993,p.107.

196

seemstobethedominantattitudetoFaithinTheInvisibleCircus;sheisa“kook,”

unabletosubmittonormativeformationsofhappiness,andsodestinedtoself-

destruct.TheequivalencebetweenthefigureofFaithandthenineteensixtiesas

awholeultimatelyrendersthisaproblematicallydepoliticisedaccountofthe

decadethroughthenovel’slackofinterestincollectivepoliticalactionand

radicalpotentialofmassparticipatorypolitics–evenifthesemovementsended

infailure,inonesense.ThisisechoedinPhoebe’snewfoundsenseofeaseinlife,

too:

Nowtheloose,randomwayherlifeunfoldedseemedtooffendher

imaginationlessandless.Shestillachedtotranscendit,crossthe

invisibleboundarytothatotherplace,therealplace.Butyoucouldn’t

havethateveryday.Noonecouldsustainit.541

Phoebe’sencounterswith‘transcendence’involvedtrippingonLSD,losingher

virginity,andtheexperienceoftravellingawayfromhomeonherownforthe

firsttime.Thisistranscendenceonlyintheconditionofovercomingthe

conditionsofday-to-dayliving;thereisnospiritual,metaphysical,orpolitical

dimensiontoit.NoneoftheseexperiencesenablePhoebetolookbeyondherself.

IfFaith’sgreatproblemwasasurplusoffeeling,Phoebe’s‘strength’asincipient

neoliberalsubjectisherdetachment–recall,again,Sennett’saccountofthe

improvised,short-termneoliberalself,andthemiddle-classlogicoffreedom

frominclination.

Phoebe’sacquiescencetotheinevitabilityofthe(neoliberal)futureandthe

ultimateimpossibility–undesirability,even–ofimaginingaradicallydifficult

worldrecallsWolf’smomentofepiphanyfromearlierinthenovel,althoughit

workssomewhatdifferently.WherePhoebeseemstoeagerlyanticipateher

futurelifeandthepossibilityofthenewdecade,Wolf’srealisationwas,atbest,a

negotiationwithlife,awayofmakingitpossibletoliveinunliveableconditions.

ThisisnotacondemnationofWolf’sattitude;infact,itmaybethemost

sympatheticpositionadoptedbyacharacterinthenovel,despiteits

conservatism.Thesegoodlifefantasiesmay,asWolfimagines,makeunliveable

livesliveable,evenastheybindustotheconditionsofouroppression.In

‘ResistingLeftMelancholy,’BrownsuggeststhatthismanifestsinLeftist541TheInvisibleCircus,p.355.

197

oppositionalpoliticsastraditionalism,anattachmenttodefending“liberalNew

Dealpolitics”withoutofferingathoroughandon-goingcritiqueof“thetypesof

freedomsandentitlementsincontemporaryconfigurationsofcapitalism.”542The

problemisthatTheInvisibleCircusoffersusanaccountofoppositionthatsees

leftistcountercultureasfundamentallydetachedfromreality,ignoringeventhe

basichistoricalfactof‘actuallyexistingsocialism.’Politicalradicalsinthisnovel

arede-radicalisedbytheirinabilitytoconceiveofpoliticsasanythingbutan

outletforemotion,whichispresentedastheentiretyofpoliticalengagement

withinthenovel.Brownadvocatesforapoliticalcritiqueinwhich,

thefeelingsandsentiments–includingthoseofsorrow,rage,and

anxietyaboutbrokenpromisesandlostcompasses–thatsustainour

attachmentstoleftanalysesandleftprojects[are]tobeexaminedfor

whattheycreateinthewayofpotentiallyconservativeandevenself-

destructiveundersidesofputativelyprogressivepoliticalaims.543

Herintentionisthatsuchanexaminationwouldliberatethelefttoreimaginea

politicalfuturebasedonsubstantiveformsofsocialjusticeandmaterial

redistribution,ratherthansubsumingallundertherhetoricof‘feeling.’Thisis

evident,too,inBerlant’sgesturestowardsthepotentialofthepracticaland

processualinfindingwaystoconstructnewmodesoflivingnotbeholdento

extantfantasiesofthegoodlife,through“reinvent[ing]publicness.”544InThe

InvisibleCircus,anypoliticalcritiqueisonlypersonalunhappinesscastin

anotherform,andsoitcannotaffectanymeaningfulchange.Participatingin

counterculturaloroppositionalmovementsisanadolescentriteofpassage,

throughwhichonecomestorecognisetheexistingorderofthingsasboth

inevitableanddesirable,anunderstandingtacitlyenabledbythesubject’sown

desirabilitytothesystem(ideallywhite,affluent,middleclass).

Onbalance,Egan’snovelisitselfhamstrungbyitsdisavowalofthepolitical

andinabilitytoallowfortheexistenceofanyobjectiveimaginativesphereasthe

basisforsolidarity.Throughitselisions,itultimatelyreproducesthelogicof

neoliberalismwithoutofferingsubstantialcriticalballast.AlthoughEgan’s

542Brown.‘ResistingLeftMelancholy,’p.26.543Brown.‘ResistingLeftMelancholy,’p.27.544Berlant.CruelOptimism,p.262.

198

unpackingofthewaysinwhichthehippiemovementenabledtheatomistic

individualismthatunderpinsneoliberalismisentertainingandfrequently

accurate,thenovelasawholeseemstofallvictimtothesameproblemsof

artisticcritiquethatithighlights.WhilstIunderstandthatthismightbereadas

anotherdeliberatedemonstrationoftheselimitations,andanintentional

disavowalofanypoliticalfunctionasregardthenovel,suchadisavowalwould

itselfhavepoliticalconsequence.Eitherthenovelunintentionallyreplicatesthe

logicsofneoliberalism,oritdeliberatelyreproducestheseaspartofaneffortto

demonstratetheinadequacyofartisticcritique.Eitherway,however,itcannot

helpbutcallattentiontotheworkingsoftheselogicsinawaythatmusthave

politicalweight,particularlywhensubjecttocriticalanalysis.Thereis,Ithink,a

refusaltocommithereandelsewhereinEgan’swork,andthisisoftenfeltmost

clearlyattheendofhernovels.InmyaccountofBallard,Iexploredhisemphasis

ontheaffectivepotentialoftheimaginativerealm.Ihavealsoexpressedmy

beliefthatliteratureoffersanidealartisticforminwhichtoinstantiatean

objectivepoliticalimaginaryinwhichtheoreticalconditionsofsolidaritymay

emergebasedonother-knowledge,oreventhepossibilityofother-knowledge,

situatedintheframeworkofextantpowerstructures.545InEgan’swork,the

endingsofhernovelstendtoturntoimagination,too,butinheraccountthisis

aninwardturn,totherealmofpersonalimagination.AttheendofTheInvisible

Circus,Phoebeimaginativelyreturnstohersisterinmemory,despitehaving

apparentlyexorcisedhernostalgictendencies.Sheremembersagameofhide

andseektheyplayedaschildren,beforetheirfather’sdeath,whenshefound

Faithfirstandwasallowedtohidewithher.UnlikeBallard’sinvocationofSaint-

Exupéry,whichusesthechildren’staleofthelittleprincetoillustratehow

literaturecanofferanimaginativespaceinwhichthegivensofneoliberal

capitalismaredisrupted,Phoebe’smemoryreliesonthebeliefthat“atanytime

herplainsurroundingsmightparttorevealthisradiant,hiddenplace.”546With

onefinalslip,alastdisavowal,Eganreiteratessomefaithinimagination,but

onlyatitsmostpersonallevel.Phoebe’sfreedomtoremember,toimagine,relies

545BypossibilityImeantheideathatknowingtheotherbecomespossible,orimaginable.Thisusageisdistinctfromtheunderstandinglaidoutearlierinlookingatpossibilityandpotentialintermsofaffecttheory.546TheInvisibleCircus,p.356.

199

onherintegrationasidealneoliberalsubject,andherabilitytomoderateherself

inaccordancewithsocialnorms.This“radiantandhiddenplace”hasnorolein

everydaylife,which,accordingtothisnovel,canneverreallybetranscended.

Idealistsdie,and(neoliberal)realistsprosper,inthisstoryatleast.Thisisthe

realhorroroftheneoliberalgothic.

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LookatMe:“LetBeBeFinaleofSeem”547

InexploringTheInvisibleCircus,Ihavelaidoutsomeofthecomplicationsin

readingEgan’swork,seekingtodemonstratetheuncertainstartingpointat

whichwebegin.Thisuncertaintyoccursbothformallyandthematically,evident

inthetensionbetweentherealistformofthatnovelanditsgothictendencies,as

wellasitsambiguousrepresentationofthelegacyofsixtiescounterculture

whichtranslatesintoanevasivenessaroundtheproblematicconflationofthe

personalandthepolitical.Thisevasivenessunderminesthepoliticalefficacyof

thenovelasawhole,leavingthereaderuncertainastoitsintention,and

conflictedatitsoutcome.LiminalitypermeatedTheInvisibleCircus,and

characteriseditsindeterminatetemporality.InLookatMeliminalstatesare

explicitly,extensively,anddirectlythematised.Ifwemaymostfruitfully

understandEgan’sworkasoperatinginthemodeofneoliberalgothic,Lookat

Mecouldbedescribedasaself-consciousengagementofthespectreof

postmodernismwhichhauntstheneoliberalnovel,andEgan’sworkatlarge.I

amadvocatingareadingthatsituatesthesegothicallyinflectednovelsas

‘hauntologies,’inwhichthesetendenciesbetrayratherthanexpress

contemporaryanxieties.Myunderstandingof‘hauntology,’atermwhichcomes

fromMarxviaDerrida,isprimarilyinfluencedbyMarkFisher’swork,inwhich

wemaydiscernboththepersistentattachmentsofcrueloptimism,andthe

contradictoryforceofthetotalisingpresumptionsofneoliberalismthrough

whichitassertsitselfasthe‘endofhistory’:

Thefirst[directionofhauntology]referstothatwhichis(inactuality

is)nolonger,butwhichisstilleffectiveasavirtuality(thetraumatic

“compulsiontorepeat,”astructurethatrepeats,afatalpattern).The

secondreferstothatwhich(inactuality)hasnotyethappened,but

whichisalreadyeffectiveinthevirtual(anattractor,ananticipation

shapingcurrentbehavior).548

547WallaceStevens.‘TheEmperorofIceCream,’Harmonium1923,London:FaberandFaber,2001,p.75.548MarkFisher.‘WhatIsHauntology?’FilmQuarterly,66:1,2012,pp.16-24,p.19.Fisherattributesthere-emergenceofthiscriticaltermtothe“culturalimpasse”occasionedbythe“failureofthefuture”underneoliberalism.

201

Ina2010interview,Eganrecognisedthedualityofherwork,andthedifficultyof

writingduringhypercomplextimes:“Iwouldhesitatetocallanythingsatirein

ourculture.Orfuturistic.IkeptsayingwhenIwasworkingonmynovelLookat

Me,“It’skindoffuturisticandit’sasatire.”Nowitreads,Iwouldimagine,as

slightlypasséverisimilitude.”549Thisacknowledgesthehypercomplexityof

informationanditsreshapingoftemporality,apparentlyrenderingalltime,all

knowledge,contemporaneous.IpositedBallard’sworkasstaginga

confrontationbetweenthestasisofneoliberalismandthe(affective)potentialof

imagination,withaconcretepoliticaldimensionintermsofallowingthe

constructionofanobjectiveimaginary.InEgan’swork,particularlyLookatMe,

weseeaconfrontationbetweenliteraryformsthatinadvertentlyenactsthe

(neoliberal)anxietiesitostensiblyseekstoexorcise.Theeffectofthisisan

omnipresentsenseoftheuncannythatunderlinesthoseothergothicaspectsI

havesuggestedareendemicinEgan’soeuvre,andthatexpressadistinctly

neoliberalanxiety,perJohansen.

Thistextualdoublingisalsoexplicitly‘writtenout’inthenovel,throughthe

figureofIreneMaitlock.Maitlockisaprofessorofcomparativeliterature,

interestedin“thewayliteraryandcinematicgenresaffectcertainkindsof

experience.”550ShemeetsLookatMe’sprotagonist,CharlotteSwenson,through

privatedetectiveAnthonyHalliday,afterinterviewinghimforapaperonthe

mediatedexperienceofbeingadetective.Later,whenCharlottejoinsawebsite

calledExtra/OrdinaryPeople,akindofsubscription-basedblogorearlysocial

medianetwork,Maitlockbecomesherghost-writer.Kellyhasdescribedtheway

inwhichthenarrativeoftheghostwriterisseentointrudeonSwenson’sown

narrativethroughtheirruptionofcompetingtypefaces,recognisingthisaspart

ofthe“senseofsplittinganddoublingthathauntsCharlotte’ssenseofself

throughoutthenovel.”551Maitlockcannothelpbutappeartobeanarrative

stand-inforherauthor.Kellypointsoutthatthisnamelinksthecharacterto

RobertMaitland,Ballard’sprotagonistinConcreteIsland(1974),andalsoto549JenniferEganinterviewedbyRobertBirnbaum.TheMorningNewsAugust182010.themorningnews.org/article/jennifer-egan.Thisinterviewitselfreadslikesomesortofsatiricalexerciseinpostmodernity,particularlyitsextendeddiscussionoftheutilityofPowerPointinAVisitFromtheGoonSquad.550JenniferEgan.LookatMe2001.London:Corsair,2011.p.345.551Kelly.‘BeginningwithPostmodernism,’p.403.

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Matlock,theTVdetective.Hestopsshortofsuggestingthat,inthisnaming,Egan

literallyputsthe‘I’inMatlock.Thisauthorialdoublingmightexplainwhy

Maitlocksofrequentlyvocalisesthetheoreticalunderpinningsofthenovel;

whenshefirstmeetsCharlotteSwenson,forexample,sheisposingasareporter

–Egan’sdayjob.552Duringthismeeting,Maitlocksays,

I’minterestedintherelationshipbetweeninteriorandexterior...

howtheworld’sperceptionsofwomenaffectourperceptionsof

ourselves.Amodelwhoseappearancehaschangeddrasticallyisa

perfectvehicle,Ithink,forexaminingtherelationshipamongimage,

perceptionandidentity,becauseamodel’spositionasapurely

physicalobject–amediaobject,ifyouwill…isinasensejustamore

exaggeratedversionofeveryone’spositioninavisuallybased,media-

drivenculture,andsowatchingamodelrenegotiateadrasticchange

inherimagecouldprovideaperfectlensforlookingatsomeofthose

larger–553

HereCharlottecutsheroff.Thistendencyremindsmeofcriticalcommentaryon

MichelHouellebecq,whichrecognisesinhisworka“pre-emptiveclosingdown

ofthespaceofcriticaldialogue.”554Thisspeakstothedifficultyofapproaching

Egan’sworkcritically.Thereisaninsulatingframeworkinplaceinherwork,

operatingthroughself-consciousengagementwithliteraryform.Thiscreatesa

sortofdouble-crossinginherwork.WithoutwantingtoseemlikeIamover-

reachingincriticalterms,Ithinkthatthesemotivesmightbetracedtoacertain

anxietyregardingliteraryinheritanceandgender,asvoicedinaninterviewwith

LauraMillerin2011,alsocitedbyKelly:

I’mnotsureexactlywhattraditionI’mpartof.Ihateaboutmyselfthe

factthatItendtomodelmyselfconsciouslyaftermalewriters.AndI

thinkthat’sbecauseagainthere’sthisassociationthatmentakeon

thebigtopicsmorethanwomendo,whichIdon’tthinkisnecessarily

552Inthecourseofwhich,shewroteastoryforTheNewYorkTimescalled‘JamesisaGirl,’aboutmodelJamesKing,thatclearlyprovidesthebasisforLookatMe’saccountofthemodellingindustry.JenniferEgan,‘JamesisaGirl,’NewYorkTimesMagazine,February41996.553LookatMe,p.92554MartinCrowley.‘Houellebecq–TheWreckageofLiberation,’RomanceStudies,20:1,2002,pp.17-28,p.19.

203

true.ButIsometimesfallpreytothatsuppositionmyself,andI

sometimesfeelabitconfusedaboutwhatIfitinto.555

Whateverthemotivebehindtheuseofthisinsulatingframework,itbegsthe

questionastowhatsheisseekingtoinsulateherworkfrom.Isuggestedthat

Ballard’sworkoperatesatsurfacelevelinordertodemonstratetheclosenessof

oppressiveregulatorydiscoursetoeverydayexperience.Bythislogic,shouldwe

understandthatEganisseekingtodemonstratethenearnessofliterarytheory

topracticeincontemporaryfiction?ThisseemstobethegistofKelly’sreading,I

think,andfollowingthis,wemightaskquestionsabouttheutilityofcriticismin

aworkthatseemstobeperformingitsownauto-criticism.LookatIrene

Maitlock,afterall,whoofferstheexactanalysisofCharlotteSwensonthemodel

thatI,orAdamKelly,oranyacademicapproachingthisnovelmight.Byfocusing

soinsistentlyonthetextualityofhernovels,Eganforeclosesanyeffortto

institutematerial,orpolitical,criticism.Atthesametime,thetopicsshetakeson

areinherentlypolitical:LookatMe,firstpublishedinSeptember2001,featuresa

Muslim‘terrorist’(MichaelWest,Z,orAziz)andmakesreferencetothefirst

attackontheWorldTradeCentre.556Anothercharacter,MooseMetcalfe,bears

strikingresemblancetoTedKaczynski,althoughheismarginallylessreclusive

thantheUnabomber.Furthermore,theissuesEganusesasmaterialforher

novels–mediatedidentity,counterculture,theriseofimmaterialeconomies–

areallpoliticalissuesaffectingtheneoliberalsubject,nomatterhowhardshe

writestotransformthemintoliterarythemes.Inshort,theformalframeworkby

whichEgan’snovelsareself-consciouslytransformedinto‘texts’isatechnique

ofdisavowalbywhichEganseekstoexcusetheabsenceofpoliticalrealismin

workwhichotherwiseseemstostriveforverisimilitude.

Inseekingtobetterdescribeorarticulatethe‘post-post-modern’moment

fromwhichEgan’sworkemerged,DavidFosterWallaceofferedtheterm“image

fiction,”whichseemsneatlysuitedtoEgan’spreoccupationwithself-

objectification.Wallacewrote:

555JenniferEganInterviewwithLauraMiller.‘FaceValue.’Salon.com14November2001.www.salon.com/2011/04/21/jennifer_egan_interview/.556LookatMe,433.

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thisnewsubgenreis…distinguished,notjustbyacertainneo-

postmoderntechnique,butbyagenuinesocio-artisticagenda.The

fictionofimageisnotjustauseormentionoftelevisualculturebuta

responsetoit,anefforttoimposesomesortofaccountabilityona

stateofaffairsinwhichmoreAmericansgettheirnewsfrom

televisionthanfromnewspapers...557

Myconcernisthatthisideaofaccountabilityissubsumedasanotherliterary

techniqueinEgan’swork,renderedintocommentarywithoutcontent,andthus

incapableofa“genuinesocio-artisticagenda.”Invokingactualsocialconditions

orhistoricaleventswithoutanycorrespondingaccountoftheirconsequence

evacuatesthepoliticalpotentialoftheprocessualformofthenovel.Thevalueof

literatureisthatitoffersanimaginativerealmthroughwhichthereadermaybe

impelledtoconfrontrealitiestheymightnototherwiseconsider.Thinkof

DickenswritingtorevealtheabjectconditionsoftheVictorianpoor,orBeckett

exposingtheexistentialcrisisofpost-warsubjectivity.IfEgan’swork

cannibalisesrealityonlytoreflectitbackwithnosenseofthepoliticalinterms

ofthelivedexperienceofthosewhostruggleundertheinjusticeofneoliberal

capitalism,itsutility–andinterest–is,perhaps,limited.

ThebasicnarrativestructureofLookatMeisdividedbetweentwo

Charlottes:CharlotteSwenson,amodelwhoundergoesfacialreconstructive

surgerythatleavesherunrecognizablefollowingacaraccident,andCharlotte

Hauser,thefifteenyearolddaughterofSwenson’shighschoolbestfriend,who

livesinSwenson’sformerhometownofRockford,Illinois.BothCharlottesare

liminalfigures:Swensonbecauseherphysicaltransformationforcesherto

reassesstheentirestructureofherlife,whichwasbuiltonthestructureofher

face;Hauserthroughthemorestandardteenagenegotiationsofselfhood.They

arenotaloneinexistinginthesetransitionalorin-betweenstates.Thisnovel

expandsseveralthemesfromTheInvisibleCircus,includingtheimpactof

mediationorself-objectificationontheformationofidentity.Thisisacrucial

partofunderstandinghowneoliberalsubjectsareimbricatedwithinself-

557DavidFosterWallace.‘EUnibusPluram:TelevisionandU.S.Fiction,’ReviewofContemporaryFiction,13:2,1993,pp.151-194,p.172.

205

regulatoryhappinessdiscoursethroughcontemporarytechnologiesofself.In

LookatMe,virtuallyeverycharacterisinthemidstofsomereinvention,

deliberateorotherwise.ThisincludesMooseMetcalfe,CharlotteHauser’suncle.

Anintenseacademic,Moosestrugglestoreconcilehisselfhoodwiththe

contemporary(neoliberal)ideal,and,asIhavesaid,hasmuchincommonwith

TedKaczynski,theUnabomber.Alsodepictedamidstaprocessofreinventionis

MichaelWest,whoisknownvariouslybythisname,ZandAziz.Westisawould-

beterroristwhothroughthecourseofthenovelcomestorealisethathistrue

selfis,fundamentally,American-whichistosay,neoliberal,permy

introduction.

CharlotteSwenson’sstoryrunsthus:abeautifulgirlfromasmalltown,she

grewupconsciousofbeingobservedfromanearlyage:

Asateenager,Ifirstbecameawareofpeople’seyescatchingonmeas

IwalkeddownMichiganAvenuewithmymotherandGrace[her

sister]duringshoppingtripstoChicago.Theyglanced,thenlooked–

eachtime,Ifeltaprickofsensationwithinme....Thejabsofinterest

Iprovokedinstrangersstruckmeasanunharnessedenergysource;

somehow,Iwouldconvertthemintopower.558

Swensonviewsthispowerasaccesstoa“mirroredroom,”whichrepresents

somerarefiedlife,transcendingthetediumoftheeveryday.Thistranscendence

isapparentlyavailableonlythroughtheexperienceofbeingseen.Swenson

revealsanunexpectedlyliterarybentwhenshebemoanstheinadequacyof

KeatsandPope,herfavouritepoetsasanundergraduate,todeliverhertothis

stateoftranscendence,althoughsheisunclearastowhytheyareinadequate,

citingonlyPope’suglinessandKeats’spoorhealth.559Charlottedroppedoutof

collegeoncehercareertookoff,andwithinayearwasworkingregularlyand

engagedtoahandsomelandscapearchitectcalledHansen.Sheobserves,“I’d

virtuallysteppedfrommychildhoodintothishappiness.”560Thishappiness,

however,wasnottolast.

558LookatMe,p.163.559LookatMe,p.164.560LookatMe,p.100.

206

AsIreneMaitlockhasspelledoutforus,thefigureofthemodelisa“more

exaggeratedversionofeveryone’spositioninavisuallybased,media-driven

society.”561Thefigureofthemodel–CharlotteSwenson,here–isbuiltinthe

mouldoftheexemplaryneoliberalfigure,theactualselfasenterprise.Ihave

alreadyexploredRichardSennett’saccountofthethreechallengesfacedin

becomingtheidealneoliberalsubject:time(specifically,lackoffuturity),talent

(oradaptability)andsurrender(lettinggoofthepast).562Thesearethevery

challengeswithwhichamodelisconfronted,asEgan’sownearlierarticle,‘James

IsAGirl,’demonstrated.AtthemomentofthegreathappinessCharlotte

describes,shehasbeendispatchedtoParisforwork–modelsareexpectedtogo

whereverthereiswork,andtoperformondemandforcasting.Shemisses

Hansendesperately,untiloneday,seeminglyoutofnowhere,shebeginsasexual

affairwithHenri,aFrenchartistwhospeaksnoEnglish.Thisaffairmakesher

happyintheshortterm.Shesays,“Imadeabetterimpressionatcastings,and

workbeganpickingup”–thesupremehappinessbeingmaterialsuccess,as

ever.563Ultimately,however,itleadstothebreakdownofherrelationshipwith

Hansen.Charlottedescribeswhatshecalls“shadowselves”throughoutthe

novel,basicallyreferringtothedisjuncturebetweenthepersonasubject

presentsthemselvestobe,andthepersontheyinfactare(based,variously,on

bothactionandintention):

Iclutchedatthenotionofsomelarger‘me’thatcouldcontainand

justifymycontradictorybehavior,butmoreoftenIfeltliketwo

irreconcilablevisions,twodifferentpeople,oneunerringlyloyaland

faithful,theothertreacherousandgreedy.MyaffairwithHenrihad

pushedsomethingopeninme,andnowIfeltravenous,inconstant

dangerofgoinghungry.564

Charlotte’s‘shadowself’isoneandthesamewithher‘real’self.ShetellsHansen

abouttheaffairandhebreakstheengagementoff,foreclosingthepossibilityof

anysecureintimaterelationshipasfarasCharlotteisconcerned:

561LookatMe,p.92.562RichardSennet,TheCultureoftheNewCapitalismNewHaven:Yale,p.4-5.563LookatMe,p.102.564LookatMe,p.104.

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Myphilosophy…waseerilysuitedtowhatbecamemylife;different

citiesweektoweek,aconstantflowofsettingsandpeople;asmy

surroundingsdissolvedandreconstitutedthemselves,itseemedonly

naturalIdothesame.565

Wecansee,ataglance,howcloselythisresemblesSennett’saccount.Inher

managementoftime,talent,andsurrender,Charlotterecreatesherselfinthe

imageoftheidealneoliberalsubject.Shemanagesherselfaccordingtothe

economicdictatesofherindustry,inordertomaximisehersuccessand

minimisethecognitivedissonancesheexperiencedwhilsttryingtoholdonto

theimmaterial(non-economic)‘good’ofherrelationship.

ThewayinwhichCharlotte,asamodel,isexpectedtomaintainherselfaligns

closelywiththewayinwhichneoliberalsubjectsareinterpellatedtobecome

andpresenttheir‘bestself,’whichistosay,theirmostappealingself,ascharted

byCarlCederströmandAndréSpicerinTheWellnessSyndrome.566Throughout

herlife,Charlotte’ssenseofself–hersenseofworth–hasrestedonher

appearance:

Asamodel,ofcourse,I’dcarriedmyfacelikeasign,holdingitouta

footorsoinfrontofme–notoutofprideorvanity,Godknew;those

hadbeenstampedoutlongago,oratanyrate,disjoinedfrommy

physicalappearance.No,outofsheerpracticality:here’swhatIam.567

In‘#NoFilter:Models,GlamourLabour,andtheAgeoftheBlink’(2015),

ElizabethWissingeroffersanaccountoftheself-maintenanceworkthatmodels

do,whichsheterms“glamourlabour.”Wissingercompellinglyoutlinesthemore

generalexpansionofglamourlabour,offeringanimportantsupplementto

CederströmandSpicer’swork.Wissingeraimsforspecificityinheraccountof

glamourlabour,distinguishingitfrommoregeneralimmateriallabourorself-

maintenancebyitscentralinjunctionto“projectafashionableimage,andtobe

565LookatMe,p.106.ThereisanunderlyingsuggestionherethatitisCharlotte’snewly-awakenedsexualappetitethatcannotbecontained;thisfeedsintothewidertropeof‘good’femininitythatrecursthroughoutEgan’swork,towhichIpayparticularattentioninmyexplorationofAVisitFromtheGoonSquad.566Mostpertinentlyinthesection‘TheGuiltyPleasureofDieting,’TheWellnessSyndrome.Cambridge:Polity,2015,pp.41-9.567LookatMe,p.30.

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thatimageintheflesh.”568Wissingerlinksglamourlabourtoone’s“coolquotient

–“howhookedup,tunedin,and“intheknow”oneis.”569ThisisCharlotte’s

stock-in-trade-andDanny’s,inTheKeep,andthatofmostofthecharactersinA

VisitFromtheGoonSquad.ThisreturnsustoBoltanskiandChiapello,andthe

spiritofsixty-eight,onceagain,althoughonthisoccasionIwanttofocusonJim

McGuigan’swork,mentionedbrieflywhenlookingatTheInvisibleCircus.

McGuiganseeksananswertothequestionofhowneoliberalcapitalism

continuestobejustified,i.e.howithas,

constructedpopularlegitimacyofsucharesilientkindthatitgoes

beyondmanagementideologyandpropagandaintothetextureand

commonsenseofeverydaylifeinspiteofsevereandrecurrent

economiccrisis;and,indeed,worseningecologicalconditionsinthe

worldtoday–allofwhichdirectlyaffectspeople’slives.570

Inthis,heismoreorlessaskingthesamequestionthatisthefoundationofthis

thesis:howarepeopleinterpellatedtothinkthemselveshappy,oreven

possessingthecapacityforhappiness,despitetheirownexperienceofsuffering

andtheineluctableevidenceofglobalsufferingonhumanandecologicalterms

(inasmuchasanydistinctionmaybemadebetweenthosetwo)?Not,hesays,

howdoescapitalismpersist,buthowisitjustified–forme,howdowejustifyitto

ourselves,oreven,howdowejustifyourneoliberalselves?ForMcGuigan,the

riseofcoolcapitalisakeypartoftheanswer.Asheexplainsit,thisisdueinpart

tothewayinwhichthisincorporatesdissentordisaffectionintocapitalismitself

–the‘conquestofcool.’Thislogicof‘coolness’canbeconnectedtomyaccountof

theprojectofmiddle-classificationenactedbyneoliberalism,wherebothrelyon

thesubject’sfreedomfromattachmentorinclination,onthe‘naturalness’ofthe

selfwhodissolvesandreconstitutesitselfaccordingtotheirsurroundings,like

CharlotteSwenson.Thisformofcoolness,asCharlotteexpressesinherpost-

Hansenphilosophy,amountstoadetachedattitudethatrepresentsaformof

self-protection,aself-inducedfogofcognitivedissonance.McGuiganfiguresthis

specificallyinregardtothoseworkinginindustriesinwhichthetraditional568ElizabethWissinger,‘#NoFilter:Models,GlamourLabour,andtheAgeoftheBlink,’TheorizingtheWeb2014specialissueofInterface,1:1:2015,pp.1-20,p.5.569Wissinger.‘#NoFilter,’p.4.570JimMcGuigan.‘TheCoolnessofCapitalismToday,’tripleC,10:2,2012.425-438.431.

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protectionsoftradeunionshavebeendiminishedorabolished,andIwillreturn

tothisunderstanding,andmoredirectlytohisconceptionoftheneoliberalself,

inmydiscussionofTheKeep.InLookatMe,CharlotteSwenson’scoolness

ultimatelyfailstopropelhertosuccess.Therelationalnetworkssheestablishes

undertheguiseofcoolnessareinsubstantial,andafterheraccidentsheisforced

torelyonthekindnessof(near)strangers.Charlotteappearstoacceptthisas

herfate,describingafutureasa“professionalbeauty”whosebestoption,

increasingly,seemstobealovelessmarriagetoawealthypartner.571

Althoughthispathwayclearlysignalsagenderedaccountof‘utility,’inIrene

Maitlock’saccountofCharlotteSwenson-as-signifier,sheidentifiesCharlottethe

modelas“amoreexaggeratedversionofeveryone’spositioninavisuallybased,

media-drivenculture.”572Thissomewhatdisavowstheconsiderationsof

genderedexperiencethatunderpinthenovel,aproblemoutlinedelsewhere.Per

Wissinger’sarticle,andCederströmandSpicer’swork,however,wecanlookat

thebroadaccountofhowglamourlabouroverlapswithwellnessimperativesto

imbricatethegeneralpopulationinitspractice,beyondthosewhohave

traditionallymadealivingfromtheirappearance.Asmentionedearlier,once

CharlotteSwensonfindsshecannolongerworkasamodel,shedecidestosell

herstorytoThomasKeene,whorunsanearlysocialmedianetworkcalled

Extra/OrdinaryPeople.Theconceitofthisisthatpeoplewillpayforonline

accesstothelivesofothersbecause,Keenesays,

Mostofusaredesperateforrawexperience.Weworkinoffices,

dealingwithintangibles;wegotolunchandtalktootherpeople

surroundedbyintangibles.Nooneactuallymakesanythinganymore,

andourso-calledexperiencesareaboutclimbingMountKilimanjaro

onourtwo-weekvacationsorsnappingapictureoftheDalaiLamain

CentralPark.573

WhatEgan,andKeene,failedtoanticipateinapre-MySpacecontextisthatthis

desperationfor“rawexperience”wouldrequirenotjustobservation,but

interaction.Thisinteractivityhasbecomeacentralfeatureofentertainment,too,

571LookatMe,p.173-4.572LookatMe,p.92.573LookatMe,p.248.

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whetheritisvotingonshows,usingappstointerveneinaction,orthe

personalisedrecommendationsofserviceslikeNetflix.In‘EUnibusPluram:

TelevisionandU.S.Fiction,’DavidFosterWallaceclaimedthatmetaficitonwas

“deeplyinformedbytheemergenceoftelevision,”initsformandinthe

emergenceofanaudience,orreadership.Hedescribesthisas“akindofabiding-

in-TV.”574Wemightsurmiseanewabidingemerging,connectedtothis

technologicaltransformationofmedia;IthinkAVisitfromtheGoonSquadmoves

towardssuchaposition.Inthisformulation,“lookatme”isnotapassive

position,butanactivedemand.Thisisthecommonformofcontemporarysocial

media–Facebook,Twitter,Instagram,Snapchat,etc.Alloftheserequiretheuser

toengage,toobserveothersbutalsobeobservable.575Theyareliterally

technologiesbywhichsubjectsconstructidentity,accordingtoasetof

parametersdrawnbothfromtheformofmediaandtheformofanticipated

response.

ReturningtoWissinger’swork,itisthewidespreadprevalenceofthese

technologiesoftheselfandthedialogicformoftheiruseoccurringwithinthe

contextof‘wellness’thatexpandsglamourlabourtothemoregeneral

population:

Theactionsofsomanywhonowdietorexercise,wearstepcounting

andheartmonitoringdevicestonotonlybefit,buttolooklike

modelsinpicturesandintheflesh,drivebodilyeconomies

capitalizingonthebody’scapacitytogrowsoftorbuildmuscle,

offeringupthefleshitselftogriddingformarketvalue.Tweeting

aboutorpostingone’slatestaccomplishment,postingaselfieofone’s

newlyenhancedbutt,slimmedwaist,orlatestoutfit,pullsone’s

bodilypotentialandconnectivityintometeringandregulation,an

availabilitywhichfacilitatescapital’sconstantexpansion.Atthesame

time,theveryactofpostingputsone’sglamourquotientontheline,

risingandfallingbythemetricsoflikes,hearts,influencescores,and

574Wallace.‘EUnibusPluram,’p.161.575Thishasbeendescribedbyvariousauthors,suchasSherryTurkleandJaronLanier,thelatterofwhomfocusesparticularlyonthewayinwhichthisuseprocessskewstheideaofvaluecreationonline–seeWhoOwnstheFuture?(2013)forafulldiscussion.

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views.Keepingthequotienthighbecomesasortofcompulsion,the

glamourlabortostayvisibleandrelevant–tomatter.576

Attheheartofthisistheemphasisnotonglamour(orattractiveness,physical

perfection,etc.)asanendpoint,butontheprocessesbywhichoneworkstoattain

it-andthevisibilityoftheseprocesses.Thisrecallsandiscloselyrelatedtothe

wayinwhichwesaw‘unhappiness’recuperatedasaproductiveforceearlierin

thisthesis-thinkagainof‘WearYourLabel.’Theneoliberalsubjectdoesnot

actuallyhavetobeidealaslongastheyareinsomewayproductivelyengaged;

infact,displayingthese‘journeys’mayevenbepreferabletodisplayingsome

finishedorfinalperfectidentity.Perneoliberallogic,a‘journey,’implyingastate

thatisnotfinished,representsamoredynamicsiteofconsumptionthana

finishedorcompleteself.

This‘journey’narrative,whichisinnatelyconnectedtotheneoliberal

happinessdiscourseIamtracinginthisthesis,ispartoftheemergence,through

the1990sand2000s,ofwhatIdescribeasthe‘realitygenre.’IfWallace’svision

ofmetafictionwasconnectedtotheemergenceofaself-awareandironic

viewingsubject,thisgenremarksashiftinthisviewer.Ihavelinkedthistothe

interactivityofthegenre,butitisalsomarkedbyashiftfromunself-conscious

performers–oratleast,performerswhoappeartobeunself-conscious–to

supremelyandovertlyself-consciousperformers(whoareonlyperforming

themselves,asitwere).Thismarksashift,too,intherelationshipbetween

viewerandobject,inwhichthepossibilityofbecomingtheobject(thefigure

whoisviewed)isincreasedexponentially,asavenuesofself-displayincreaseat

pace;again,YouTube,Instagram,Snapchat.The“manwhocanstandthe

megagaze,”asWallaceputit,isnowthatsame“normal,hard-working,quietly

desperatespeciesofAmerican”hesuggestedcouldnotbearsuchscrutiny.577

576Wissinger,‘#NoFilter,’p.14.577“Onlyacertainveryrarespeciesofperson,forEmerson,is“fittostandthegazeofmillions.”Itisnotyournormal,hard-working,quietlydesperatespeciesofAmerican.Themanwhocanstandthemegagazeisawalkingimago,acertaintypeoftranscendentfreakwho,forEmerson,“carriestheholidayinhiseye.”TheEmersonianholidaytelevisionactors’eyescarryisthepotentillusionofavacationfromself-consciousness.Notworryingabouthowyoucomeacross.Atotalunallergytogazes.Itiscontemporarilyheroic.Itisfrighteningandstrong.Itisalso,ofcourse,anact,acounterfeitimpression–foryouhavetobejustabnormallyself-consciousandself-controllingtoappearunwatchedbeforelenses.Theself-consciousappearanceofunself-consciousnessisthegrandillusionbehindTV’smirror-hallofillusions;andforus,theAudience,itisbothmedicineandpoison.”‘EUnibusPluram,’p.154.

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Thisisnotbecausethatsubjecthaschanged,butbecausetherelationshiptoand

natureofscrutiny–ofappearance–has.LookatMejustprecedesthismoment,

butnonethelessanticipatesit.Althoughthenovelwaspublishedbeforethe

adventofsocialmediaasweknowitnow,itwaswritteninthewakeoftherise

ofrealityTV,mostnotablyMTV’sTheRealWorld.578Theseriesbeganin1992,

butitwasnota‘hit’until1994,whenaseasonsetinSeattlefeaturedanAIDS

activistnamedPedroZamora(alsolivingwithAIDS),whocameintofrequent

conflictwithanotherhousemate,PuckRainey.Theemotionalimpactoftheshow

–Zamora’slife-threateningmedicalcondition,combinedwiththeintense

personalityclashesofthehousemates–formedablueprintforrealitytelevision

stillverymuchinevidencetoday.579ThisformatshapesthewayinwhichEgan

describestheemergenceofafetishisationof‘realpeople,’tiedtoavalorisation

ofsufferingandashiftingconfessionalmode,asweshallsee.

LeeKonstantinoualsoaddressesWallace’sessayinhissectiononpost-irony,

whereheconceivesacharacterhecalls“thebeliever,”thearchetypalfigure

(bothreaderandwriter)ofthelooselytermed‘NewSincerity.’Konstantinou

takesWallaceandDaveEggersasthetotemsofthischaracter-type,aswriters

whobothbelieveandseektofosterbeliefinapost-ironiccontextthatattempts

toovercometheironicimpassethatimmobilisespersonalandpoliticalagency

identifiedasstemmingfrompostmodernisttheoryandwriting,aswellasthe

figureofthe‘advertisingself’withwhichthisisassociated.580Konstantinou

writes,“BothDavidFosterWallaceandDaveEggerssoughttoreconnectprivate

andpubliclife,andtheypursuedthisaimbyused[sic]techniquesassociated

withpostmodernmetaficitontoattempttogenerateformsofbelieftheoryno

longerheldtobepossible.”581Althoughthegoalofthesewritersmaybethe

578JenniferEganinterviewedbyJoshuaLukin,‘PartofUsThatCan’tBeTouched,’Guernica17June2010,www.guernicamag.com/egan_7_1_10/.579JoeReid.‘Happy20thAnniversary,Puck’sEvictionArconTheRealWorld,’TheAtlanticSeptember172014,www.theatlantic.com/entertainment/archive/2014/09/happy-20th-anniversary-pucks-eviction-arc-on-the-real-world/380370/.580Thisself,perKelly,isrecognizedinthefictionofDavidFosterWallacethroughthatauthorsinvestigationofthequestionof“whathappenswhentheanticipationofother’sreceptionofonesoutwardbehaviorbeginstotakepriorityfortheactingself,sothatinnerstateslosetheiroriginalcausalstatusandinsteadbecomeeffectsofthatanticipatorylogic.”AdamKelly,‘DavidFosterWallaceandtheNewSincerityinAmericanFiction,’inConsiderDavidFosterWallace,ed.DavidHering.LosAngeles:SideshowMediaGroup,2015.p.136581LeeKonstantinou.CoolCharacters.Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress.2016.p.168

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same,Konstantinousuggestsbothpursueitthroughdifferentmeans:Eggers’s

approachisinstitutional,whereWallace’s,accordingtoKonstantinou,operates

atamorepersonallevel,usingavant-gardetechniquesasawaytoprovokesome

emotionalreactionfromthereaderandtherebyreaffirmanemphaticconnection

betweenauthorandreaderthatovercomesthedisaffectionofironyandopens

thepossibilityformoregenuinecommunion‘offthepage.’Iamnotentirelysure

howEgan’sworkistobeframedinrelationtoNewSincerity(forhispart,

KonstantinoulooksatGoonSquad,andreadsitinthecontextofacharacterhe

identifiesas“thecoolhunter”inhispenultimatechapter).Inhisreadingof

GeorgeSaunders,AdamKellyidentifiedLookatMeamongstanumberofnovels

(identifiedwithNewSincerity),allofwhichexploreorofferan“escapefrom

consciousness.”582Kellycautionsagainstreadingsuchanescapeas“apositive

recommendationorprescriptionforactioninaneoliberalworld,”suggesting

thattheyshouldinsteadbereadcriticallyanddialectically,bearinginmindthat

theymayindicateawideruncertaintyaboutthesameimaginativelimitationsI

haveidentifiedasimposedbythe“noalternative”logicofneoliberalism.583With

thisinmind,IwillseektoofferareadingofLookatMethatexploresitsposition

inrelationtothe‘realitygenre,’identifyinginparticularthe1990scultureoutof

whichitemerged,andtoconnectthistothequestionof(new)sincerityinthis

novel.Iwillconcentrateinparticularontheendingofthenovel,having

previouslysuggestedthatendingsrepresentacrucialmomentinEgan’swork

(indeed,givenmywiderframework,onemightpositthisasanunpackingof

“happyendings”).Inordertodothis,Iwilllookcloselyatthemodeandformof

confessionatworkinthisnovel,whichIbelievetobeintimatelyconnectedto

theriseofneoliberalhappinessdiscourse,andwhichcanbesituatedinawider

frameworklookingattherelationshipbetweenartandartifice.

ItwouldbehardtooverlookEggersinexploringEgan’sworkinthis

context,giventhathisbreakthroughnovelemergedfromandparticipatesinthis

samemoment:oneofthecentralconceitsofhis2000novel,AHeartbreaking

WorkofStaggeringGenius,isafictionalisedaccountofanauditionforTheReal

582AdamKelly,‘LanguageBetweenLyricismandCorporatism:GeorgeSaunders’sNewSincerity,’inGeorgeSaunders:CriticalEssays,eds.PhilipColemanandSteveGronertEllerhoff.London:PalgraveMacmillan,2017.p54.583Ibid.

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World.Theinclusionofthisinterviewbothparodiestheformatofthereality

genre–Eggersoffershimselfupand“theTragicPerson,”parodyingthetropesof

realitytelevision–andacknowledgesthedebthisworkowestoit–hisstory,

afterall,anditspointofinterestintheliterarymarket,reliesonthe

underpinningtragedyofhisparents’deaths.584Theriseinpublicappetitefor

“realpeople”–andthesufferingoftheserealpeopleinparticular–isacore

motifinLookatMe.WhenCharlottemeetshermodellingagent,Oscar,forthe

firsttimesinceheraccident,hetellsherabouthenewcrazesweepingthe

industry:

Afewmonthsago,hetoldme,abookeratElitehadsomehowspotted

abeautiful,starvingHuturefugeeinTime.Somehow…thisbooker

managedtotracktherefugeedownandflyherandhereightchildren

toNewYork,where‘Hutu’,asshewasknown(hernamehavingbeen

deemedunpronounceable)promptlyshotcoversforMarieClaireand

ItalianVogueandgarneredanavalancheofpublicityforElite.Notto

beoutdone,Laura,theCEOofFemme,noticedabeautifulNorth

Koreangirlinastoryaboutfamine.585

Theassociationbetweenbeautyandsufferingattributesaparticularvalueto

thesesubjectsbasedonactualorperceivedvulnerability.Tobettercontextualise

this,wemightlookagainattheparticularculturalmomentof1990sAmericaout

ofwhichLookatMeemerges(andwhich,asIhavesuggested,isbothexemplified

andparodiedinAHeartbreakingWorkOfStaggeringGenius).Indeed,thisisthe

samemomentthatbirthedtheriotgrrrlmovementwhosehistoriographyIhave

invokedinexpandingtheframeworkofthe“politicsofintimacy,”attributedto

themovementinMimithiNguyen’swork.Riotgrrrlexistedasasubsectionofa

widerpunkmovementthatwasbasedinandaroundOlympia,Washington,with

manyparticipantsattendingclassesatEvergreenStateCollege.Olympiawasalso

hometoKRecords,alabelwhoseinfluencefarexceededitssize.Thefounderof

KRecords,CalvinJohnson,wasamemberofabandcalledBeatHappening,anda

keyfigureinadeliberatelynaïvemusicalmovementthatborrowedtheDIYethos

584DaveEggers.AHeartbreakingWorkofStaggeringGenius.London:Picador,2000.p.204.585LookatMe,p.44.AgainweseeEgan’santicipatoryironizinghere,atoncehighlightingtheabsurdityofthefashionindustryandatthesametimerenderingcommentredundant.

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ofpunkbutsoughttoremovethemachoposturingandhardedgesthathad

markedpunkmusicinAmericathroughthe1980s.586Thebreakoutstarsofthe

Olympiasceneweretwomusicianswhowereaswellknownfortheirstruggles

withcelebrityasfortheirmusic:KurtCobainandElliottSmith.Cobain’ssuccess

camewiththebandNirvana,whospearheadedthegrungemovementthatcame

todefinethe‘90s;Smith’s‘bigbreak’wasthesoundtrackforthe1997film,Good

WillHunting,whichsawhissong‘MissMisery’nominatedforanOscar(he

performeditatthe1998Oscarceremony).587Bothartistsexistinawider

traditionoftheconfessionalthatseesthepersonalsufferingofcreators

repurposedthroughartistictransformation,oftenmarkedinliteratureas

beginningwiththepoetryofRobertLowell,JohnBerryman,SylviaPlath,Anne

Sexton,andAllenGinsberg.588MarkFishersingledCobainoutasanexemplary

figure(orvictim)ofthe“strugglebetweendetournementandrecuperation,”

writingthat,

Inhisdreadfullassitudeandobjectlessrage,Cobainseemedtogive

weariedvoicetothedespondencyofthegenerationthathadcome

afterhistory,whoseeverymovewasanticipated,tracked,boughtand

soldbeforeithadevenhappened[hownaïveeventhisseemsnow,

whenweanticipate,track,buyandsellourownmoves,thoughts,and

feelingswillinglyandalmostautomatically,thankstosocialmedia’s

expansionofsocialityintoallpartsoflife,andtheconcomitant

expansionofthemarketthataccompaniesit].589

BothElliottandCobainstruggledwithalcoholismanddruguse,self-medicating

withbothprescriptionandnon-prescriptiondrugs(mostnotably,heroin)and

documentingthisstruggleintheirmusicandintheirinterviews.590Indeed,

586SeeSteveBlush,AmericanHardcore:ATribalHistory.Washington,WA:FeralHouse,2001foranaccountofthe‘80sscene,andMichaelAzerrad,OurBandCouldbeYourLife,NewYork:BackBayPublishing,2001,Chapter13,foranaccountofBeatHappeningandKRecords.587HewasultimatelybeatenbyCelineDion’sMyHeartWillGoOn.JoeRobinson,‘TV’sMostSurrealMusicalPerformances:ElliottSmithattheOscars,’Diffuser,22May2014.http://diffuser.fm/elliott-smith-oscars/588SeeElizabethGregory,‘ConfessingtheBody,’inModernConfessionalWriting,edJoGill.LondonandNewYork:Routledge,2006,pp.33-50.p.33.589Fisher.CapitalistRealism.p.9590See,forinstance,ChrisMundy,‘MiseryLovesElliottSmith,’TheRollingStone,September31998https://www.rollingstone.com/music/features/misery-loves-elliot-19980903,orLynneHershberger’sinfamousVanityFairstoryonCourtneyLove,‘StrangeLove:TheStoryofKurt

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Elliott’s‘heroinsong,’NeedleintheHay,madeitontothesoundtrackofWes

Anderson’sTheRoyalTenenbaums,afilmanddirectorrobustlyassociatedwith

NewSincerity.591Again,thisincorporation–ofdamageorsuffering–canbe

connectedbothtotheworkoftheconfessionalpoetsandtothetropesofthe

realitygenre;the‘TragicPerson’isalsothesufferingartist,bothobjectand

subjectinthetransformationoftheirpainintoanaestheticorcommercialmode.

Therearealsounderlyinggenderissuestothisconfessionalmode,asElizabeth

Gregoryexploresinlookingatconfessionalpoetry:

Indevelopingtheircontrastingly‘personal’approach,the1950s

confessionalpoetsutilizedthemethodsofpsychoanalysisand

psychotherapy,whichhadonlyrecentlygainedacceptanceintheUS

andwithwhichtheyallhaddirectexperience.Theirworkhasdeeply

influencedmuchpoetrysince,openingupthepossibilityofmoments

ofpersonal‘sharing’intheworkofpoetsineverymode.Atthesame

timeithasbeenlookeddownupon,forbeingtoo‘real’–asan

outpouringofunediteddatafromtheworldofexperience....Andit

hasbeendisparagedastoofeminine.Thoughthemodefirstappeared

intheworkofmalepoets,itisoftenassociatedwithitsfemale

practitioners,andcondemnedastrivialandself-indulgent....592

Theissueofgenderisalsorelevantinconsideringtheconfessionalismofthe‘90s

Iamtracinghere.Themodesofconfessionandopennessassociatedwithriot

grrrldevelopedfromandexpandedthatformof‘consciousnessraising’

associatedwiththesecond-wavefeministmovementepitomisedinCarol

Hanisch’s1969slogan,“thepersonalispolitical.”593Asmentionedearlier,this

expansionwasbornofabeliefthat“thestrategicexcavationofthetrueselfalso

becomesanethicalfoundationforcommunion.”594Thisisthesameimpulsethat

formsthebasisofunderstandingtheNewSinceritymovement,whichseeks,in

CobainandCourtneyLove,’September1992https://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2016/03/love-story-of-kurt-cobain-courtney-love.591WarrenBuckland,‘WesAnderson:a‘smart’directorofthenewsincerity?’NewReviewofFilmandTelevisionStudies,10:1,2012,p.1-5.4.592Gregory,p.33.593CarolHanisch,‘ThePersonalisPolitical,’February1969http://www.carolhanisch.org/CHwritings/PIP.html594Nguyen.p.177.

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thewordsofAdamKellyonDavidFosterWallace,toretain“aloveoftruth,a

truthnowassociatedwiththepossibilityofareconceived,andrenewed,

sincerity”–anethicaltruth,thatis.595Itisinteresting,however,thatthe

mainstreamstarsofthisculturalmomentwereprimarilymale;wemightinvoke

CourtneyLove,here,buthernarrativewasneverasstraightforwardasCobain’s,

withintensesuspicionconstantlyattachedtoherbecauseshewassuspectedof

activelywantingtobefamous.InherVanityFairprofile,Hershbergerwroteof

Courtney’spoorlydyedhair:“Thedarkrootsshowonpurpose–nothingabout

Courtneyisanaccident....”596ThisexemplifiedthenarrativearoundCourtney;if

Kurtwasattimesberatedasa“sellout,”Courtneywasderidedassoldout,

alwaysalreadyrecuperated.597Thispointstothepersistenceofdiscomfort

aroundtheopennessoffemaleconfessionalismandthequestionofitsvalue

(artistically,atleast).ThiscanbeconnectedtothefigureofScottyinAVisitFrom

theGoonSquad,amalemusicianwhomanagestoturnhisalienationinto

celebritywiththehelpofrecordproducerBennySalazar,aswewillseeinthe

nextsectionofthisthesis.IsuggesttherethatScotty’ssuccesscanbeconnected

toaparticulartropeofmasculineruggedindividualismthatallowshisdifference

tobeseenasasortofheroicunconventionality;hiscritiqueofthe‘system’

(whichprimarilytakestheformofsurveillancecultureinthatnovel)isreceived

aspurebecauseofhisowndistancefromit,eveninthemidstofhis

establishmentasacommerciallypopularartist.598This,aswewillsee,standsin

contrasttothosefemalefiguresinthenovelwhodonotorcannot‘conform.’

Intracingthismoment,then,Iamseekingtoillustrateboththepopular

discourseswhichshapedLookatMeandAmericanculturemoregenerally,and

which,Isuggest,‘setthestage’fortheproliferationoftheneoliberalhappiness

discourseIamtracinginthisthesis.Therearetwoelementsofthisrealitygenre

whichIamseekingtoemphasisehere,bothofwhich,asIhavesaid,canalsobe

595Kelly,2010,146.596Hershberger,1992.597Thereismuchmoretothis,andtothefraughtrelationshipbetweenCourtneyLove’sfeminismandthefraughtrelationshipsheenjoyedwiththeOlympiasceneandriotgrrrlinparticular,butforreasonsofspaceIwillnotdelvetoodeeplyhere.598Scottyresonateswithanothercounter-culturalmusicalfigure,thefamouslyreclusiveJeffMangumofNeutralMilkHotel:seeTaylorClark,‘TheSalingerofIndieRock,’Slate,26February2008.http://www.slate.com/articles/arts/music_box/2008/02/the_salinger_of_indie_rock.htm.NeutralMilkHotelandJeffMangumweretouringasrecentlyas2015.

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connectedtotheworkofthose‘confessionalpoets’:theacceptabilityofsuffering

anditsartisticorcommercialtransformation,andthemodeofconfessionitself.

InLookatMe,then,whenOscartellsCharlotteabouttheemergenceofthesenew

‘sufferingmodels,’hecalls“therealitything”a“newlayer,”whichsheidentifies

asthe“bullshitlayer.”599Thisbullshitlayerinvolvesthespectacularsufferingof

participants,ortheknowledgethattheyhavesufferedorwillsuffer,likePedro

ZamorafromTheRealWorld,ortheinfamous2006ExtremeMakeovermemo

thatdetailedtheproducer’seagernesstofindafamilywithachildsufferingfrom

progeria,oronewhoturntragedytotriumphfollowingthedeathofachildina

drunk-drivingincident.600Sexmightsell,butsodoessuffering,atleastwhenitis

recastasacommerciallyappealingnarrative,orjourney.601Thisis,itseems,

goodnewsforCharlotte,whohasundoubtedlysufferedinhercarcrash.This,

combinedwiththemisinformationthatsheistobethesubjectofamagazine

profile,landsherajobworkingwithpaparazzo-turned-fashion-photographer,

Spiro.

Overthecourseoftheshoot,ittranspiresthatSpiro’sartisticsignatureis

cuttingthefacesofthewomenwhomodelforhimandphotographingthem

whiletheybleed.Charlotte,afraidforher“abused,still-tenderfacewithits

hiddencargooftitanium”begstousefakebloodinstead,evenofferingtobuyit

herself.602Spiroisaghastattheverysuggestion:“Theword‘fake’induceda

collectiveflinch,asifI’dusedaracialslur.‘Fakeisfake,’Spirosaid.”603He

continues,assertingthathisgoalisto‘getat’somethingpure:

‘Everythingisartifice...everythingispretending.Youopena

magazine,whatisallthatcrap?LookhowprettyIam,lookhow

perfectmylifeis.Butit’slies,nothingisreallylikethat.And

politicians,too,spinthis,spinthat,pullingsomethingoveronpeople

–I’msickofit.Itliterallymakesmenauseous.’604

599LookatMe,p.45.600‘ABC’s“Extreme”Exploitation,’TheSmokingGun,27March2006www.thesmokinggun.com/documents/crime/abcs-extreme-exploitation#lightbox-popup-1601Iamnotsuggestinghere,either,thatthisnarrativehastoendwithtriumphforittobeacommercial‘success.’Theemphasisremainsonprocess,journey,liminality.602LookatMe,p.179.603LookatMe,p.179.604LookatMe,p.180.

219

Spiroinsiststhat,byphysicallycuttingthesemodelsandlettingthembleed,heis

cuttingthrough“thatshittowhat’srealandfundamental.”605Soundingverylike

oneofBallard’scharismaticpsychopaths,hecloses,“thisisn’taboutfashion–

we’rewaypastfashionhere.Thisisaboutfindinganewwaytoliveinthe

world.”606Hyperbolicasthisis,itfindsresonancewiththerealculturalmoment

inboththeUSandUK:ElliottSmithultimatelydiedofastabwoundtothechest,

andwasanotedself-harmer(alsodiscussedininterviews).607Yearsbefore

Smith’sdeath,RicheyEdwardsofTheManicStreetPreachersmadeheadlines

whenhecarvedthewords“4REAL’intohisarmwitharazorbladeduringan

interviewwithNMEjournalistSteveLamacq.608TheimageofabloodiedRichey,

palebutstaringdirectlyintothecamera,waspublishedintheNMEandlater

usedonposterswhenthebandweretryingtobreakAmerica,inaninstanceof

recuperationthatfindsclearresonanceinthepassageabove.

Bloodlettingasawaytodemonstrateauthenticityisrepeatedlyfiguredin

Eggers’snovel,too,asBenjaminWidissexploresatlengthinhis2011work,

ObscureInvitations:ThePersistenceoftheAuthorinTwentieth-CenturyAmerican

Literature.WidissoffersareadingofAHeartbreakingWorkofStaggeringGenius

thatunderstandsthebookintheframeworkofCatholicritual,leadinghimto

suggestthatthebookitselfbecomesatransubstantiatedversionoftheauthorin

asecularisedsystemofliterarybelief.ThisisclosetoKonstantinou’sreadingof

the“believer”(alsothenameofamagazinefoundedbyEggers),althoughhis

emphasisonEggers’sconstructionof“alternativeinstitutions”offersamore

materialgroundingforEggers’ssystemofbelief.WidisslooksatEggers’saccount

ofhisRealWorldinterviewandhighlightstheauthor’sassertionthathis

participationisinpartmotivatedbyadesiretogivehissufferingmeaning–to

transformitintoakindofconduitoffeelingwithwhichtovitaliseothersand

createacommunityoflovebasedonthisauthenticexpressionofgrief.Thisis

605LookatMe,p.180.606LookatMe,p.180.607SeeLiamGowing,‘ElliottSmith:‘MrMiseryRevisited,YearsAftertheSinger-Songwriter’sControversialDeath,’Spin,October21,2013.https://www.spin.com/2013/10/elliott-smith-mr-misery-10-year-anniversary-death/4608SteveLamacq,‘TheLastTimeISawRichey,’TheGuardian,29September2000.https://www.theguardian.com/friday_review/story/0,3605,374432,00.htmlEdwardsdisappearedtheyearafterKurtCobaincommittedsuicideandispresumeddead.

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veryclosetothosestrategieshighlightedbyNguyenascentraltothe“politicsof

intimacy,”whichsheexplainswithreferencetoElizabethPovinelli’sTheEmpire

ofLove(2006):

InTheEmpireofLove,ElizabethPovinellibrilliantlytheorizessuch

intimacyasaliberalismfantasyofself-actualizationandabstraction

intoacompassionatecollectivity.Insuchafantasy,“subjectsinthe

liberaldiasporaconstantlyurgeeachothertobeopentothe

possibilitythatinrecognizingeachotherinintimatelovetheywill

experienceeachotherasdifferentthantheywerebefore–theywill

experienceabreak,arupturefromtheirpriorselvesandexperiencea

truer,purerformofself,aformtheyhavealwaystrulybeen.We

literallyreformthesocialbybelievinginanddemandingthisformof

love.”Thusdidtheaestheticsofdepthandtruefeeling(thoughnotof

necessitydistinctfromastanceofparodyandcritiqueofthesame,as

weshallsee)presumetograntaccesstoothergirlsandtheirsecret

heartsmadeaudible,madevisible.Asthecoverofthesecondissueof

[riotgrrlzine]photoboxtoolboxannounced:“thisismylife,thisismy

scream,thisismyanger,thisismypain,thisismystrength,thisismy

growth,thisismyspirit,thisismyvoice,thisismyheart,thisismy

song.”609

Nguyen’ssuggestionthatparodyandcritiqueofintimacypersistedevenhere

connectsusagaintotheworkofEggersandEgan.Inneitherinstancedoesthe

writerofferusthenaïveintimateaestheticNguyenassociateswithriotgrrrl.

Bothwritersareacutelyconsciousoftheirpostmoderninheritance,asKelly

describeswithregardtoLookatMein‘BeginningwithPsotmodernism.’For

Widiss,Eggersseekstoworkoutorworkthroughthisinheritancethroughhis

stylistic“gimmicks”:

Eggers,assomeonewhosovaluesandprivilegespersonal

connection,whosewritingsoobviouslyaspirestoasurgingand

encompassingimmediacy,facesamediumthatbeyondacertainpoint

609Nguyen,176.ThisisarefiguringofthequestionofthepossibilityofethicalconnectionsandcirclesroundtheLevinasianquestionofresponsibilitytotheOtherandthepossibilityorOther-knowledgethatisnotalsoerasure,aquestionNguyenisfarfromsurethemovementdealtwith.

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wouldnotseemtoallowit,thatrequiresaretoolingoflived

experienceintoaformbothdigestibleandmarketable:morestatic,

reified,inert.Theinevitablemediationandcommodificationof

Eggers’storyinthebook,then,isprefacedbyaseriesofhighlighted,

hyperbolicpredictiveversionsthereof,condensingthebook’s

contentsyetfurtherandalienatingthereaderfromtheresulting

productinahumorousbutpointedfashion.610

InEgan’swork,however,thisconfrontationisnotsodirectlystaged:Kellyhas

suggestedwemayseeLookatMeas“haunted”bypostmodernism,andseeking

notnecessarilytouseitasastaginggroundfortheresurrectionofbelief(as

WidisssuggestsEggersdoes)buttouseitstechniquesinordertounderstand

“theworlddepictedbypostmodernfiction–whichisstill,inmanyfacets,the

recognizableworldfacingpost-postmodernists–asitselfhistorical,asthe

outcomeofahistoricalprocess,andascapableofhistoricalunderstanding.”611

Wemightsaythatinsteadofwritingthroughpostmodernism,Eganwritesitinin

LookatMe,anovelwhichisitselfasortofcondensedhistoryofliterary

theory.612Eggersusesthe‘tricks’ofpostmodernismtosubverttheaffectlessness

andmediationassociatedwithpostmodernfiction(thosesamequalitiesWallace

railedagainst),andhisimaginedbloodlettingbecomesbothametaphorforand,

byWidiss’sreading,realcommitmenttotheprojectoftransformative

connection:

610BejaminWidiss,ObscureInvitations:ThePersistenceoftheAuthorinTwentieth-CenturyAmericanLiterature.Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress,2011.p.117.611Kelly,2011,p.399.612MuchofthisisconnectedtothecharacterofMoose,anacademichistorianwhoseearlyworkfocusedontheriseofclearglassasaturningpointinhumanhistory(aclearstand-inforEnlightenmentthinkingandrationality),whothroughoutthenovelisworkingonahistoricalprojectthroughwhichheseekstowritethehistoryofAmericathroughthehistoryofcharlotte’shometownofRockford,Illinois,inasortofupdatedre-imaginingofWhitman’sprojectin‘SongofMyself.’Kellywritesthat“Egan’sapproachtorepresentingtheworldhercharactersinhabitacknowledgespriorpostmoderntreatmentsofsimilarthemesandworlds,andisinfactbuiltuponthesetreatments”andthatitistheimplicittreatmentofthisreferencethatcreatesthe“uncannyquality”ofthenovel(‘BeginningwithPostmodernism,’p.402).Thisalsoextendstothelargerprojectofhistoricizingthepostmodernatworkinthenovel,whichalsoincludeshistoricizingitsfoundationsofthepostmodern;thatis,themodern.Egan’stributeisnotjustto“postmoderntextsbyAuster,Ballard,andDeLillo–aswellastoothersbyBarthmBorges,Burroughs,EllisandPynchon”(402)–butalsotothoseauthorssheinvokesinthetext–Austen,Dickens,Trollope.

222

Anticipatinghimselfbeingbeamedintothelivingroomsoflike-

mindedyoungpeopleallovertheworld,Eggerspleads,“Iwillbleedif

theywilllove....Iwillopenavein,anartery...Ohpleaseletme

showthistothemillions.Letmebethelattice,thecenterofthe

lattice.Letmebetheconduit.Thereareallthesehearts,andmineis

strong,andifthereare–thereare!–capillariesthatbringbloodto

millions,thatweareallofonebodyandthatIam–Oh,Iwanttobe

theheartpumpingbloodtoeveryone,bloodiswhatIknow,Ifeelso

warminblood,canswiminblood,ohletmebethestrongbeating

heartthatbringsbloodtoeveryone!”Hisimpassionedpleafailsto

swaythepowersthatbeatMTV,andEggersdoesnotgetthepart.He

does,however,arriveathismostexplicitarticulationuptothispoint

ofthecomplementtopaperinthebook’scontrollingmetaphor,

nominatingheartsandbloodasameansofinterpersonalconnection

andcommunication.613

Thisisnot,however,thecaseinEgan’sworkand,indeed,itmightbethatthe

differencehereissymptomaticoflargerdifferencesbetweenEgan’sworkand

Eggers’s(andWallace’s)resultingfromadifferentcommitmenttosincerity(a

differentshadeofNewSincerity),whichwecantracetothe“escapefrom

consciousness”Kellyintimatesattheendofthenovel.Iwillexploreandexplain

thismorethoroughlyinamoment.

BeforelookingattheendofLookatMe,however,letusreturntoEgan’s

sceneofbloodletting,andconsiderhowandwhyitssignificationdiffersfrom

Eggers’saccount.DescribingtheprocessofhisRealWorldaudition,Eggers

writesofsendingavideotapetoproducers,followingwhichheiscontactedbya

womancalledLaura:

Twodayslaterawoman,Laura,calls.Sheisoneoftheshow’s

producersorcastingagentsorwhatever,andshehasobviously

recognizedmeasthesortofpersonwhobelongsonTV,inspiringa

nationofdisaffectedyouth.IamtogointothenewRealWorld

613Widiss.p.122-3.

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headquartersforaninterview,halfanhourorso,whichwillalsobe

videotaped.614

Inthisbriefextract,Eggersinvokesanumberofimportantthemes.Heraiseshis

owndesire,thedrivingforcebehindconfession,behindwriting,behindthe

artisticoraestheticorpublictransformationofpain:toberecognised,tobeseen.

Thisis,obviously,thecentralconcernofLookatMe,asitstitlesuggests,andalso

inCharlotteSwenson’spreoccupationwith“shadowselves,”describedearlier.

Here,however,Eggersisrecognisednotjustashimself,butas“thesortofperson

whobelongsonTV.”LetusthinkagainofWallace’sEmersoniandescriptionof

the“veryrarespeciesofperson”who“canstandthemegagazeofmillions”:in‘E

UnibusPluram,’Wallacesuggestedthatthispersonwould“havetobejust

abnormallyself-consciousandself-controllingtoappearunwatchedbefore

lenses.”615Eggers’sappeal-hereandthroughoutAHWOSG-isnotofappearing

unwatched,butofnegotiatingconstantscrutinyandnarratinghisnegotiationsin

evermoreconvolutedandself-reflexivemodesinordertoenablethisspiritof

communionwiththereader,whichasIhavesaid,Widnissreadsinthe

frameworkofCatholicritual:

InthecourseoftheMTVinterview,Eggersaffirmshissuitabilityfor

TheRealWorldexperienceinpartbasedonthefactthathealready

feelshe’sbeingwatchedatalltimes,andsurmisesthatheowesthis

sensetohismother’s“amazingeyes,thesesmallsharpeyes,always

narrowingtoasquintandtearingintoyou;shenevermissed

anything,whethershewasseeingitthereorhalfwayaroundthe

world.”Herdivineacuitythusprovidestheimagery(“tearinginto

you”)thatsparksEggers’ascension,evenasherrigoroussurveillance

offersbothanearthlyanaloguetotheomniscientCatholicgodanda

modelforEggers’owncriticalincisiveness:“WhenIwatchpeopleI

toolookthroughthem.Ilearnedthatfrommymother....Iknow

everythingaboutpeoplewhenIlookatthemforonlyamoment.””

EggerssoundsstartlinglylikeCharlotte,withhertalentforseeingshadowselves,

andherconstantawarenessofscrutiny.Whensheisthreatenedwith

614Eggers.p.182.615Wallace.p.154.

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bloodletting,however,thereisnoredemptivepossibility,andsheis(justly)

horrifiedbytheprospect.UnlikeEggers,Charlottedoesnotinstigatethe

bleeding:itistobedonetoher.Asapaparazzo,Spiromadehislivingfromthe

unwillingcaptureofimages,forcingthesubjectintospectacle.Hiselevationto

respectabilitymightbeasatiricindictmentofthevampiricnatureofthefashion

industry,whichfeedsontheyouthandbeautyofyounggirls,asEgannotedin

herarticleonJaimeKing:

To“findagirl”istodiscoverateen-agerwithpotential.Thecareer

arcofamodelrequiresthatshestartyoung,andthepreternatural

beautyofveryyounggirls(alongwiththeirquitegenuinegirlishness)

makesthemur-modelsofasort.Evenaface21yearsolddoesn’tlook

quiteasfresh,andI’vehadmodelsintheir20’sadmittomethat

they’reafewyearsolderthantheysay,andtellmehowharditwasto

adjusttometabolicchanges.Foryearsnow,andinsummertime

especially,Manhattanhasteemedwithschoolgirls,someasyoungas

12or13,whoarebuildinguptheirmodellingportfoliosduring

vacation.616

Youngwomenarethelifebloodofthemodellingindustry,literalisedinSpiro’s

demand.KonstantinousuggeststhatWallace’smodelofbeliefsoughtto

confoundEnlightenmentrationalityandnarrativesofautonomythrougha

repurposingoftheavant-garde,utilisingtheuneasegeneratedinthereaderby

postmoderntechniquestodisruptpassivity.617Inthebloodlettingscene,Egan

critiquesthepotentialoftheavant-gardetodisruptnarrativesofconsumption,

suggestinghere,aselsewhere(mostnotablyinAVisitFromtheGoonSquad)a

supremesuspicionofthesuggestionthatanythingcanremainoutsidethe

processesofcapital.618Ifthemodellingindustryalreadyremovesrenders

womenasobjects,demandsthattheystarvethemselvestowork,and

616Egan,‘JamesisaGirl,’TheNewYorkTimes,4February1996The‘90sweretheeraofKateMossandheroinchic,wheresizezerowasstandard.Theturnto‘realpeople’Eganprescientlyidentifiedhasalsoshiftedconceptionsofwhatisdesirableinthemodellingindustry,althoughitisfarfromtransformed.Eganalsoofferedaficitonalisedaccountoftheindustryinhershortstory,‘TheStylist,’publishedinEmeraldCity(1993).617Whetherthisissuccessfulornot,Konstaninouwrites,“remainsanopenquestion.”p.186.618ThiscouldbeconnectedtoKonstantiou’sreadingofEggers’sMcSweeney’sprojectas“somethinglikeauser-friendlyavant-garde,”p.216.

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perpetuatesastandardofbeautythatisbothunrealandunreflectiveofthe

widerworld,isitsuchastretchtoimaginethedemandtobleed(theobverseof

thedemandnotto,asideeffectofstarvation,oranorexia)?619Infact,inthis

suggestion,sheisclosetoBallardinKingdomCome,wherethatauthorturnsthis

suspicionoftheutilityoftheavant-gardeonhisownwork,bymyreading.Egan’s

suspicion,however,isexpresseddifferentlyandtodifferentends,instrictly

literarytermsaswellasmoregenerally.

Withthisinmind,then,letusturntotheendofLookatMe.AsIhavealready

said,Egan’s“happyendings”aremomentsofparticularinterestintrackingthe

relationshipbetweenhertextsandtheneoliberalhappinessdiscourseIexplore

inthisthesis.Thisendingisparticularlyconcernedwiththesecondaspectofthe

realitygenreoutlinedearlier(theconfessionalmode)althoughitisnotentirely

distinctfromthefirst,exploredabove(thevalorisationofsufferingasaprimary

locusofpublicself-expression).ThebrieffinalchapterofLookatMeoffersan

accountofhowCharlotteSwenson,aswehaveknownherthroughthenovel,has

ceasedtoexist.Itbegins:“thatwomanentertainingguestsonherEastRiver

balconyinearlysummer,mixingrumdrinksinsuchawaythattheBacardiand

Coca-Colalabelsblinkattheviewerhaphazardlyinthedustygoldenlight–she

isn’tme.”620Thisisfollowedbyabrand-name-littereddescriptionofhow

CharlotteSwensonbecamea“culturaliconofpersonaltransformation.”621This

rapidaccountincludesanextensivelistofthewaysinwhichthisiconicstatus

619Indeed,eventheexhibitionthatchangesSpiro’sformfortuneispartofthis:heapparentlygainedcredibilityaftershowingaseriesofphotosofasixteenyear-oldgangmember,HoneyB.,whichledtoHarper’sBazaarhiringhimto“reprisetheseriesin‘GirlGang’,anow-infamousfashionspreadfeaturingmodelsinMartineSitbonandHelmutLangposingasgangmembers.(‘Execution’,ashotofKateMossholdingasawed-offshotguntotheheadofablindfoldedandkneelingAmberValetta,hadcausedaparticularfrissonofoutrageandcommentary.).”LookatMe,p.162.Ifthisseemsridiculous,wemightturntoAngelaMcRobbie’schapteron‘UnpackingthePoliticsofCreativeLabour,’whichopenswiththestoryofVicemagazine’s2013editorialfashionspread“basedonthe‘favoured’modesofsuicidebyanumberoffamouswomenwriters,includingSylviaPlathandVirginiaWoolf.”BeCreative,33.620LookatMe,p.509.621Evenchairinganacademicsymposium,‘TheSemioticsofPhysiognomyinaPost-DeconstructiveVisualDiscourse.’LookatMe,p.511.Charlotte’sreal-lifecounterpart,KimKardashian,whoreinventedherselfafterasex-taperatherthanacarcrash,receivedasimilarhonour,thoughshedidnotactuallychairhersymposium-orrather,Kimposium!–heldattheUniversityofBrunelin2015.Itdidselloutthough.ItseemsnearlyunnecessarytohighlighttheliteraryantecedenceofBretEastonEllis’sAmericanPsycho(1991)inrelationtohissection,anotherinstanceofEgan’sdeepawarenessofmediation.

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wasdirectlytranslatedintoconsumergoods,aswellanassurancethatnoneof

thisactuallymadeherfeelgood:

ThemorenotoriousIbecameformytransformation,themore

gapinglyfraudulentthistransformationbegantofeel.Ihadn’t

transformed;Ihadundergoneakindoffission,andthetworesulting

partsofmereviledeachother.Iwasaghostsealedwithinthebodyof

afame-obsessedformermodelfromwhomIhadtostrenuouslyguard

mymoodsandthoughts,lestshefindsomewaytocannibalizeand

sellthem(Charlotte’sAnti-SuicideTechniques,Charlotte’sPoemsfor

Depression).622

Thereismuchwemightreadintointhisparagraph.Ifthenovelisindeed

“haunted”bypostmodernism,istheghostherethatpostmodernconsciousness

thatacknowledgestheinevitabilityofself-reflexivityandisatthesame

paralysedbyit?Istheguardingofmoodsandthoughtsacommentonthe

removalofthosetraditionalmarkersofcharacterinthepostmoderncanon(see,

again,Ballard’swork)?IsthisitselfacommentonthedifficultyofwhatKellyhas

describedas“beginningwithpostmodernism”–forwheredoestheauthorbegin,

afterthepostmodern,beyondtherealitygenre?Doesthesuccessofauthors

associatedwithNewSincerity,suchasEggersandWallace,instantiateanew

formofconfessionalliteraturethatreliesnotontheveracityofeventsbutonthe

avowaloffeeling?IfNewSincerityischaracterisedbyadialogicreadingor“two-

wayconversation,”isEgan’sworkquestioningthecultofpersonalityimplicitin

suchareading-forifIreadyourworktocommunewithyou,intermsofthe

frameworkofintimacy,bythisreadingIcometoknowyou?Indeed,Widiss

recognisesthisasacharacteristicofEggers’swriting,inunderstandingthatthe

author’sappealisbasedon“anenduringcharismapredicatedon[his]very

openness,aswellashisinformality,enthusiasm,andhumour.”623Thosewriters

whowriteaboutwritingandindoingsomakethereaderpartytotheirconcerns,

theirfears,andtheiranxieties,alsorepeatedlyandconsistentlyrecognisethat

theyinvestapartoftheirselfintheirwriting.

622LookatMe,p.512.623Widiss,p.114

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Kellywrites,thatforDavidFosterWallace,“thegreatestterror,butalsothe

onlytruerelief,isthepassivedecisiontorelinquishtheselftothejudgementof

theother,andthefictionoftheNewSincerityisthusstructureandinformedby

thisdialogicappealtothereader’sattentionandjudgement.”624Thisisright,of

course,butitisn’teverything.Konstantinou’saccountofthebelievererrsina

significantway,inrelationtothis.HedistinguishesbetweentheworkofWallace

andEggersonan‘institutional’basis,suggestingthatEggerssoughttoconstruct

“alternativeinstitutions”intheformofhisliterarymagazines,publishinghouse,

andvariousnot-for-profitorganisationsdevotedtoliteracy.Oftheselast,

Konstantinouwritesthatthefirsttutoringcentre,826Valencia,isdesignedasa

piratesupplyshop,andthatthoseinothercitiesaresuperheroorgangster

themed,whichheidentifiesaspartofa“quirkyeconomy”(whichitmaywellbe.

Itmightalsobethatthesecentresaredesignedtoappealtochildren,whose

notionofquirkinessweimaginetobesignificantlylessweightedwithcultural

baggage.Itmayevenbesomecombinationofthetwo.).Konstaninouwrites,

[Thesecentres]areeducationalinstitutionsthatusequirkystyleasa

pedagogicaltool,aspartofaphilanthropicexercise,andonecan’t

helpbutwonderifstudentswhostopinare(inadditiontolearning

aboutwriting)notalsoreceivinganeducationinhowtobecome

quirkybelievers.625

Incontrast,Wallace’spedagogicaleffortsreceivenoattentioninKonstantinou’s

account,whichsuggestshispositionasateacherofwritingcanbeseparated

fromhisliteraryoutput,whereEggers’sextra-textualactivitiesmustbe

consideredinreadinghiswork.Wallace’sengagementwithexistinginstitutional

structuresisimportant,Ithink,givenboththeimportanceoftheMFA

programmetocontemporaryAmericanwriting(asdocumentedbyMarkMcGurl

inTheProgramEra(2009))andhissignificantimpactonthestyleofpopular

literature.IfEggerssoughttoestablishhisowninstitutions,perKonstantinou’s

reading,perhapsWallacesoughttotransformthosealreadyexisting,andin

doingsoexertedasimilarforceoverhisstudents,particularlyashisliterary

624Kelly,2010.p.145.625Konstantinou,p.212.

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celebritygrew.626Whatliesatthebaseoftheseefforts,ineachinstance,isthis

“enduringcharisma,”orthepersonalityoftheauthorasafactorinthereception

ofthework.EggersandWallacebothfoundthemselvesinasimilarpositionto

CharlotteSwenson,wheretheirliteraryreputationexceededandprecededthem,

anddictatedexpectationandperceptionoftheiroutput.627Beyondthis,the

modeofauto-confessioninwhichCharlottefindsherselftrappedanticipatesthe

currentmomentofsocialmedia,andtheshiftinconfessionalismitentails.

InLookatMe,fansofCharlottewerelimitedtopassivelyobservingher,and

buyingproductssheendorsed,whereaswithcontemporarysocialmedia,users

caninteractwiththeobjectsoftheirobservationandcanalsoseektodirectly

imitatethem.Thishasledtotheriseof‘influencers,’socialmediauserswho

makemoneyfromobjectifyingtheirlifestyles–themostwellknownarethe

Kardashianfamily,whoseactualculturalpresenceresemblesCharlotte

Swenson’sfictionalone.Thecannibalisationofselfcanbealucrative,brand-

sponsoredindustry,andonethatcovertlyinterpellatessubjectstoself-regulate

inordertoaccruecapital,bothsocialorculturalandeconomic.Thisiswell

explainedbyRose,inhissummationofthepsychotherapeuticcodingoftheself:

Itpromisestomakeitpossibleforusalltomakeaprojectofour

biography,createastyleforourlives,shapeoureverydayexistence

intermsofanethicofautonomy.Yetthenormofautonomysecretes,

asitsinevitableaccompaniment,aconstantandintenseself-scrutiny,

acontinualevaluationofourpersonalexperiences,emotions,and

feelingsinrelationtoimagesofsatisfaction,thenecessityto

narrativizeourlivesinavocabularyofinteriority.Theselfthatis

626SyllabifromWallace’scoursewerereproducedafterhisdeathinTheDavidFosterWallaceReader(2015)andexcerptspublishedonline;see,forexample,‘DavidFosterWallace’smind-blowingcreativenonfictionsyllabus,’Salon,11November2014.https://www.salon.com/2014/11/10/david_foster_wallaces_mind_blowing_creative_nonfiction_syllabus_this_does_not_mean_an_essayist%E2%80%99s_goal_is_to_share_or_express_herself_or_whatever_feel_good_term_you_got_taught_in_h/.Wemightalsoconsidertheorganicevolutionofinformalinstitutions,suchastheHowlingFantodswebsite,thathavecometobesignificantspacesofliterarydiscussion,asevidenceofalternativecommunitiesspringingfromWallace’swork–whichwas,purportedly,designedtofosterthisveryfeelingofcommunionorcollectivity.627Ina1997interviewwithCharlieRose,Wallacesaidthatheinitiallywantedtobeawriter“togetsomeattention”butthathequicklyfound“itdidn’tmake[him]happyatall.”CharlieRose,March271997https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xRr4K73XIxM

229

liberatedisobligedtoliveitslifetiedtoaprojectofitsown

identity.628

Livingonlinemakesthisthefoundationalframeworkofsubjectification;weare

obligedtomakeapublicprojectofouridentity.629Rose’s“vocabularyof

interiority,”however,maybesubjecttomodificationbythetransmutationof

thesepsydiscoursesfromspecialistvocabulariestoeverydayrationalities.

Elsewhere,SherryTurklepointsoutthat,invirtualconfession,whatwemight

calltheevaluativedimensionofconfessionisabsent.630IfNewSincerityrelieson

adialogicreadingthatseespositsanethicsofconnectionbetweenreaderand

writer,thisshiftmightweakenitsfoundations,orattheveryleastdemandacall

forareinvigorationofevaluative(and,byimplication,critical)capacityasa

prerequisiteforthecontinuationofthisrelationship(thismightbeimaginedina

pedagogicalsense,particularlyatamomentwhenhumanitiesfacultiesareunder

attackintheneoliberalacademy,discussedelsewhereinthisthesis).

Indeed,Egan’sworkseemstosuggestthatliteraturethatreliesonthe

evocationofan“offthepage”emotionalconnectionmightinadvertently

participateinthecommodificationoffeelingandperpetuatethecultofauthorial

personalitythattransformswritersintocelebrities(andfictioninto

autobiography).AtthecloseofthisnovelCharlotteSwensonsellstherightsto

herlikenesstoThomasKeene,andretirestolivealifeoff-camera.Shesays:

Asformyself,I’drathernotsayverymuch.WhenIbreathe,theair

feelsgoodinmychest.AndwhenIthinkofthemirroredroom,asof

courseIstilldo,Iunderstandnowthatit’sempty,filledwithchimeras

likeCharlotteSwenson...Lifecan’tbesustainedunderthepressure

ofsomanyeyes.Evenaswetrytorevealthemysteryofourselves...

thetruthhasslippedaway,burrowedfurtherinsideadark,coiled

privacythatreplenishesitselflikeblood.631

628Rose.GoverningtheSoul,p.258.629Thinkofhowwidespreadthisexpectationis–ifoneisseekingemploymentinaprofessionalcapacity,oneisexpectedtohaveaLinkedInprofilethroughwhichtodemonstrateoneself,forexample.630SeeSherryTurkle.AloneTogether.NewYork:BasicBooks,2011.631LookatMe,p.514.

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Ifthereis“apartofusthatcan’tbetouched,”untranslatedanduntranslatable,

thenthismightstandinoppositiontowriterslikeEggersandWallace,whoseek

torenderthispartoftheselfintheirfictioninordertoenablesomesustaining

emotionalconnection“offthepage.”Inthisreading,Egan’sworkremainsfirmly

onthepageandinsistsonthisboundary.Itmightevenbeacritiqueoftheovert

appealsofthosewriters,asalreadysuggestedinmycomparisonbetweenEggers

andEgan.If,forEggersandWallace,fictionisawaytonegotiateloneliness,by

allowingustogetundertheskinofanotherperson,thisisnotthecaseforEgan.

Instead,itis,asshehassaid,awaytopeekinsidewindows,withoutever

enteringthehouse,ifyoulike.Egan’ssincerity,then,restsonthisaffirmation,

andherrefusaltogiveofherselfinthesamewayastheseotherwriters–this

mightbeconnectedtoherrepeatedinsistencethatthereisnothing

autobiographicalinherwork.632Thismightbeconnectedtothepejorative

associationbetweenthefeminineandtheconfessional:thatconfessionalwork

byfemalewriters,orworkthatdrawsformtheirownlife,issomehowseenasa

failureofimagination.Thesortofheroictransformationassociatedwith“unself-

consciousself-consciousness”forWallace’smegagazeisdifferentforawoman.

Indeed,thisissupportedbythetheoreticalunderpinningsofLookatMe,which

canbetracedtoJohnBerger’swork,inwhichhesuggeststhatthisperformative

identityisinscribedinfemaleidentityinadistinctanddistortingway:thata

womanalwaysseesherselftwice.633Bythislogic,Eganisforcedintothesame

sortofdoublevision:asawoman,andawriter,inamale-dominatedlineage.If

Eggers’suseof“gimmicks”wasasortofanticipatorydefence,sotoo,Isuggest,is

Egan’s.Inthiscase,however,itworksnottoillustrateanawarenessofthegulf

betweenreaderandwriterandthemediatingfunctionofwritinginorderto

allowanegationorovercomingofthatdistance,butinsteadheightensthat

distance,restatinganauthorialobjectivitythatasksustoreadthecraftofthe

novelratherthantheauthorbehindit.Egan’sfaithisinthebook,quiteliterally;

notseekingtotranscendorovercomeform,buttomakeacaseforthepowerof

literatureforliterature’ssake.Allartisartifice,perhaps,butthisdoesnotmean

632ElissaSchappell,‘WhereJenniferEganDrewtheLineforResearchingHerNewNovelManhattanBeach,’VanityFair,October182017https://www.vanityfair.com/style/2017/10/jennifer-egan-manhattan-beach-interview633SeeJohnBerger,WaysofSeeing.London:Penguin,1972.

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thetruthsitcontainsarenotthemselvesreal.Eganmovestoletthewordsonthe

pagespeakforthemselves.

Myproblemhereisthatthosewordsseemtoexceedthespeaker.Charlotte

Swenson,throughoutthenovel,isresolutelyunlikeable,andspiritedlycorrupt:

shetricksAnthonyHalliday,alcoholicdetective,intokissingher,onlytofillhis

mouthwithwhiskeyandruinhissobriety.634Shedropsoutofuniversityto

becomeamodel,anddespiteherprofessedadmirationforcertainpoets,seems

fairlyun-literary,oftenbaffledbytheliteraryexchangesbetweenIreneMaitlock

andThomasKeene.Heronegoalthroughoutthenovelistogainaccessto“the

mirroredroom,”thehallowedspaceofcelebrity.Andyet,attheendofthenovel,

sherejectsthis.Itishervoicethatsaystothereader:

Lifecan’tbesustainedunderthepressureofsomanyeyes.Evenas

wetrytorevealthemysteryofourselves,tocatchitunawares,expose

itspulseandflinchandperistalsis,thetruthhasslippedaway,

burrowedfurtherinsideadark,coiledprivacythatreplenishesitself

likeblood.Itcannotbeseen,muchasonemightwishtoshowit.It

diestheinstantitistouchedbylight.

Charlotterejectswhathas,untilnow,beentheguidingprincipleofherlife,and

indoingso,becomespoeticherself:“pulseandflinchandperistalsis”isnotlike

herlanguageelsewhereinthenovel.Doessheregainsomeforgottenpartof

herself,the(Alexander)Pope-loving,literate,sensitivepartofherself?Tobelieve

thisrequiresaleapoffaith,foritwouldmeanbelievinginaCharlottethereader

hasneverknown:ashadowself.Orshouldwereadthisasanintrusionfromthe

author–isEganCharlotte’sshadowself,revealingherselfintheimpossibly

lyricallanguageofacharacterwhosestrongestemotionalinvestmentpriorto

thismomentwasinhersectionalcouch?Konstantinouwrites,“wedojudge

novelsbasedonwhattheycanconvinceustobelieve.”635Iftheauthorappears

inthisfinalappeal,ifitisEgan,andnotCharlotte,whoassertsthis“partofus

thatcan’tbetouched,”doesthisbelieEgan’sowninsistenceonobjectivity,and

negateherauthorialdistance?Isthispartthatcan’tbetouchedinfactthecoreof

634GivenWallace’semphasisonAAasamodelfromwhichtostructurebelief,andhisownwritingonaddiction,thismightbeseenasafurtherstatementofEgan’sowndistancefromthosestructures.635Konstantinou,p.171.

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emotionaltruthinthenovel–isthiswhereEganputsherselfin,despitethefact

thatthenovelseemstobecriticalofsuchamove?

Ifthisistrue,thenovelbecomesasortof“hard,beautifulseashell,”that

revealsnothingtothereader,butasksustodelightinthepleasureoflanguage

andofliteratureitself.636Insteadofbeingsincereaboutfeeling,then,Egan’s

workmightbesincereaboutpleasure:abouttherewardofreading,the

lovelinessoflanguage,thejoy(andabsurdity)oftheory.637Acigarisjustacigar,

abookisjustabook.Charlotte,likeMelville’sBartleby,wouldprefernotto.And

incommonwiththatstory,perhaps,Egan’sworksubtlyinsiststhatliterature

doesnothavetoprovideanswers,orevenaskparticularquestions.Kellyinvokes

BartlebyinhisreadingofGeorgeSaunders’sstory‘EscapefromtheSpiderhead,’

andwritesthatinthatstory,“asinBartleby,refusaldoesnotleadto

liberation.”638ThesameistrueinLookatMe,forboththereaderandthe

characterofCharlotte.Ultimately,thisamountstoaliteraryrenderingofthose

rockstardeathsexploredearlierinthischapter;indeed,Charlotte’s

disappearancefindsresonance,again,withRicheyEdwards,whoremainsnot

definitivelydead,butdisappeared.Thisabsencemaybesincere,butthe

questionremainsofitsutility,particularlyifweareseekingtouncoversome

ethicalrelationshipbetweenwriterandreader,aspositedbyNewSincerity.Iam

remindedofCourtneyLove’sreadingofKurtCobain’ssuicidenote,whichwas

pre-recordedandplayedatamemorialserviceatSeattleCenterFlagPavilion

twodaysafterCobain’sbodywasfound:

I’mnotgonnareadyouallthenote‘causeit’snoneofyourfucking

business.Butsomeofitistoyou.Idon’treallythinkittakesawayhis

dignitytoreadthisconsideringthatit’saddressedtomostofyou.

636LookatMe.p.514.637Ofcourse,thequestionofpleasuremightitselfbeunderstoodasapoliticalone,pertheBourdeusianunderstandingoftaste,asdiscussedearlierwithreferencetoSaraAhmed’swork.ThisgoestothewiderquestionofwhoNewSincerityisfor,alsoraisedbyIainWilliamsin‘(New)SincerityinDavidFosterWallace's“Octet,”‘Critique:StudiesinContemporaryFiction,56:3,2015,pp.299-314.638Kelly,2017.p.48.

233

He’ssuchanasshole.Iwantyoualltosay‘asshole’reallyloud.

[crowd:“asshole.”]”639

IsCharlotteSwensonanassholeheretoo?Isherpositionappreciablydifferentto

‘coolhunter’Lulu,whostatestheimpossibilityofuncommodifedauthenticity,in

theend?Isintimacytoomuchtoask?Lovewentontosay,“Ishouldhavelethim

–weallshouldhavelethim–havehisnumbness.Weshouldhavelethimhave

thethingthatmadehimfeelbetter.Weshouldhavelethimhaveit,insteadof

tryingtostripawayhisskin.”640

Charlotte’sabdicationofselfreverberateswiththeactionofsuicide,and

mightremindusoftheclosingofEugenides’sVirginSuicides:

Itdidn’tmatterintheendhowoldtheyhadbeen,orthattheywere

girls,butonlythatwehadlovedthem,andthattheyhadn’theardus

calling,stilldonothearus,uphereinthetreehouse,withour

thinninghairandsoftbellies[thesemenhavenointerestin‘glamour

labour’!],callingthemoutofthoseroomswheretheywenttobealone

foralltime,aloneinsuicide,whichisdeeperthandeath,andwhere

wewillneverfindthepiecestoputthembacktogether.641

Perhapswe,thereader,haveneverknownCharlottebetterthanthecollective

narratorsofEugenide’snovelknewthegirls,orfansofNirvanaknewCobain.

Perhapsthisisthepoint:itisnotthatwelackthepiecestoputCharlotteandher

fracturedfacebacktogether,butthatthosepieceswerenevertheretobegin

with.IfCharlotte’sfacewasneverreallychanged,isanyofthistrue?Isthis

novelablackmirror,inwhichwesearchforreflectionsbutcanneverfindthem–

becausewhatweseekissomecannibalisedemotion,whichbecomesameasure

ofpleasureoverthosequalitiesofthetextinwhichEgandelights,andwhichher

639CourtneyLove,‘OntheSuicideofHerHusband,’GiftsofSpeech.10April1994.http://gos.sbc.edu/l/love.html640Asabove.Granted,thiscouldbeunderstoodasreferringtoheroin,althoughCobainhassuggestedthathewasproductivewhilsttakingthedrug,whichallowedhimtosatisfycommercialobligations.Theobligationtofeelseemstobeconnectedtohispositioningasafigureheadforalostgeneration,comingoutoftherepressiveRegan-eraandintoanewspaceoffeeling,inwhichemotionwasincreasinglycentredinpublicdiscourse–theprecursortothehappinessdiscourseIamtracinginthisthesis.641Eugenides.p.249.

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workfirmlyasserts?642Thisnovelendsnotonanescapefromconsciousness,per

se,asCharlotteapparentlyinhabitsher‘realself’morecompletelythanatany

otherpointinthenovel.Instead,itisspecificallyasocialconsciousnessshe

abdicates:asenseofselfintheworldandbeholdentoit.Wemightconnectthis

toKonstantinou’sreadingofEganandthe“autoreification”hetracesinAVisit

fromtheGoonSquad.Iftheworldhasbecomeneoliberal(andourlabour

affective),isouronlywaytoresisttheproductiveimperativethatistheengineof

neoliberalismtoabscond,todetach(tobe,wemightsay,cool,intheclassic

sense)?PerhapsweshouldthinkhereofSlavojŽižek’sassertion,afterBadiou:

thethreattodayisnotpassivitybutpseudo-activity,theurgeto“be

active,”to“participate,”tomasktheNothingnessofwhatgoeson.

Peopleinterveneallthetime,“dosomething”academicsparticipatein

meaningless“debates,”andsoforth,andthetrulydifficultthingisto

stepback,towithdrawfromallthis.643

ThisispartofŽižek’sreadingofthepotentialofa“Bartlebypolitics,”inwhich

negationbecomesnotthefirststeptowardsareimaginedpoliticalcommunity,

butanunderlyingprincipleforit.Iseetheutilityofthisreading,butgiventhat

TheKeepgoesontoassertthevalueofliteratureforitsabilityto“openadoorin

ourheads,”I’mnotsosureitisenoughbyEgan’sownaccount.Afterall,that

doorhastogosomewhere–right?644

642Andthisnovelclearlyandrepeatedlyassertsthis,withitsdelightinallusion,anditsplayfuldeploymentofliterarytropesasaself-consciousshorthandforunderstandingpeople,asintheexchangesbetweenThomasKeeneandIreneMaitlock.Indeed,IhaveexploredthenominativedeterminisminMaitlock’snaming,butmightmarkheretoothatinKeene’s–heiskeenonthefuture,optimisticaboutnewtechnologies,passionateabouttheirpotential,andfinelyattunedtonarrativepossibility.Keensatire,indeed.643SlavojŽižek.TheParallaxView.Cambridge,MA:MITPress,2006.p.334.644IsupposeendingonthisquestioninvokesWallace’sundecidability.Inthis,Irecognisethatmycriticalapproachisinconversationwiththatofothers,andhopetohighlightthatthecriticisalsoandisfirstthereader.

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TheKeep:DoNeoliberalsDreamofElectricSheep?

TheKeepisJenniferEgan’sthirdnovel,andtheonlyinstanceofherwork

explicitlydesignedinthegothicformdespitethosegothictendenciesIhave

tracedthroughoutheroeuvre.Itemploystheclassic‘text-within-a-text’formof

gothicfiction;EganhasreferencedHenryJames’sTheTurnoftheScrew(1898)

asaninfluence.645ThestorywithinthestoryisthenarrativeofDannyKing,a

NewYorkhipsterandself-styledgothwhotravelstoanuncertainEuropean

locationtoassisthiscousin,Howard,withtherenovationofacastle.Howard

planstoturnthecastleintoaluxuryhotel.Thetwocousinswerecloseintheir

youth,buttheirrelationshipneverrecoveredafterDannyparticipatedinaprank

thatresultedinHoward’sentrapmentwithinanundergroundcavesystem.

WritingthisstoryisRayMichaelDobbs,aprisoninmatewhoistakingacreative

writingclassrunbyawomancalledHollyFarrell,herselfarecoveringdrug

addictandaspiringauthor.AlthoughRaypresentshisstoryasfiction,itlater

transpiresthatitisthestoryofhowhecametobeimprisoned,andhefeaturesin

hisstoryasacharacternamed‘Mick.’LookatMemovedtowardsareflectionof

theintrusionoftechnologyoneverydaylife,anddepictedtheposthumanas

morebanalthanmonstrous,andinTheKeepEganexpandsonboththeseideas.

Notablyscarceintheearliernovelaretheprostheseswenowrecogniseasthe

mostcommonaccoutrementsoftheposthuman:smartphones,laptops,other

mobiletechnology.TheactionofLookatMeoccursatamomentjustbeforethe

omnipresenceofthesetechnologies.TheiPhone,widelycreditedwithchanging

ourrelationshiptomobiletechnology-andeachother-wasnotlauncheduntil

2007;MySpace,Facebooketalhadyettoachieveubiquity.Atthesametime,

LookatMeincipientlyrecognisedthepre-existingculturalcircumstanceby

whichthesuccessofthesedevices,andthetechnologiesofself-objectification

theyproliferate,waspossible.646TheKeepthematisesthewayinwhichthese

technologiesreshapeimaginationandinterpersonalrelationships,evolvingfrom

645JenniferEganinterviewedbyDonnaSeaman.BookslutDecember2006,www.bookslut.com/features/2006_12_010343.php646Ifanything,itunderestimatedtheimpactofvirtualtechnologiesoftheself;thiswas,asIargued,dueinparttoEgan’spersistentbeliefin‘apartofusthatcan’tbetouched,’perherGuernicainterview.

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thetelevision-based‘realitygenre’ofLookatMetoamoredirectaccountof

mediatedvirtualselfhood.

In‘BeginningwithPostmodernism,’Kellyidentifiedtheposthumangothic

tendenciesofLookatMe.647TheposthumansubjectwastheobjectofMoose

Metcalfe’sfear,too:“minotaurswhoweren’ttheproductsofbirthorhistory,

natureornurture,butassembledfortheeyefromprototypes;whoborethe

samerelationshiptohumanbeingsasmachine-madeclothingdidtosomething

hand-stitched.”648Inthatnovel,CharlotteSwenson,withherskullfulloftitanium

bolts,representedtheposthumansubjectinamedico-biologicalcontext,butthis

isonlyonepartoftheneoliberalposthumancondition.In‘ACyborgManifesto,’

DonnaHarawayofferedafeministgroundworkforreadingthetechnologisation

oftheselfintermsofbothmedico-biotechnologyandtheriseofcommunication

technologies,whicharealsotechnologiesofself-privatisation,assheoutlines.It

isthislatteraspectthatEganfocusesoninTheKeep,centredonthefigureof

Danny,whoisaddictedtotheconnectivityofcontemporarytechnology.This

addictionstandsinoppositiontohiscousin’sattitude;Howardwantstoreclaim

theprivateimaginativerealm-forthosewhocanaffordit,atleast.Haraway’s

workalsofocusesonthepoliticalfunctionofwriting.Sheinsists,“Contestsfor

themeaningofwritingareamajorformofcontemporarypoliticalstruggle.

Releasingtheplayofwritingisdeadlyserious.”649BydepictingRay’sstruggles

withauthorship,Egandirectlyopensupquestionsaboutthepowerofwriting,

whichmustbereadintermsofitscommunicativepossibilityandalso,per

Haraway,andmyapproachinthisthesis,withregardtothepoliticalpotentialof

writing,andwhatIhavecharacterisedastheethicaldutiesoffiction–thisis

connectedtomyearlierdiscussionofre-inventingliterarypublicness.Yetagain,

Egan’sworkisrifewithtensionsbetween‘textualisation’andmateriality,and

thesetoowillbeconsideredingivinganaccountofhowthenovelexplores

conceptionsofhappinessandself-regulationunderneoliberalism.

Tobegin,then,wewilllookattheprotagonistofthe‘text-within-the-text,’

DannyKing.Onceagain,Eganemploysaplayfulnominativedeterminism.Danny647Kelly.‘BeginningwithPostmodernism,’p.407.648LookatMe,p.483.649DonnaHaraway,Simians,CyborgsandWomen:TheReinventionofNature.London:FreeAssociationBooks,1991,p.311.

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King,likehiscousinHoward,becomesembroiledinacovertpowercontestthat

seeseachkeentobe‘King’ofthecastle.Thisnaminglinksthesecharactersto

StephenKing,contemporarymasterofAmericangothicliterature,continuingthe

intertextualhabitofEgan’sworkandsuggestingtothereaderthetypeofliterary

forbearRay,asauthor,mighthaveinmind.Danny’sstoryoccupiesthebulkof

thenovel’snarrative.Itishewhofollowstheby-nowfamiliarconventionof

Egan’snarrativesinundergoingmaturation,or‘growingup,’althoughthis

processiscutshortbyRay’smurderousattack.Danny’sbroadnarrativejourney

seeshimmovefromaself-centred,peripherallyemployed,barelyfunctional

charactertoonewhoassumesresponsibilityforothers,confrontshis

(previouslyunspeakable)pastwithhiscousin,andisthustransformedintoa

usefulmemberofsociety,whichistosay,aproductivesubjectwithsubstantial

tiestonormativeconceptionsofthegood.

ThenovelopenswithDanny’sapproachtothecastle,whichisdisastrous

fromtheoutset.HearrivesarmedwithaSamsonitesuitcaseanda(rented)

portablesatellitedish,cladin“cityboots,hipsterboots”thataretotally

inadequatefornegotiatingtheterrain.650Fromtheoutset,Dannyishelplessand

hapless,literallywrong-footedbyhisnewsurroundings–whichareactuallyold

surroundings,thecastlebeingolderthantheUnitedStatesofAmerica.Egan’s

decisiontowriteamaleprotagonistwaspurportedlymadeasadeliberate

inversionthetropeof‘helplessfemale.’651Therearenumerouswaysinwhich

Dannyisfeminisedthroughoutthestory,oftenthroughhisattentiontohis

appearance,evidentinhisimpracticalbutstylishfootwearandlater,inhis

carefullycuratedpersonalstyle:

Straightdyed-blackhairaninchpasthisneck.Apewterhoopinone

earwitharubystuckinit.Today(notalways),mud-colouredlipstick.

ThatwasDanny’sstyle,oneofmanyhe’dhadovertheyears.652

Danny’sadoptionoffeminisedstyleislinkedtoawiderrefusalstemmingfrom

hisabdicationofhisteenagepersona,“DannyKing,suchagoodboy,”whichhe

knewtobeafaçade,disguisingthebadpartofhimthattrappedhiscousinand

650TheKeep,p.5.651JenniferEganinterviewedbyVendelaVida.TheBeliever,8,2006,pp.77-85,p.81.652TheKeep,p.25-6.

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liedaboutitfordays(years)afterwards.ThisislikeCharlotteSwenson’saccount

of‘shadowselves,’andgivesDannyanearlyawarenessoftheperformativityof

identity;anotherfeminisedtrait.653Dannyself-consciouslyfashionsanewself,

likeCharlotteafterherinfidelity,andittooisonethatreliesonintensive

glamourlabourandconductsitselfaccordingtoSennett’saccountofthe

neoliberalself.Ratherthandisruptinggendernorms,Egan’scharacterisationof

Dannyseemstore-inscribetheessentialismthatunderliesthenormativegender

relationsfrequentlyreproducedinherwork–thisisexploredextensivelyin

lookingatAVisitfromtheGoonSquad.Thereisnosenseof‘queering’inDanny’s

feminisation;anysuchsuggestionisoffsetbythefrequentnarrativeinsistence

onhisheterosexuality,highlightedbythesuggestionthatoneoftheprevious

identitieshe‘chose’to‘try’wasa“bisexualclubpromoter.”654WhereBerlant,

Ahmed,etalhaveidentifiedqueeringasaprocessbywhichnewsocialrelations

maybeimagined,outsidetheconstraintsofpatriarchalcapitalism,Egandepicts

thisinthesamelightasallinstancesofalterityinherwork–ayouthful

aberration,aphasetopassthroughbeforecedingtoinevitablenormative

‘commonsense.’Dannymaywearmakeup,butheisnotqueer.WilliamHughes

andAndrewSmithwriteinQueeringtheGothic(2009),“tobequeer…istobe

different.”655Aswehaveseenalready,being‘different’inEgan’sworkimperils

one’sveryexistence.656

Dannyisfurtherfeminisedbyhischoiceofemployment,orrather,non-

employment.Heisaprecariousworker,plyinghisuncertaintradeinavarietyof

servicesectorroles.AllofDanny’sskillsareimmaterial,basedontheabilityto

recognisethevalueofrelationshipsandparlaythatintoaccesstopower:

653JudithButler’sGenderTrouble:FeminismandtheSubversionofIdentity(1990)isusuallycreditedwithpopularisingdiscussionaroundtheperformativeaspectsofgenderanditssocialconstruction.InherPost45interview,EgandiscussestheinfluenceofJohnBerger’sWaysofSeeing(1972)onherwork,whichcanalsobeconnectedtothisrepresentation.654TheKeep,p.26.655WilliamHughesandAndrewSmith,editors.QueeringtheGothic,,ManchesterandNewYork:ManchesterUniversityPress,2009,p.3.656IthinkafurtheranalysisofEgan’sinsistenceonusinghumourinthenovelwouldbeinterestinginlightofthisaccount.Thetypeofhumourthatoccursmostoftenisthebroadlyslapstick,orknowinglyironic,whichsomewhatundercutstheinherentqueernessofthegothicuncanny.IthinkitwouldbeenlighteningtoreadthisnovelinconjunctionwithShirleyJackson’swork,inparticularWeHaveAlwaysLivedintheCastle(1962),inthecontextofqueer/feministtheory.

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AndpowerwassomethingDannyunderstood–thiswasoneofaslew

ofskillshe’dpickedupinNewYorkafteryearsofstudyandtraining

andpractice,skillsthatcombinedtomakearesumesospecializedit

waswrittenoutininvisibleink,sothatwhenhispop(forexample)

tookalook,allhesawwasablanksheetofpaper.657

Powerisacentralthemeofthenovel.Here,wemightmarkthat,despitehis

accumulationofimmaterialorinformationalcapital,Dannystillcovertlylongs

forhisfather’sapproval;heisnot,apparently,asfreefromthenormativebonds

ofobligationandattachmentashemightliketothinkhimself.Itisalso

importanttonotethatDannychoosesthisidentity.HefirstwenttoNewYorkto

attenduniversity(afamiliarstageforEgan’smiddle-classcharacters),but

droppedoutinhisjunioryear,havingdiscoveredthathissenseofselfwas

completelyinsubstantialandbecomemoreinterestedinidentity

experimentationthanformaleducation.Thereisaconnectionherebetween

educationandself-knowledgethatisimpliedbutundeveloped,partofawider

characterisationthatseesDanny’sproblemsasthose‘problemsoftheself’we

haveseenelsewhereinEgan’swork.Foregoingformaleducationissymbolicof

Danny’swiderrefusalofself-examination,whichisalsoacentraltenetof

psychotherapeuticrationalesoftheself.ThisistheframeworkinwhichEgan

posesDanny’sobsessionwithtechnologicalconnectivity,too.Itisadistraction

fromandobstacletothe‘necessary’workheneedstodoonhimself,whichturns

outtobetakingresponsibilityforhisactions,includinghishistoricprank.

Danny’saccountofhisnetworkedexistencestandsincontrasttothe

optimisticreadingsoftheoristssuchasHardtandNegri,whohaveidentifiedthe

riseofimmaterialeconomiesandtheirrelationalnetworksascontainingthe

potentialfornewnetworksofresistancetopower.Instead,Dannyexemplifies

the‘cool’figurewesawinMcGuigan’swork:

Peoplesubjectedtosuchuncertaintyandunpredictabilityespecially

inso-called‘creative’andalliedcareers,thoughnotonlythere,must

fashionthekindofselfthatcancopewheretrade-union

representationhasbeeneliminatedorseverelyrestricted.Thiskind

ofselfisaneoliberalself,figuringacompetitiveindividualwhois657TheKeep,p.21.

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exceptionallyself-reliantandratherindifferenttothefactthathisor

herpredicamentissharedwithothers–and,therefore,mustbe

incapableoforganisingasagrouptodoanythingaboutit.Sucha

personmustbe‘cool’inthecircumstances,selfishlyresourcefuland

fitinordertosurviveundersocial-Darwinianconditions.658

Insuchareading,wecantracethelimitationsofHardtandNegri’ssuppositions,

someofwhichMcRobbiehascriticisedinherworkongenderandpost-Fordist

economies.PerMcRobbie,suchreadingsasHardtandNegrioffertendtorelyon

Fordistmodelsofworkersubjectivityandsitesoflabour,ignoringthenew

affectivedemandsofimmaterialeconomies,andevincingtheoreticalblindness

tothefeminisationoflabourthathasoccurredwiththeriseoftheseeconomies,

asoutlinedintheprevioussection.659Byoverlookingthetransformationofsites

oflabour,theyalsooverestimatethescopeforsolidaritybasedonphysical

proximitybetweenworkers,whichisoftennotafeatureoftheimmaterial

workplace.Solidarityisalsounderminedbythefragmentedworkingformof

zero-hourscontractsandothernon-minimumstandardworkingpractices,which

compelworkerstocompeteforshifts,andallowemployerstocuthourswithno

notice,ortoofferabsurdlyshortshiftsduringwhichemployeeshaveno

opportunitytointeractwithco-workers.660ThismediatesMcGuigan’swork,too-

lackofworkerorganisationmaybeduenottostraightforwardindifference,but

alsotothematerialdifficultiesoforganisingindisruptedorimmaterial

workplaces.Adoptingtheposeofdisaffectionmaybeanecessaryprotection,as

seeninthefigureofCharlotteSwensoninLookatMe.Theproblemwiththe

adoptionofsuchastanceisthatitforestallsanypoliticisationbecauseit

damagestheworkerrelationallyevenasitprotectsthemindividually.

McRobbiehasalsocriticisedaccountsofthekindsofsubcultureinwhich

Dannyisenmeshedthatdemonstrate,“alackofconcernforthedifficultiesfaced

byhipsterparticipantsintermsofhowhardshipandpovertyactuallyaffect

them.Nobodylikestotalkaboutfailureordisappointmentorevenjustsheer658JimMcGuigan.‘TheNeoliberalSelf,’CultureUnbound,6,2014,pp.223-240,p.236.659Thisrefersbothtothesteadyincreaseoffemaleworkersandtotheelevationofformsoflabourhistoricallyunderstoodasfeminineinaffectiveeconomies(egdemonstrationsofcaring).660SeeAbiAdamsetal,‘The‘Zero-HoursContract’:Regulatingcasualwork,orlegitimatingprecarity?’,EuropeanLabourLawNetwork–WorkingPaperSeries,5,March2015formoreontheformandimpactofthesecontracts.

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exhaustion.”661Dannydoesdiscussthesefeelings–orrather,betraysthemin

attemptingnottotalkaboutthem.Heandhishipsterfriendscharacterisesuch

feelingsas“theworm”:

Wasitparanoia?Lowselfesteem?Insecurity?Panic?Thosewords

werealltooflat.Buttheworm,whichisthewordtheyfinallypicked,

thewormwasthreedimensional:itcrawledinsideapersonand

startedtoeatuntileverythingcollapsed,theirwholelives,andthey

endedupgettingstrungoutorgoingbackhometotheirfolksorbeing

admittedtoBellevueor,inthecaseofonegirltheyallknew,jumping

offtheManhattanBridge.662

Thespectreofthewormrecursthroughoutthenovel,invadingDanny’sthoughts

athismanymomentsofself-doubtanduncertainty.Thewormisagothicmotif,

andanexpressionofthecreepingsenseofanxietythathauntstheneoliberal

subject.663Danny’saccountofthewormconfirmsJohansen’ssuggestionthat,

Theneuroticcitizenofcontemporaryneoliberalism,likethegothic

subjectoftheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies,isone

characterizedbyunnamed–evenunnameable–anxietiesaboutthe

rationalitiesandsubjectivitiesthatstructureeverydaylife.664

InEgan’snovels,sympathyforthisneuroticismislimited.Danny’scoolnessisa

modeforsurvival,butitisonethatisnecessaryonlybecausehehasturnedhis

backontheconventionalgoodlifefromwhichhefeelsheisexcludedbyhis

youthfuldeviance.Thisdevianceseemstosignalsomeessentialweaknessor

inadequacyinhischaracter.Assuch,Dannymayberedeemed,andreturnedto

economicfunctionality,ifheresolvesthiscentral‘problemofself’anddoesthe

necessarytherapeuticworkonhimself.Thisfiguringperpetuatesreadingsof

thoseinvolvedinprecariousemploymentasvictimsoftheirown(poor)choices,661McRobbie,BeCreative,p.56.662TheKeep,p.11.663Again,Ithinkthismightbeextended,andlinkedtotheimmanenceoftheAnthropocene,whichoffersaboundarylimittotheproductivepossibilitiesofneoliberalcapitalismwhichisnearlyimpossibleforustounderstand,butwhichneverthelesscontributestothelargersenseofcognitivedissonancebywhichIhavecharacterisedneoliberalsubjectivity.WithregardtoEgan’suseof‘theworm’torepresentthis,wemightreadanotherlinktoStephenKing’sworkhere:King’sepistolarystory,Jerusalem’sLot(1978),featuresadarksupernaturalforcecalledTheWorm,calledforthbyagrimoirecalledDeVermisMysterii,whichalsofeaturedintheworkofRobertBlochandH.P.Lovecraft.664Johansen.‘TheNeoliberalGothic,’p.43.

242

ignoringthatmostpeoplewhotakesuchemploymentoftendosobecausethey

canfindnoothermeansofincome;survivalhasaverydifferentmeaningon

theseterms.Theassumptionofastateofself-coherencetowhichthesubject

maybereturnediftheyonlymakethecorrectchoicesbeliesthewayinwhich

subjectsexperiencetheunintelligibilityofneoliberalpower.

Ifthegothicformexpressesdoubtsabouttherationalityofdominantmodesof

subjectification,Egan’sworkstrivestoresolvethesedoubtsthroughits

insistenceonacentralrationalityormeaningtotheworld,discoverablethrough

communionwiththeself.Suchcommunionreliesontheamassingofresources–

time,emotionalvocabulary,formaleducation–thatarefarfromuniversally

accessible.Iftheeconomicmodeloftheselfisseentobeirrationalinitsstrictest

iteration,thisisonlybecauseEgan’sworkprofessesacontinuedfaithinthose

classicliberalgoodobjectsthatneoliberalismdestabilisesinitspracticesand

processes:secureintimaterelationships,self-sovereignty,protectionofthe

‘essential’selffromexternalinterference.Thedifficultyisthatshe

simultaneouslyprofessesthisfaithandreproducesthelogicsandprocessesof

neoliberalismasinevitableinherwork,withoutrecognisinganytension

betweenthetwo.Theinsistenceonthesevaluesasself-evidentlygood

representsthemasneutralwhentheyarenot,aswesawwhenlookingatThe

InvisibleCircus.Defending‘traditional’goodobjectswithoutconfrontingeither

“thedominationscontainedin[or]thelimitedvalueofthosefreedomsand

entitlementsincontemporaryconfigurationsofcapital”emptiestheoppositional

potentialofthoseobjects.665Egan’sworksituatestheseobjects,orthisversionof

thegoodlife,asrewardsforacceptingthe‘naturalorder’ofneoliberal

capitalism.Tobehappy,Dannyhasonlytoacceptthedesirabilityofthe

normativegoodlife,andabandonhiseffortstolivehislifeoutsidethese

strictures–afamiliartropeinEgan’swork.

Beforecomingtothisacceptance,thefeelingsthatDannycategorisesas‘the

worm’canonlybeallayedthroughthepursuitoftheirroughopposite,which

Dannyandhisfriendscall‘alto’:“Truealtoworkedtwoways:yousawbutalso

youcouldbeseen,youknewandwereknown.Twowayrecognition.”666This

665Brown.ResistingLeftMelancholy,p.26.666TheKeep,pp.5-6.

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termwascoinedtodescribe,“therelationship[Dannyandhisfriends]craved

betweenthemselvesandtheuniverse.”667Thisistheevolutionoftheimage

culturedepictedinLookatMe,wherethatterm–“lookatme”–becomesactive,

ratherthanpassive.ForDanny,altoreliesonthereciprocalnatureofvirtual

relationships,returningustothenewconfessionalmodeexploredinthe

previoussection.Whenlookingatthewayinwhichvirtualtechnologiesofthe

selfhavetransformedtheconfessional,throughtheuncertaintiesofevaluative

exchangeinvolved,Isuggestedthatpartofthedifficultyinassessingthevalueor

functionoftheseconfessionsistheunknowabilityoftheaudiencetowhomthey

aremade.ThesesamefearsareexpressedbyHoward,whoengagesDannyina

vigorousargumentaboutthevalueofvirtualconnection:

What’sreal,Danny?IsrealityTVreal?Areconfessionsyoureadon

theinternetreal?Thewordsarereal,someonewritesthem,but

beyondthatthequestiondoesn’tevenmakesense.Whoareyou

talkingtoonyourcellphone?Intheendyouhavenofuckingidea.

We’relivinginasupernaturalworld,Danny.We’resurroundedby

ghosts.668

ThisisthecruxofEgan’sconcerninTheKeepandelsewhere,andshehas

saidthatinthisnovelshesoughttomakethequestionofwhatis‘real’irrelevant.

ThisissignalledbyherinvocationofJames,andthegothictraditionof

uncertaintyregardingwhicheventsareactualoccurrencesandwhicharethose

perceivedasaresultoftheprotagonist’spsychologicalstate:

Ireallywanted,firstofall,nottoanswerthatquestion,andsecondof

all,tomakethequestionirrelevantbecauseIwantedtomakethe

readerwonderwhatwemeanwhenwesay,‘Isitrealornot?’Howdo

wedefinerealexactly?Especiallywhensomuchexperienceisvirtual

now.Doesthatchangeourdefinitionofreality?669

Mysuggestionhasbeenthatratherthanchangingourdefinitionofreality,the

virtualrealmrepresentsanewspaceofsubjectificationwheresubjectsare

enmeshedinself-regulatorypracticesinnewways,throughtheirrendering

667TheKeep,p.5.668TheKeep,p.130.669EganinterviewedbyDonnaSeaman.Bookslut.n.p.

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visible(andpotentiallyprofitable)alloflife,allthetime.Inthesespaces,the

samerelationsofdominationasexistinthephysicalworldmaybeperpetuated.

ThisunderstandingisavitalelementofHaraway’sworkthatismissingfrom

Egan’s.TheKeepfailstoeffectivelydemonstrateanunderstandingthatvirtual

technologiesarestillboundupwiththesamepowerstructuresastraditional

technologies–perhapsevenmoreso,byHaraway’saccount.670Seemingly

benigntechnologiesoftheselfarelinkedtotechnologiesofdominationatevery

stageoftheirevolution,dissemination,andusage.Connectivesocialmediahasa

concomitantfunctionasaspaceofsurveillance,atbothstateandpersonallevels,

asTurklehasrevealedinherwork.671Haraway’sfoundationalassertionthat,

“Socialrealityislivedsocialrelations,ourmostimportantpoliticalconstruction,

aworld-changingfiction,”pointstothepaucityofEgan’saccountofthevirtual.If

virtualtechnologieshavechangedourperceptionofreality,thisisandmust

beenseentobepoliticallyconsequential.672Instead,EgansuggeststhatDanny’s

addictiontoconnectivetechnologiesisproblematicbecauseitimpedeshimfrom

doingthenecessaryworkonhimself:“He’sverybusytalkingtoalotofpeopleall

thetime.Buttheonepersonheisunfamiliarwithishimself.”673

ThislogicisextendedtoRay,theconvictwhoiswritingthestoryofDanny

andHoward.WritingthisstorybecomesawayforRaytoconfronthis

wrongdoingsandtakeresponsibilityforthem-emotionalresponsibility,thatis;

heisalreadyreceivingformalpunishmentthroughhisimprisonment.Asstated,

Rayexpresslyinsistsonthefictionalityofhisnarrative,althoughitisinfact

‘inspiredbytrueevents’–heisMickinthestory.Therevelationofthis

constitutestheresolutionofRay’sstory,intermsofhiswritingprojectandhis

owntextualnarrative.Hiscreativewritingteacher,HollyFarrell,narratesthe

closingsectionofthenovel.AnoldfriendofHowardKing’sfromreformschool,

Rayhasalonghistoryofcriminalityanddeviantbehaviour,includingabrief

flingwithHoward’swife.DuringthetimeatwhichthestoryofDannyoccurs,

670SeeHaraway,Cyborgs,Simians&Women,p.303.671SeeTurkle,AloneTogether,p.262-3.672Thisisdemonstrated,forexample,inAngelaNagle’sKillAllNormies,(2017),whichgivesanaccountoftheextensiveconnectionsbetweenonlineright-wingextremismanditsmainstreamrise.673EganinterviewedbyDonnaSeaman.Bookslut,n.p.

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Ray/MickhadbeenreleasedbythestateintoHoward’scustody,somewhat

unwillingly.Afterapotentiallysupernatural(orpossiblyjustdrunken)dalliance

withtheelderlyBaronessvonAusblinker,whooccupiesthekeepofthecastlein

defianceofHoward’sownership-theOldWorldresistingthenew-Dannyis

tryingtoescapethroughawindowandoverhearsRayandAnndiscussingtheir

romanticpast.AnnwantstotellHowardabouttheone-nightstandsheandRay

had,whichoccurredsixyearsprevious,beforesheandHowardhadachild.

Ray/Mickisaghastatthethought,andinsiststhattheycannotandshouldnot

tellhim.Thatis,herefusesthehealingtransparencydemandedbythe

psychotherapeuticrationalityoftheconfession.Assuch,heisfraudulentand

destinedtounhappiness,andcondemnsAnntoo.HiscontinueddesireforAnn

alsoposeshimasathreattothe‘good’familyunit–heisadangerouscharacter.

Dannyisdelightedtooverhearthisconversation,feelingastirringofaltoatthe

powertheinformationgiveshim.HeknowssomethinghiscousinHowarddoes

not,anditissomethingwiththepotentialtodisruptthepresumptionofthegood

lifeonwhichhishappinessisbuilt.

Danny’sawarenessofpowerisverysimilartoRay’s,likeningtheuncertain

natureofprecariousindustriestothevagariesofcriminalenterprise.Both

DannyandRaycovetthepositionof‘numbertwo’toHoward;neitherwantthe

responsibilityofbeingtheleader,butbothwantaccesstopower,andthe

legitimationthatapparentlybestows.Thisisonlyoneofanumberofpower

strugglesinthenovel:Rayalsofacesclashesintheprison,whichresultin

anotherinmatestabbinghim;HollyandRayhaveaconfrontationatthe

beginningofthecreativewritingcourse,whenhewritesasexuallyexplicitstory

designedtoundermineherauthority;Howardandhisentouragefaceanon-

goingbattleforsupremacywiththeBaronessregardingownershipofthecastle.

Thegothicsettingsofthenovelrepresentthistoo:acastleandaprison,both

symbolsandspacesofdomination.Gothicnovelsrelyontheinterplayofpower

relations,drawingterrorfromthewayinwhich,asMaggieKilgourwrites,

“publicformsofoppressionhaveinfiltratedandcontaminatedtheprivate

relationsbetweenmen,by‘givingageneralreviewofthemodesofdomesticand

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unrecordeddespotismbywhichmanbecomesthedestroyerofman’.”674Kilgour

expandsthisreading,exploringthewaysinwhichtheworkofMary

Woollstonecraftusesthegothicmodetoexposetheunequalpowerrelations

betweenmenandwomen,andnotingtheutilityofthegothicmodeasatoolfor

exposingunequalpowerrelationsinadeliberatelypoliticalcontext.Shewrites,

Wollstonecraft’sgoalasareformeristohelpreleasewomenfroman

entrapmentinfalsesystemsofrepresentationwhich,perpetuatedby

customandprejudice,impedetheirindividuality.Writingisa

revolutionaryandrevelationaryactinwhichsherendstheveilsthat

haveconfinedandoppressedwomen,keepingthem,likegothic

heroines,‘immuredintheirfamilies,gropinginthedark’.…

Wollstonecraftseeshowpoliticalmodelsinfluenceandinvadeour

privateworlds.…Likethemiddleages,then,theprivatesphereis

idealisedasarefugefromthemodernpublicworldofatomistic

individualism,aplaceinwhicholderorganicrelationsstillsurvive.675

InEgan’snovels,itisnottheinfluenceofpoliticalmodelsthatinvadesour

‘privateworlds,’butadepoliticisedcelebrityculturethatpervertsourcapacity

toknowour‘true’selvesandconstructmeaningbasedonthisknowledge.

Howard’sintentioninconvertingthecastletoaluxuryhotelistocreateaspace

wheretechnologyisoutlawed.Byhisaccount,thiswillliberatepeoplefromthe

imaginativeconstraintsimposedbycommodifiedentertainment,asheexplains

toDannyearlyon:

Peoplearebored.They’redead!Gotoashoppingmallandcheckout

thefaces.Ididthisforyears–I’ddriveouttothemallsonweekends

andjustsittherewatchingpeople,tryingtofigureitout.What’s

missing?Whatdotheyneed?What’sthenextstep?AndthenIgotit:

imagination.We’velosttheabilitytomakethingsup.We’vefarmed

outthatjobtotheentertainmentindustry,andwesitaroundand

droolonourselveswhiletheydoitforus.676

674MaggieKilgour,TheRiseoftheGothicNovel,LondonandNewYork:Routledge,1995,p.75.675Kilgour,TheRiseoftheGothicNovel,p.75.676TheKeep,p.45

247

Thisrepeatsthatsameassumptionoftheexistenceofsomeessentialprivateself,

or“aplacewhereolderorganicrelationsstillsurvive,”thatunderpinned

CharlotteSwenson’sself-abdicationinLookatMe.TheironyisthatHoward,a

retiredfinancier,seesthisimaginativelackasbothasocialproblemthatneeds

toberemediedandapotentiallylucrativegapinthemarket,withnoapparent

contradiction.WherebusinessessuchasStarbuckshavesoughttopromotetheir

sitesasOldenburg-ian‘thirdspaces,’Howard’sprojectmightevenbea‘fourth

space,’inthatitisconceivedtobeoutsidehome,work,andvirtualsociality.677In

contrasttothethirdspace,Howard’shotelaimstoofferaspaceofdisconnection.

Thismovesbeyondthecynicalappropriationofspacesofopensocialityand

publiccommunionasamarketingtooltothepresumptionofdepoliticised

disconnectionasthepreferredstateofthecontemporarysubject.Thisis

exemplifiedinthenovel’sconclusion,aswewillseeinamoment.

Beforelookingatthecloseofthenovel,whichIargueconstitutesacrucial

momentacrossEgan’soeuvre,Iwillattendtotherepresentationofwritingin

thenovel.InthequoteabovefromKilgour,writingisidentifiedas“revolutionary

andrevelationary,”capableofrendingtheveilofoppression(femaleoppression,

inherexample).ThisisthesameconceptionofwritingIhaveespoused

throughoutthisthesis,inmysuggestionthatliteraturecanandshouldexpose,or

forcethereadertoconfront,theconditionsofreality,orflowsofpower,that

constituteeverydaylife.Thisistrue,bymyaccount,particularlywhensucha

confrontationischallengingorunpleasant–asisthecaseinaskingreadersto

abandonthecognitivedissonanceIhavesuggestedasthe(self-protective)

dominantstateoftheneoliberalsubject,ortheperverselypleasurable

melancholyor‘crueloptimism’ofimpossibleattachments.InTheKeep,Egan

framesanaccountofwritingthatrevealstheincompatibilityofherworkwith

mybelief.Rayistheprimaryauthorinthenovel,aswehaveseen,andistaught

byHolly,alongwithnineotherconvicts.Aftersubmittinghisstoryabouta

student“fuck[ing]hiswritingteacherinabroomclosetuntilthedoorfliesopen

andallthebroomsandmopsandbucketscomecrashingoutandtheirbareasses

677SeeRayOldenburg‘OurVanishing“ThirdPlaces,”’PlanningCommissionersJournal,25,1996-7,pp.6-10;alsoSimonBryant,EverythingbuttheCoffee:LearningAboutAmericaFromStarbucks,BerkelyandLosAngeles:UniversityofCaliforniaPress,2009.

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areshininginthelightandtheybothgetbusted,”inanefforttoembarrassand

undermineHolly,Rayis‘taughtalesson’infrontoftheclass.678HollyasksRayif

heseeshimselfasajoke,andtellshimsheknowsplentyofpeopledo.Shethen

challengeshim,tellinghimto“justwalkout.”679Asaprisoner,hecannotdothis,

andshepointsoutallthelayersofhisimprisonment:thedoor,thegate,razor

wire,thetowermannedbyanarmedguard.Morethanthis,Ray’simprisonment

isaresultofhisinstitutionalisation;herevealsthatwhenhelastgotoutof

prison,hehadforgottenhowtoopendoorsforhimself,havingbecome

accustomedtotheautomaticdoorsandrestrictedpassageoftheprison.Holly

tellsRay,andtherestoftheclass,thatherjobistoshowthemadoortheycan

open,throughwriting.ThespeechhasconsiderableimpactonRay:

afterHollymentionedthatdoorinourheads,somethinghappenedto

me.Thedoorwasn’treal,therewasnoactualdoor,itwasjust

figurativelanguage.Meaningitwasaword.Asound.Door.ButI

openeditupandwalkedout.680

Thereissomeauthorialsleightofhandatworkhere,notrevealeduntillaterin

thenovel,onthepartofRayandEgan.Inthefinalsectionofthenovel,Holly’s

narrative,welearnthatRayandhiscellmatehavecolludedtobreakoutof

prison,escapingthroughthepipesbeneaththeprison,afterRaydivertedthe

waterfromaplumbingmain.681

ThisechoestheendofRay’saccountofDanny,inwhichtheinhabitantsofthe

castlebecametemporarilytrappedunderthecastle,afterfollowingamapof

dubiousorigin.ThisistheeventbywhichDannybecomescapableoftaking

responsibility–ofgrowingup–whenheisforcedtoleadthegroupoutofthe

tunnelsfollowingHoward’sbreakdown.Thebreakdowniscausedbyhiscousin’s

claustrophobia,aresultofhistraumaticexperienceinthecavesasachild,andits

re-emergenceopensaspaceofhealingdialoguebetweenheandDannyafter

theyescapetosafety.Atthispoint,Dannypubliclyacknowledgesandacceptshis

678TheKeep,p.17.N.B.TheslapstickcomedyRayuseshereisthesametypeofhumourEganherselfusesthroughoutthenovel,asmentionedearlier.679TheKeep,p.17.680TheKeep,p.19.681ThisnodstoStephenKing,onceagain,andtowhatmightbethebest-knowncontemporaryprisonescapestory,RitaHayworthandtheShawshankRedemption(1982),whichwasadaptedasafilmin1994andwonanumberofOscars.

249

wrongdoing,sayingtohiscousin,“Ileftyoutodie.”682Howardhasadifferent

takeonthesituation,tellingDannythathe“escapedwithhismind,”suggesting

thatheimaginativelydissociatedfromthematerialtraumaofhisimminent

death,givingsomecontexttohisownbeliefintheimportanceoftheindividual

(private)imagination.ThatthisexperiencedidnotmateriallydamageHoward

(asidefromtheclaustrophobia)isdemonstratedthroughhisachievementofthe

normativemarkersofsuccess:wife,child,wealth.Onceagain,imaginationis

valorisedasaprivategood,fortheprotectionofthe‘inner’self-thisistheethos

ofHoward’shotel.ProofthatDannyhasbeenrecuperatedfromhisstateof

wretchedalteritycomesinthisconversationtoo;aftertheircatharticexchange,

Howardsays,“Ifeellike–wecouldworktogetheronsomething.”683Through

acquiescingtothenormativelogicofneoliberalcapitalism,Dannyfinallyhas

accesstotheprospectoffinancialsecurityandprofessionalsuccess;hehas

becomeanequalinhiscousin’seyes.HeandHowarddiscussopeninga

restaurant–evenhis‘worthless’servicesectorskillsareabouttocomegood,it

seems.Intheend,however,itisnottobe.‘Dangerous’Mick/Ray,whoisnotjust

playingatbeingdifferent,butactuallyexistsoutsideofthelaw,thinksheisabout

tolosehisproximitytoHoward,tobereplacedbyDanny.Hecannotstandthis,

seeingitasthefinalseveranceofhisconnectiontotheprospectofthegoodlife,

andshootsDanny,underthepretencethathebelieveshimtohaveaknife.The

knifemayormaynothavebeenreal,anditmayormaynothavebeeninDanny’s

possessionatthetime;wehavelearnedbynowthatRayisanunreliable

narrator(andrealityisirrelevant).AfterdescribingDanny’sdeathindetail,Ray

continues,recountingavisitationfromDanny’sghost:

Wherethefuckdidyoucomefrom?Isaid.

Dannysmiled.Hesaid:Youdidn’treallythinkIwasgoingtoleaveyou

alone?

Hesaid:Haven’tyoulearnedthatthethingyouwanttoforgetmostis

theonethat’llneverleaveyou?

Hesaid:Letthehauntingbegin.Andthenhelaughed.

Hesaid:We’retwins.There’snoseparatingus.

682TheKeep,p.206.683TheKeep,p.207.

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Hesaid:Ihopeyouliketowrite.

Andthenhestartedtotalk,whisperingintomyear.684

WritingbecomesawayforRaytoexorcisethisghost,awayforhimtorecognise

andconfronthiswrongdoingsothatsalvationmightbepossible.

Thissalvation,liketheprojectofwriting,istiedupwiththefigureofHolly.

Inthefinalsection,welearnfromHollythatsheandRayenjoyedasortofchaste

affair,thattheysharedamutualattractionforwhichsheendangeredherjoband

reputationbygoingtovisitRayinthehospitalafterhewasstabbed,andthen

later,whenhewasreturnedtotheprison.Hewasplanninghisescapethewhole

time.Holly’sfunction,asfarasRayisconcerned,seemstobetoaffirmsome

senseofhisvaluetohim,togivehimaselftobelievein.Thisissuggestedbythe

wayinwhichDannythinksofhisgirlfriend,Martha,inRay’sstory,recallingthat

sheloveshimanytimeheneedstofeelfortifiedorvalidated,despitealso

sleepingwiththebaronessandconstantlyflirtingwiththewomanwhobabysits

HowardandAnn’sson.ThisiswhatwritingdoesforRayaswell;itgiveshim

self-belief,whichgiveshimbothpowerandpurpose:“AndsinceIstartedthat

class,everythingfeelsdifferent–brighter,sharper,alittlestrange…”685

Ray’spowerisdemonstratedwhenhisinabilitytomeetthedemandsofhis

readers(i.e.theotherinmatesintheclass)causesaphysicalaltercation,which

resultsintheclassendingearly.Henowhassomethingthattheotherswant,

whichisthedefinitionofpowerinEgan’swork.Hiswritingisalsothethingthat

bondshimtohiscellmate,Davis,withwhomheeventuallyescapes.Davis

discoversthepagesofRay’sstorysecretedbeneathhismattress,anditchanges

thenatureoftheirrelationshipentirely,becauseDavisseesthatRaycaresabout

something.Fromthis,hededucesthatRaymightbeinterestedinconstructinga

differentkindoffuturethantheonethatotherwiseawaitsthem–interested,that

is,inescapingthecertaintyofimprisonment.Inascenethatisbothaffirmative

andfrustrating,DavisrevealstoRaythathe,too,hasasecretprojectthat

sustainshim;hehasbuilta‘radio’thatoperatesonasupernaturalfrequency.He,

likeRay,canhearghosts.Onarationallevel,Rayknowsthathiscellmateismost

684TheKeep,pp.210-11.685TheKeep,p.57.

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likely“abugwhothinkshe’sbuiltamachinethatcantalktoghosts.”686Asa

writer,however,Rayhasstartedtounderstandthepowerofimagination-and,

possibly,thepremiseofsuspensionofdisbelief.Assuch,hefindshimselfableto

havefaithinDavis:

inthatsplitsecondIgofrompretendingstraightintobelieving–it’s

likeallthepretendingmademebelieve,exceptthatdoesn’tmake

sense,becausepretendingandbelievingareopposites.…maybeitall

comesbacktoHolly.Maybeifyoubelievethataword–door–isa

thingyoucanwalkthrough,andthenyouwalkonthroughlikeIdid,

there’snothingoutthereyouwon’tswallow.687

Inthispassage,RayseemstogivevoicetothesamepotentialIhavetracedinthis

thesisasthekeyvalueofliterature–theabilitytoopenupnewimaginative

spheresthatmayhaveamaterialimpactonhowwelive.Thisiswherehis

accountisaffirmative.Itisfrustrating,however,becauseallthisimaginative

potentialisonceagainemployedinserviceoftheprivateself.Empoweredto

thinkofhimselfasworthydespitehislowlystatus,Rayescapestheprison,and

thatisthelastwehearofhim.Thisconfigurationepitomisesconfusionofthe

messagethatemergesfromEgan’swork,whichbymyreadingoccursbecause

herworkassumesneoliberalsystemsandmodesofbeingastheonlywaterin

whichwe,andhercharacters,swim.Writingmayberevelationary,inEgan’s

work,whereitservesto‘reveal’someromanticessentialpartofhumanitythat

somehowpersistsagainsteveryhardship,inallsocialrelations,andinany

systemofhumanorganisation.Onthismodel,writingfollowspsychotherapeutic

rationales,functioningtorevealselftoself.Thisreliesonanassumptionof

universalitybuiltontheconceptionoftheuniversalsubjectasstraight,white,

wealthy,American.Theempatheticpotentialofherworkisradicallylimitedby

theseassumptions.Thissortofwritingcannotberevolutionarybecauseit

subscribestoandreproducesthenormativemoresofdominantpower

structures.Morethanthis,thissortofwritingsuggeststhatthereisnoneedfor

revolution,offeringusavisionofaworldwheremaladaptiverelationsarethe

faultoftheindividual,ratherthantheresultofasystemtowhichnoreasonable

686TheKeep,p.99.687TheKeep,p.101.

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personcouldbeexpectedtowillinglysuccumb.Thereis,bythisaccount,noveil

ofillusiontoberent-onlythe‘natural’certaintyofthingsastheyare.

Thispessimism(orrealism,byEgan’sstandards)isunderlinedbytheending

ofthenovel.AfterRayescapes,hesendshismanuscripttothehouseHolly

shareswithherhusbandandtwodaughters,puttingheratriskofarrestfor

receivingit.Inthissection,weareatlastprivytoHolly’slifeoutsidetheprison,

anditturnsoutnottobeveryglamorous.Hollyisaformermethamphetamine

addictmarriedtoamanwhostillusesdrugs.She‘gotclean’followinga

breakdowncausedbylosingherthirdchild,afterusingdrugsduringthe

pregnancy.Sheworksatalocaluniversityandisstudyingforamaster’sdegree

increativewriting.WelearnthatHollytreasuresthevisionofherselfthatshe

seesreflectedinRay’seyes,thatshestartstodressdifferentlyoutsideofthe

prison,andtothinkofwaysshecanencounterhimoutsideoftheclass.Welearn,

too,thatsheprofessestounderstandthatherunhappinessisherownfault:“My

firstmistakewasbeinginahurry.Igrabbedforwhatwasinfrontofme:

marryingSeththerockstar,havingachild–I’dalwaysbeenspecialandI

thoughtthespecialnesswouldstillbetherenomatterwhat,butthisotherstuff

mightnot.”688This‘specialness’islinkedtohertalentasawriter,but

consideringoneself‘special’rarelyendswellforthewomenofEgan’snovels:for

Faith,itmeantdeath;forCharlotteSwenson,erasure.Afterrecoveringfromher

addiction,somepartofHollystillcannotletgoofthatfeelingofbeingspecial:

Iwasjustrelievedtobealiveandcleanandhavemychildrenback,

thetwothatwerelefttome[aswellasajob,andtheopportunityto

pursuefurthereducation]…Butevenwithallthat,whichIwas

gratefulforandknewfullwellIdidn’tdeserve,Ican’texactlysayI

washappy.…Ithoughthappinessonlycamefromgettinghigh,andI

wasneverdoingthatagain,never,evenifitmeantnotbeinghappy

onemoredayinmylife.689

ThisrepeatsEgan’sformulathat,whenitcomestoconstructingalife,theoptions

aretoeitheraccept‘reality’andmakethebestofit,ortoseektotranscendit,

wheresucheffortswillalwaysbebothdamagingandimpermanent.Theideaof

688TheKeep,p.230.689TheKeep,pp.230-1.

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organisingadifferentformofsocialityorpoliticalbasisforlifeisneverframed

asapossibility.WelearntoothatHolly’sacquiescenceto‘reallife’isinsufficient

becauseshehasnotgivenuponthepossibilityoftranscendence.Shedescribes

howmeetingRaybroughtbackthehappinessshehadpreviouslyonlyknown

whentakingdrugs,withaclearparallelbetweenheraddictiontoillegal

substancesandherattractiontoanoutlaw.Holly,itseems,hasnotlearnedher

lesson.

WhenshereceivesRay’smanuscript,Hollystaysupallnightreadingit,taking

ineverydetail,andthenburiesitinhergarden:

I’msorelievedtoknowit’ssafe,it’sallsafe,thewholestoryandmein

thestory,thatteacherwholeftherhusband,thatprettyprincess–

she’sburieddownthereliketreasure.

I’veburiedtheevidence,too.Iknowit’sillegaltoholdonto

somethingsenttoyoubyaconvictwho’sjustescaped.690

HollyiswillingtoriskbeingprosecutedtopreserveRay’sinventedversionof

her,the“prettyprincess.”Althoughthepolicedonotfindthemanuscript,they

unearthabagofmeththatherhusbandhasstashedinthehouseandsheis

arrestedforit,spendingthenightincells-punishmentstillfindsher.Afterher

release,shebecomesintenselydepressed,onacomedownfromtheintensityof

herillicitrelationship.Shefindsherselfunabletotendtoherchildren,ortoget

outofbed.Atlast,hermotherintervenes,andtellsherthatsheneedsto“get

away”–aswithMoose’sresolutioninLookatMe,travelisashortcuttoself-

reinventionandrenewal.Hollymanagestolocateahotelonlinethatseemstobe

theoneinRay’sstory,andcomestobelievethatinsendingherthestory,Ray

intendedtoleadhertoit:“Ifoundhim.Orhefoundme.”691Findingthehotelis

theeasypart.Thehardpartispayingforit:“Ididn’tthinkahotelcouldbeso

expensive–topayfortwonightsplusairfare,Ihavetocashinmy401K…The

wholethingseemswild,self-indulgent,notallowed.”692Thewholethingiswildly

self-indulgent,butitisperfectlyallowedbytheneoliberalmodelofindividual

happinessaboveallelse.Intakingmoneyfromher401K(herprivatepension

690TheKeep,p.216.691TheKeep,p.233.692TheKeep,p.233.

254

plan)Hollyisdeliberatelyignoringtheconcernsofthefutureforimmediate

gratification-idealneoliberalbehaviour.

Holly’sexperienceenroutetothehotelfollowsthissamelineofthinking;she

receivesaseriesofelaborateinstructioncards,eachonereassuringherastothe

specialnessoftheexperiencesheisabouttohaveand,byextension,assuringher

thatsheisspecialanddeserving.Bytheconventionsoftheromance,Holly

expectstofindRaywaitingforheratthehotel.Itisforthisshehaslefther

children,usedhervacationdays,cashedinherpension.Heisn’tthere.Whenshe

realisesthis,shereflectsontheirconversationduringhervisittothehospital.As

sherecallsit,duringtheirexchangesheassertedherunworthiness-“I’mnota

writer.Orateacher.”-andhedeniedtheseassertions,tellingher,“Iknowwho

youare.”693Tobeseen,andtobeknown,isoftendepictedastheprimarygoalof

humanexistenceinEgan’swork,perLookatMe.This,Ithink,hasrootsinthe

samelogicidentifiedasunderpinningNewSincerity.Thereisaquoteattributed

toDavidFosterWallacethatruns:

Fictionisoneofthefewexperienceswherelonelinesscanbeboth

confrontedandrelieved.Drugs,movieswherestuffblowsup,loud

parties–allthesechaseawaylonelinessbymakingmeforgetmy

name’sDaveandIliveinaone-by-oneboxofbonenootherpartycan

penetrateorknow.Fiction,poetry,music,reallydeepserioussex,

and,invariousways,religion–thesearetheplaces(forme)where

lonelinessiscountenanced,stareddown,transfigured,treated.694

Theproblemis,Ithink,thatEgan’sworkseemstounderstandloneliness

literally,asin,theconditionofbeingalone.AsIseeit,thiscondition,

characterisedasakindof‘spiritualmalaise’orexistentialangst,isinfact

inseparablefromtheconditionofbeingalive–andso,theconditionsinwhich

peoplelive.Loneliness,then,doesnotmeanfeelingemotionallydisconnected;it

meansbeingremovedfromtheessentialdignityoflife,forwantofabetter

phrase.Ifliteratureaddressesonlythelonelinessoftheindividual,ifthisisallit

seekstoresolve,itmayaswellbeamoviewherestuffblowsup.Attheendof

693TheKeep,p.241.694Thisquoteseemstooriginatefroma2008blogpostwrittenbyjournalistandeditorDavidStreitfeld,‘DFAandDeLillo,’miravista.typepad.com/cosmopolis/2008/09/delillo-and-dfw.html.

255

TheKeep,weleaveHolly,farfromherfamily,afewthousanddollarsdown,

divingintowhatHowardandhiswifeAnncalled‘theimaginationpool.’Earlier

inthenovel,Annanticipatedthismoment,describingwhatshethoughtthe

functionofthehotelmightbe:

Awomantravelsherebyherself.She’sunhappy,she’s–shutdown.

Maybehermarriageisintrouble;maybeshe’salone.Whateveritis,

she’sbecomenumb,deadtoherself.Soshechecksinandleavesher

stuffintheroomandthenshecomesthroughthegardentothispool

…andshedivesin…andit–itdoessomethingtoher.Beinginthat

waterdoessomething:itwakesherup.Andwhenshegetsoutofthat

pool,shefeelsstrongagain.Likeshe’sreadytostartherlifeover.695

Ifthisisabookaboutbooks,aboutwritingandwhatitcando,Eganseemstobe

suggestingthatliteraturehasarejuvenatingpower;thatitcanreinvigoratetired

minds,andbraceindividualsforthetaskofdealingwithreality.Withthis

formula,Eganrendersliteratureassomehowoutoflife,asthoughitexistedina

vacuumoutsideofthematerialworld,ashercharactersseemto.Insuchaview,

literaturehasadutyonlytoitssingularreader,andeventhen,itisadutyof

distraction,amomentaryrelieffromreality.ThisisthederivativeformofNew

Sincerity,theonethatfindswidespreadcommercialsuccessbecauseitoffersno

challengetotheconditionsthatcausethelonelinessitostensiblyseeksto

alleviate.Wallace’sworkfoughthisowntendencytosolipsism(notalways

successfully).InEgan’s,solipsismislittlemorethantheconditionofbeingalive.

Thatseemsliketheloneliestaccountofexistenceimaginable–andthemost

miserable.

695TheKeep,p.47.

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AVisitFromtheGoonSquad:TheDaytheMusicDied

Wecome,now,toEgan’slastfullnovelsofar(anotherisdueforpublicationthis

autumn,andthereisalsotheTwitficBlackBox).Publishedin2010,AVisitFrom

theGoonSquadisthemostsuccessfulofEgan’snovels,inbothcriticaland

commercialterms.ItwontheNationalBookCriticsCircleAwardandthePulitzer

Prize,andtoppedbestsellerlistsacrosstheU.S.andfurtherafield.696Itisthe

mostculturallysignificantofEgan’snovels,intermsofreception,dissemination,

andimpact.ItscriticalsuccessbroadlysignalledEgan’sascendancepropertothe

ranksof‘GreatAmericannovelist’(shebeatlong-timetitleholderJonathan

FranzentothePulitzer).697LikeallEgan’swork,thisnovelisengagedwith

counterculture,thistimethroughitsfocusonthemusicindustry,rootedinthe

SanFranciscopunksceneofthelateseventiesandeighties.698GoonSquad’s

ostensibleinterestistime,madeplainbyitsopeningepigraph,whichistaken

fromMarcelProust’sInSearchofLostTime.699Ihavedescribedelsewherehow

thisinterest,forNilges,representsawayinwhichthenovelasaliteraryform

mayconfrontthelimitationsofneoliberalhypercomplextime:

recentnovelisticproductionengagespreciselywiththeoppressive

senseofthehereandnowasoneofneoliberalism’sdefining

problemsthatunderwritesitslimitingeffectuponthecultural(andto

nosmallextentcriticalandtheoretical)imagination.700

696GillianReagan.‘JenniferEganin‘AVisitFromtheSalesSquad,’Politico29March2011,www.politico.com/states/new-york/city-hall/story/2011/03/jennifer-egan-in-a-visit-from-the-sales-squad-000000.697ThistoowasnotedbyKellyin‘BeginningWithPostmodernism’,wherehesuggestedthatthesepublicdisplaysofcriticalapprovalwouldrectifytheauthor’s“criticaleclipse”:thisinitselfisaformulathatbearssomeattention.Asforwhata‘GreatAmericannovelist’is,wemightlooselyreadittomeanthatanauthorhascompletedacriticallylaudedworkofsomescope,andthatthatworkisseentoaddresstheconditionoflifeinAmericaatthecontemporarymoment(inverybroadbrushstrokes).SeeLevGrossman,‘JonathanFranzen:GreatAmericanNovelist,’Time12August2010,content.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,2010185,00.html.698ItoccurstomethatLookatMemaynotappeartohavethesameovertinterestincounterculturebasedonmyreading,althoughthatthefashionindustryisan‘alternative’creativeindustryisclear.ThereisanothersubplotinthatnovelwhichconcentratesonCharlotteHauser’syoungerbrother,Ricky,anavidskateboarderwhoisrecoveringfromleukaemia,whichhasamoredirectengagementwithwhatmightproperlybetermed‘subculture.’Thiswasnotexploredforreasonsofspace.699Anepigraphwhichassertstheimportanceoflookinginwardstoconnectwiththepast,andsuggeststhatunderstandingthelivesofothersisaninsolvablepuzzle,settingthetoneforthenovelandreflectingthosetendenciestoeschewmaterialcircumstancewehavealreadyseeninEgan’swork.700Nilges.‘Neoliberalismandthetimeofthenovel,’p.372.

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Ihaveexplained,too,Nilges’sassertionthatitistheprocessualformofthenovel

thatcanre-establishasenseof“neoliberalismasahistoricallyspecifictemporal

imaginary,onethatisdirectlyrelatedtospecifichistoricalconditionsandthatas

suchdoesnotmarktheendoftimeitselfbutratherthecrisisofoneof

neoliberalism’sconstitutivedimensions.”701IhavedescribedEgan’sothernovels

as‘hauntologies’andsituatedtheminthemodeoftheneoliberalgothic,

recognisingthattheymayexpressanxietiesunintendedbytheauthorbutvery

muchaconditionofcontemporarylife,throughtheirtemporalliminality

(amongstotherfeaturesoutlinedinmyreadings).Inspiteofitsexplicit

thematisationoftime,however,AVisitfromtheGoonSquadisnotoneofthese

hauntologies.Its‘non-linearnarrative’notwithstanding,itssenseoftimeis

actuallymoreclearlydelineatedthananyofthepreviousnovelswehavelooked

at.Theextensivetemporalconnectionsdescribedbetweencharactershaveled

sometocharacteriseitasa‘Facebooknovel.’702Atypicalexampleofthisoccurs

inthechapterentitled‘Safari,’aboutagrouponsafariwhowitnessanear-miss

incidentwithalion:

ThemembersofRamsey’ssafarihavegainedastorythey’lltellforthe

restoftheirlives.Itwillpromptsomeofthem,yearsfromnow,to

searchforeachotheronGoogleandFacebook,unabletoresistthe

wish-fulfilmentfantasythereportalsoffer:Whateverhappenedto...?

Inafewcases,they’llmeetagaintoreminisceandmarvelatone

another’sphysicaltransformations,whichwillseemtomeltaway

withtheminutes.703

TherestofthepassagedescribedsuchameetingbetweenDean,astruggling

actorwhofindssuccessinmiddleage,andLouise,twelveatthetimeofthe

safari,divorcedwiththreeteenagersbythetimetheyfindeachotheragain.Ina

fewsentences,thenarrativecoverstheirfirstreunion,their“unexpectedly

movingsex,”andtheireventualmarriage.704Anotherinstanceofthiscondensed

701Nilges.‘Neoliberalismandthetimeofthenovel,’p.372.702JenniferEganinterviewedbyStephanLee.‘JenniferEganon‘GoonSquad,’‘LosAngelesTimes’brouhaha,andhernextnovel,’2April2011,EntertainmentWeekly,ew.com/article/2011/04/02/jennifer-egan-interview-goon-squa/.703JenniferEgan.AVisitfromtheGoonSquad2010London:Corsair,2011,pp.74-75.704GoonSquad,p.75.

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temporalnarrativeoccurswhenEgandescribesaSamburuwarriorwho

performsforthetourists.LookatMealsofeaturesaSamburuwarrior,whoselife

ThomasKeenseekstotransformintocontentontheExtra/OrdinaryPeoplesite.

TheSamburuaresomewhatfamiliartoAmericans,withmembersofthetribe

havingfeaturedinKevinBaconfilmsandNikeads.705InGoonSquad,this

unnamedwarrior’slifenarrativeispresentedinthesameformasthatofthe

Americantourists:

Thirty-fiveyearsfromnow,in2008,thiswarriorwillbecaughtinthe

tribalviolencebetweentheKikuyuandtheLuoandwilldieinafire.

He’llhavefourwivesandsixty-threegrandchildrenbythen,oneof

whom,aboynamedJoe,willinherithislalema:theironhunting

daggerinaleatherscabbardathisside.Joewillgotocollegeat

Columbiaandstudyengineering,becominganexpertinvisualrobotic

technologythatdetectstheslightesthintofirregularmovement(the

legacyofachildhoodspentscanningthegrassforlions).He’llmarry

anAmericannamedLuluandremaininNewYork,wherehe’llinvent

ascanningdevicethatbecomesstandardissueforcrowdsecurity.He

andLuluwillbuyaloftinTribeca,wherehisgrandfather’shunting

daggerwillbedisplayedinsideacubeofPlexiglas,directlyundera

skylight.706

ThisaccountismuchlessinterestedinthewarriorthanhisAmericanised

grandson,andsuggeststhatupwardmobilitycansubsumenotonlyclassbut

racialinequality:Joeinventsadevicetobeusedforsecurity,despitethe

disproportionatepolicingandsurveillanceofyoungblackmeninAmerica,both

onandoffline.707ThisispresentedtousasnomoreunusualthanDeanand

Louise’sreunion,andasthoughitwerenomorepoliticallycharged.Thisrapid

narrativecyclingisatypicalfeatureofthenovel,replicatingthetemporalsense

of“allatonce”engenderedby‘hypercomplex’time.Thistechniqueisalso

705PeterApplebome.‘StraightOutofAfrica,aReallyTallStory.’TheNewYorkTimes,2January1994,www.nytimes.com/1994/01/02/movies/film-straight-out-of-africa-a-really-tall-story.html.706GoonSquad,p.65.707JeffreyLane.‘TheDigitalStreet,’AmericanBehaviouralScientist,60:1,2015,pp.43-58,;K.BabeHowell‘GangPolicing:thePostStop-and-FriskJustificationforProfile-BasedPolicing,’5UniversityofDenverCriminalLawReview,5:2,2015,pp.1-33.

259

directlyinfluencedbythenewarchivalformsenabledbyvirtualtechnologiesof

theself,perTurkle’swork.GoonSquadrationaliseshypercomplextimeinaway

thatrepeatsthelogicsandprocessesofneoliberalismratherthanstaginga

confrontationwiththem.

Iamnotaloneinexpressingdoubtsaboutwhatthisnovelisdoing,ortrying

todo.SeanCarswell,inanarticleentitled‘GoonsandGrrrls:AMeditationon

PunkrockIdeologyandNeoliberalism’(2016),picksuponsomeoftheproblems

ofEgan’suseofpunkrockcounterculture,whichistheroughhistorical

backgroundagainstwhichitseventsunfold.IsuggestedthatTheInvisibleCircus

enactsabroad‘emptyingout’ofthepoliticalcontentofthatcounterculture,ina

waythattooeasilyaccordswithneoliberalnarrativesoftheeraandseesitasan

inevitableprecursortotheriseofneoliberalism.GoonSquad,morethananyof

Egan’snovels,normalisesandnaturalisestheprocessof‘sellingout,’asthough

theprocessof‘becomingneoliberal’werenomorethantheinevitableresultof

timepassing.Inacharacteristicdisavowal,EganincludesachapterinGoon

Squad,‘PureLanguage,’whichlooksdirectlyattheprocessof‘sellingout,’

throughexploringthecommodificationofculturalinfluence,althoughthetheme

alsoframesthenovelmoregenerally,asweshallsee.

Elsewhere,JeffreyJ.LewismakesAVisitfromtheGoonSquadoneofthe

subjectsofhisarticle,‘ThePlutocraticImagination,’readingitasneoliberalinits

attentiontotheultra-wealthy.708AnisShivaniidentifiesthenovelasbelongingto

whatheterms‘plasticrealism,’whichherelatestotheriseofthe“MFAregime”

incontemporaryAmericanliteraryfiction.Iamnotseekingtoaddressthewider

debateoftheimpactofMFAprogrammesonAmericanliterarycultureatlarge,

althoughitseemstomewemightjustaseasilyidentifycommercialimperatives

asthereasonfortheemergenceofthis‘style.’Certainly,aswehaveseen,

separatingcommercialandcriticalsuccessisasomewhatfutileenterprise.

Shivaniassertsthatsalesandreadershipareirrelevanttothesewriters-

becausetheyare“ensconcedintheacademy”–althoughIdoubtthateithercan

708JeffreyJ.Williams.‘ThePlutocraticImagination,’Dissent60:1,2013.Again,Iamnottotallyconvincedbythis–theultrawealthydofeatureinEgan’swork,butIwouldarguethatinGoonSquad,aselsewhere,itistheuppermiddleclassratherthanthe‘1%’withwhomherworkismostpreoccupied.Therecanbenodoubtingthatherworknormalisesthestateofaffluence,however,andasIhavesuggested,herwritingseemstoooftentofalteror‘missthemark’whensheattemptstoaddressthoseoutsideofthisclass(seeTheKeep).

260

becastoffsoeasily,evenifauthorsmightliketoadoptaposeofdisinterestwith

regardtoboth.Thereader,afterall,hasbecometheprimarysubjectof

theoreticalliteraryengagementinthepost-DavidFosterWallaceliterary

landscape,andunderneoliberallogic,thereaderistheconsumerofliterature.709

Regardlessofthereasonfortheemergenceofthisdominantnew(ish)style

offiction,Shivani’saccountdescribes,“anewhappiness–almostanecstatic

bubblingupofferociousindividualism,asthoughthecountryhadbeen

discoveredanew,itsrawenergiesasavailablefortranslationintopersonal

successasneverbefore”aspermeatingthisliterature.710Thisisaninteresting

perspective,movingusonfromthoseNewSincerityreadingsthathaveinsisted

onthepervasivesadnessofAmerica,“sunksodeepinthecultureyoucantasteit

inyourmorningCheerios.”711This‘deepsadness,’perSmithandWallace,ismost

oftenlinkedtothevapidityofconsumeroradvertisingcultureandthedifficulty

ofachievingfulfillingaffectiveexchangesorconnections.This‘newhappiness’is,

Ithink,connectedtotheself-maximisationstrategiesofneoliberalhappiness

discourse,andtheapparentlyboundlesshorizonofchoiceunderneoliberalism

(boundless,thatis,aslongasitagreeswiththeframeworkofneoliberalism).My

workhasexploredtheintersectionofthesetwostates,basedonthematerial

evidenceofariseinstatesofaffectivedistressoccurringatthesametimeasa

generalincreaseinlivingstandardsandaffluence.712Thenegotiationoftheseis

thespaceofcognitivedissonanceIhavepositedelsewhere,bywhichwemay

‘acknowledge’oursadnessbutarealsointerpellatedtotranslatethissuffering

intoneoliberallanguagesofhappiness,regulatingourselvesinaccordancewith

709ApologiesforinvokingFranzenagain,butthe‘Oprahincident’inwhichthatauthorbecameembroiledisaneatillustrationofmypoint:DavidK.Kirkpatrick,‘’Oprah’GaffebyFranzenDrawsIreandSales,’TheNewYorkTimes29October2001.www.nytimes.com/2001/10/29/books/oprah-gaffe-by-franzen-draws-ire-and-sales.html.Kirkpatrickwrites,“iftherewereeveratimeinthebookbusinesswhenauthorswrotetoimpresscriticsandtheirpeerswithoutregardtobooksales,gettingcaughtinthatpostureisnowalmostembarrassing.”Thepermissivenessofneoliberalismeradicatesthehigh/lowdistinctionbywhichauthorswerepublicly‘permitted’toadoptsuchstances;more,itsloveofsuccessnarrativesrewardstheauthorwithacannyeyetobooksales(likeJenniferEgan,perthePoliticoarticle).AsLewisLapham,editorofHarper’s,isquotedassaying,“thegarretisathingofthepast.”710AnisShivani,‘WeAreAllNeoliberalsNow:TheNewGenreofPlasticRealisminAmericanFiction,’HuffingtonPost12June2016,www.huffingtonpost.com/anis-shivani/we-are-all-neoliberals-no_b_7546606.html.711Smith.TheBurnedChildrenofAmerica,p.xii.712PerOliverJames,RichardLayard,andothersexploredearlier.

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theproductiveimperative.Shivani’s“ecstaticbubblingupofferocious

individualism”isaneatexplanationofthoseproblematicendingsofEgan’swork

Ihaveexploredsofar,inwhich,aswehaveseen,wealwaysreturntothe

individual,andtotheprivateself.

ShivaniandCarswelloverlapwhendiscussinghowacceptancefromthe

literaryestablishmentmightbeseenasasignthatanovelaccordswith,rather

thanchallenges,dominantpowerstructures,particularlywhenthisacceptance

translatesintoincreasedcommercialpotential.Bothmakeplainthatthenovelas

productisalsoenmeshedinawebofcapitalistproduction,asaproductitself,

andcautionusnottoforgetthisinouranalyses.713Ialsofinditinterestingthat

Shivanipointsouttherelativeabsenceofnovelisticattemptsto‘writeout’the

2008financialcrisis.ThereismuchinGoonSquadthatwouldhaveworked

fruitfullyagainstthehistoricalmomentofthefinancialcrash,anditsabsenceis

partoftheoddsenseofahistoricitythatframesthenovel,despiteitsoccasional

referencestoactualhistoricaleventsorcircumstance.714AVisitfromtheGoon

SquadisformallydistinctfromEgan’searliernovels,inthatitisanovelthat

reproducesneoliberaltimeinitsform,insteadofnarrativelyengagingwiththe

formoftime,asIhavesuggestedtheseearliernovelsdothroughtheir

(sometimesinadvertent)hauntologies.Shivaniisalsoawareoftheinfiltrationof

psychotherapeuticlanguageintocontemporaryAmericanliteraryfiction,and

linksittoanemptyingoutofphilosophicalcontent.Hewrites,ofplasticrealism,

“thereisnopatternofhistoricalexplanation,withoutwhichrealismismerelya

codeofestablishedtextualsignalsratherthananhonestattempttotranslate

languageintoreality.”715Itakethispoint–indeed,hisdescriptionofthechasm

betweena“codeoftextualsymbols”and“anhonestattempttotranslate

languageintoreality”isthecruxofthetensionIhavebeentracinginEgan’s

713PerEgan,“Themosttangibleoutcomeoftheselists[ofnovelswithpositivereviews/criticalapproval]iscommercial,maybe,andbelieveme,I’lltakeit.’”,‘JenniferEganin‘AVisitFromtheSalesSquad,’Politico.n.p.714IftheGoonSquadwerereallywrittenina‘fracturedform’(which,asIseeit,itisnot),itseemstomeitwouldbeanidealartefactoftheexistentialcrisisofcapitalismmaderealbythe2008crash.Thenovel’soverviewofadecliningmusicindustrybasedontheriseofstreamingandothernewformsofvirtualconsumptionalltooeasilyparallelstheabstractionofthebankingsectorEgantoucheduponinLookatMe,butthisisnotdrawnoutinthenovel.715Shivani,‘WeAreAllNeoliberalsNow:TheNewGenreofPlasticRealisminAmericanFiction.’n.p.

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work.716However,asIhavetriedtoshowthatEgan’sworkstagessome

conversationbetweenhistoricalframings,myreadingsuggeststhatitisthe

politicaldimensionthatismissingfromEgan’swork;theoverlapofthe

philosophicalandthehistorical,groundedinthematerialcircumstanceoflife.

Shivanialsocontendsthatsufferingisnotabsentfromthenarrativesof‘plastic

realism’:

Protagonistsinplasticrealismcertainlymaysufferfromillness,

addiction,emotionalinadequacy,andfamilialdysfunction–and

indeedoftensuffertoridiculousexcess–butthetherapeutic

narrativeensuresthatindividualscanonlygrowandlearnfromsuch

experiences.717

Inthesenarrativesofovercomingpersonalstrife,Shivanigoeson,“allproblems

originateinternally,andthecharacters’taskistouncovertheirownunique

predestinedharmony–whichtheydo,inallcases.”718InAVisitfromtheGoon

Squad,these‘trials’aretheverytraitsbywhichcharactersaredefined.Every

characterhassomeobstacletheymustovercome,notusuallyintermsof

poverty,ornaturaldisaster,violence,orinequality,butwhatwemightcalla

‘problemoftheself.’Thisisnottosaythatthenoveldoesnottouchuponthese

kindsofissues,buttheyareco-optedintothislargerframeworkofthepersonal.

Thisistheoperatinglogicofneoliberalhappinessdiscourseatthelevelofself-

imbrication.Ifproblemsthathavetheirrootsinstructuralinequitiesormaterial

inequalitycanberecuperatedas‘problemsoftheself,’theycanbereframedas

solvablewithintherubricofproductiveaction,bethisthroughengagementwith

psychotherapeuticrhetoric,‘investment’intheself,ormanagementaspartofa

‘happinessjourney.’Thisfurtherenmeshesthesubjectinthesamesystemthat

engenderstheiroriginaldistress,reinforcingtheideathat“thereisno

alternative.”Letusattend,then,tothesufferingoftheneoliberalsubjectinA

VisitfromtheGoonSquad–andtheirpathtohappiness.

716ThisreachesitspeakinthefinalchapterofGoonSquad,‘PureLanguage,’asweshallsee.717Shivani,‘WeAreAllNeoliberalsNow:TheNewGenreofPlasticRealisminAmericanFiction,’n.p.718Shivani,‘PartII:TheNewGenreofPlasticRealisminAmericanFiction’HuffingtonPost,originalemphasis,n.p.

263

AsIhavesaid,AVisitfromtheGoonSquadisroughlybasedaroundthemusic

industryinAmerica,fromtheWestCoastpunksceneoftheseventiestoa

futuristicEastCoastindustryinwhichtoddlershavebecomeacrucialmarket

demographic.Itdepictsthelivesofaseriesofinterlinkedcharactersover

thirteenchapters.Thelooseinterweavingofthenarrativefollowsfromthefact

thatsomeofthechapterswerewrittenasshortstoriespriortotheconceptionof

thebook;thishas,apparently,causedsomeconfusionamongstcriticsasto

whetheritisinfactanovel,orsomenewliteraryform.Forthepurposesofmy

discussion,Ireadthetextasanovel,andwilldescribeitassuch.Thetwocentral

protagonistsofthenovelemerge,loosely,asSashaBlake(néeGrady)andBennie

Salazar,whoworktogetheratBennie’srecordlabel,Sow’sEarRecords.Other

charactersincludethemembersofBennie’spunkband,TheFlamingDildos,

whichcompriseshisbestfriendScottyandthreegirlsnamedRhea,Jocelyn,and

Alice.JocelynisinvolvedwithrecordexecutiveLouKline,whoactsasBennie’s

mentor.WealsomeetAlex,withwhomSashagoesonadate,laterBennie’s

‘parrot’(atermforacovert‘culturalinfluencer’)andSasha’scollegefriends,one

ofwhom(Drew)shelatermarriesandstartsafamilywith.HerdaughterAlison

Blakeistheprotagonistofthenovel’swidelydiscussedPowerPointchapter.

Bennie’swife,Stephanie,alsofeatures,asdoesherbrotherJules,whoattempts

torapeastarletcalledKittyJacksonduringapromotionalinterview.Stephanie

worksforaPRgurucalledLaDoll,whosefortunesdeclineconsiderablyaftera

misjudgedpartydisplayinjurescelebrities.Finally,LaDoll,orDolly,hasa

daughtercalledLulu,whofeaturesastheprotagonistinEgan’sBlackBoxTwitfic

(2012).Therearevariousothercharactersandoverlappings,butthisrepresents

thecentralnetworkofconnectionsinasmuchdetailasisnecessaryforthetime

being.

Sashaisthefirstcharacterwemeetinthenovel,whichopenswiththe

sentence,“Itbegantheusualway,inthebathroomoftheLassimoHotel.”719

Withintheworldofthenovel,this“it”referstoSasha’skleptomania,whichin

thisinstancepromptshertostealawoman’spursefromherbaginthehotel

bathroom.ThetheftispartofawiderurgeSashafeelstotakethings,whichhas

resultedinherappropriatingaplumber’sscrewdriver,anex-friend’sbathsalts,719GoonSquad,p.3.

264

andalittlegirl’sscarf.Sashais,atherownexpense,engagedintherapeutic

treatmentinanefforttoregulatethisaberrantbehaviour.720Inthistherapeutic

dialogue,Sasha’stheftsareframedas“awayfor[her]toasserthertoughness,

herindividuality.”721Sashareturnsthewalletaftersheismoreorlesscaught

withit,beseechingthewomannottotellandexplainingwiththeimmortal

words,“It’saproblemIhave,butI’mgettinghelp.”722Thisisnotatheft,buta

mistake,andSashais,shepromises,workingtocorrectherbehaviour.The

womanacquiescestoSasha,whoisyoung,attractive,andrelativelyaffluent,and

thepolicearenotcalled–Sasha’sdate(withAlex)isnotevendisrupted.The

onlyconsequenceisherneedtofurtherunburdenherselftoCozintheirnext

session.Asthedateprogresses,AlexreturnstoSasha’sapartmentandtheyhave

sex.Followingthis,AlexdecidestotakeabathinthetubinSasha’skitchen–a

quaintreminderofpovertythathasbecomeaquirkyrealestatefeature.While

hegetstowels,Sashagoesthroughhiswalletandstealsascrapofpaperbearing

thewordsIBELIEVEINYOU.WhenwelaterfindoutaboutSasha’spersonal

history,thisaccruessomemeaning.In‘Goodbye,MyLove,’heruncleTed

HollanderisdispatchedtoItalytofindSashaatthebehestofherwealthy

stepfather.Werapidlylearnaboutherchequeredhistory,characterisation

supplementedbytherapidrecountingoffactsinawaythatmimicsthe

disorientingpresentationofvirtualidentity/information:

Sashahaddisappearedtwoyearsago,atseventeen.Disappearedlike

herfather,AndyGrady....Sashahadsurfacedperiodically,

requestingmoney-wiresinseveralfar-flunglocales...Sashahadfled

anadolescencewhosecatalogofwoeshadincludeddruguse,

countlessarrestsforshoplifting,afondnessforkeepingcompany

withrockmusicians…fourshrinks,familytherapy,grouptherapy,

andthreesuicideattempts723

720Hertherapisthastheunlikelynameof‘Coz,’whichmightleadthereadertospeculateonhisactualexistence,althoughSashadoestellhimthatsheis“bankrupting[herself]topayforyou.”GoonSquad,p.8.721GoonSquad,p.4.722GoonSquad,p.10.723GoonSquad,p.221.

265

WealsolearnherethatTedtrieshisbesttokeephischildrenawayfromSasha,

afraidthather‘badness’issomehowinfectious.ThusSasha’sthieveryis

explained,especiallyherattractiontoanapparentlytreasuredreminderreading

IBELIEVEINYOU.Whatsheneeds,itseems,issomeonetobelieveinher.Asshe

thinksduringthelastencounterwithCoztowhichthereaderisprivy,

“Redemption,transformation–Godhowshewantedthosethings.Everyday,

everyminute.Didn’teveryone?”724Thisisa‘textbook’narrativeoftraumaand

abandonment,solvablethroughworkontheselfandemphasisonemotional

relationswithothers.ThedarkersideofSasha’slife–whilstinItaly,sheworks

asathiefandaprostitutetosupportherself–isimplicitlyavoidable,aresultof

herownfailingsandherinabilitytoacceptthefamilialsupportofhermother

andstep-father.LikePhoebeinTheInvisibleCircus,oncesheacceptslifetheway

itis-forherasawealthymiddle-classwhiteAmerican-shewillfindthings

mucheasier.

ThisisborneoutaswelearnmoreaboutSasha’sstory.Thenovelfollowsher

returntoAmericaandtouniversity,wheresheisabusinessandartsdouble

major.Thischapter,toldinsecondperson,focusesonherrelationshipwithRob,

afellowstudentwhoisgaybutcannotcometotermswithhissexuality.Sasha

andRobtelleachothertheirsecrets,atSasha’sinsistence,tomakesuretheywill

notendupdating.Sashaseemstohavemoreorlessovercomehertraumatic

pastandmovedtowardsacceptingtheconventionalpromiseofherfuture,

althoughshepersistsintheparanoidbeliefthatadetectivehiredbyher

stepfatherisconstantlyobservingher.Thisbeliefgivesherlicencetobehaveas

thoughRob,aconventionallyattractiveformerfootballplayer,isherboyfriend,a

subterfugetowhichheagreesforreasonsthatareasconfusingtohimasthey

areplaintothereader.WhenRobquestionsherastothelogicofherparanoia,

sheresponds,“IwanthimtoknowI’mhappy.…Iwanthimtoseemewellagain

–howI’mstillnormal,evenaftereverything.”And[Rob]wantedthattoo.”725

Thisrelationshipisupset,however,whenSashaactuallybecomes‘normal,’

724GoonSquad,p.19.725GoonSquad,p.203.

266

takingupwithDrew,whois“detectiveproof,”andtowhomshehasnointention

ofrevealingherpast.726

Atsomepointafterthis,Robtriestokillhimself.Sasharevealsherself

incapableofcomprehendingthedifferencebetweentheirsituations,climbing

intohishospitalbedandtellinghim“We’rethesurvivors,”asthoughRobmight

alsoforgetsomepartofhimself–hissexuality–andovercomehis‘aberrance’

throughsodoing.727Inthissameexchange,Sashareiteratesherinsistencethat

theywillhavea“normallife,”withnoquestionofwhatthismightmeanforhim,

oranydemonstrableawarenessthattryingtohavea“normallife”alongthe

narrowparametersbywhichshedefinesitmightbetherootofhissuffering.Nor

doesanysuchunderstandingdevelop,forSashaorthereader.Robdies,atthe

endofthestory,drowningintheEastRiverafterinducingDrewtotakeEcstacy

withhim.Asmentionedearlier,despitetheostensibleabsenceofnormative

moraljudgementinEgan’swork,takingdrugsisgenerallycastasdysfunctional

andcovertlypositionedasapersonalfailing,particularlyifthecharacterenjoys

takingdrugs:FaithinTheInvisibleCircus,forexample,orJocelyninGoonSquad.

Theshort-livedtranscendenceofdrug-takingisseenasyetanotherfutileeffort

tosubvertneoliberalism’sinescapablereality,unless,ofcourse,thedrugsare

medicallyprescribedinordertomanagethe‘abnormal’brain,asisthecasefor

MooseMetcalfeinLookatMe.Robmismanageshimself,evenasheisdying:“As

youflail,knowingyou’renotsupposedtopanic–panickingwilldrainyour

strength–yourmindpullsawayasitdoessoeasily,sooften,withoutyoureven

noticingsometimes….”728Hecannotconducthimselfaccordingtowhat

(neoliberal)commonsenseknowstobebest-andsoheisdoomed.

ThischaptercloseswithSashascreaming“Fight!Fight!Fight!”intoRob’sface;

areminder,ifweneededit,thatSashaisafighter,asurvivor.729Forthissame

reason,Rob’schapterisimmediatelyfollowedbyTedHollander’s,sowemight

observejusthowmuchSashahasovercomebyrefusingher‘victimhood’and

acceptingtheinescapableboundsofmiddleclassAmericanlife.Thisnarrative–

726GoonSquad,p.203.727GoonSquad,p.206.728GoonSquad,p.213.729GoonSquad,p.214.

267

ofrefusingvictimhood–recursthroughoutthenovel,andIwillreturntoitina

moment.Beforethat,IwanttolookbrieflyatSasha’sultimatefateinthenovel:

She’dreconnectedonFacebookwithhercollegeboyfriendand

marriedlate(whenBethhadnearlygivenuphope)andhadtwo

children,oneofwhomwasslightlyautistic…shewaslikeanyone,

withalifethatworriedandelectrifiedandoverwhelmedher….730

Inthenarrativehabitofthenovel,thispassageemploysacompressedaccountof

lifethatservestoheightenitsemotionalsignificationwhileatthesametime

presentingitsendasinevitable.Sashahasreformedandconformed,losingher

jobasaresultofherkleptomaniaandreconnectingwithDrew.Shehas

relocated,too,fromNewYorktoadesertsettlement,whichbythisunspecified

pointinthefuturehasbecomeastandardsuburbanhabitat.731

Sasha’sreformationisnotuniqueinthenovel,whichfrequentlyuses

marriageandchildrenasasymbolofmaturityorgrowthandsuccess.Carswell,

readingthisagainstthebackdropofpunkrock,isunimpressedbythismotif:

Punkrockerswhoarewomen[inGoonSquad]becomestay-at-home

moms.Again,thisispresentedasapositivechange,uncomplicatedby

thepowerinequitiesofapatriarchalfamilywithabreadwinner

callingtheshots.Becominganunemployedmotheristhewaywomen

growup.…Throughthesefalsedichotomies,punkrockisexemplified

aschildishanddestructive.Growingupbecomesareificationof

consumercapitalistpatriarchalculture.732

Carswellcorrectlyidentifiesthewayinwhichthesefamilialrelationsprescribe

andlimitfemaleidentity.Sashagoesfrombeingaconflicted,independent,

troubledindividual,toajunksculptorandhomemaker,savedandrewardedby

hermarriagetoa‘goodman.’Thereisaretrogressivefeeltothisthatsits

uncomfortablywithEgan’spurportedlycontemporary,orevenfuturistic,

narrative,andanelisionofthepowerimbalancesofheteronormativemarriage.

730GoonSquad,p.241.731Thisgestures,again,toAnthropoceneconcerns,butmakesnosubstantialcommentonecologicaldecline.732SeanCarswell‘GoonsandGrrrls:AMeditationonPunkRockIdeologyandNeoliberalism,’CriticalSociology,42:2,2016.pp.323-328,p.326.

268

ThischapterhasalsobeenlaudedforitsuseofPowerPointasamedium,

whichhasbeencharacterisedbycriticsandinterviewersassomethingofarisky

experiment.733Eganhassuggestedthatthiswastheveryappealoftheform,as

wellasseeingitasavisualdemonstrationofthethematicinterestsofthenovel:

“Thereareallthesepausesinourlivesthatmakeusthinkaboutthebigpauseor

sortofthepausethat’sallaroundus,and…PowerPointallowedmetoexploreit

inamorevividwaythanIcouldotherwise.”734Egan’splayfulnesswhenitcomes

toliteraryformsispartofherwiderinterestinliterarytheory,orTheory,as

MartinPaulEvehasit.735Inmyreading,Egan’sutilisationoftheseformsand

techniquesispartofthewiderprocessofdepoliticisationthatoccursinher

work.IfTheoryisdeployedasastylistictool,ratherthananinterrogativeone,

itsfunctionisdrasticallylimited.DanicavandeVeldehascharacterisedEgan’s

useofPowerPointas“subversive”–withoutgivinganyclearunderstandingof

whatisbeingsubverted,orwhy.736Thisis,perhaps,inevitableinabodyofwork

thatwilfullydisengagesfromthematerialflowsofpowerthatconstructsocial

reality,presentinganotherstumblingblockforcriticalapproachestoEgan’s

work.

Indeed,suchadeploymentoftheorystandsinoppositiontothebest

intentionsofNewSincerity,andWallace’swork,asacknowledgedbyWilliamsin

theaccountof‘Octet’exploredearlier.737Withthisinmind,letusturntothe

DavidFosterWallaceinspired,‘FortyMinuteLunch,’or,infull,“Forty-Minute

Lunch:KittyJacksonOpensupAboutLove,FameandNixon!”738Thischapter

seemstoreferenceWallace’sBriefInterviewswithHideousMen(1999).The

authorofthearticle(thehideousman)isJulesJones,brotherofBennieSalazar’s

733Thisismentionedinmostinterviewsandpublicitysurroundingthenovel;see,forexample,ChristianHouse,‘AVisitfromtheGoonSquad,ByJenniferEgan,’TheIndependent13March2011www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/books/reviews/a-visit-from-the-goon-squad-by-jennifer-egan-2240306.html.734JenniferEganinconversationwithSpencerMichels,PBSNewshour,July12010http://www.pbs.org/newshour/art/conversation-author-jennifer-egan/.735MartinPaulEve.‘”StructuralDissatisfaction”:AcademicsonSafariintheNovelsofJenniferEgan,’OpenLibraryofHumanities,2015,1:1,pp.1-24,p.21.736DaniciavandeVelde,‘MusicalPauses,GenderedNostalgia,andLossinAVisitfromtheGoonSquad’inWriteinTune:ContemporaryMusicinFiction,editedbyErichHertz.NewYork:Bloomsbury,2014,pp.123-135,p.125.737Williams.‘(New)SincerityinDavidFosterWallace’s“Octet,”’p.301.738GoonSquad,p.175.

269

wife,writingatatimeofpersonalandprofessionaldecline.Hehasrecentlybeen

dumpedbyhisfiancéeandhasbeenstrugglingwithwritingthecelebrityprofiles

assignedtohim.JonesinitiallyinterviewsKittyinarestaurantbut,having

troubleconnectingtoherthroughherPRspiel,becomesfrustratedathis

inabilitytoinstigatean‘event’toformthecentrepieceofhisprofile.Heobserves

theactress,notingthatdespitetheabsenceofeventhedoeshave:

lustbecauseherneckisverylong,withathin,nearlytranslucentgold

necklacearoundit.Hershoulders,exposedbythewhitehaltertopof

hersundress,aresmallandtanandverydelicate,liketwolittle

squabs.…BysquabsImeantheylookedsogood(hershoulders)that

Icouldbrieflyimaginepullingapartallthoselittlebonesandsucking

themeatoffthemonebyone.

IaskKittyhowitfeelstobeasexgoddess.739

KittyrespondswithawearylackofinteresttoJones’sinterjectionofmaledesire,

unawareofitsundertoneofviolence.Theplayfultoneofthenarrativevery

nearlydeflectsitsgrotesquery.Thefootnoteaccompanyingthesentence

describingpullingapartKitty’sbonesrecountsJonesmeetinghispartner,

framingthismomentassomeprofoundconnectionwithherwholelife,asit

were,andofferingthisasballastagainstthosewhojudgehimtobe“asick

puppy.”740Shortlyafterthis,Jonessuggeststheyleavetherestaurant,inaneffort

tocreatethenecessary‘event.’HewatchesKittywalkingoutandascribesan

interiormonologuetoherthatseesherasintoxicatedbythepowerofherown

attractivenessandembarrassedforotherpeopleinthepresenceofthis

intoxication,althoughshegivesnotangiblesignofanyofthis.

Oncethetwoareoutside,Jonessuggeststhattheytalkaboutsomethingnew

–horses,perhaps?IttranspiresthatKittyloveshorses,andownsone,whose

picturesheproudlydisplaystoJones:“HisnameisNixon.‘Likethepresident?’I

ask,butKittylooksdisturbinglyblankatthisreference.‘Ijustlikedthesoundof

739GoonSquad,p.183.740GoonSquad,p.183:“Watchingher,Isawitall:thesmall,overheatedapartmentstrewnwithrunningshoesandleotards,thebiweeklydinnersatherparent’s,thesoftdarkfuzzonherupperlipthatshebleachedeachweekwithatart-smellingwhitecream.AndthefeelingIhadwasnotofwantinghersomuchasbeingsurroundedbyher,blunderinginsideherlifewithouthavingmoved.”

270

thename,shesays.”741NotonlyisKittyvain,Jonesimplies,sheisalsostupid.742

Shortlyafterthis,Jonesattemptstorapeher:

Iwanttofuckher(obviously)andthenkillher,orpossiblykillherin

theactoffuckingher(‘fuckhertodeath’and‘fuckherbrainsout’

beingacceptablevariationsonthisbasicgoal).WhatIhaveno

interestindoingiskillingherandthenfuckingher,becauseit’sher

life–theinnerlifeofKittyJackson–thatIsodesperatelylongto

reach.743

ThisstoryismoreorlessderivedfromoneofthetitularstoriesofWallace’s

collection,whichopens:“AndyetIdidnotfallinlovewithheruntilshehad

relatedthestoryoftheunbelievablyhorrifyingincidentinwhichshewas

brutallyaccostedandheldcaptiveandrapedandverynearlykilled.”744The

hideousmaninthisstorytellstheintervieweraboutawomanhesleptwithafter

meetingheratafestivalrecountingherrapeatthehandsofa“psychotic

mulatto”whoshedivertedfromalsomurderingherbyfocusing“veryintentlyon

thepsychoticmulattoasanensouledandbeautifulalbeittormentedpersonin

hisownrightinsteadofmerelyasathreattoheroraforceofevilorthe

incarnationofherpersonaldeath”andthuspreventinghimfrom

depersonalisingandsubsequentlykillingher.745RachelHaleyHimmelheber

offersathoroughunpackingofWallace’sstoryin‘”IBelievedSheCouldSave

Me”:RapeCultureinDavidFosterWallace’s“BriefinterviewswithHideousMen

#20”’(2014),layingoutthevariouswaysinwhichWallace’sstoryinterrogates

andexposesthepervasivenessofrapecultureinAmerica:

theoppressiverealityofAmerica’scultureofrapeisthatitis

inescapable,inextricablyembeddedinsomuchofourlivesthat

741GoonSquad,p.186.742Thistoodirectlyechoesthemalenarrator’sattitudetothefemalesubjectinWallace’sstory,atleastinitially.743GoonSquad,p.187.744DavidFosterWallace.‘BriefInterviewswithHideousMen#6’E---on“HowandWhyIHaveCometobeTotallyDevotedtoS----andHaveMadeHertheLinchpinandPlinthofMyEntireEmotionalExistence”TheParisReviewIssue1441997–Inthecollectedversionofthestory,theword“raped”hasbeenexcisedfromthisopening.745DavidFosterWallace.BriefInterviewswithHideousMen.London:Abacus,2001,p.256.

271

nothing–noteducation,notawareness,notempathy,notlove–can

saveusfromreplicatingitscycleofabuseandviolence.746

SoisthiswhatEgan’spasticheorparodydoestoo–exposestheinequitiesof

contemporaryAmericanrapecultureandthedifficultiesofconstructing

masculineidentitygiventhispervasiveness,whentheidealcharacteristicsofthe

neoliberalsubject(self-reliance,lackofneedforothers,andsoon)arethose

typicallygenderedasmasculine?747Idon’tthinksoand,onceagain,Ifindit

difficulttopindowntheintentionorfunctionbehindthispieceofwriting,

despiteJones’sownlatervagueassertionthatheislikeAmerica:“Ourhandsare

dirty.”748

Tobeginwith,Wallace’sstoryusestheframeworkofa‘normal’man(Eric)

tellingthestoryofawoman(Sarah)tellingherstoryofbeingraped,theresultof

whichisthathecomestoloveherbutalsothatherealiseshecanlove,whichhas

notpreviouslybeenimaginabletohim.749Wallace’sstoryenactsbotha

distancingfromtherapistandanamplificationofitsnarrator’simbricationin

thedamagingaspectsofrapeculture–seeninhisrepeatedobjectificationof

Sarahashetellsthestory,forexample–throughthisframeworkandthe

narrator’srepeatedinsistenceofhisawarenessoftheparallelsbetweenthe

rapist’sbehaviourandhisownpredatoryactions.Incontrast,Egan’schapter

offersusanaccountofanattemptedrapefromthemouth(orpen)ofthewould-

berapist.SeeJones’simaginingofKitty’sinnermonologue:

IknowI’mfamousandI’mirresistible–acombinationwhose

propertiescloselyresembleradioactivity–andIknowthatyouinthis

roomarehelplessagainstme.It’sembarrassingforbothofustolookat

eachotherandseeourmutualknowledgeofmyradioactivityandyour

746RachelHaleyHimmelheber‘”IBelievedSheCouldSaveMe”:RapeCultureinDavidFosterWallace’s“BriefinterviewswithHideousMen#20”’Critique,55,2014,pp.522-535,p.522-3747Thisisnotintendedtoover-simplifytheissueofgenderunderneoliberalism,andIhavelookedelsewhereatthewayinwhich‘feminine’traitsarerecuperatedinaffectivelabour,aswellasreiteratingthatthis‘idealsubject’isonethatisvirtuallyimpossibleformostpeopleto‘liveupto.’748GoonSquad,p.131.749Himmelhebercriticallydescribestheimplicationsofthisforthefeministethicsofcareatsomelength.

272

helplessness,soI’llkeepmyheaddownandletyouwatchmein

peace.750

ThesuggestionisthatKittyhassomespecialpowerandistacitlyawareofthis;

thatJulesJonesis,therefore,inapositionofdisadvantage.AsHaley

Himmelheberwrites,“Thisassumptionisacommononeinthecultureofrape:

menaredrivenmadwithanintensesexualdesirethatcannotbestopped,so

womenwhosebodiesprovokethatdesiremustbeextracareful.”751ForKitty,it

isnotjustherbodythatrendershervulnerableinthisway,buther“innerlife,”

heryouthandcelebrity,whichmakeher“irresistible”toJones–hecannotresist

her,heispowerlessagainsther,despitethefactsheis“minute”andheissixfoot

threeandtwohundredandsixtypounds.Allthiscanstillbereadasironic

commentaryintheveinofWallace’swork,exceptthat,withoutanyframing

device,thereisnodistancebetweenthereaderandthenarrator,andratherthan

highlightingthattheoriginofrapecultureisembeddedinsystemicpatriarchy,

thisbecomesanotherinstanceofa‘problemoftheself.’Thisisexacerbatedby

Egan’sattempttoframeacorrespondencebetweenrapecultureandcelebrity

culture,whichringsfalse,andminimisesthedamagepatriarchalculturedoesto

bothmenandwomen.

JonestellsthereaderthatKittywrotetohimafterhewasimprisonedforthe

attemptedrape:

‘IapologizeforwhateverpartIplayedinyouremotionalbreakdown,’

shewrote,‘andalsoforstabing[sic]you.’Therewasacircleovereach

Iandasmileyfaceattheend.

WhatdidItellyou?Nice.752

Jones’smisogynycontinuesunabated,andKitty’sstupidityisconfirmedtothe

readeronceagain.ThisechoesSarah’seffortstounderstandandcareforher

rapistinWallace’sstory(undertakentosaveherselffrombeingmurdered,so

shemightonlyberaped),butwithoutanyofthephilosophicalweightof

Wallace’sstory,characterisedbyHaleyHimmelheberas“aproblematic

750GoonSquad,p.185.751GoonSquad,p.529.752GoonSquad,p.189.

273

demonstrationofcareethics”.753TheshortcomingsofEgan’sapproachare

underlinedbythewayStephanie,JulesJones’ssisterandBennieSalazar’swife,

describesthe‘incident’:

therapechargewasdropped(atKittyJackson’srequest)andhewas

convictedofkidnappingandaggravatedassault–outrageous,given

thatthestarlethadwalkedintoCentralParkwithJulesofherown

freewillandsustainednotasingleinjury.Infact,she’dendedup

testifyingforthedefence.ButtheDAhadpersuadedthejurythat

Kitty’ssupportforJuleswasaversionofStockholmsyndrome.‘The

factthatsheinsistsonprotectingthismanisfurtherevidenceofhow

deeplyhehashurther...754

WeknowStephanie’sunderstandingofwhattranspiredtobeinaccurate,having

readthatJonesdid,infact,intendtorapeandkillKitty,byhisownaccount.We

might,ofcourse,readKitty’sletterandStephanie’sunderstandingoftheevents

asacritiqueofKitty’sneedtoassumeresponsibility,seenassymptomaticofthe

entrenchedgenderpoliticsofpatriarchalcapitalism.However,suchareadingis

drasticallylimitedbythewaysinwhichEgan’sworktendstosubscribetoand

reproducenormativeelementsofthesegenderroles.755ThesuccessofWallace’s

accounthingesonitsexposureofthewayinwhichtheseinequalitiesare

damagingtobothmenandwomenwhoaresubjecttothem:

Andyet,[thenarrator’s]painatthestory’send,mitigatedasitisby

hisabusivenessandself-reflexivity,isreal.Becausetheinterviewer,

andlikelythereader,havenotunderstoodhimashewishedtobe

understood,heisangry.Allofhisdisavowaloffear,hisinsistenceon

acknowledgingtheassumptionthatheisafraidonlytorefuteit,is

lostinthestory’send…Thereadermaybedisgustedbyhis

hideousness,butitisdifficulttoignorehishumanity.AsEricnotes

elsewhereinthestory,“Irememberweepingatmoviesaboutanimals

753Himmelheber,‘“IBelievedSheCouldSaveMe,”’p.523.754GoonSquad,p.125.755Recuperativeof‘badlybehaved’femalecharactersthroughmarriageandmotherhood,forexample.

274

asachild,eventhoughsomeofthoseanimalswerepredatorsand

hardlywhatyouwouldconsidersympatheticcharacters.”756

WhatoccasionsreflectionondamagingculturalnormsinWallace’sworkis

mistranslatedintoareproductionofthesenormsinEgan’s.Stephanie’saccount,

likeherbrother’s,implicitlyvalorisesKittyforherrefusaloftheroleofvictim,

whichwealsosawasafeatureofSasha’snarrative.Thistiesintoframeworksof

neoliberalself-responsibility,evidentinpsychotherapeuticlanguage.Theroles

of‘victim’and‘survivor’areframedastwooptionsincontrollingthenarrativeof

personalexperience,eventhoughthisdichotomyiscompletelyfalse,andmay

evenbedamaginginitspolarisation.Thevalorisationofthesurvivornarrative

perpetuatestheimplicitideathatvictimsaresomehowtoblameforfailingto

assumesufficientresponsibility.Evenavictimoftraumacanchoosehappiness,

accordingtothisrhetoric,iftheyonlycastthemselvesasasurvivor.757

WemightrecallhereHaleyHimmelheber’sassertionthatWallace

emphasisesthroughouttheBriefInterviewswithHideousMencollectionthat

“educationintheformofaccesstoself-knowledge,thelegacyof‘therapy

culture,’doesnotnecessarilygivepeoplethemeanstoaddresstheproblems

theyareabletoname.”758InEgan’swork,theproblemismorelikelytobethat

namingtheproblem,inthecontextofthepsychotherapeuticcultureof

neoliberalhappinessdiscourse,seemstonegatetheneedforanyfurther

investigationoftheproblem,obscuringsystemicinjusticeinfavourof

recuperativeaccountsofindividualselfhood.Wallace’snarratoracknowledges

hisownvulnerability,andmovesthereadertoapositionofgreater

understanding.ThisdemonstrateswheresomeoftheputativestrengthsofNew

Sinceritymightlie,butdoesnotdiminishmygeneraluncertaintyabouttherange

ofartisticoutputsgatheredunderitsbanner.Inthisinstance,Wallace’sworkhas

politicalconsequencebecauseitoperatesattheeverydayintersectionof

systemicviolence,andinsodoingrevealsitspervasiveness.

756Himmelheber,‘“IBelievedSheCouldSaveMe,”’pp.534-5.757Forafulleraccountofhowneoliberalismvacatesthepoliticalcontentoftheseterms,seeRebeccaStringerKnowingVictims:Feminism,AgencyandVictimPoliticsinNeoliberalTimes,LondonandNewYork:Routledge,2014,pp.78-80.758Himmelheber,‘“IBelievedSheCouldSaveMe,”’p.523.

275

Incontrast,Egan’scharactersfailtoopenupanysuchpossibilitybecause

theyareconstantlyboundedbytherelentlesscertaintiesofneoliberallogics.

JulesJonesisneverpresentedasseekingunderstandingfromthereaderoras

attemptingtomakeanyemotionaloraffectiveconnection,butastryingtotake

thattowhichhethoughthehadaright,inthepublicfigureofKittyJackson.His

angertowardswomenisidentifiedasaresultofthebreakdownofhis

engagement–misplacedangertowardsonewoman,ratherthanmoregeneral

misogyny.Theconflict,complexityandhumanityofWallace’snarratorare

absentfromJones’scharacterisation.Assuch,heiseasilyrecuperatedby

punitivecorrection:“Inprison,Julesseemedtoregainthecomposurehe’dlostso

spectacularlyinthemonthsbeforetheassault.”759Thisassertionisfollowedbya

listofallhisaccomplishmentswhilstincarcerated,includinggarneringcritical

plaudits–a“specialcitationfromthePENPrisonWritingProgram’–takingup

basketball,losingweight,and“miraculouslyovercom[ing]hiseczema.”760Thisis

amiraculousovercomingindeed-frommurderousrapisttoupstandingcitizen,

allthankstotheinterventionoftheAmericancorrectionalsystem,whichisnot

generallyknownforimprovingthelivesofthosesubjecttoit.761IfEganwantsus

toreadthisassatiriccommentary,sheneedstomakethepoliticalstanceofher

workmuchclearer.

ThisisbroadlytrueofEgan’swriting:satirerequiresalevelofmaterial

politicalengagementthatEganseemsunwillingtoundertakeinherwork.Any

suchengagementislargelyforeclosedbythestrategiesofdisavowalIhavenoted

atworkinhernovels.ThisisexemplifiedintheotherchapterfeaturingKitty,

‘SellingtheGeneral,’whichisinspiredbyQaddafi’suseofU.S.PRfirmthe

MonitorGroup:“Hewantedrehabilitation,Americansympathy,anendtothe

759GoonSquad,p.126.760GoonSquad,p.126–thisallrecounted,again,inthe‘temporaltelescopic’mode,or“allatonce”time.761JudithLichtenberg.‘America’sprisonsystemisinhumane.Here’swhy.’TheWeek30September2016,.theweek.com/articles/651722/americas-prison-system-inhumane-heres-why;Itisalsoasystemrunonstrictneoliberaleconomicprinciples:seeBrianKincade,‘TheEconomicsoftheAmericanPrisonSystem,’Smartasset3February2017,smartasset.com/mortgage/the-economics-of-the-american-prison-system.

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CIA’sassassinationattempts.IfQaddaficoulddoit,whynothe?”762InGoon

Squad,itisdisgracedPRexpertDolly(‘LaDoll’)whotakesthemorallysuspect

roleofadvisortoanallegedgenocidaldictator.

Dolly’sfirststrategyfortransformingthegeneralistohavehimwearasoft

hat,whichisatriumph,aftersomeadjustment.Afterall,“Howcouldamanina

fuzzybluehathaveusedhumanbonestopavehisroads”?763Afterthesuccessof

thismove,Dolly’snextplanistohavethegenerallinkedtoamoviestar,

“Someonerecognizable,appealing–whatbetterwaytohumanizeamanwho

seemedinhuman?”764Ridiculousasthisseems,itissomethinglikethelogicby

whichPresidentTrumpwas‘humanised’toaswatheoffemalevotersthrough

hisdaughter,Ivanka.765Thisreliesonacommonsensepoliticsofintimacy,an

accountofunderstandinginwhichafigureisrenderedintelligibletothosewho

wouldotherwisefindthemalienandalienatingthroughtheirnearnesstoa

figurewhoisfelttobeliketheobserver,oratleastrecognisabletothem.This

strategydistortstheliberalformulationthatprejudicestemsfromignorance,

relyingagainonanintimateformofknowledgebasedonindividualfeeling–

thinkofBallard’saccountof“government[broughttoyou]byadvertising

agency.”766

ThemoviestarDollychoosesis,‘naturally,’KittyJackson.Welearnthat

Jones’sattemptedrapedidwondersforKitty’spublicprofile,butthatshefailed

tocapitalizeonhermomentinthesun:

TheassaultandtrialhadenshrinedKittyintheglowingmistof

martyrdom[giventhepervasivenessofrapeculture,perWallace’s

work,thereadermightfindthisaccountofpublicsympathyhardto

believe;perhapsitwastheresultofherperformanceas‘ideal

victim’].Sopeoplewereallthemorespooked,whenthemistburned

off,tofindtheactresssharplyaltered:gonewastheguilelessingénue762EdPilkington.‘TheMonitorGroup:Gaddafi’sPRfirmusedacademics,’TheGuardian4March2011www.theguardian.com/world/2011/mar/04/the-monitor-group-gadaffi-prGoonSquad,p.146.763GoonSquad,p.149.764GoonSquad,p.152.765AnneHelenPetersen.‘MeetTheIvankaVoter,’BuzzFeed2November2016www.buzzfeed.com/annehelenpetersen/meet-the-ivanka-voter?utm_term=.jgMK0ngDD#.pleOr6D00,766J.G.Ballard.KingdomComeLondon:HarperPerennial,2007,p.15.

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shehadbeen,andinherplacewasoneofthosepeoplewho‘couldn’t

takethebullshit.’767

Inabilitytotoleratebullshitisanathematoworkingintheentertainment

industry,asEgansuggestedinLookatMe,andsoKitty’scareerstalled.Assuch,

Dollycalculatesthatshemightjustbedesperateenoughtotakethepart,

assumingKitty’smotivationsanddesirestorunalongthesamelinesasherown.

ThisforeshadowstheactualcalculationscarriedoutbyAlexinalaterchapter,

wherehescoreshisfriendsintermsof‘need,’‘reach,’andcorruptibilitytoassess

howlikelytheymightbeto‘sellout’asparrots.Dolly’sassessmentseems

correct,andKittyagreestotraveltoarendezvouswiththegeneral,accompanied

byDollyandLulu.However,DollyhasmisjudgedKitty;shehasundertakenthe

jobnotasawayofcatapultingherselfbackintothepubliceye,buttoconfront

thegeneralregardinghisatrocities–forwhatpurpose,otherthanherinability

totakebullshit,isunclear,exceptperhapsasanefforttomartyrherself.The

purportedcrimesofthegeneralalsoseemoverlyvague,giventhecomplexityof

therealworldcircumstancesthatinformthechapter.InBallard’swork,itisthe

specificityofhisimaginedrealitiesthatallowsustoseethemassatirical

reflectionsofourownworld;inEgan’s,thevaguenessoftheseworldstendsto

leaveusonasurfacewithnothingbelowit.

Kitty’soutburstangersthegeneralandhisguardsseizeher,withLuluand

DollyrushedawayandsentbacktoAmerica.Oncehome,Dollyprintsand

distributestheflatteringphotographsofKittyandthegeneral,pre-outburst,to

herremainingtabloidcontacts.Thepaparazzithendescenduponthegeneral’s

hidingplaceenmasse,locatinghimwitheasewhereopposingforcesandforeign

stateshavefailed.Asaresulthedoesnotkilltheactress,andinsteadposeswith

herforthephotographers-thistime,Kittyplaysalong.Thiseffectively

completesDolly’splan;welearnthatthegeneraltravelstoNewYorktospeakat

theU.N.conventionabout“hiscountry’stransitiontodemocracy”andKitty–a

survivorafterall–startsmakingmoviesagain,hertoleranceforbullshit

apparentlyrestored.

What,then,ofthecharacterswhodonotperformaccordingtothetenetsof

neoliberalselfhood?Wehaveseenhowdeadlysuchdeviancecanbewhen767GoonSquad,p.153.

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lookingatRob’schapter,andtoucheduponitwithregardtothewaysinwhich

femalecharactersareexpectedtoreformthroughpursuingfulfilmentintheir

domesticlives.Earlier,ImentionedthecharacterofJocelynasafigurewhodoes

notfollowthispath.Jocelyninitiallyappearsin‘AskMeIfICare,’thechapterin

whichBenniefirstencountersLou,whogoesontobecomehismentor,enabling

him,eventually,tosetupSow’sEarRecords.Rhea,Jocelyn,Bennieetalareina

punkband–punkinthesensethatitsmusicisloudandabrasive,ratherthan

signallinganyclearpoliticalstance.FollowingtheusuallogicofEgan’snovels,

theseteenagersaredrawntothiscountercultural‘scene’forpersonalreasons;

allaremisfitsoroutcastsinsomeway,implicitlyconnectedtotheirworking-

classstatus.768

ThischapterrecountsLoutakingJocelynandRheaouttodinner,wherehe

introducesthemtococaine.Afterthis,theyattendaFlamingDildosshowduring

whichJocelynperformsfellatioonLouinthemiddleofthecrowd,makingRhea

deeplyuncomfortable.OthersignsthatJocelynisinadifferentkindoftroubleto

Rheaincludeherdrinkinghabits:“Jocelynneedstodrinkmorethanmetoget

buzzed,andwhenshefeelstheboozehitshetakesalongbreath,likeshe’sfinally

herselfagain.”769ShealsoconfessestoRheathatshefindsLou’sson,Rolph,

attractive.Intheend,sherunsawaytobewithLou,althoughherparentstrack

herdown.Rhea’sconcernthroughoutthischapteristhequestionofwhenthings

startbeing“forreal”:“WhendoesafakeMohawkbecomearealMohawk?Who

decides?Howdoyouknowifit’shappened?”770Thepunkscene,withits

obsessionwith‘authenticity,’isanidealstaginggroundforthesequestions.

TheproblemisthatEganstartsfromtheassumptionthatnooneisforreal.

ThisistherootofCarswell’scritiqueofthewayGoonSquadengageswiththe

punkscene,informedbyhisinsiderperspectiveassomeonewhogrewupin,and

isstillengagedwith,theAmericanpunkscene.Egan’sdepoliticisationofpunkis

evidentinthebandsshelistsinthechapter,allofwhicharerealbandswho

existedatthetimethechapterisset–theStranglers,theNuns,NegativeTrend;

theBeatles,Blondie,IggyPop.Notablyabsentareanybandswhoseoutlookwas

768GoonSquadp.44-5.TheexceptionisAlice,actingoutafterherparentsdivorce.769GoonSquad,p.48.770GoonSquad,p.48.

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explicitlypolitical–TheDeadKennedys,leadinglightsofthelateSanFrancisco

punksceneareaclearomission,asareanyofthebandsfromtheirinfluential

recordlabel,AlternativeTentacles.771Thequestionofwhois“forreal”is

underminedbytheassumptionthatallalterityisaposture,anoutward

expressionoftemporaryalienationthatwillultimatelyberemediedby‘growing

up,’where,asCarswellhasit,“Growingupbecomesareificationofconsumer

capitalistpatriarchalculture.”772Thisisproblematicinthat,throughoutthe

1980s,theAmericanpunkscenerepresentedaclearsiteofoppositiontothe

neoliberalpoliciesofReagan–forexample,theDeadKennedysheadlinedRock

AgainstReaganshows.ThebandsinthesescenesestablishedaD.I.Y(DoIt

Yourself)networkofproductionanddistributionthatallowedthemto

circumventthemajorlabelsrepresentedbyLouKilneandthoseofhisilk.This

wasapoliticallymotivated,anti-capitalistdecision,andisstillatworktoday,in

labelssuchasWashingtonD.C.’sDischord.Thatgrowingupmustmean‘selling

out’isacertaintyonlywithinEgan’snovels.

ItisnosurprisethatwediscoverRheahassuccumbedtoherinevitable

destinyaswifeandmother,whensheandJocelyn,nowintheirforties,are

reunitedatLou’sdeathbed.Jocelyn,bycontrast,liveswithhermotherandhas

“beenclean”foroverayear,whichisherlongestperiodof‘recovery’todate.Her

addictionwasforetoldasinevitablebythewayinwhichdrinkingseemedto

makeher‘real.’TheimplicationthatJocelynispredestinedtoaddictionabsolves

Eganoftheneedtodevelopanymorecomplexaccountofaddiction;evenher

dysfunctionalrelationshipwithLoustemsfromthissamecharacterflaw,

apparently.773Inthischaptershe,likeRheabeforeher,wrestleswiththe

questionofwhatbeingrealmeans,strugglingtofindsomemeaningintheway

herlifehasturnedout.Rheareassuresher,“Youjusthaven’tfoundthereason

771Forahistoryofthepunkscenethatilluminateshowenmesheditwaswithpoliticalactivism(albeitanaccountthattendstooverlookthecontributionofwomentothepunkmovement,asisoftenthecaseinthesehistoriographies),seeSteveBlush’sAmericanHardcore:ATribalHistory.Washington,WA:FeralHouse,2001.772Carswell‘GoonsandGrrrls,’p.326.773ThisisalsotrueofHollyinTheKeep,whoseearlymarriagetoalocalrockstarwasbasedonherfeelingofpersonalspecialness,andwholaterbecameamethamphetamineaddict,thetwoapparentlyconnected.

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yet,”andJocelynasserts,“Igotlost.”774ThiswasimpossibleforRhea,asJocelyn

seesit:“Thewholetime,Rheaknewwhatshewasdoing.Evendancing,even

sobbing.Evenwithaneedleinhervein,shewashalfpretending.Notme.”775

Onceagain,weareconfrontedwiththesamearchetypeswesawinFaithand

PhoebeO’Connor:thegoodgirl,whocancontrolherself,andthebadgirl,whois

impulsive,over-investedemotionallyand,apparently,doomed.AlthoughJocelyn

doesnotdie,shecannotaccessthegoodlifethatRheaenjoys.Sheharboursan

immenseangertowardsLou,andfantasisesaboutkillinghim,givingvoicetoher

thoughts:“Ishouldkillyou…Youdeservetodie.”776Atthispoint,Rhea

reprimandsherforthisunseemlyangertowardsthemanwhoborderlineabused

herasateenager–sheisbeingabadvictim.Thisangerhasnoplaceinthe

psychotherapeuticnarrativeofacceptanceandforgivenessbywhichaddictsare

supposedtoacceptresponsibilityfortheirown‘disease’;thenarrativestrategies

ofaddictionmanagementgroupsareverylikethoseofpositivepsychology.777

Here,aswitheverythingelse,Jocelyngoestoofar.Whenshespeaks,hervoiceis

“tooloud.”778Intheend,JocelynonceagainsubmitstoLou’sdesire.Inascene

mimickingthefellatioincident,duringwhichLoukepthisarmaroundRhea

whileJocelynfellatedhim,Louasksthetwowomentotakehishands,whichthey

do,andthethreestand(or,inLou’scase,lie)together,lookingoutatthepool:

‘Nicetobe.Withyougirls,’hesays,fightingtobreathe.Clutchingour

hands,asifwemightflee.Butwedon’t.Welookatthepoolandwe

listentothebirds.

‘Anotherminute,’hesays.‘Thankyou,girls.Onemore.Likethis.’779

ThispeacewouldbepossibleifonlyJocelynwouldsubmittonormality,giveup

heranger.Louasksforanothermoment,onemoreminute.ForJocelyn,thereis

774GoonSquad,p.92.775GoonSquad,p.92.776GoonSquad,p.95.777See,forexample,StephenG.Postetal.‘PositivePsychologyinAlcoholicsAnonymousandthe12Steps:AdolescentRecoveryinRelationtoHumility,’TheAddictionsNewsletter,APA50,2015.Elsewhereinthisthesis,Ihaveaddressedthewayinwhichdrugaddictsaremarginalisedasnon-productivemembersofneoliberalsociety.778GoonSquad,p.93.Incontrast,whenLouspeaks,itisinanear-whisper,buttheystraintohear:“Weleanclose,listening.Habit,Iguess.”p.94.Mentalk,andwomenlisten.779GoonSquad,p.96.

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nomoretime.“I’mprayingthatit’sover,”shesaysearlierinthechapter.780Ifyou

cannotfitintotheneoliberalworld,theonlyoptionistogetout.781

Anothercharacterwhoexhibitsdifficultyinbecomingneoliberalistheonce-

magneticScotty,whosemusicalprowessfailstotranslateintosuccessbymiddle

age.In‘X’sandO’s,’ScottyhasleftSanFrancisco,followinghisdivorcefrom

Alice,andisworkingasajanitorinNewYork.Hehappensacrossapictureof

BenniewhilstreadingastolencopyofSpinandthetwocorrespond.Benniesets

upameetingwithScottyinhisoffices,assumingthathisformerfriendisstilla

musicianandislookingforhelpwithhiscareer.ItisimpliedthatScottyhas

somesortofmentalillness–hisnarrativeevincesextremeparanoia.Hehasfew,

ifany,friends,andhesurvivesonstringbeansandJagermeister.VisitingBennie,

hebringshisoldfriendafishthathecaughtononeofhisfrequentexpeditionsto

theEastRiver;BenniefailstoappreciatethegiftandScottyresolvestobringit

home,butforgets.HehopeslaterthatBenniewilllookatthefish-out-of-water,

surethathewillbeamazedifhedoes.ThisanticipatesBennie’slaterre-

discoveryofScotty,andhisrecuperationasa(commercial)success.

Thischapteralsocontinuesthenovel’spreoccupationwithdestiny,chance,

andmeaning,closelyresemblingtheforemostthemesofTheKeepinits

explorationofpower.InTheKeep,Eganseemedtosuggestthatimaginationhad

sometransformativepotential,atleastasfarasthecharacterofRaywas

concerned.Scottyattemptsasimilarimaginativeleapbasedonhis

understandingof‘hypercomplexity’:

ifwehumanbeingsareinformationprocessingmachines,readingX’s

andO’sandtranslatingthatinformationintowhatpeopleohso

breathlesslycall‘experience’,andifIhadaccesstoallthatsame

informationviacableTVandanynumberofmagazines…ifIhadnot

onlyaccesstotheinformationbutalsotheartistrytoshapethat

informationusingthecomputerinsidemybrain(realcomputers

scaredme;ifyoucanfindThem,thenTheycanfindyou,andIdidn’t

780GoonSquad,90.781Thisisnotintendedtobeareductiveaccountoftheactualimpulsetosuicide.IamreferringexplicitlytothewayinwhichsuicideistreatedinEgan’swork,inwhich,aswehaveseen,itfeaturesheavily,andisalmostalwaysundertakenbythesame‘type’ofcharacter.

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wanttobefound),then,technicallyspeaking,wasInothavingallthe

sameexperiencesthoseotherpeoplewerehaving?782

ScottyhereremindsusoftheposthumanstrainsofLookatMe,positingthe

biotechnologist’sunderstandingofhumanity,couchedintheclichédlanguageof

theschizophrenic.Scotty’sparanoiaiscrucialtohisredemption,however,and

castshisrefusalofneoliberalselfhoodinadifferentlighttoJocelyn’s.Where

Jocelynseesherselfaslost,ashavinglostagencyinherownlifeduetoher

inabilitytomakegoodchoices,Scottychoosesnottobefound.Hisparanoia

expressesauniversalconcerninthisageofmasssurveillance;wearebeing

observedeverytimeweuseacomputer,bystateagencies,advertisers,andpeers

alike.LikeMooseMetcalfeinLookatMe,Scotty’s‘madness’reflectsdisquieting

truthsaboutthenatureofneoliberallife;likeMoose,hetoowillfindhimself

recuperatedbythecloseofthenovel.

Aftertheirunsuccessfulmeeting,BenniegivesScottyhiscardandtellshimto

stayintouch.Later,bytheriver,Scottyseesayoungjunkiecoupleandtakes

themtobemusicians.HegivesthemBennie’scard,andtellsthemheishis

buddy,allowinghim(proximityto)powerforthebriefestofmoments:“…Ifelt

hopeless.Icoulddothisonlyonce;Iwouldneverhavethatcardagain.”783

Whetherornotthegamblepaysoff,weneverfindout,butthemoveawakens

somedormantenergyinScotty:heisvitalisedbyhisnearnesstopower.Every

week,Scottygetshisunwornsuitjacketdrycleanedatthesameshop,muchto

theirincredulity.Attheendofthechapter,heresolvestotakeitinonhiswayto

work,havingwornittoBennie’soffice:

Iwantedtodropoffmyjacketatthedrycleaneronmywaytowork–

I’dbeenlookingforwardtoitsinceyesterday.I’dleftthejacket

crumpledonthefloorbesidemybed,andIwouldbringitinlikethat,

allusedup.I’dtossitonthecounterohsocasually,daringthegalto

challengeme.Buthowcouldshe?

782GoonSquad,p.102.Again,thiscanbeconnectedtoEgger’sTheCircle,inwhichasimilarapproachunderliestheinsidious‘Sharingiscaring’sloganofthetitularcorporation.783GoonSquad,p.113.

283

I’vebeensomewhere,andIneedmyjacketcleaned,Iwouldsay,

likeanyoneelse.Andshewouldmakeitnewagain.784

WhereJocelynwantedonlyanend,Scottyislookingforanewbeginning.These

arethemagicwordsofneoliberalselfhood–andso,itseems,hejustmightget

whathewants.

Scotty’snewbeginningisalessdrasticrebirththanthatofJulesJones,but

muchmorespectacularinitsrealisation.Itoccursinthefinalchapterofthe

novel,‘PureLanguage,’whichseesthenovelcirclebackonitself,focusingon

Alex,Sasha’sdatefromtheopeningchapter.Alexismarriedtoanacademic,

Rebecca,whostudies“wordcasings,atermshe’dinventedforwordsthatno

longerhadmeaningoutsidequotationmarks.”785Thischapterthematisesthe

problemoflanguageandexpressionasanextensionofitsconcernwith

authenticity,whichisconnectedto–butnotactuallythesameas–itsfocuson

‘sellingout.’Lulureturnsinthischapter,too,nowayoungadultworkingfor

BennieSalazar.Bennieisthemostsuccessfulsell-outinthenovel,workinghis

wayupfromstrugglingpunktorecordproducertolabelowner,onlytobitethe

handthatfedhimuponbecomingincensedatthelackofartisticintegrityofhis

‘corporateoverlords’–heservedaroomfulofexecutivesplatesofexcrement.

Followingthisupset,Benniereturnedtoworkingasaproducerof“musicwitha

raspy,analogsound,noneofwhichhadreallysold”–whichishowhecomesto

workwithScottyagain.786Alexisinvolvedbecauseheisregardedashaving

sufficientculturalcachetocovertlyinfluenceotherstoattendScotty’supcoming

launchconcert.Themusicindustryhaschangedconsiderably,withitsprimary

marketnowinfants,thankstoaubiquitous‘kiddiehandset’calledaStarfish:

anychildwhocouldpointwasabletobuydownloadmusic–the

youngestbuyeronrecordbeingathree-month-oldinAtlanta,who’d

purchasedasongbynineInchNailscalled‘Ga-ga.’Fifteenyearsof

784GoonSquad,p.114.785GoonSquad,p.330Examplesinclude‘friend’and‘real’and‘story’and‘change’;“Some,like‘identity’,‘search’,and‘cloud’,hadclearlybeendrainedoflifebytheirWebusage.Withothers,thereasonsweremorecomplex;howhad‘American’cometobeanironicterm?Howhad‘democracy’cometobeusedinsuchanarch,mockingway?”(332).Onceagain,Eganteetersontheedgeofsocialcommentary,withoutactuallyfallingin.RebeccaisnotamillionmilesawayfromLookatMe’sIreneMaitlock,althoughshehasa“sexybeauty”thatcharacterlacked,ofwhichacademiaisapparentlydrainingher,muchtoAlex’sconsternation.786GoonSquad,p.319.

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warhadendedwithababyboom,andthesebabieshadnotonly

revivedadeadindustrybutalsobecomethearbitersofmusical

success.787

Alexisfinanciallyreliantonhiswife,hisownemploymentpermanently

precarious(despitetheboomingmusicindustry),andthisispartofhisreason

foracceptingtherole.Hefurtherrationalisesthetransactionbyreminding

himselfthat:

everybyteofinformationhehadpostedonline…wasstoredinthe

databasesofmultinationalswhosworetheywouldnever,everuseit

–thathewasowned,inotherwords,havingsoldhimselfatthevery

pointinhislifewhenhe’dfeltmostsubversive788

Insteadofpromptingareconsiderationofonlineidentityperformance,which

mightevokepoliticallyconsequentialconsiderations,suchasJaronLanier’s

proposalsforredistributivepracticesbasedonthewayinwhichonlinepersonal

informationisusedbycorporations,asexploredinWhoOwnstheFuture?

(2013),Alex’sreflectionsherereiterateEgan’srecurrentinsistencethat

authenticityisanimpossibleethicalstandardinaworldwherenothingis,orcan

be,outsideofmarketlogic.

Atthesametime,inanothermovethatseemsdesignedtoforeclosethe

possibilityofcriticism,EganwritesLuluasacharactersosteepedin‘business

ontology’thattheideaofanoppositionbetweenintegrityandfinancialgainhas

becomecompletelyirrelevanttoher–unintelligible,even.Nevertheless,Luluis

stillconcernedwiththeideaofauthenticity.ShetellsAlexshepreferstouseher

handsettocommunicatewithothers,becausewithspeech,“Therearesomany

waystogowrong…Allwe’vegotaremetaphors,andthey’reneverexactlyright.

Youcan’teverjustSay.The.Thing.”789RecallingtheendofLookatMe,itseems

thatevenLulubelievesinsomeessentialpartoftheself,apartshestrugglesto

expressinlanguage.Authenticityisdepictedasimpossible,exceptontheterms

ofthisuntouchable,indescribable,andsomehowinnateinner-self.

787GoonSquadp.320.788GoonSquad,p.324.789GoonSquad,p.328.

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WhenAlexfirstmeetsScotty,heisunsettledbythemusician’sderelict

appearance.Hisfirstthoughtisthatthemusiciandoesnotexist,“Hewasaword

casinginhumanform:ashellwhoseessencehasvanished.”790Alex’sjudgmentis

consistentlypoor(perhapsthisiswhyhiscareerissoprecarious)andheissoon

provenwrong.Scotty’sparanoidinsistenceonstaying‘offthegrid’has

apparentlypreservedthisessentialpartofself.Scottybeginshisconcertby

panderingtohisfans(babies),performingstandardnurseryrhymesthatmanage

todrownoverthehelicopterhoveringoverhead,inavaguelydystopianimage.

Theatmosphereisslowlytransformed,likenedtoWoodstockorthefirstHuman

Be-In.ThispalpableapprovalemboldensScotty,andhebeginstoplayhisown

music:

That’swhenhebegansingingthesongshe’dbeenwritingforyears

underground,songsnoonehadeverheard,oranythinglikethem–

‘EyesinMyHead,’‘X’sandO’s,‘Who’sWatchingHardest?’–balladsof

paranoiaanddisconnectionrippedfromthechestofamanyouknew

justbylookingathimhadneverhadapageoraprofileorahandleor

ahandset,whowaspartofnoone’sdata,aguywhohadlivedinthe

cracksalltheseyears,forgottenandfullofrage,inawaythatnow

registeredaspure.Untouched.791

Scotty’sperformanceisdepictedassomecatharticexpressionofauniversally

feltbutunspokendistress:“itmaybethattwogenerationsofwarand

surveillancehadleftpeoplecravingtheembodimentoftheirownuneaseinthe

formofalone,unsteadymanonslideguitar.”792Theresultofthisissomesortof

momentofmassconnection.Thisconnectionisnotbasedonanysubstantive

formofpublicsolidarity,butonanemotionallyaffectingpieceofentertainment.

TheconcertistheresultofanartfullyconstructedPRcampaignthathasseen

individualstradeontheir‘authenticity’tomakeithappen.Evenso,Scotty’s

performanceisreceivedasastatementofpersonalpurity,ratherthananymore

substantivecriticismofthesystemsandpracticesthathe,inhisparanoia,has

resistedthroughouthislife.Hisveryperformancegivesthelietohis

790GoonSquad,p.341.791GoonSquad,p.345.792GoonSquad,p.344.

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oppositionalidentity.BennierecountstrackingScottydownafterlosinghisjob

attherecordagency,andtellinghim,“It’stimeyoubecameastar.”793Scotty

alwayswantedtobeontheinside,afterall;hetoojustneededsomeonetobelieve

inhim.EvenScotty’sparanoiamouldshimintherecognisableculturaltropeof

waryoutsider,inthetraditionofdetectivefictionorWesternsor,fromthe

beginningoftheAmericanliterarycanon,‘outsiders’likeEmersonandThoreau.

KennethParadisexploresthistropeofmasculineidentityindetail,observing

thattheidealisedindividualityofautonomousmasculineidentity,

reliesonanunderstandingofsocialobligationasakindofconspiracy

whoseobjectisultimatelythenegationofindividualautonomy…The

individual“sellsout”–makeshismoralvaluesnegotiable–whenhe

“buysin”tovarioussocialarrangementsunderstoodasmechanisms

ofexchange.794

Scotty’sparanoiaallowshimtoberecuperatedasarepresentativefigureofa

radicalmasculineautonomythatoffersnoimmediatechallengetothestatus

quo,relyingasitdoesonthepersistentstrainofscepticisminAmericanculture

towardsthepoliticalpotentialofsolidarity;thenegotiationbetweenpopular

sovereigntyandindividuallibertyandtheunderlyingfearofthetyrannyofthe

majority.Thisisastarkcontrasttofemalecharacterswhoattempttoestablish

somesortofautonomousselfoutsideofthenormativeconstraintsofthe

heteronormativemiddleclass‘goodlife.’Askingformore,orattemptingtolivea

lifeoutsideoftheseframeworks,onlyresultsindeathanddisaster.Thereare

ruleswhenitcomestobeingawoman,asEganoutlinesinBlackBox(working

title:LessonsLearned).Learningtheserulesandconformingtothemisessential

toproductivehappiness,wherethishappinessisfiguredthroughmarriageand

childrenand,usually,thematerialresourcestoliveacomfortablelifewithout

working.ReturningtoShivani’sassertionthat,“allproblemsoriginate

internally,andthecharacters’taskistouncovertheirownuniquepredestined

harmony–whichtheydo,inallcases,”wemightobservethatthe‘predestined

harmony’forfemalecharactersinEgan’sworkispersistentlycircumscribedby

793GoonSquad,p.341.794KenethParadisSex,Paranoia,andModernMasculinity,NewYork:SUNY2006,pp.103-4.

287

theconventionalmarriageplot.795Despitethe‘failure’ofhismarriage,Scotty

survivesandseemsabouttothriveatlast,literallydiscoveringthispredestined

harmonyinamusicalperformancethatserendipitouslycapturesthecultural

momentinaformrecognisableenoughtobesusbsumedasproduct.

EganhasdescribedIggyPopasthepatronsaintofAVisitfromtheGoon

Squad,whichseemsaptgivenhislatestincarnationascarinsurancesalesman.796

InRhea’schapter,‘AskMeIfICare,’shequotesasetoflyricsfromhissong‘The

Passenger’:

Iamthepassenger

AndIrideandIride

Iridethroughthecity’sbackside

Iseethatstarscomeoutofthesky797

ThisseemstomeasnearastatementofintentasEganhasmade.Thisnovelisa

passivejourneythroughthelivesofothers,professingverisimilitude,but

missingtheessenceoflifethroughitsomissionofanysubstantivephilosophical

orpoliticalcontent.Itsformreplicatesthe“allatonce”ofneoliberaltime,

enmeshingthereaderinthesamenetworksofinformationthatconstitutethe

inescapableknowledgeeconomiesofneoliberalism.Itscircularityreifiesthe

logicof‘noalternative’anditsstylistic‘innovations’constituteentertaining

literaryexperimentsratherthaneffortstonegotiatenewrelationshipswiththe

reader,ortointerrogatehowliteraturemightbechangedbytheemergenceof

newmediumsandmodesofwriting.Thefatalismofthenovel,thewayinwhich

itresolvesnothingbutconnectseverything,affirmsthecertaintyoftheworldit

depicts,reassuringthereaderthatthereismeaning,order,andsense,despite

theseemingchaosoftheworld.Ballard’sworksetouttounsettleus,toforceus

outofourfogofcognitivedissonancetoreflectontheworldwecolludein

building,andthetypeofhappinesswehavecometoaccept.Egan’sworkpaints

effortstoreimaginetheworldaslittlemorethanthetransgressivefolliesof

youth,andsuggeststhatthoselimitingandlimitedformsofhappinessconceived795Shivani‘PartII:TheNewGenreofPlasticRealisminAmericanFiction,’HuffingtonPost,originalemphasis,n.p.796‘SwiftcovercarinsuranceTVad2011–Boots,’YouTube,uploadedbyswiftcover,January42011www.youtube.com/watch?v=KlRjYlsC3bc.797GoonSquad,p.58JenniferEganinterviewedbyKillianFox,TheGuardian21August2011,www.theguardian.com/books/2011/aug/21/jennifer-egan-interview-observer.

288

underneoliberalismarethemostwecan,orshould,hopefor.Egan’sliterary

worldisdangerouslyreassuring.InhislastreflectionsonSasha,Benniesaysthat

hehopesshehasfoundagoodlife,because,“Shedeservesit.”798Iargue

throughoutthisthesisthatconstructingagoodlifeoutsideofneoliberalism

dependsnotondeservingsubjects,butonthereturntoanobjectivepolitical

imaginarythatrecognisesthewaysinwhichthestructuralinequalitiesof

neoliberalismforeclosetraditionalaccountsofthegoodlife,andseekto

suppressthereimaginingoftheseaccountsbeyondpervasiveeconomiclogics.

GoonSquadendswiththefigureof“anothergirl,youngandnewtothecity,

fiddlingwithherkeys.”799Thenovel,likeneoliberalcapitalism,cyclically

reproducesitself,withanassurancethatnootheroutcomeispossible,and

differenceisacommercialsellingpoint,ratherthanawayofformulating

alternativepoliticalrealities.Infailingtoconfrontthestructuralrealitiesof

neoliberalism,andthesufferingtheycause,Egan’sworkisdoomedtorepeat

them.

798GoonSquad,p.348.799GoonSquad,p.349.

CONCLUSION

290

Conclusion:TheGood,theBad,andtheFuture

Inthisthesis,IhavesoughttoofferalooselyFoucauldianreadingofthewayin

whichhappinesshascometooperateasaformofneoliberalgovernmentality.

ThroughcontrastingtheworkofJ.G.BallardandJenniferEgan,Ihaveshown

howliteraturecanrepresent,reflect,andconfrontthistransformation,

suggestingthatBallard’sworkoffersusasystem-focusedaccountofthese

impacts,whilstEgan’soperatesatsubject-level.Ihavedrawnoutthose

strategiesofself-maximisationgenerallyassociatedwithneoliberalhappiness

discourse–positivepsychology,wellnessdiscourse,andsoon–butalsosought

toexplorethewayinwhichunhappinessisregulatedthroughneoliberallogics.I

havesoughttoexplainhowtheseregulatoryeffortsmayactivelycontributeto

thedistressofthesubject,andhighlightedthepatternof‘middle-classification’

throughwhichtheyoperate.Ihavealsoexploredthewaysinwhichnewforms

andsitesoflabourareinvolvedinneoliberalconceptionsofhappiness,and

toucheduponthegenderedimplicationsofaffectivelabour.

Thishasformedpartofalargerexplorationofthepoliticalfunctionof

literature,whichIframeafterLaurenBerlant’sinsistencethattheworkof

“undoingaworldwhilemakingonerequiresfantasytomotorprogramsof

action,todestroythepresentonbehalfofwhatthepresentcanbecome.”1Ihave

arguedthatBallard’sworkgroundsitsfantasticimaginariesinexistentpower

structuresandsorevealstheirlimitations,andthatthisispartofaself-reflexive

attemptbythatauthortoovercomethesubsumptionofhisworkascultural

product.Incontrast,Egan’sworkisdirectlypositionedasaculturalproduct.In

accordancewithAnisShivani’swork,thiscanbeseenasamorepervasivetrend,

particularlyintheAmericanliteraryscene,althoughIhavegesturedtowardsthe

waysthisisinevidenceinotherartformsthroughassessingthestrengthsand

limitationsoftheNewSinceritymovementinthisrespect.Buildinguponthis,I

suggestthattheframeworkofthepoliticsofintimacyIhavedrawnfromMimi

ThiNguyen’sworkmightbeausefulcriticaltoolforassessingthepoliticalutility

oftheseartworks.Ihavealsosuggestedthatthisframeworkisausefulonein

whichtodevelopanaccountofthecurrent‘post-truth’politicallandscape.

1LaurenBerlant,CruelOptimism,Durham,NC:DukeUniversityPress,2011,p.263.

291

Foraffecttohaveform,itmustbecomepersonal.Forpersonalfeelingsto

havematerialconsequencetheymusthaveacontainer.This‘container’isnot

necessarilyexactlycongruenttothosefeelings.Politicallyspeaking,thisisthe

sameissueattheheartofrepresentativedemocracy,whereweelect

representativeswhomaynotexactlyrepresentus,andwhoseinterestsmay

evenbecontrarytoourown.Affectivedistress,whichIbelieveisaformof

distresslargelycausedbythesenseofpowerlessnessinone’sownlife,is

containedinthelanguageofpsychotherapeuticrationality,whichdisconnectsit

fromthosewidersystemsthatcausepowerlessness.Followingthis,thepolitics

ofrecognitionhavemorphedintoade-radicalisedpoliticsofintimacy.Thisis

dangerousbecauseitminimisestheopportunityofsubstantiverelationships

withthosewhomwearenotlike,andleavesusopentoemotionalmanipulation

onthelevelofpersonalidentification–Ballard’sgovernmentbyadvertising

agency.Giventheclassistandracistcodingofneoliberalcapitalism,thisleadsto

asituationwherethewhitemiddle-class(oraspiringmiddle-class)subjectmay

becomedetachedfromissuesofsocialjusticebecausetheyquitesimplydonot

recognisetheirimpact.Thisclassalsosuffersfromtheirdisenfranchisementbut

isdis-incentivisedtocasttheirsufferingaspoliticalthroughthemodelof

subjectivityasguidingprincipleoflife.Intheory,thelanguageofmentalhealth

mightbeusefulasastartingpointforsolidaritybecausesomanypeoplesuffer

thesestatesofaffectivedistress,butitcouldonlybeusefulifitrecognisedthose

structuraldeterminationsthatimpacttheaffectivepotentialofsubjects,which

byitsframinginindividualisticneoliberallogicbecomesimpossible.

WhatmyworkmovestowardsissomethinglikeaRawlsianconceptofpublic

reason–awaytoamendtheexistingframeworkofcommonsense.2However,in

itsFoucauldianapproachitmustnecessarilyrefuteRawls’sattachmenttoblind

justice.Irecognisethatsubjectsaresituatedinprocessesofpowerandthatthey

arealsopractitionersofpower.Irecognise,too,thatsubjectsareattachedto

feelingsandidentity,andthat,asBerlantsuggests,removingsuchattachmentsis

difficult.WhatIamproposingisthatthereadingandteachingofliterarytexts

opensanimaginativespacebeyondtheselfinwhichwemayretainour

2JohnRawls.‘TheIdeaofPublicReasonRevisited,’TheUniversityofChicagoLawReview,64:3,1997,pp.765–801.

292

attachmenttoselfandatthesametimequestionitsvaliditywithregardtothe

wayinwhichweareenmeshedinnetworksofneoliberalpower.Berlant’sbrief

suggestionthatweshouldpayattentiontoprocessesopensthewaytoconsider

apoliticisationofcivicprocessesinordertoenfranchisesubjectsatthelevelof

livedidentityandexperience.Readingandwritingisapowergame,asIhave

statedelsewhereinthisthesis,andbyelucidatingtherulesofthisgame–which

reflectthewiderrulesofpowerasitoperatesinsociety-wemaymakeit

possibleforsubjectstodecideifthesearerulestheywanttoplayby.Thisis

connectedtothere-inventionofpublicnessthatIhavesuggestedmustbe

fundamentaltoanyefforttoresisttheprivatisingimpulseofneoliberalismand

toreformulateconceptionsofhappinessinwhichsubjectsdonotaccept

sufferingasnecessaryorinevitable.

Byreaffirmingthepublicself,onemustalsoreaffirmthosenetworksthat

constitutethepublicsphere(ideally,perBerlant’sanarchisticformulation,ona

locallevel).Thisemphasisesrelationalityinsteadofatomisation.Throughthis,

thepoliticsofintimacymightbere-radicalised,insistingonstructuralanalysis

insteadofpersonalfeelingasthestartingpointforattemptstoconstructan

ethicsoftheselfthatwouldenablepoliticalaction.Reshapingpublicimagination

iscentraltoreinvigoratingpoliticalopposition,asWendyBrownhasshownin

herwork.Theveryfactthatneoliberalismreliesonstrategiesthatreshapethe

privateselfrenderthatselfthegroundonwhichitshouldberesisted.Despiteits

shortcomings,Egan’sworkrepeatedlyacknowledgestherelationshipbetween

literaryfictionandtheindividualimaginativerealm.Thisformulationtacitly

acceptsthatliteratureisafieldofsubjectification;assuch,thepotentialexists

forliterarytextstoopenupanimaginativespacethatmightserveasastarting

pointfornewaffectivepotentialitiesthatmightenablepoliticalaction.

Isuggestthatsuchaspacecanandshouldbeenhancedthroughinsistenceon

thepublicandrelationalreadinganddiscussionofliterature-throughactive

reading,ratherthanpassive.Iacceptthattheremaybelittlethatisnewinsucha

formulation,butstressthattheutilityofmyinterventioncomesfromits

timeliness.Whenneoliberallogicseekstotransformschoolsanduniversities

intobusinesses,theremustbevoicesthatseektoresistthis,andthatinsistthat

thestudyofliteraturehasafunctionbeyondtheattainmentofliteracy,orthe

293

privateentertainmentofthereader.Buildingonmyworkinthefuture,Iwould

liketoreturnmoreextensivelytoFoucault’s‘TheEthicsoftheConcernforSelfas

aPracticeofFreedom’andseektorefinetherelationshipbetweenthisstrainof

Foucault’sthoughtandtheradicalpotentialofthepoliticsofintimacy,ina

literaryframework.Althoughthisthesishas,forreasonsoutlinedatits

beginning,operatedinaU.S./U.K.context,Iwouldseektoexpandmyreading

globally,particularlyintracingthecontoursoftherelationshipbetween

neoliberalismandnationalism,aswellastheinfluenceofAmericanculture.This

thesiswasoriginallyconceivedasamorebroadexploration,withafinalsection

ontheworkofMichelHouellebecq.Duetospaceconstraints,thishasbeen

removed,butIhopetoreturntothatworkinthefuture.

Inconclusion,Ibelievethatliteraturehasaroletoplayinshapingpublic

politicaldiscourseandenablingpracticalaction,notleastinrevealingthe

structuresofpowerthatunderlieoureverydaylives.IthinkBallard’swork

recognisesthis,andthathislatenovelsconstituteanefforttoovercomehisown

imbricationinthe‘literaryestablishment.’Incontrast,Egan’sworkshowsusthe

dangerofwhathappenswhenliteratureceasestointerrogatethesystemsand

processesbywhichpowerestablishesandreproducesitselfandinwhich

relationsofdominationareinscribedandperpetuated.Elevatingliteraryworks

thatseektooffercommentwithoutcritiquethreatensthepoliticalfunctionof

literature,andneutersthepotentialofitsimaginativeefforts.Mythesishasbeen

abouthappinessunderneoliberalism,andthekindsofhappinesswecometo

acceptinthefaceofasystembuiltontheperpetuationofsuffering.Morethan

this,ithasbeenaboutliteratureitself,aboutwhatweread,andwhyweread,

aboutthepotentialofliterature,andthewayinwhichitbringsitselftobearon

materialreality.Assuch,IwanttoclosewithaquotefromKafkathatcaptures

Ballard’ssuccess,andEgan’sfailure,anddemonstrateswhythesimple

happinessofreadingshouldneverbejustthat:

Ithinkweoughttoreadonlythekindofbooksthatwoundandstab

us.Ifthebookwe’rereadingdoesn’twakeusupwithablowonthe

head,whatarewereadingitfor?Sothatitwillmakeushappy,asyou

write?Goodlord,wewouldbehappypreciselyifwehadnobooks,

andthekindofbooksthatmakeushappyarethekindwecouldwrite

294

ourselvesifwehadto.Butweneedthebooksthataffectuslikea

disaster,thatgrieveusdeeply,likethedeathofsomeoneweloved

morethanourselves,likebeingbanishedintoforestsfarfrom

everyone,likeasuicide.Abookmustbetheaxeforthefrozensea

insideus.Thatismybelief.3

Literaturecanmoveus,itcanopenspacesofempathyinwhichweconfrontour

ownassumptionsandprejudices,itcanaskustoimagineremakingourworld

fromthelowesttothehighestlevelofpower.Readingandwritingispolitically

consequentialbecauseitquiteliterallyframestheworldinwhichwelive.Ifwe

aretorefusetheinadequate,constraining,anddamagingregulatorydiscourseof

happinesspropagatedbyneoliberallogic,wemustrefuseliteraturethatrepeats

itsrationales.Instead,weshouldreadthosebooksthataffectuslikedisaster.We

shoulduseliteraturetoenableanempatheticperspectiveontheworldthat

recognisestheperpetuationofstructuralinequality,indefianceofthe

selfishnessofneoliberal‘values.’Weshouldmakereadingapublicjoy,notjusta

privatesolace.Wemustaskhowliteracyisdisseminatedinsociety,andwhy.

Tellingstoriesisthewaywecometounderstandtheworld,sowemustensure

thatthestorieswetellarecapableofactingoffthepageforeveryone.Anything

lessistoolittle.

3FranzKafka,lettertoOskarPollak,January27,1904.InTheBasicKafka,NewYork:Simon&Schuster,1979,pp.289-90,p.290.

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