Post on 17-Jan-2023
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ISSN 1018-9556=Ekklesiastikos Pharos 89 (2007) N. S. 18
IMAGES OF THE ENEMIES IN THE MACALŌT-
PSALMS
Leonard Maré
Abstract
Much attention has been given to the identity of the enemies in
the Psalms. Various proposals have been offered to identify the
foes that threaten the psalmist. The problem with these
proposals is that they all attempt to pinpoint the enemy
historically. This has resulted in too little attention being given
to the text itself. The purpose of this paper is therefore not to
discover who the historical enemies were but to investigate the
enemy in the maca
lôt-psalms as a literary motif. The poet(s) of
the maca
lôt-psalms ultimately wishes to create faith in the
hearts of the righteous that Yahweh is trustworthy and that He
will deliver those who trust Him in times of trouble.
1. Introduction
Much attention has been given to the identity of the enemies in the Psalms.
Various proposals have been offered to identify the foes that threaten the
psalmist (cf Birkeland 1933:1-19; Bullock 2001:145-149; Sheppard 1991:61-
82 for an overview of the most prominent of these proposals). Suggestions
have ranged widely, from those who work sorcery against the psalmists
(Mowinckel 1966:199-200), to foreign powers who threaten Israel (Birkeland
1933:29-30), to a world of socio-economic oppression where the righteous
were exploited to deprive them of their rights, their means of subsistence,
even their health and freedom of movement (Gottwald 1985:539).
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The problem with these proposals is that they all attempt to pinpoint
the enemy historically. This has resulted in too little attention being given to
the text itself. It is very difficult to establish the precise Sitz im Leben of the
psalms, and it is therefore extremely risky to take one‘s point of departure
behind the world of the text, because one can easily read things into the text. It
is therefore necessary that our point of departure should be the text itself.
The purpose of this paper is therefore not to discover who the historical
enemies were but to investigate the enemy in the maca
lôt-psalms as a literary
motif. In the words of Viviers (1991:1): ―… it is more fruitful to concentrate
on the literary function of specific motives than on a prolonged speculation of
the so-called origins of a motive‖.
2. The maca
lôt-psalms as field of research
There is general consensus that the maca
lôt-psalms should be seen as a
separate collection in the Psalter. There is a clear division between the long,
acrostic Psalm 119 and the short Psalm 120. All the other maca
lôt-psalms are
short, except Psalm 132, which consists of 18 verses. Regarding contents,
major differences are noticeable. The hrwt has a central position in Psalm 119;
whereas in the maca
lôt-psalms it doesn‘t occur (there is only an incidental
reference to the hrwt in 122:4 and 132:12). In addition to this, the names Zion,
Jerusalem, and Israel are not mentioned in Psalm 119, while the sanctuary, the
holy city and the people of God are prominent in the maca
lôt-psalms. The
collection ends in Psalm 134 with a doxology, which is one of the principles
for segmentation for the Psalter (cf Grossberg 1989:19-20; Viviers 1990:25).
Each of these fifteen psalms are introduced with the heading twl(m@h
ry#$ with only Psalm 121 showing a slight variation namely twl(m@l ry#$. Allen
(1983:146) is probably correct that the heading originally was the title of the
collection, and thereafter was added to each individual psalm. Psalms 122,
124, 131 and 133 add dwdl and Psalm 127 adds hml#$l. This should, of course,
not necessarily be understood as an indication of authorship.
The precise meaning of the heading twl(m@h is problematic. Various
possibilities have been offered (cf Bullock 2001:79-80; Crenshaw 2001:18-
22; Grossberg 1989:15-19; Keet 1969:1-17; Mitchell 1997:108-114). A first
possibility is that it refers to the step-like repetition of certain words and
phrases in following verses (anadiplosis). Viviers (1990) has shown that this
figure of speech occurs in each of the maca
lôt-psalms. However, he maintains
that the heading doesn‘t refer to this stylistic feature. The fact is that this
stylistic feature occurs in numerous psalms outside the present collection and
therefore does not present us with the key to the meaning of the heading.
Press (1958:405) has argued that based on the meaning of the root hl(
in Ezra 2:1, 7:9 the heading refers to the return of the exiles from Babylon and
that these songs were sung by them on their way back. However, none of
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these psalms deals with the salvation from exile, which would be expected if
the returning exiles were singing them. Viviers (1990:223) has also shown
that the existence of the second temple is presupposed by the maca
lôt-psalms,
which would indicate a time later than the exile.
Another possibility is that twl(m@h refers to the fifteen steps from the
court of women to the court of men. The Levites would then have sung these
songs during the Feast of Tabernacles, as they ascended these steps (Keet
1969:2). However, there is no real support for this hypothesis.
Liebreich (1955:33-36) suggested that the maca
lôt-psalms are
structured around the fifteen core words of the Aaronite blessing in Numbers
6:24-26 which were addressed to the people on the steps of the forecourt of
the temple. However, not all of these psalms show similarities with the
Aaronite blessing and the words of the blessing are not confined to the Psalter.
The most likely meaning of the heading is that twl(m@h is derived from
hl( and refers to the pilgrimages to the temple in Jerusalem during Israel‘s
annual religious festivals (cf 1 Sm 1:21; 2 Sm 6; 2 Kgs 23:2; Pss 24:3, 122:4;
Jr 31:6; Mic 4:2; Kraus 1972:XXI; Viviers 1990:223).
3. Images of the enemies in the maca
lôt-psalms
The literary motif of the enemy occurs in the maca
lôt-psalms in Psalm 120,
121, 123, 124, 125 and 129 with incidental references to the enemy in Psalms
127 and 132. The motif doesn‘t occur in Psalms 122, 126, 128, 130, 131, 133
and 134. For the purpose of this paper, Psalms 120, 121, 123, 124, 125 and
129 will be discussed.
i Psalm 120 It is clear from the first verse of the psalm that the psalmist finds himself in a
situation that causes distress and anxiety. htrc (verse 1) refers to anxiety due
to the threat of enemies (Harris, Archer & Waltke 1980:779). Therefore he
prays for deliverance from the threat against him, using various images to
describe the enemy and their actions against him.
In verse 2 the psalmist uses the image of ―lying lips‖ and a ―deceitful
tongue‖ to describe the actions of the enemy. The image of ―lying lips‖ is a
synecdoche, indicating the untruthfulness of the enemies. ―Deceitful tongue‖
is also a synecdoche, and because it reveals the thoughts and attitudes of the
enemies, represents their lifestyle (cf Ryken, Willhoit & Ryken 1998:876).
The enemy is not identified, and therefore attempts to do so are not
supported by the text.1 The parallelism of ―lip‖ and ―tongue‖ emphasize the
treacherous actions of the enemy. In the ancient Near-East people believed
that a word spoken with malicious intent could result in catastrophe, because
1 cf Keet (1969:19) who maintains that the enemy should be identified with foreigners who threaten
the righteous and Briggs & Briggs (1969:444) who identify the enemy with a party in Israel.
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words had creative power (cf Burden 1980:8). The psalmist uses this image to
describe the actions of the enemy against him as slander and false accusations.
The deceitfulness of the enemy is further underlined with the repetition
of hy@mr Nw#$l (deceitful tongue) in verse 3. Deceitful speech is often
mentioned in the psalms as a weapon against society (cf Pss 5:9; 10:7; 12:1-4;
31:18). Deceitfulness and lies undermine life resulting in the person becoming
insecure and hurt (cf Schaefer 2001:298).
In verse 3 the enemy is addressed and assured of retribution. The
psalmist uses the well-known cursing formula Kl Pysy hmw Kl Nt@y hm (cf 1 Sm
3:17, 20:13; 2 Sm 3:9; 1 Kgs 2:23; Rt 1:17). wHere hm hm plus the
preposition is used instead of the usual double hk plus the preposition. This
construction occurs in passages ―charged with intense emotion‖ (Marrs
1982:13; cf Jb 6:25, 26:2, 3; Jr 2:33, 36). The answer in verse 4 to the
question in verse 3 deals with the principle of lex taliones, indicating that God
will punish the enemy in the same manner as their actions against the
righteous.
The metaphor in verse 4 is very apt, because the tongue is often
compared with sharp arrows in the Psalter (cf Pss 7:14, 11:2, 57:5, 64:4). Just
as the enemies‘ words wounded the righteous like sharp arrows and burning
coals, Yahweh will strike the enemies and defeat them with the same
weapons. They will receive their just reward for their wrong actions. The
righteous is thus assured of Yahweh‘s acts of deliverance on their behalf.
Grossberg (1989:23) points out that Mynwn#$ in verse 4 is derived from the root
Nn#$ (tooth). The totality of the enemies‘ assault is thus emphasized: ―The poet
thus suggests a complete set: lip (v2), tongue (vv2, 3) and now tooth (v4). The
artist thereby underscores this theme of treacherous speech‖.
In verse 5 the psalmist uses the image of Meshech and Kedar to
describe the enemies. Meshech was a son of Japhet (cf Gn 10:2; 1 Chr 1:5)
and probably refers to a nation living between the Caspian – and the Black
Sea. Kedar was a son of Ishmael (cf Gn 25:13; Is 21:16; Jr 2:10) and refers to
an Arabic tribe living in the Syrian-Arabic desert. It is highly unlikely that
these references should be understood literally due to the great distance
between them. Rather, the place names are symbolic of distance from God
and the Israelites (Clifford 2003:219), they are indeed metaphors of a state of
exile (Mitchell 1997:117; Schaefer 2001:298).
Gunkel (1968:539) amends K#$m to )#m that is mentioned in Genesis
25:14 along with Kedar as a son of Ishmael. Thereby the geographical
problem is settled, and the verse can be understood literally. However, there is
no text critical support for this emendation and also no convincing textual
arguments and is therefore rejected. Seybold (1978:36), Burden (1980:10) and
Birkeland (1933:202-203) also chose to understand this verse literally but in
the end it seems more logical in the context to read the reference as a literary
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motif. The psalmist uses this image to indicate that the enemies are nothing
less than warlike barbarians.
This is confirmed by the reference in verse 7 to military power. Both
tribes were known to be warmongers (K#$m in Ez 32:26, 38:2-4, 39:1-3; rdq in
Is 21:16-17) and thus this image of warlike aggression is used to contrast the
enemy with the psalmist, who seeks peace. This image of aggression is further
highlighted with the reference to the enemies as ―those who hate peace‖ (Mwl#$
)nw$#) in verse 6. By means of alliteration and anadiplosis the poet contrasts the
enemies who hate peace, and the righteous who love peace (verses 6-7).
ii Psalm 121 It is obvious from verse 1b that the righteous experiences a situation of
distress and danger. Uncertainty and fear emanate from the question in this
verse. The answer to dispel this anxiety is given in verse 2, and elaborated upon
in verses 3-8. Various possibilities have been offered for the mountains
mentioned in verse 1b. It can refer to the mountains surrounding Jerusalem
(Kraus 1989:428, Mays 1994:389) or the mountains which the pilgrim had to
cross on his journey to or from Jerusalem (Anderson 1972:852; Davidson
1998:407-408, Weiser 1962:746), where wild animals, robbers, or other
dangers could threaten the traveller. However, the text itself gives no support
to the latter.
Yet another possibility is that the mountains should be understood as
the dwelling place of God (Dahood 1970:200; Leupold 1969:868). The notion
that mountains are the place where gods dwell or reign is not foreign to
Hebrew thought. The Arameans even thought that Yahweh was a God of the
hills (cf 1 Kings 20:28). The image of the mountain of God or the ‗holy
mountain‘ is of course well-known in the Old Testament. Mount Sinai and
later Mount Zion are both part of the image. Originally Mount Sinai was seen
as God‘s dwelling place, but later on Zion came to be known as the mountain
of God. God‘s mountain is a holy place (Ex 19:23; Pss 2:6, 48:1-2; Is 11:9)
where Yahweh dwells and reigns (Pss 43:3, 68:16; Is 24:23; cf Ryken,
Wilhoit & Longman III 1998:573). This would mean that the psalmist looks to
the mountains for help, because God dwells there. The sight of the majestic
mountains communicates God‘s power and his concern, confirming that help
from Yahweh is imminent (Terrien 2003:811). Brown (2002:201) maintains
that mountain imagery is very suitable in the profile of divine protection,
because they imply both stability and awe and they afforded the ancients a
heightened attentiveness to God‘s awesome presence and incomparable
majesty.
However, the negative nature of the question of 1b and the answer
given, provide a more likely possibility. The adverb Ny)m indicates a critical
questioning, implying that the mountains shelter or represent a deadly threat
(Terrien 2003:811). If the mountains are indeed the dwelling place of God, it
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would have been unnecessary for the pilgrim to ask where his help comes
from. The mountains should therefore rather be seen as the dwelling place of
the gods (cf Prinsloo 2000:261).
This image of the mountains as the dwelling place of the gods creates
fear and anxiety in the heart of the psalmist. Their mysterious power fills the
poet‘s heart with dread. The psalmist knows that he is as nothing in the face of
the overwhelming power and strength of the mythological powers that dwell
there. However, as is the case here, often when the psalms speak of
mountains, Yahweh‘s superiority over them is emphasized (cf Pss 89:12;
90:2; 97:4-5; 104:32; cf Keel 1978:20). The psalmist need not fear the
mountains or the gods dwelling there, because help is at hand from the one
who is the creator of the mountains.
Yahweh, the creator of heavens and earth, is portrayed as the One who
provides help and deliverance to the righteous in times of distress, against the
gods who are powerless in the face of the incomparable power and majesty of
Yahweh. The gods are exposed as impotent in the face of the power of
Yahweh (Burden 1980:12). The experience of the uniqueness of Yahweh,
who alone is the creator, has dethroned the mountains as gods (Keel 1978:20).
In the face of mythological powers that endanger the psalmist, the claim is
made that they need not be feared because Yahweh is the creator who protects
the righteous against his enemies. Filled with anxiety, the psalmist can confess
his trust in Yahweh, the creator, thereby enacting this selfsame alternative,
well-ordered, dependable world where even mythological powers can do no
harm.
Within the context of this psalm, the creation tradition is utilized ‗to
demonstrate that Yahweh ordains all and that help comes from Him … what is
being conveyed is that Yahweh is the only creator‘ (Vos 2005:258). It seems
clear that the creation tradition functions in a polemic sense. Yahweh is the
creator of these mythological powers that threaten the psalmist. The
confession that Yahweh is the maker of heavens and earth is simultaneously a
declaration that these other deities are ineffectual (cf Creach 1996:49). They
are utterly dismissed. The proclamation of Yahweh‘s supremacy over these
powers creates trust and confidence in the heart of the righteous.
Verses 3-8 expand on the help that Yahweh provides. He will even
keep the feet of the righteous from stumbling; an expression that often
indicates adversity and misfortune (cf Pss 17:5; 38:17; 55:23; 73:2). In verses
3b and 4 Yahweh is again portrayed polemically against Baal (1 Kings 18:27)
and the fertility gods. They die annually and are ritualistically brought to life,
but Yahweh neither sleeps nor slumbers (cf Creach 1996:49, Davidson
1998:408).
There are of course examples in the Old Testament where Yahweh is
accused of sleeping (cf Pss 35:23, 44:23; Is 51:9). However, here in Psalm
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121 the psalmist triumphantly boasts that ‗Yahweh is continually active, he is
alive!‘ (Vos 2005:256).
Yahweh‘s protection of the righteous is by day and by night (verse 6).
This verse also has a polemical character: Sun and moon, which were
worshipped in other religions, cannot harm the righteous, because Yahweh
protects him.
Within the ancient world of the near East, the sun was regularly
imbued with divine powers. In Egypt the sun was the chief god and the
creator. Mesopotamians also worshipped the sun and regarded him as the
omniscient protector of justice (Brady 2000:1257). The Canaanite cult of the
sun-god is reflected by the place names Beth-Shemesh (Josh 15:10, 21:16),
En-Shemesh (Josh 15:7, 18:17), Ir-Shemesh (Josh 19:41). ‗They preserve the
memories of sanctuaries devoted to the solar deity‘ (Lipinski 1999:764).
The civilizations of the ancient Near East also worshipped the moon.
Moon gods, indigenous and international, were worshipped in ancient
Palestine (Deut 4:19, 17:3; 2 Kgs 23:5; Job 31:26; Jer 8:2). Proper names in
the Old Testament also reflect recognition of moon gods from western Asia
and Mesopotamia. xry is attested in Jerah (Gen 10:26) and Jaroah (1 Chr
5:14). Place names like Beth-yerah and Jericho are also indicative of ancient
lunar worship (Holloway 2000:917).
There is biblical confirmation that a solar cult operated within the
precincts of the temple. In 2 Kings 23:5, 11 we read that part of Josiah‘s
reform was to remove the pagan priests appointed to burn incense to the sun
and the moon as well as the horses that the kings of Judah devoted to the sun.
This was possibly an Assyrian astral cult which was imposed upon Judah as a
symbol of subjection and vassalage (Lipinski 1999:765).
Ezekiel 8:16 provides us with a second biblical polemic directed
against sun worship: ‗… there at the entrance to the temple … were about
twenty-five men. With their backs towards the temple of the Lord and their
faces towards the east, they were bowing down to the sun in the east‘ (NIV, cf
Brown 2002:86-87, cf also Deut 4:19, 17:3; Jer 8:2). Smith (2002:152) argues
that this might have been part of an indigenous form of the Yahwistic cult,
and not necessarily indicative of a separate sun cult (cf also Day 2000:158,
Lipinski 1999:765).
Job 31:26-28 refers to some kind of astral rite, although its precise
setting is unclear: ‗if I have regarded the sun in its radiance, or the moon
moving in splendour, so that my heart was secretly enticed, and my hand
offered them a kiss of homage, then these also would be sins to be judged, for
I would have been unfaithful, to God on high‘ (NIV). Solar worship and lunar
devotion is here connected (cf 2 Kings 23:5). Whether these practices
developed indigenously or were adopted from other nations, they were
allowed by the Judean dynasty at times to take place within the cult of its
national god (cf Smith 2002:151).
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Both sun and moon can of course also harm one physically. Sunstroke
was a common occurrence in the hot conditions of the Ancient Near East (cf 2
Kings 4:19; Is 49:10; Jonah 4:8). Certain illnesses, including certain fevers,
malaria and leprosy were laid at the door of the moon (cf Creach 1996:50,
Davidson 1998:409, Keet 1969:29, Kraus 1989:430). ‗Lunar eclipses were
extremely ominous and it was believed that the phases of the moon had an
influence on people‘ (Vos 2005:257). However, Yahweh‘s protection is all-
sufficient and the righteous need not fear the sun or the moon. The
symmetrical pattern of verse 6 emphasizes the claim of the psalmist that in all
circumstances and at all times, day and night, in the face of whatever danger
might threaten the righteous, he can rely on Yahweh‘s protection.
The sun and the moon are demythologized and deprived of their
influence and rule. Yahweh has authority over these powers. Because he is the
creator of heavens and earth, he rules over the sun and moon; they are indeed
also part of the work of his hands. Psalm 74:16 emphasizes that the sun and
moon were indeed established by Yahweh. Because he created them, they
need not be feared. In Genesis 1 the rule of the sun and moon is downgraded
and they are demythologized. ‗All they rule is day and night … they do that
merely as lampposts in the sky … elements in the material universe‘
(Goldingay 2003:90-91).
iii Psalm 123 The focus in Psalm 123 is much more on the righteous and the suffering that
they endure at the hand of enemies, with beautiful images of the trust that the
righteous place in Yahweh as the one who protects them. The image in verse 2
is particularly striking. There are numerous possibilities for the image of the
eyes of the servants which are focused on the hand of their master. The hand
of the master can be understood as the source of punishment, commandments,
food or protection (cf Burden 1980:22). The idea of punishment or
commandments does not fit the context of the psalm. Food would be a
possibility (cf Ps 104:27-28), but it seems that more is implied.
The hand of God is often an image of help and care (cf Ezr 7:6, 9, 28;
8:18, 22, 31; Neh 2:8, 18) and here in this psalm it refers to Yahweh‘s all
encompassing grace and mercy that delivers and protects. It is an expression
of respectful awe and submission that results from the awareness that the
psalmist is totally dependent on Yahweh, as well as an expression of
dedicated love and trustful hope that God will take care of his own (cf Weiser
1962:753).
wn(b$# br (3) that is repeated in verse 4 by means of anadiplosis,
emphasize the fact that the righteous have had more than enough of the scorn
and derision of the enemies. The enemies are portrayed as those who despise
the righteous and treat them with contempt and ridicule. They are haughty and
arrogant and look down on the righteous.
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Once again it is quite futile to attempt to pinpoint the enemies
historically. What is important is to interpret the image and to ascertain the
significance thereof. It seems to me that the psalmist creates an image of a
world of socio-economic oppression, where the righteous have been slandered
in order to deprive them of their rights by those in power who abuse their
privileged position in society (cf also Gottwald 1985:539). The psalmist
wishes to draw attention to a socio-economic reality of polarity between the
righteous and the enemies. The enemies are not identified exactly, but the poet
uses images to proclaim that in the midst of a world of socio-economic
oppression, the righteous can place their trust in Yahweh, who will take care
of them.
iv Psalm 124
The enemy in Psalm 124 is identified as Md) (verse 2). Mays (1994:396) argues
that Md) is used here as a collective noun for Israel‘s enemies in their
humanness. The psalmist immediately contrasts the enemy as frail human
beings with Yahweh, who is on the side of the righteous. Thereby it is
emphasized that no enemy power will be able to stand against Yahweh and his
protective power, even though this enemy power has great strength, as verses
3-5 show. The superior strength of the enemy against the righteous is
underlined. With striking imagery the poet describes what would have
happened if Yahweh was not supporting the righteous. The psalmist thus
wishes to emphasize Yahweh‘s commitment to his people.
In verse 3 the enemy is pictured as something that would have
devoured the righteous. This might be understood as a reference to lw)%#$
(Allen 1983:162; Davidson 1998:414). This image of lw)%#$ as a hungry,
insatiable monster is well known in the Old Testament (cf Pr 1:12; 27:20; Pss
55:16; 69:16; 106:17; 141:7; Is 5:14; Hab 2:5). Briggs & Briggs (1969:452-
453) understand this image as a reference to the story of Korah (Nm 16:30-
34), while Birkeland (1933:27) and Keet (1969:42) explain the image as a
reference to animals that devour their prey. This is also an image we often
find in the Old Testament (cf Pss 7:3; 22:14, 22; Dan 7:7). Another possibility
is that it refers to mythological dragons (Burden 1980:25). All of these
possibilities emphasize the richness of the image and the all-encompassing
threat of the enemies.
In verses 4-5 the enemy is compared with a flood that sweeps over the
righteous. In the words of Ryken, Willhoit and Longman (1998:293):
Nothing captures the destructive, death-dealing potential of water like
the image of a flood – whether it be a flood that rises slowly and
inexorably to drown the land, or a flood that thunders unexpectedly
down a mountain gully, sweeping away everything in its path.
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This image of water as a hostile force is well known in the Old Testament (cf
Is 8:7; 28:27; 30:28; 43:3; Pss 18:5; 32:6; 66:12; 69:2-3; Lam 3:54, Jer 47:2)
and is used here to portray the seemingly overwhelming trouble that the
righteous find themselves in. There may be an allusion to ancient Near
Eastern imagery of the waters of chaos which were subdued by God the
Creator (cf Brueggemann 1984:139; Lucas 2003:50). The fivefold repetition
of the first person plural pronominal suffix in verses 3-5 further underlines the
danger that the righteous had to face.
These images in verses 3-5 emphasize the overwhelming threat of the
enemies, the powerlessness of the righteous and Yahweh‘s miraculous
intervention. If it was not for Yahweh, the righteous would have been
devoured and swept away by the flood waters. It is absolutely clear that we
are dealing here with metaphors. The poet describes human enemies (Md) in
verse 2), using hyperbolic metaphorical language to underline their
overwhelming strength and threatening behavior.
In verse 6 Yahweh is praised for his deliverance. The image used for
the enemies is that of a predator that devours his prey, tearing it into pieces
with his teeth. This image of teeth as portrayal of hostile violence occurs
elsewhere in the Old Testament as well (cf Pss 3:8; 57:5; 58:7; Jb 4:10) and is
a metaphor for power (cf Ryken, Willhoit & Longman 1998:847). The
strength of the enemies and the seemingly hopelessness of the righteous is
thus again emphasized.
In verse 7 the poet uses the image of a bird escaping from a snare to
illustrate the deliverance of the righteous from the hands of the enemies. The
bird was already caught in the snare, but then the snare was broken2. The
implication of the Nifcal verbal forms is that Yahweh broke the snare to save
his people. This image is also well known in the Old Testament (cf Pss 11:1;
91:3; Pr 6:5; 7:23; Hs 7:12; Am 3:5). The idea of freedom and deliverance is
hereby vividly portrayed.
It is again obvious that the poet uses literary images to describe the
threat against the righteous. It is therefore pointless to try to identify the
enemies with historical persons or nations. The psalmist uses the images to
describe an overwhelming threat from which Yahweh alone could save his
people. Thereby the poet creates trust in the hearts of the righteous,
underlining the fact that Yahweh is on their side and that He will accomplish
victory against any and all hostile powers.
v Psalm 125 The poet of this psalm describes a situation in which the land that God gave to
his people was threatened by enemies. (#$rh +b#$ (verse 3) refers to this
enemy. The word ―scepter‖ is symbolic of the power and authority of this
enemy (cf Zec 10:11; Is 14:5). Usually Yahweh or the Davidic king was the
2 For a description of the procedure hunters followed to trap birds, cf Clifford 2003:231.
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carrier of the scepter. Here it is a symbol of the ungodly enemies (cf Beyerlin
1985:60-61) and it functions to emphasize the contrast between the righteous
and the wicked.
Sabourin (1969:187) as well as Birkeland (1933:27; 1955:16, 34) argue
for foreign enemies, while Allen (1983:168) points out that occupation by a
foreign enemy is a parody on Israel‘s traditional theology, which connects the
covenant between Yahweh and his people with the gift of the land (cf Dt
11:22-25; Is 57:13; 60:21). Leupold (1969:885) on the other hand argues for
internal enemies where those with power abused their positions regarding the
division of the land, resulting in the exploitation of the righteous.
The point is, however, that the psalmist does not identify the enemies
historically but uses a specific image to portray the threat against the
righteous. It is clear from the text that the consequences of this threat could
have had serious implications. Even the righteous was in danger of forsaking
their faith for doing wrong (verse 3b).
The tragedy of this psalm is the fact that it seems that some of the
righteous did indeed forsake their faith and turned aside to crooked ways
(verse 5) and their fate would then be the same as the evildoers. It seems to
me that the psalmist doesn‘t refer here to the enemy as such, as Viviers
(1990:82) and Birkeland (1933:27) believe, but to Israelites who forsook their
faith. Verse 3b already created the possibility that some of the righteous
would go astray. Those who forsake God and become disobedient to his will
and word, no longer has a place in the assembly of the righteous. They will
indeed perish like all evildoers who have excluded themselves from
fellowship with God and his people (cf Weiser 1962:759).
vi Psalm 129 The enemies take a prominent place in Psalm 129. The poem begins with a
reference to enemies who have oppressed Israel from the beginning. This is a
reference to the formation of Israel as a people in Egypt (cf Hos 2:14; 11:1; Jr
2:2; 22:21; Ezek 16:22, 43, 60; 23:3, 19). This enmity against God‘s people
continued throughout her history, however, no enemy ultimately prevailed
against Israel, because God delivered them in times of trouble (verse 2). The
verb lky (verse 2) is often used in contexts where someone is shamed.
However, here Israel was not brought to shame, and the enemy, not being able
to subdue Israel was in actual fact brought to shame (cf Jr 20:7, 11; cf Botha
2002:1408).
The psalmist uses a beautiful image, drawing inspiration from
agriculture (verse 3). The enemies plowed the back of God‘s people (cf Micah
3:23; Is 51:23). They forced Israel facedown, exposing her back, running their
plows across her back, leaving her bleeding and helpless on the ground. This
image vividly portrays the intensity of Israel‘s pain and suffering.
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Another image is used to further describe Israel‘s fate. The enemies
wanted to continue with their attacks, but Yahweh cut their cords. The image
is that the cords, that bound the plough ox to its plough, were cut of so that the
enemies could not continue to plough the people (cf Burden 1980:44; Keet
1969:70-71; Leupold 1969:900). Botha (2002:1409) maintains that this image
―refers to an action that restores the honour of the group by restoring its
proper social status‖. This means that the shame that the enemies tried to
inflict on God‘s people by plowing their backs is turned to honour when
Yahweh cuts the cords of oppression of the enemies (:1409).
In verse 5 the enemies are called ―those who hate Zion‖ (cf Ps 120:6
that describes them as those who hate peace). Zion is symbolic of Yahweh‘s
direct presence, which implies that those who hate Zion really hate God.
Although they may storm Zion, attacking her, they will not prevail and they
will be turned back by God Himself. He is the one who fights for his people
and deliver them. The enemies will be put to shame (cf Ps 132:18) when
Yahweh triumphs over them.
The fate of those who hate Zion is then described. They will wither,
just as grass, planted on a rooftop withers, before it can take root (verse 6-7).
The withering grass is thus an image of God‘s judgment against the enemies.
Grass and other seeds quickly grew on the flat rooftops of houses in the
Ancient Near East, because they were covered with mud. Due to a lack of
roots, and the scorching heat of the sun, they quickly dry up and die. Thus the
reaper has nothing to gather. The image is concluded in verse 8. Those who
passed by usually had a blessing for the reapers (cf Ruth 2:4). However, here
there is no harvest and therefore no blessing.
The poet of Psalm 129 uses these images to paint a picture of Israel‘s
national enemies. Israel was oppressed by various enemies since her early
history (verses 1-2). Especially verse 5 with its reference to ―those who hate
Zion‖ is a clear indication that people from a different religious and political
dispensation are indicated (cf Botha 2002:1406).
4. Conclusion In this paper I have attempted to show that the author(s) of the ma
calôt-psalms
used various images to paint vivid pictures of the enemies and their onslaught
against the righteous. It is evident that attempts to pinpoint the enemies
historically are futile, and that the focus should be on the enemy as a literary
motif. This results in all readers of the psalms being able to find in these
images a portrayal of their own struggle against enemies of various kinds. We
can find in these images a description of our own experiences and also find
comfort in the fact that Yahweh will deliver us in our own times of trouble.
In Psalm 120 the enemies were portrayed as warlike barbarians who
hated peace and acted deceitfully against the righteous. However, the
righteous can find hope and comfort in the fact that the enemies are assured of
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divine retribution. Psalm 121 painted a picture of mythological enemies that
threatened the poet. Again, the righteous need not fear, because Yahweh will
protect them from all harm. The purpose is thus again to create hope and faith
and trust in Yahweh, who will protect the believer in times of trouble.
In Psalm 123 the enemies are portrayed as haughty and arrogant,
despising the righteous and treating them with contempt and ridicule. Here the
poet used the image of a world of socio-economic oppression, where the
righteous have been deprived of their rights by those in power who abuse their
privileged position in society. In the midst of this world of socio-economic
oppression, the righteous can place their trust in Yahweh, who will take care
of them.
Psalm 124 pictured the enemies as a monster that devours the
righteous, as a flood that sweeps them away, and as a predator that tears the
righteous to pieces. Again it is emphasized that the threat against the righteous
is overwhelming, but Yahweh saved them. The righteous escaped from the
snare because Yahweh intervened and delivered them. The poet thus creates
trust in Yahweh as the one who saves. Psalm 125 portrays the enemy as
foreign invaders against whom Yahweh protects his people. Again the
emphasis is on the trust that the righteous can put in Yahweh. The tragedy of
Psalm 125 is that some Israelites even went astray and followed the way of
the wicked. However, they will be punished with the evildoers.
Psalm 129 also portrayed the national enemies of Israel, using vivid
pictures from the world of agriculture to portray the threat against God‘s
people. The enemies who hate Zion and thus ultimately, hate God will be put
to shame and wither like grass. The poet again wishes to create trust in
Yahweh who will deliver his people.
The poet(s) of the maca
lôt-psalms utilized various images to portray the
threat of the enemy against the righteous. However, despite the fact that the
threat against the righteous is overwhelming, time and again Yahweh delivers
them. The psalmist thus wishes to emphasize that Yahweh is trustworthy and
the righteous can place their trust and faith and hope in Him, because He will
deliver and protect and save those who trust in Him.
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