Post on 23-Apr-2023
HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY OF AZAD
JAMMU AND KASHMIR
(A STUDY BASED ON LITERARY EVIDENCE)
Part 1
(Presented for critical evaluation)
By
Muzaffar Ahmad
Copyright © 2015
Research Framework
Azad Jammu and Kashmir comprises mostly of ancient Darvabhisara and Daard,
the regions comprising the north western, western and south western outer hills of
Kashmir. They are surrounded by Takshasila (Taxila) from south west, Urasha or
Urasa (Hazara) from west and north-west, Dard (Dard land) from north, Valley of
Kashmir from east and Takka Desa (Central Punjab), Gorjara (Gujrat) and Sakala
(Sialkot) from south and south east. No written history of the area exists before
Sikh Period. What little we know is either through historical accounts known as
Rajataringani written in the valley of Kashmir or through lines or two here and
there in travel accounts or historical narratives of the surrounding regions. The
archaeological investigations so far reviled some Mughal, Dogra and British
monuments and some undated stone structures vaguely named as Hindu period
buildings. Recently some rock carvings have been discovered by TIAC survey
team. In this M.Phil thesis I put together all relevant information available to me
from literary sources to construct a historic sketch of the history of AJK combined
with a literary survey of material relevant to the archaeology of the area under
study.
Chapter one deals with an introduction, a geographical sketch and a detailed
review of previously done research. It presents a survey of the literary sources,
manuscripts and books in different libraries and collections. It also
comprehensively survey and introduces the literature which describes partially or
wholly the history and archaeology of Azad Jammu and Kashmir.
Chapter two presents a historical sketch of AJK derived from available evidence
from literary sources.
Chapter three is an analysis of the historical evidence gathered from literary
sources.
Chapter four is a district wise survey of the archaeological evidence from literary
sources.
Chapter five is an analysis of the gathered archaeological information.
Chapter Six concludes the work with recommendations.
The present research is the first attempt to outline and analyze the history of Azad
Jammu and Kashmir and to catalogue its archaeological heritage based on literary
evidence. It has not only brought to light the problems and issues related to the
history and archaeology of the region but it will also pave the way for future
exploration, field surveys and excavations.
Muzaffar Ahmad
Chapter 1
1. Introduction
Azad Jammu and Kashmir, an autonomous administrative division in Pakistan
consists of ancient Darvabhisara and Dardah, mostly remained in control of the
Kashmiri political regimes ruling the Valley of Kashmir, or the political powers
ruling Kashmir from outside. In this geo-political position this region was a
component of the overall history of Jammu and Kashmir and the political entities
around. We learn from literary sources that in ancient times this area was
surrounded on south by Rajapuri or Rajwaur (modern Rajauri), Lohar (Loran) and
Prontsa (Poonch), on south east and east by Bhimber and from east by Vale of
Kashmir. It was surrounded on north by Chilas and “Dard” lands of Bolor and
Gilgit.1 On the west and south -west the area was surrounded by Kaghan, in the
west and south west by tirbes of Rawalpindi, Muree and Taxila and in south by
Gujrat and Sialkot.2
1.1 Geological and Geographical settings
1 Shah Rais‟s Khan explains that boundaries of Gilgit were from Guraiz and Bandipura, from the peak of Kohe
Torag Bal to across Barughal at the boundary of Badakhasn (Dani&Khan 1987: 3). 2 In Haidar Malik Chaudra‟s words (Chaudra 1984:108):
شویر والیت است درهیاى اللین چہارم و عرصٔہ آى طوالًی والع شذٍ از هشرق تا هغرب هوازی چہل فرسٌگ و از جٌوب تا هخفی ًخواہذ بود کہ ک
و شوال دوازدٍ فرسٌگ و ایي هحروسہ هعولست برکوہہائی بلٌذ پیواى و حذ شوالش بوالیت بذخشاى و جٌوبش بووالک ہٌذ و غربی بوٌازل افغاًاى
ك است۔۔۔شرلی بوبادی صحرائی هالح
Lying between Longitude: 73° - 75° and Latitude: 33° - 36° it covers an Area of
13,297 square kilometers. In south are sub-tropical plains while in north
Muzaffarabad, Poonch, Bagh and Sudhanoti are arctic-alpine mountainous regions
(Ahmad Pirzada 2003:64). Chib visualize Kashmir as a three storied house with
three distinct physiographic divisions. The first storey formed by the plain
bordered of Sivalik hills in Jammu. The second storey constitutes the Middle
Himalaya which borders the Kashmir valley in the south. The Inner or Greater
Himalayas running in many north-west to south-east, almost paralleled ranges
constitute the third storey (Chib 1977: 28-30).Geographically this part of western
Himalayan realm could be divided into Sub Himalayan Kashmir (Poonch and
Jammu), Pir Panjal Range in the north of Sub Himalayan realm and Kohistan
comprising of Muzaffarabad and Neelam regions (Karen 1966: 11-13). This ridge
is about 2621 Kilometers In length and 50 Kilometers in breadth. On the other end
of this range lie Baramula pass (1582 meters), Haji Pir pass (2750 meters) and
Tosh Maidan pass (4270 meters). Haji Pir pass joins together Poonch and Uri
(Raina A.N 2002: 4-6). Geologically it‟s a zone sandwiched between Tertiary
Molasses of Kashmir Basin, Hazara Syntaxis and Potohar plateau. It is a
seismically active earthquake prone area (Ghaffar & Abbas 2010:297). The
territory comprises both low hills and highlands, drained by Rivers Jhelum (Bhat
or Vitasta), Neelam (Kisanganga), river Poonch and hundreds of small streams,
streamlets and springs. There are small plains of Mirpur, Kotli and Bhimber in the
south-west of the Sivaliks. In north Kisanganga is the main river draining into
river Jhelum near Muzaffarabad and in south River Poonch which combines the
water of all streams which spring from the part of the Pir Panjal range north or
north-west of the branching off of the Ratan Panjal range and flowing past the
cities of Poonch, Kotli and Chaumuk it falls into river Jhelum (Drew 1875:38).3
The lower areas were once home of thick forests of Accacia, wild olive, Phulahi
and Jujuba with the undergrowth of Bhekar or Brenkar Shrub and long leaf pines
of cheel and cheerh dominate higher altitudes. The area in-between these two has
bushes with shrubby trees of the former kind plus some mango, bamboo, piplal,
banyan and palm growth. The forests have been cleared of from plains long ago
(Drew 1875:42).
1.2 Administrative and ethnic settings
Today, AJK is administratively divided into ten districts, Muzaffarabad (Capital),
Neelam, Poonch (Rawlakot), Kotli, Mirpur, Bhimber, Haveli, Hattian, Sudhanoti
and Bagh. AJK borders the Pakistani provinces of Punjab and Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa to the south and west, Gilgit and Baltistan to the north and the Indian
occupied Jammu and Kashmir to the east and south. Main ethnic group is Chib,
3 A most interesting account of geological and geographical details of this region could be seen in The Jummoo and
Kashmir Territories; A Geographical Account by Frederic Drew.
Chibali or Chibal named after Chibal Rajputs, the area between Chinab and Jhelum
rivers consists of many Rajput tribes including Sudhans, Kakhas and Bombas.
Gakkhars, Kashimiris, Gujjars and Bakkerwals dominantly inhabit the area with
many minority ethnic groups. People mostly speak Chib dialect of Pahari, Gojri
and Kashmiri languages. (Banerji& Fareedi: 3). In contrast with Kashmiri culture
which is not an extension of the civilizations that emerged on its borders as
regretfully declared by Jan (Jan 2006:4), Darvabhisara is culturally non-
distinguishable from neighboring Gakhar Cultures and north Neelam valley, the
ancient Dardah has a predominantly Gujjar Culture today.
1.3 Climatic conditions
A hot weather is observed from April to June. Rainy season is from July to
September and from October to March the climate remains cold. The mountain
fortress in the south and south east of the valley of Kashmir makes the summers
very hot and suffocating around Bhimber. This unhealthy heat of Bhimber was
regrettably mentioned by many travelers in past. Human population concentrated
between 1200 to 2000 feet above sea level face severe heat in summer and
flooding in streams in rainy season. The last phase of the rains brings fever with it
which affects a big number among the population. Winters are pleasant. Areas
above 3000 feet observe snowfall. In areas of Poonch and above it the climate
remains moist and mild throughout the summer and extremely cold in winter. In
Kisanganga Valley climate is tended towards cold in summer with abundant rains
and unbearably cold in winter with heavy snowfall.
2. Literature Review
2.1 Introduction to the literary sources
Although the semi mythical Nilamata Purana dated to at least sixth century CE
remains so far the oldest literary source of the historical topography and early folk
history of Kashmir, the main source for the written history of AJK are the histories
written in the valley of Kashmir from 12th
century onwards. There is an ancient
tradition in Kashmir to update the valley‟s history in every one hundred years‟ time
(Didamari: folio 2b). These Raja Kathas surprisingly resemble in name and style to
the books of Kings and Chronicles of Old Testament. The first significant effort to
survey, secure and preserve these manuscripts was made in the years 1860-65 at
the instance of Maharaja Ranbir Singh. The State Research Department was set up
in 1902 which ensured the publication of Kashmir Series of Texts and Studies.
More than 72 works were published by the State Research Department from
1911‟sto 1960‟s (Pushp 1985:70).The most comprehensive library collections on
Kashmir are contained at the University of Toronto, the British Museum Library
and the private collection of Professor Alastair Lamb. There is a unique Persian
manuscript of the history of Kashmir in Munich Stat Bibliothek and one in
Bodleian library. Both were acquired by the author of this thesis. SOAS library
has its own collection of Kashmiri manuscripts. Cambridge holds the largest
collection of Sarada manuscripts outside the valley of Kashmir. These mainly
comprise of the Aural Stain collection. During 1888 to 1900 he collected 368
Sanskrit manuscripts in Kashmir and handed over them to Indian Institute Oxford.
Later in 1911 he deposited them at Bodleian Library Oxford (Pandita 2004:
281). Oriental Research library Hazratbal, S.P.S Museum Library, Allama Iqbal
library in Kashmir University, Research and Publication Department Library in
Srinagar and Khurshid Memorial Library in Muzaffarabad are surprisingly well-
stocked. Punjab University Library Lahore and the former Asiatic Society Library
in Kolkata have good collections of rare Kashmiri Manuscripts. Before the
earthquake of 2008 the above mentioned Khurshid Memorial library had a special
section known as „Kashmir Collection‟. Damaged but restored it houses world‟s
largest collection of materials on Kashmir. Before the earthquake it had a
collection of some manuscripts, more than 3,500 books and more than 40,000
documents related to the history of Jammu and Kashmir and its freedom movement
either in original or in other formats (information based on personal visits to K M
L). The largest collection of manuscripts of Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, Kashmiri
and other languages however is in Oriental Research Library, Hazratbal Srinagar.
An online catalogue of the Oriental Research Library with several thousand
manuscripts in Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, Urdu, Kashmiri, Dogri and other
languages enlisted is a great source of information (Ahmad b: 2013). There is a
good collection of manuscripts in Punjab University Lahore Oriental collection
now shifted to the main library in New Campus. Libraries of Department of
Archaeology Punjab, Lahore Museum Library and Public library Punjab have good
collections of books on history, travel and archaeology of Kashmir. Department of
Kashmir Studies Oriental College Punjab University has a fine collection of thesis
and books on Kashmir (Ahmad b: 2013). A research by Rosy Jan, Shahina Islam
and Uzma Qadri shows that Georg Bühler collected 350 manuscripts (Kaw b
2004). National Library of Pakistan has acquired Persian manuscripts relating to
the history of Kashmir (Ahsan 2009:518). Khuda Baksh Oriental Public Library
has certain manuscripts relating to Kashmir (Jan et al. 2012). New York Public
Library has 13 Kashmir manuscripts (Barbara 1992, Jan et al. 2012). Research and
Publication Department of Jammu and Kashmir lists 17 manuscripts about history
of medieval Kashmir generally written in Persian (Pandita 2005). Sri Ranbir
Sanskrit Research Institute Jammu has Sanskrit manuscripts most of them are in
Devanagari and Sharada scripts (Mishra, 2004, Jan et al. 2012). Manuscripts on the
history of Kashmir, available in the British Museum are nine in total. The National
Library of India has 500 Kashmiri books. The British Library‟s Kashmiri
collections contain seven manuscripts, around 300 printed books dating from the
early 19th century to the present day (British Library 2010) (Jan at al. 2012). There
are three Archival Repositories in Indian occupied Kashmir in Srinagar, Leh and
Jammu. Only stray documents are available on Mughal, Afghan and Sikh periods
in Katib Navisi Registers (Hassnain 2012:3). Dogra rulers started the state archive
department in Jammu. This record is available to researchers now. Provincial
records of Dogra Kashmir are in Srinagar and Prime Ministerial records and Prime
Minister‟s secretariat‟s records (Dafatr Diwani and Sadar Daftar) are in Jammu
archives. Private and official records of Dogra Rajas are also part of the archives.
Military and political office records are kept in Settlement Record Room at
Srinagar.
2.2 Extinct Sanskrit Literary Sources
Parthivavali of Helaraja was a list of kings in twelve thousand verses. It was an
important source of Kalhana‟s Rajatarangini who mentions that Chronicles of
Padmamihira were based on this earlier work. The Relation of the little known
Ratnakar’s Rajatrangini with these earlier works is not yet clear. Kshemendra’s
Nrapavali (eleventh century AD) is considered as lost but another work by him
known as Desopdesh gives a vivid account of the daily life of different sections of
the people inhabiting the valley. His Samayamatrika ecpecially Samay.2 is a guide
to the socioeconomic conditions of kashmir in his age. The places the lady visited
could be easily traceable. Here is the first mention of Pir Panjal pass.
Bilhana‟s Vikramankadevacarita (1089 A.D.) contains a topographical description
of Srinagar. Sri Chavillakara’s Chronicles now lost were among Kalhana‟s many
sources. Srimihira Chronicles of Padmamihira is also lost. Subhasitavali of
Vallabhadeva and Kavindravacanasamuccaya Subhasitaval, a work of 15th
century is an anthology of verses of the poets of ancient India and particularly of
Kashmir. Fragments of poems written by Rajas of Kashmir like Muktapida,
Jayapida, Gonanda, Gopaditya and Ranaditiya are quoted. Kapphinabhyudaya
was a poem by Buddhist Bhatta Sivasvamin describing the expedition of
Kapphina, king of Daksinapatha against Prasenajita of Sravasti. At the end of the
war victorious Kapphina accepts Buddhism. Work of Suvrata which was a source
of Kalhana is now lost. Jayadratha (end of 12th century or the beginning of 13
th) is
another source of Kalhana. The local names as recorded by him agree closely with
Rajatrangini. Kuttanimata by Jayapida‟s court poet in 8th century presents a
picture of the social and economic life of the Kashmir. Srikanthacarita by Mankha
was written sometime between 1128to 1144 A.D. It presents a description of
Pravarpura (Srinagar) in its 3rd
canto. A commentary on it was written by
Jonaraja the chronicler (15th century). Ratnakara Purana or Rajatarangini a
history of ancient kings of Kashmir is now lost. Only a Persian translation by
Mulla Ahmad in Zain-ul-Abidin‟s period survived to 20th
century. It was located
and copied by Pir Ghulam Hasan author of the History of Kashmir. He found it in
Pindori a village in the Rawalpindi district. The copy was lost in a flood, the owner
of the manuscript Mulla Mahmud died and his family migrated to Afghanistan.
Nevertheless a list of 35 kings whose names were lost to history in Kalhana‟s
words was published by Ghulam Hasan (Hassan1931: I-6-8). The same was
reproduced by Fauq in an abridged form (Fauq 1931: 3). Saradamahatmyam is the
source of our knowledge about Sarada temple in Neelam valley. Two copies were
obtained of which one is in Bodleian (MS Stein Or. D.6. 4).It depends upon
another lost work, Bhrngisaasamhita‟s chapter uttaravisayopajatatirthasamgrahah
(i-e a summery account of the sacred sites that have come into existence in the
northern tract) (Sanderson 2010:1).
2.3 Availabla Sanskrit Literary Sources
Nilamat Purana was written by so-called Nila Muni. Dated to 6th to 8
th century
A.D, it is mentioned by Kalhana as one of his sources on the ancient history of
Kashmir. In Bühler‟s words it is a real mine of information regarding the sacred
places of Kashmir and legends which are required to explain the Rajatarangini
(Bühler 1871: 41). The manuscript Aurel Stein had dated to Lokak Samt 81
corresponding to 1705-6. Dutch scholar Vogel appointed his pupil K. De. Vreese
of Leiden University on the task of its publication. Vreese did his work and in
1936 Nilamata Purana was published in Sanskrit in Roman letters from Voolberg.
Ram Lal Kanjilal and Jagaddhar Zadoo compiled the edition published in 1924.
Mahatmyas are temple records. More than 50 were listed by Stein now housed in
The Hungarian Academy of Sciences. (Bamzai: 1994. p.30).They are valuable
sources for studying historical topography of Kashmir as they provide good
information about the ancient nomenclature of Kashmir. Indian scholar Ved
Kumari has done considerable work on Nilamata Purana.
Rajatarangini of Kalhana is the only pre-Muslim book of Kashmir chronicles
available in Sanskrit. It was composed with the help of eleven Rajakathas and
Nilamat Purana. Rajatarangini covers a period from the beginning of the history
of Kashmir to 1149-50 CE. This book gives quite accurate account of the Rulers
and the events from the 8th century to the 12th century CE. It was previously held
that it was translated into Persian in 15th
century by orders of Sultan Zain-ul-
Abidin, under the title بحر االسوار and later it was translated by Mulla Abdul Qadir
Badauni on Emperor Akbar‟s orders in 1594. The discovery of Bahr-ul-asmar
under the title of Darya-e-Asmar proved this hypothesis wrong (Ahmad 2015:1-
3).The only extent translation of Rajatarangini was done by Mullah Shah
Muhammad shahabadi in Akbar‟stime. This translation was perfected by Mullah
Badauni. Abul Fazal incorporated long abstracts of this Persian translation in Ain-
i- Akbari. Bernier makes a mention of it in one of his letters (Bernier 1916:393-4).
Moorcroft obtained a copy in 1832. This copy was translated into French by M.
Troyer. Bühler started a search for Codex-archetypus of Rajatarangini and found it
in the custody of Kashmiri Pandit Sivaram in whose family it was kept for a long
time. Stein reached Kashmir on 12th
of August 1888. It was only on his request that
maharaja intervened and Governor Dr. Suraj Kaul confiscated the manuscript from
its owner. It was offered for study to Stein. After an effort of eleven years, Stein
and the team of local pundits appointed by Maharaja completed a translation
(Pandita 2008:14). References in Stein‟s private letters pointed to the existence of
an updated and expanded version of the Rājataraṅgiṇī, illustrated by photographs
of various locales mentioned in Kalhaṇa‟s history. This illustrated version, long
considered lost is now published by Obrock Luther under the title The Illustrated
Rajatarangini (Luther 2013) who edited it from manuscripts kept in Oxford‟s
Bodleian Library. A Sanskrit edition of Rajatarangini was published in 1892 while
an English translation and commentary were published in 1900 by Stein.
Considerable work has also been done in French and German Scholars (Ahmad
2013: 15-21) R.S.Pandit published a translation of Rajatarangini in 1935. There
are also two Urdu translations available. Seven books of Rajatarangini of Kalhana
make considerable information available about the history and archaeology of
Azad Jammu and Kashmir.
Rajatringani Jona Raja was written by Jona Raja who upgraded Kalhana‟s work
to 1459, the time of Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin. His pupil Shari Dhar wrote Jaina Raja
Taringani or Rajatringani Shari Dhar which covers a time from 1459 to 1486
CE. Raja Dali by Prajia bhata covers an era from 1486 to 1516 CE. Rajatringani
Shak Pandit by Shak Pandit covers events from 1517 to 1596 CE. All these
histories are mines of information about the archaeo-historical conditions of the
area under study.
Loka Parkasha was written by Kashmindra in 1066 CE. Other parts were added to
this book in 17th
century. It‟s a kosh or a memoir mentioned by Bühler in Indische
Studian Vol.18 p.298. The part written by Kashmindra himself is an ethnographic
study of cast system in Kashmir. The parts added latter are a rich source of
information about the culture and administrative system of Kashmir. Parts of it
were published by A. Vebar in Indische Studian Vol. 8. P.289. Jain Chart was
written in the time of Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin by Nath Som Pundit. Bodh Bhat also
wrote a drama on the life of Sultan Zain ul Abidin (Dut: vol.1 chap.5 No.37).
2.4 Arabic literary Sources (manuscripts and published material)
There are frequent mentions of the “Internal Kashmir” and “external Kashmir” in
Early Arabic sources which will be discussed at relevant place. No Arabic
documents of Historical importance are so far recorded in the valley of Kashmir.
The Shia book Asool-e-Kafi adds the personal narrative of a Kashmiri Jew
converted to Islam named Abu Saeed Ghanim Kashmiri and tells how he left the
valley in 3rd
century AH. for Kabul4. This indicates that the arteries connecting the
Valley of Kashmir to Dakhshanapada were still functional in early Islamic period.
Kashmir is mentioned in many early Muslim Arabic sources like Alberuni‟s Kitab-
ul-hind and in Yaqubi, Tabri, Balazri and Masudi‟s works, most of them easily
available in published form.
2.5. Persian Literary Sources
Mullah Ahmad (15th
century CE) translated Rajatarangini of Kalhana and
Ratnakara into Persian and Mullah Nadiri (1420 CE) wrote first ever Persian
history of Kashmir. Pir Hasan Shah mentioned a history of Kashmir written by
Qazi Hamid and Muntakhibul Tawareekh by Hasan Baig. In the time of Sultan
Fateh Shah Qazi Ibrahim wrote a history of Kashmir and during Chak period
Mullah Hasan Qari wrote another history of Kashmir. Later historians like Hayder
Malik Chaudhra, Hasan bin Ali, Ali Muhammad, Muhammad Azam Didamari and
others benefited from histories of Mullah Ahmad and Mullah Nadri (Muhibbul
Hasan 1990:2). Syed Ali‟s Tareekhe Kashmir covers a period up to Yusuf Shah‟s
first rule. It was edited and translated into English by Abdul Qaiyum Rafiqi in
2011. An incomplete MS starts from the arrival of Syed Tajuddin in Valley
(Indische Studian vol.1. p.269). A manuscript of a unique history of Kashmir by an
4۔۳۳۳اصول الکافی۔کتاب الحجۃ۔ ص۔
unknown author is in Munich‟s K Hof und stat Bibliothek which was penned down
in 1590 CE. It was first reported in Aumer Catalouge 1629 CE.5 Baharistan-e-
Shahi another important history of Kashmir by an unknown author depends upon
Raj, Shari Dar, Mulla Ahmad, Mulla Nadri, Qazi Ibrahim and hasan Qari. This
easily available compact history of Kashmir mostly covers a timespan from
Shahmiri dynasty to Hasan Shah. Tareekh-e- Kashmir by Hasan bin Ali Kashmiri
covers a period up to 1616 CE. Haidar Malik Chaudra‟s Tareekh-e- Kashmir
written between 1618 and 1621 CE is a very important document on the history of
Kashmir. It is as very important source of political history of Kashmir in Chak
period. Raja Bano presented a critical edition as her Phd thesis “Edition,
Translation, and Critical Evaluation of the History of Kashmir by Haidar Malik” in
1984. Important histories of Kashmir written in later period include Tarikh-i-
Kabir of Mohi-ud-din Miskeen (d. Srinagar , 1921), Waqa’at-e-Kshmir by
Dedamari (1747 CE ), Tareekh Gauhr-e-Alam Tuhfa e Shahi by Badi Uddin
Abul Qasim (covers up to 1786 CE) and Tarikhe Kashmir by Pir Ghulam Hasan
Khuihami (1890 CE). It is in four volumes. The most important from the historical
point of view is the second volume which consists of the history of Kashmir.
Pandat Raja Ram Kaul wrote his Persian Rajatarangini at the end of Sikh period
(Muzaffar 2015).
5 Present author has a copy of it with him.
2.6 Persian and Urdu Literary Sources from Outside of Kashmir
My search through catalogues of many libraries brought to my notice many
valuable sources written outside the valley of Kashmir. Yahya bin Ahmad bin
Abdullah Sarhandi in Tareekh-e-Mubarik Shahi gives an account of the war
between Ali Shah ruler of Kashmir and Jasrath Khokhar. Malfuzat e Temuri by
Ameer Temur and Zafar Nama by Sharfuddin Ali Yazdi completed around 1425
add information about Kashmir of Sultan Sikandar‟s period. Akbar Nama by
Abul Fazal provides details of a period from Mirza Haider Doghlat to Akbar. Ain-
e-Akbari by the same author is a very important source of the history and ancient
geography of Kashmir. Tabqat-e-Akbari gives an account of Kashmir from
earliest times to Akbar‟s period. Tareekh-e-Rashidi by Mirza Haider Doghlat
gives a vivid account of his invasions of Kashmir from 1523 to 1546. It is also an
important source of the geography, anthropology and history of Kashmir. Tareekh-
e-Daoudi and Tareehkh-e-Khan Jahani present details of the affairs of Kashmir
in Suri times like the invasion of Isa Khan Niazi and his defeat. Ma’thir ul Umara
by Samsam-ud-Daulah provides information about Mirza Haider and Mirza Abul
Muali‟s attacks on Kashmir and Akbar‟s conquest of Kashmir. Tareekh-e-
Farishta by Qasim Hindu Shah Astarabadi includes a chapter on the history of
Kashmir mainly based on Tabqat-e-Akbari and Tareekh-e-Rashidi. Muntakhib-
ul-Tawareekh by Mulla Abdul Qadir Badayoni the editor of Persian translation of
Rajataringani covers only Akbar‟s period. Ma’thir-e-Rahimi by Khwaja Abdul
Baqi Nihavandi is a biography of Abdul Raheem Khan-e-Khanan. Written in 1616
it depends on Tabqat-e-Akbari. Mujalis-ul-Sulateen by Muhammad Sharif
completed in 1628-29 provides an account of the conversion of Renchen Shah first
Muslim ruler of Kashmir who converted from Buddhism.
In later works the most important are Raj Darshani or Tarikh-e-Rajgan-e-Jammu
(1817), Tareekh-e-Rajouri (1907) and Tareekh-e-Jammu by Hashmat Ullah Khan
(1937). Its seventh part is a good source of the history of the rulers of
Muzaffarabad and surrounding areas. Tazkara e be Misal is one of his sources
along with interviews of locals and a study of old writings and certificates of
Sultan Rahmat Khan of Ghori (Khan: 796-7). Muhammad-ud-din Fauq wrote
Rahnuma-e-Kashmir, Tareekh-e-Aqwame Kashmir, Tareekh-e-Aqwame
Pooonch and Mukammal Tareekhe Kashmir. All these works contain valuable
information about routes, regional dynasties, tribal settings and the history and
archaeology of Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Sayyid Mahmud Azad wrote Tareekh-
e- Poonch in 1975. This book provides important firsthand information of the
archaeological landscape of Poonch. Maulvi Yaseen wrote a history of Poonch in
Persian. Its manuscript was taken away by Mian Feruz Din Naib Wazir and is still
missing. (Fauq: 474). Thakar Chatar Singh Golayria wrote a short history of
Poonch (Fauq: 541). Mirpur 47 se Qabl by Sayyid Sult ān Alī Shāh (1995) is a
history of Mirpur before partition of India. The Rishi and Sufi accounts of Kashmir
have no important information on AJK and thus are irrelevant to this study. For a
detailed description of Kashmiri and Indian Persian works Mughals in India a
Bibliographical Survey by D.N. Marshall (1967) could be consulted.
2.7 Western Literary contribution to the History and Archaeology of AJK
Fathers Jerome and benedict de Goes visited Kashmir in Emperor Akbar‟s time
around 1597. They left short but useful memoirs of their travel. Letters of two
Jesuit priests from Goa published in Antwerp in 1605 (Mac Donald: 2003).
Francisco Pelsaert (1595-1630) wrote a short description of Kashmir published in
Remonstrantie of Francisco Pelsaert first time translated into English in its
eternity by W. H. Moreland from photographs of the original manuscript in 1925.
Francois de Bernier in Aurangzeb‟s time wrote Travels in the Mogul Empire
(Paris, 1670) a detailed description of Kashmir and the Mughal Route to Kashmir
via Bhimber (1656-1668). Father Desideri provided information about the trade
activates of Kashmir. In 18th
to 20th
century hundreds of Western travelers and
scholars wrote travelogues and research works on Kashmir. George Foster visited
Kashmir in 1783 and published Journy through Kashmire etc, in 1789. Fredric
Drew in 1875 published The Jummoo and Kashmir Teritories: a Geographical
Account from Delhi, William Moorcraft and George Trebeck in 1819, Walter
Lawrence in 1890, G. Trebece from 1819 to 1825, Joseph Wolf in 1832 visited
Kashmir for historio-relegious investigations. J.M. Honigberger‟s Thirty Five
Years in the East. Adventures relating to Cashmere etc. was published in 1852.
Godfrey Thomas Vigne wrote Travels in Kashmir and Skardoo. French Baron
Charles Hugel‟s Travels in Kashmir and in the Punjab, containing a particular
account of the government and character of the Sikhs was published from
London in 1845. Travels in India and Kashmir by The Baron Erich von.
Schonberg published in 1853. Jhon B. Ireland‟s Wall-Street to Kashmir got
published in 1859. Captian W.H. Knight wrote Diary of a Pedestrian in Cashmere
and Thibet in 1863. Victor Jcquemont, George Bühler in 1875, Bishop W.G.
Cowiardy Cole from1865 to 1869, Major Garrik in 1882 remained in Kashmir.
Oswaldo Roerco di Cortanze‟s Cashemir, Piccolo e Medio Thibet e Turkistan
appeared from Turin in 1881. A comprehensive bibliography could be consulted in
author‟s bibliography of Kashmir for archaeologists (Ahmad: 2013). Among the
archaeologists who worked in Kashmir are Cunningham, Stein and John Marshall
but none of them excavated any site in the area under study. Ince’s Hand book of
Kashmir is a useful tool for the Sikh and Dogra period archaeology. Its 1869
edition exists in Colombia University Library.6 I am thankful to Dr. Tahira Saeed
for making its photographs available to me.
6
2.8 Chinese Sources
Fahian visited Kashmir in 399 CE. Che- Mong in 404-424 CE, Fa-Yong 420 CE,
Heun Tsiang reached Kashmir in 631 CE and mentioned the route he took via
Urash and Muzaffarabad to enter Kashmir in Si-yu-ki or the Travels of Heun
Tsang. Ou-Kong or Dharma Dattya followed the same route and reached Kashmir
in 759CE.
2.9 Research Works
S. Maqbul Ahmad and Raja Bano in Historical Geography of Kashmir failed to
give any useful information about the area under study (Ahmad & Bano 1984:196-
199). Cultural Heritage of Kashmir; A Survey of Kashmir’s contribution to
Sanskrit Literature by Sures Chandra Banerji 1965 Calcutta comprehensively
describes the Sanskrit literary sources of Kashmir(Banerji 1965:). Kak (1923)
wrote first ever book on the archaeology of a part of the area under study. He
visited Bhimber, Bahsoli, Ramnagar, Rajouri and Poonch. The outcome of this
survey was three books including Antiquities of Bhimber and Rajouri. It was first
published in the 14th
Issue of Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India.
Hutchison wrote histories of the Rajadoms of western Himalayas. His History of
Jammu, Poonch and Rajouri states was first published in the Journal of Punjab
Historical Society in volume 8 and 9. Later many other Rajadoms including these
two were included in his History of the hill states of Punjab volume 2. The
Results of archaeological survey of Azad Jammu and Kashmir jointly undergoing
by TIAC and AJK Department of Archaeology and Tourism are still unpublished
though scanty information is available in newspapers and on internet.
Cunningham‟s Ancient Geography of India (London 1871) and Stein‟s Memoires
on the Maps illustrating the Ancient Geography of Kashmir (Calcutta 1899) are
valuable sources of ancient routs and archaeological and historical topography of
Azad Jammu and Kashmir.7 Geography of Jammu and Kashmir by Majid Husain,
Written in 1938, Geography of Jammu and Kashmir by A. N. Raina written in
1916 and Geography of the Jammu and Kashmir State By Ananda Kaula
Published in 1925 are also important sources of historical geography of Kashmir.
Tribal geography of India Jammu and Kashmir by Mohammed Bashir Magray
(2003) is a useful source of the history of Rajadoms of AJK. A study of Kushan
Rule in Kashmir (2000) by Shazia Shafiq Jan, Some Aspects of the Administrative
Socio-Economic and Cultural Life of the People of Kashmir under the Sikhs
1819-1846 by Abdul Rashid Khanday, Kashmir Valley from end of Afghan rule
till its sale to Dogra Gulab Singh by Harmet Sethi, Some Aspects of the
Administrative Socio-Economic and Cultural Life of the People of Kashmir
7 Unfortunately this Stein’s work was republished as Cunningham’s work from Lahore in 1990 by Gagan
and Amar Pak Kashmir Publications Jhelum and printed by Sahar Printing Press Lahore. Even a fake
dedication by Cunningham was added in the beginning.
under the Sultans 1339-1586 by Farooq Ahmad Bhat, Economic History of
Kashmir during the Mughal Period 1586-1819 by Farzana Ashfaque, Kashmiri
Administration under Partap Singh by Muhammad saleem Khan, some ascpects
of the social history of the valley of Kashmir during the period 1847-1947 by
Farhat Jabeen and Kashmir under Gulab Singh (1978) by Phool Piaree Mam are
PhD Theses written by scholars of Kashmir University Srinagar provide some
useful information on the history and geography of the area under study.
All the literary sources mentioned above provide information about the history and
archaeology of the region now called Azad Jammu and Kashmir and adjacent
regions to a larger or shorter extent. In the following chapters this evidence will be
presented and analyzed in a manner never done before.
3 Research Problems
Very little research based on literary sources has been conducted so far on the
history and archaeology of AJK. This becomes apparent on a survey of available
published and non-published materials on the subject. This indicates that a
historical and archaeological sketch of the region based on literary evidence is
needed to lay a proper foundation for future archaeological investigations.8
4 Aims, Objectives and expected outcome of the research
Aims:
1. To develop a historical sketch of AJK based on available literary sources.
2. To collect all possible information about the Archeological remains of AJK
through a thorough study of available literary sources.
Objectives:
1. To understand the geo-political, social, cultural, religious and economic past
of AJK in a historical perspective through investigating literary sources.
8 Since the writing of this thesis an excavation is going on in Bhrund. Below is a note by the Field Director on
Facebook:
A Team of archaeologists led by Prof. Dr. M. Ashraf Khan, Director Taxila Institute of Asian Civilizations, Quaid-i-
Azam University, Islamabad, starts Excavations (Trail) at Bhrund Temple complex in village Bhrund (Potha)
Sehnsa Kotli Azad Jammu & Kashmir in the second week of March 2015. The project is funded by Higher
Education Commission of Pakistan under the Thematic Research Grant Programme Phase II. The theme of the
Project is Documentations of the Endangered Cultural Heritage of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Team members: Dr.
Ghani-ur- Rahman, Dr. Sadeed Arif, Rukhsana said Khan, Mr. Muhammad Ibrahim, Mr. Safdar Iqbal, MSc, MPhil
and PhD Students of TIAC have been working since 2013 to explore various aspects of cultural Heritage of AJ&K.
The purpose of this excavation is to define the level and features of archaeological potential of the site for further
research work or before extensive excavation work is undertaken.
https://www.facebook.com/media/set/?set=a.928476027184709.1073741842.118712658161054&type=1
2. To create an initial database of Archeological sites and monuments in AJK
based on literary sources.
3. To do a topographic study of the archaeological landscape of the region
under study by exploring the literary sources.
4. To improve our knowledge of ancient routes traversing the area under study
for the purpose of a better understanding of trade and Commerce & socio-
religious activity of silk route and its arteries.
5. Outcome
Present research will enable the reader to understand the region‟s past in a wider
perspective. This research is, therefore, highly significant as it takes onboard a
thorough study literary sources and there analysis. This work will lay foundation
for more research to understand AJK material culture in its historical context.
Moreover the ancient topographical sketching will help locate ancient urban
centers and the routes linking them with each other and with neighboring regions.
6. Methodology
This work addresses the above mentioned issues by fully exploring first hand and
secondary literary materials and previous historical and archaeological research to
prepare an “archaeo-historical” sketch of the area under study. In this connection
following methodology is used:
6.1 Data Collection
As mentioned earlier, both primary and secondary literary evidence was accessed,
studied and properly analyzed to seek solutions to the problems. In this connection,
the following device was used to collect relevant data for the current research:
6.2 Original Sources through library research
Original sources were consulted by directly accessing them or by obtaining
microfilms, digital prints and copies of the manuscripts from the libraries in
Pakistan and abroad.
6.3 Secondary data through library research
Secondary literary data was collected through academic research by accessing
libraries and personal collections.
6.4 Classification and analysis
After collecting the data based on literary evidence, the same was properly
organized, classified and analyzed. Analysis was done through comparison and
cross checking of the data to reach to the conclusions. Thus a thorough analysis of
literary evidence enables us to better understand the history and material cultural