HISTORY AND ARCHAEOLOGY OF AZAD

JAMMU AND KASHMIR

(A STUDY BASED ON LITERARY EVIDENCE)

Part 1

(Presented for critical evaluation)

By

Muzaffar Ahmad

Copyright © 2015

Research Framework

Azad Jammu and Kashmir comprises mostly of ancient Darvabhisara and Daard,

the regions comprising the north western, western and south western outer hills of

Kashmir. They are surrounded by Takshasila (Taxila) from south west, Urasha or

Urasa (Hazara) from west and north-west, Dard (Dard land) from north, Valley of

Kashmir from east and Takka Desa (Central Punjab), Gorjara (Gujrat) and Sakala

(Sialkot) from south and south east. No written history of the area exists before

Sikh Period. What little we know is either through historical accounts known as

Rajataringani written in the valley of Kashmir or through lines or two here and

there in travel accounts or historical narratives of the surrounding regions. The

archaeological investigations so far reviled some Mughal, Dogra and British

monuments and some undated stone structures vaguely named as Hindu period

buildings. Recently some rock carvings have been discovered by TIAC survey

team. In this M.Phil thesis I put together all relevant information available to me

from literary sources to construct a historic sketch of the history of AJK combined

with a literary survey of material relevant to the archaeology of the area under

study.

Chapter one deals with an introduction, a geographical sketch and a detailed

review of previously done research. It presents a survey of the literary sources,

manuscripts and books in different libraries and collections. It also

comprehensively survey and introduces the literature which describes partially or

wholly the history and archaeology of Azad Jammu and Kashmir.

Chapter two presents a historical sketch of AJK derived from available evidence

from literary sources.

Chapter three is an analysis of the historical evidence gathered from literary

sources.

Chapter four is a district wise survey of the archaeological evidence from literary

sources.

Chapter five is an analysis of the gathered archaeological information.

Chapter Six concludes the work with recommendations.

The present research is the first attempt to outline and analyze the history of Azad

Jammu and Kashmir and to catalogue its archaeological heritage based on literary

evidence. It has not only brought to light the problems and issues related to the

history and archaeology of the region but it will also pave the way for future

exploration, field surveys and excavations.

Muzaffar Ahmad

Chapter 1

1. Introduction

Azad Jammu and Kashmir, an autonomous administrative division in Pakistan

consists of ancient Darvabhisara and Dardah, mostly remained in control of the

Kashmiri political regimes ruling the Valley of Kashmir, or the political powers

ruling Kashmir from outside. In this geo-political position this region was a

component of the overall history of Jammu and Kashmir and the political entities

around. We learn from literary sources that in ancient times this area was

surrounded on south by Rajapuri or Rajwaur (modern Rajauri), Lohar (Loran) and

Prontsa (Poonch), on south east and east by Bhimber and from east by Vale of

Kashmir. It was surrounded on north by Chilas and “Dard” lands of Bolor and

Gilgit.1 On the west and south -west the area was surrounded by Kaghan, in the

west and south west by tirbes of Rawalpindi, Muree and Taxila and in south by

Gujrat and Sialkot.2

1.1 Geological and Geographical settings

1 Shah Rais‟s Khan explains that boundaries of Gilgit were from Guraiz and Bandipura, from the peak of Kohe

Torag Bal to across Barughal at the boundary of Badakhasn (Dani&Khan 1987: 3). 2 In Haidar Malik Chaudra‟s words (Chaudra 1984:108):

شویر والیت است درهیاى اللین چہارم و عرصٔہ آى طوالًی والع شذٍ از هشرق تا هغرب هوازی چہل فرسٌگ و از جٌوب تا هخفی ًخواہذ بود کہ ک

و شوال دوازدٍ فرسٌگ و ایي هحروسہ هعولست برکوہہائی بلٌذ پیواى و حذ شوالش بوالیت بذخشاى و جٌوبش بووالک ہٌذ و غربی بوٌازل افغاًاى

ك است۔۔۔شرلی بوبادی صحرائی هالح

Lying between Longitude: 73° - 75° and Latitude: 33° - 36° it covers an Area of

13,297 square kilometers. In south are sub-tropical plains while in north

Muzaffarabad, Poonch, Bagh and Sudhanoti are arctic-alpine mountainous regions

(Ahmad Pirzada 2003:64). Chib visualize Kashmir as a three storied house with

three distinct physiographic divisions. The first storey formed by the plain

bordered of Sivalik hills in Jammu. The second storey constitutes the Middle

Himalaya which borders the Kashmir valley in the south. The Inner or Greater

Himalayas running in many north-west to south-east, almost paralleled ranges

constitute the third storey (Chib 1977: 28-30).Geographically this part of western

Himalayan realm could be divided into Sub Himalayan Kashmir (Poonch and

Jammu), Pir Panjal Range in the north of Sub Himalayan realm and Kohistan

comprising of Muzaffarabad and Neelam regions (Karen 1966: 11-13). This ridge

is about 2621 Kilometers In length and 50 Kilometers in breadth. On the other end

of this range lie Baramula pass (1582 meters), Haji Pir pass (2750 meters) and

Tosh Maidan pass (4270 meters). Haji Pir pass joins together Poonch and Uri

(Raina A.N 2002: 4-6). Geologically it‟s a zone sandwiched between Tertiary

Molasses of Kashmir Basin, Hazara Syntaxis and Potohar plateau. It is a

seismically active earthquake prone area (Ghaffar & Abbas 2010:297). The

territory comprises both low hills and highlands, drained by Rivers Jhelum (Bhat

or Vitasta), Neelam (Kisanganga), river Poonch and hundreds of small streams,

streamlets and springs. There are small plains of Mirpur, Kotli and Bhimber in the

south-west of the Sivaliks. In north Kisanganga is the main river draining into

river Jhelum near Muzaffarabad and in south River Poonch which combines the

water of all streams which spring from the part of the Pir Panjal range north or

north-west of the branching off of the Ratan Panjal range and flowing past the

cities of Poonch, Kotli and Chaumuk it falls into river Jhelum (Drew 1875:38).3

The lower areas were once home of thick forests of Accacia, wild olive, Phulahi

and Jujuba with the undergrowth of Bhekar or Brenkar Shrub and long leaf pines

of cheel and cheerh dominate higher altitudes. The area in-between these two has

bushes with shrubby trees of the former kind plus some mango, bamboo, piplal,

banyan and palm growth. The forests have been cleared of from plains long ago

(Drew 1875:42).

1.2 Administrative and ethnic settings

Today, AJK is administratively divided into ten districts, Muzaffarabad (Capital),

Neelam, Poonch (Rawlakot), Kotli, Mirpur, Bhimber, Haveli, Hattian, Sudhanoti

and Bagh. AJK borders the Pakistani provinces of Punjab and Khyber

Pakhtunkhwa to the south and west, Gilgit and Baltistan to the north and the Indian

occupied Jammu and Kashmir to the east and south. Main ethnic group is Chib,

3 A most interesting account of geological and geographical details of this region could be seen in The Jummoo and

Kashmir Territories; A Geographical Account by Frederic Drew.

Chibali or Chibal named after Chibal Rajputs, the area between Chinab and Jhelum

rivers consists of many Rajput tribes including Sudhans, Kakhas and Bombas.

Gakkhars, Kashimiris, Gujjars and Bakkerwals dominantly inhabit the area with

many minority ethnic groups. People mostly speak Chib dialect of Pahari, Gojri

and Kashmiri languages. (Banerji& Fareedi: 3). In contrast with Kashmiri culture

which is not an extension of the civilizations that emerged on its borders as

regretfully declared by Jan (Jan 2006:4), Darvabhisara is culturally non-

distinguishable from neighboring Gakhar Cultures and north Neelam valley, the

ancient Dardah has a predominantly Gujjar Culture today.

1.3 Climatic conditions

A hot weather is observed from April to June. Rainy season is from July to

September and from October to March the climate remains cold. The mountain

fortress in the south and south east of the valley of Kashmir makes the summers

very hot and suffocating around Bhimber. This unhealthy heat of Bhimber was

regrettably mentioned by many travelers in past. Human population concentrated

between 1200 to 2000 feet above sea level face severe heat in summer and

flooding in streams in rainy season. The last phase of the rains brings fever with it

which affects a big number among the population. Winters are pleasant. Areas

above 3000 feet observe snowfall. In areas of Poonch and above it the climate

remains moist and mild throughout the summer and extremely cold in winter. In

Kisanganga Valley climate is tended towards cold in summer with abundant rains

and unbearably cold in winter with heavy snowfall.

2. Literature Review

2.1 Introduction to the literary sources

Although the semi mythical Nilamata Purana dated to at least sixth century CE

remains so far the oldest literary source of the historical topography and early folk

history of Kashmir, the main source for the written history of AJK are the histories

written in the valley of Kashmir from 12th

century onwards. There is an ancient

tradition in Kashmir to update the valley‟s history in every one hundred years‟ time

(Didamari: folio 2b). These Raja Kathas surprisingly resemble in name and style to

the books of Kings and Chronicles of Old Testament. The first significant effort to

survey, secure and preserve these manuscripts was made in the years 1860-65 at

the instance of Maharaja Ranbir Singh. The State Research Department was set up

in 1902 which ensured the publication of Kashmir Series of Texts and Studies.

More than 72 works were published by the State Research Department from

1911‟sto 1960‟s (Pushp 1985:70).The most comprehensive library collections on

Kashmir are contained at the University of Toronto, the British Museum Library

and the private collection of Professor Alastair Lamb. There is a unique Persian

manuscript of the history of Kashmir in Munich Stat Bibliothek and one in

Bodleian library. Both were acquired by the author of this thesis. SOAS library

has its own collection of Kashmiri manuscripts. Cambridge holds the largest

collection of Sarada manuscripts outside the valley of Kashmir. These mainly

comprise of the Aural Stain collection. During 1888 to 1900 he collected 368

Sanskrit manuscripts in Kashmir and handed over them to Indian Institute Oxford.

Later in 1911 he deposited them at Bodleian Library Oxford (Pandita 2004:

281). Oriental Research library Hazratbal, S.P.S Museum Library, Allama Iqbal

library in Kashmir University, Research and Publication Department Library in

Srinagar and Khurshid Memorial Library in Muzaffarabad are surprisingly well-

stocked. Punjab University Library Lahore and the former Asiatic Society Library

in Kolkata have good collections of rare Kashmiri Manuscripts. Before the

earthquake of 2008 the above mentioned Khurshid Memorial library had a special

section known as „Kashmir Collection‟. Damaged but restored it houses world‟s

largest collection of materials on Kashmir. Before the earthquake it had a

collection of some manuscripts, more than 3,500 books and more than 40,000

documents related to the history of Jammu and Kashmir and its freedom movement

either in original or in other formats (information based on personal visits to K M

L). The largest collection of manuscripts of Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, Kashmiri

and other languages however is in Oriental Research Library, Hazratbal Srinagar.

An online catalogue of the Oriental Research Library with several thousand

manuscripts in Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, Urdu, Kashmiri, Dogri and other

languages enlisted is a great source of information (Ahmad b: 2013). There is a

good collection of manuscripts in Punjab University Lahore Oriental collection

now shifted to the main library in New Campus. Libraries of Department of

Archaeology Punjab, Lahore Museum Library and Public library Punjab have good

collections of books on history, travel and archaeology of Kashmir. Department of

Kashmir Studies Oriental College Punjab University has a fine collection of thesis

and books on Kashmir (Ahmad b: 2013). A research by Rosy Jan, Shahina Islam

and Uzma Qadri shows that Georg Bühler collected 350 manuscripts (Kaw b

2004). National Library of Pakistan has acquired Persian manuscripts relating to

the history of Kashmir (Ahsan 2009:518). Khuda Baksh Oriental Public Library

has certain manuscripts relating to Kashmir (Jan et al. 2012). New York Public

Library has 13 Kashmir manuscripts (Barbara 1992, Jan et al. 2012). Research and

Publication Department of Jammu and Kashmir lists 17 manuscripts about history

of medieval Kashmir generally written in Persian (Pandita 2005). Sri Ranbir

Sanskrit Research Institute Jammu has Sanskrit manuscripts most of them are in

Devanagari and Sharada scripts (Mishra, 2004, Jan et al. 2012). Manuscripts on the

history of Kashmir, available in the British Museum are nine in total. The National

Library of India has 500 Kashmiri books. The British Library‟s Kashmiri

collections contain seven manuscripts, around 300 printed books dating from the

early 19th century to the present day (British Library 2010) (Jan at al. 2012). There

are three Archival Repositories in Indian occupied Kashmir in Srinagar, Leh and

Jammu. Only stray documents are available on Mughal, Afghan and Sikh periods

in Katib Navisi Registers (Hassnain 2012:3). Dogra rulers started the state archive

department in Jammu. This record is available to researchers now. Provincial

records of Dogra Kashmir are in Srinagar and Prime Ministerial records and Prime

Minister‟s secretariat‟s records (Dafatr Diwani and Sadar Daftar) are in Jammu

archives. Private and official records of Dogra Rajas are also part of the archives.

Military and political office records are kept in Settlement Record Room at

Srinagar.

2.2 Extinct Sanskrit Literary Sources

Parthivavali of Helaraja was a list of kings in twelve thousand verses. It was an

important source of Kalhana‟s Rajatarangini who mentions that Chronicles of

Padmamihira were based on this earlier work. The Relation of the little known

Ratnakar’s Rajatrangini with these earlier works is not yet clear. Kshemendra’s

Nrapavali (eleventh century AD) is considered as lost but another work by him

known as Desopdesh gives a vivid account of the daily life of different sections of

the people inhabiting the valley. His Samayamatrika ecpecially Samay.2 is a guide

to the socioeconomic conditions of kashmir in his age. The places the lady visited

could be easily traceable. Here is the first mention of Pir Panjal pass.

Bilhana‟s Vikramankadevacarita (1089 A.D.) contains a topographical description

of Srinagar. Sri Chavillakara’s Chronicles now lost were among Kalhana‟s many

sources. Srimihira Chronicles of Padmamihira is also lost. Subhasitavali of

Vallabhadeva and Kavindravacanasamuccaya Subhasitaval, a work of 15th

century is an anthology of verses of the poets of ancient India and particularly of

Kashmir. Fragments of poems written by Rajas of Kashmir like Muktapida,

Jayapida, Gonanda, Gopaditya and Ranaditiya are quoted. Kapphinabhyudaya

was a poem by Buddhist Bhatta Sivasvamin describing the expedition of

Kapphina, king of Daksinapatha against Prasenajita of Sravasti. At the end of the

war victorious Kapphina accepts Buddhism. Work of Suvrata which was a source

of Kalhana is now lost. Jayadratha (end of 12th century or the beginning of 13

th) is

another source of Kalhana. The local names as recorded by him agree closely with

Rajatrangini. Kuttanimata by Jayapida‟s court poet in 8th century presents a

picture of the social and economic life of the Kashmir. Srikanthacarita by Mankha

was written sometime between 1128to 1144 A.D. It presents a description of

Pravarpura (Srinagar) in its 3rd

canto. A commentary on it was written by

Jonaraja the chronicler (15th century). Ratnakara Purana or Rajatarangini a

history of ancient kings of Kashmir is now lost. Only a Persian translation by

Mulla Ahmad in Zain-ul-Abidin‟s period survived to 20th

century. It was located

and copied by Pir Ghulam Hasan author of the History of Kashmir. He found it in

Pindori a village in the Rawalpindi district. The copy was lost in a flood, the owner

of the manuscript Mulla Mahmud died and his family migrated to Afghanistan.

Nevertheless a list of 35 kings whose names were lost to history in Kalhana‟s

words was published by Ghulam Hasan (Hassan1931: I-6-8). The same was

reproduced by Fauq in an abridged form (Fauq 1931: 3). Saradamahatmyam is the

source of our knowledge about Sarada temple in Neelam valley. Two copies were

obtained of which one is in Bodleian (MS Stein Or. D.6. 4).It depends upon

another lost work, Bhrngisaasamhita‟s chapter uttaravisayopajatatirthasamgrahah

(i-e a summery account of the sacred sites that have come into existence in the

northern tract) (Sanderson 2010:1).

2.3 Availabla Sanskrit Literary Sources

Nilamat Purana was written by so-called Nila Muni. Dated to 6th to 8

th century

A.D, it is mentioned by Kalhana as one of his sources on the ancient history of

Kashmir. In Bühler‟s words it is a real mine of information regarding the sacred

places of Kashmir and legends which are required to explain the Rajatarangini

(Bühler 1871: 41). The manuscript Aurel Stein had dated to Lokak Samt 81

corresponding to 1705-6. Dutch scholar Vogel appointed his pupil K. De. Vreese

of Leiden University on the task of its publication. Vreese did his work and in

1936 Nilamata Purana was published in Sanskrit in Roman letters from Voolberg.

Ram Lal Kanjilal and Jagaddhar Zadoo compiled the edition published in 1924.

Mahatmyas are temple records. More than 50 were listed by Stein now housed in

The Hungarian Academy of Sciences. (Bamzai: 1994. p.30).They are valuable

sources for studying historical topography of Kashmir as they provide good

information about the ancient nomenclature of Kashmir. Indian scholar Ved

Kumari has done considerable work on Nilamata Purana.

Rajatarangini of Kalhana is the only pre-Muslim book of Kashmir chronicles

available in Sanskrit. It was composed with the help of eleven Rajakathas and

Nilamat Purana. Rajatarangini covers a period from the beginning of the history

of Kashmir to 1149-50 CE. This book gives quite accurate account of the Rulers

and the events from the 8th century to the 12th century CE. It was previously held

that it was translated into Persian in 15th

century by orders of Sultan Zain-ul-

Abidin, under the title بحر االسوار and later it was translated by Mulla Abdul Qadir

Badauni on Emperor Akbar‟s orders in 1594. The discovery of Bahr-ul-asmar

under the title of Darya-e-Asmar proved this hypothesis wrong (Ahmad 2015:1-

3).The only extent translation of Rajatarangini was done by Mullah Shah

Muhammad shahabadi in Akbar‟stime. This translation was perfected by Mullah

Badauni. Abul Fazal incorporated long abstracts of this Persian translation in Ain-

i- Akbari. Bernier makes a mention of it in one of his letters (Bernier 1916:393-4).

Moorcroft obtained a copy in 1832. This copy was translated into French by M.

Troyer. Bühler started a search for Codex-archetypus of Rajatarangini and found it

in the custody of Kashmiri Pandit Sivaram in whose family it was kept for a long

time. Stein reached Kashmir on 12th

of August 1888. It was only on his request that

maharaja intervened and Governor Dr. Suraj Kaul confiscated the manuscript from

its owner. It was offered for study to Stein. After an effort of eleven years, Stein

and the team of local pundits appointed by Maharaja completed a translation

(Pandita 2008:14). References in Stein‟s private letters pointed to the existence of

an updated and expanded version of the Rājataraṅgiṇī, illustrated by photographs

of various locales mentioned in Kalhaṇa‟s history. This illustrated version, long

considered lost is now published by Obrock Luther under the title The Illustrated

Rajatarangini (Luther 2013) who edited it from manuscripts kept in Oxford‟s

Bodleian Library. A Sanskrit edition of Rajatarangini was published in 1892 while

an English translation and commentary were published in 1900 by Stein.

Considerable work has also been done in French and German Scholars (Ahmad

2013: 15-21) R.S.Pandit published a translation of Rajatarangini in 1935. There

are also two Urdu translations available. Seven books of Rajatarangini of Kalhana

make considerable information available about the history and archaeology of

Azad Jammu and Kashmir.

Rajatringani Jona Raja was written by Jona Raja who upgraded Kalhana‟s work

to 1459, the time of Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin. His pupil Shari Dhar wrote Jaina Raja

Taringani or Rajatringani Shari Dhar which covers a time from 1459 to 1486

CE. Raja Dali by Prajia bhata covers an era from 1486 to 1516 CE. Rajatringani

Shak Pandit by Shak Pandit covers events from 1517 to 1596 CE. All these

histories are mines of information about the archaeo-historical conditions of the

area under study.

Loka Parkasha was written by Kashmindra in 1066 CE. Other parts were added to

this book in 17th

century. It‟s a kosh or a memoir mentioned by Bühler in Indische

Studian Vol.18 p.298. The part written by Kashmindra himself is an ethnographic

study of cast system in Kashmir. The parts added latter are a rich source of

information about the culture and administrative system of Kashmir. Parts of it

were published by A. Vebar in Indische Studian Vol. 8. P.289. Jain Chart was

written in the time of Sultan Zain-ul-Abidin by Nath Som Pundit. Bodh Bhat also

wrote a drama on the life of Sultan Zain ul Abidin (Dut: vol.1 chap.5 No.37).

2.4 Arabic literary Sources (manuscripts and published material)

There are frequent mentions of the “Internal Kashmir” and “external Kashmir” in

Early Arabic sources which will be discussed at relevant place. No Arabic

documents of Historical importance are so far recorded in the valley of Kashmir.

The Shia book Asool-e-Kafi adds the personal narrative of a Kashmiri Jew

converted to Islam named Abu Saeed Ghanim Kashmiri and tells how he left the

valley in 3rd

century AH. for Kabul4. This indicates that the arteries connecting the

Valley of Kashmir to Dakhshanapada were still functional in early Islamic period.

Kashmir is mentioned in many early Muslim Arabic sources like Alberuni‟s Kitab-

ul-hind and in Yaqubi, Tabri, Balazri and Masudi‟s works, most of them easily

available in published form.

2.5. Persian Literary Sources

Mullah Ahmad (15th

century CE) translated Rajatarangini of Kalhana and

Ratnakara into Persian and Mullah Nadiri (1420 CE) wrote first ever Persian

history of Kashmir. Pir Hasan Shah mentioned a history of Kashmir written by

Qazi Hamid and Muntakhibul Tawareekh by Hasan Baig. In the time of Sultan

Fateh Shah Qazi Ibrahim wrote a history of Kashmir and during Chak period

Mullah Hasan Qari wrote another history of Kashmir. Later historians like Hayder

Malik Chaudhra, Hasan bin Ali, Ali Muhammad, Muhammad Azam Didamari and

others benefited from histories of Mullah Ahmad and Mullah Nadri (Muhibbul

Hasan 1990:2). Syed Ali‟s Tareekhe Kashmir covers a period up to Yusuf Shah‟s

first rule. It was edited and translated into English by Abdul Qaiyum Rafiqi in

2011. An incomplete MS starts from the arrival of Syed Tajuddin in Valley

(Indische Studian vol.1. p.269). A manuscript of a unique history of Kashmir by an

4۔۳۳۳اصول الکافی۔کتاب الحجۃ۔ ص۔

unknown author is in Munich‟s K Hof und stat Bibliothek which was penned down

in 1590 CE. It was first reported in Aumer Catalouge 1629 CE.5 Baharistan-e-

Shahi another important history of Kashmir by an unknown author depends upon

Raj, Shari Dar, Mulla Ahmad, Mulla Nadri, Qazi Ibrahim and hasan Qari. This

easily available compact history of Kashmir mostly covers a timespan from

Shahmiri dynasty to Hasan Shah. Tareekh-e- Kashmir by Hasan bin Ali Kashmiri

covers a period up to 1616 CE. Haidar Malik Chaudra‟s Tareekh-e- Kashmir

written between 1618 and 1621 CE is a very important document on the history of

Kashmir. It is as very important source of political history of Kashmir in Chak

period. Raja Bano presented a critical edition as her Phd thesis “Edition,

Translation, and Critical Evaluation of the History of Kashmir by Haidar Malik” in

1984. Important histories of Kashmir written in later period include Tarikh-i-

Kabir of Mohi-ud-din Miskeen (d. Srinagar , 1921), Waqa’at-e-Kshmir by

Dedamari (1747 CE ), Tareekh Gauhr-e-Alam Tuhfa e Shahi by Badi Uddin

Abul Qasim (covers up to 1786 CE) and Tarikhe Kashmir by Pir Ghulam Hasan

Khuihami (1890 CE). It is in four volumes. The most important from the historical

point of view is the second volume which consists of the history of Kashmir.

Pandat Raja Ram Kaul wrote his Persian Rajatarangini at the end of Sikh period

(Muzaffar 2015).

5 Present author has a copy of it with him.

2.6 Persian and Urdu Literary Sources from Outside of Kashmir

My search through catalogues of many libraries brought to my notice many

valuable sources written outside the valley of Kashmir. Yahya bin Ahmad bin

Abdullah Sarhandi in Tareekh-e-Mubarik Shahi gives an account of the war

between Ali Shah ruler of Kashmir and Jasrath Khokhar. Malfuzat e Temuri by

Ameer Temur and Zafar Nama by Sharfuddin Ali Yazdi completed around 1425

add information about Kashmir of Sultan Sikandar‟s period. Akbar Nama by

Abul Fazal provides details of a period from Mirza Haider Doghlat to Akbar. Ain-

e-Akbari by the same author is a very important source of the history and ancient

geography of Kashmir. Tabqat-e-Akbari gives an account of Kashmir from

earliest times to Akbar‟s period. Tareekh-e-Rashidi by Mirza Haider Doghlat

gives a vivid account of his invasions of Kashmir from 1523 to 1546. It is also an

important source of the geography, anthropology and history of Kashmir. Tareekh-

e-Daoudi and Tareehkh-e-Khan Jahani present details of the affairs of Kashmir

in Suri times like the invasion of Isa Khan Niazi and his defeat. Ma’thir ul Umara

by Samsam-ud-Daulah provides information about Mirza Haider and Mirza Abul

Muali‟s attacks on Kashmir and Akbar‟s conquest of Kashmir. Tareekh-e-

Farishta by Qasim Hindu Shah Astarabadi includes a chapter on the history of

Kashmir mainly based on Tabqat-e-Akbari and Tareekh-e-Rashidi. Muntakhib-

ul-Tawareekh by Mulla Abdul Qadir Badayoni the editor of Persian translation of

Rajataringani covers only Akbar‟s period. Ma’thir-e-Rahimi by Khwaja Abdul

Baqi Nihavandi is a biography of Abdul Raheem Khan-e-Khanan. Written in 1616

it depends on Tabqat-e-Akbari. Mujalis-ul-Sulateen by Muhammad Sharif

completed in 1628-29 provides an account of the conversion of Renchen Shah first

Muslim ruler of Kashmir who converted from Buddhism.

In later works the most important are Raj Darshani or Tarikh-e-Rajgan-e-Jammu

(1817), Tareekh-e-Rajouri (1907) and Tareekh-e-Jammu by Hashmat Ullah Khan

(1937). Its seventh part is a good source of the history of the rulers of

Muzaffarabad and surrounding areas. Tazkara e be Misal is one of his sources

along with interviews of locals and a study of old writings and certificates of

Sultan Rahmat Khan of Ghori (Khan: 796-7). Muhammad-ud-din Fauq wrote

Rahnuma-e-Kashmir, Tareekh-e-Aqwame Kashmir, Tareekh-e-Aqwame

Pooonch and Mukammal Tareekhe Kashmir. All these works contain valuable

information about routes, regional dynasties, tribal settings and the history and

archaeology of Azad Jammu and Kashmir. Sayyid Mahmud Azad wrote Tareekh-

e- Poonch in 1975. This book provides important firsthand information of the

archaeological landscape of Poonch. Maulvi Yaseen wrote a history of Poonch in

Persian. Its manuscript was taken away by Mian Feruz Din Naib Wazir and is still

missing. (Fauq: 474). Thakar Chatar Singh Golayria wrote a short history of

Poonch (Fauq: 541). Mirpur 47 se Qabl by Sayyid Sult ān Alī Shāh (1995) is a

history of Mirpur before partition of India. The Rishi and Sufi accounts of Kashmir

have no important information on AJK and thus are irrelevant to this study. For a

detailed description of Kashmiri and Indian Persian works Mughals in India a

Bibliographical Survey by D.N. Marshall (1967) could be consulted.

2.7 Western Literary contribution to the History and Archaeology of AJK

Fathers Jerome and benedict de Goes visited Kashmir in Emperor Akbar‟s time

around 1597. They left short but useful memoirs of their travel. Letters of two

Jesuit priests from Goa published in Antwerp in 1605 (Mac Donald: 2003).

Francisco Pelsaert (1595-1630) wrote a short description of Kashmir published in

Remonstrantie of Francisco Pelsaert first time translated into English in its

eternity by W. H. Moreland from photographs of the original manuscript in 1925.

Francois de Bernier in Aurangzeb‟s time wrote Travels in the Mogul Empire

(Paris, 1670) a detailed description of Kashmir and the Mughal Route to Kashmir

via Bhimber (1656-1668). Father Desideri provided information about the trade

activates of Kashmir. In 18th

to 20th

century hundreds of Western travelers and

scholars wrote travelogues and research works on Kashmir. George Foster visited

Kashmir in 1783 and published Journy through Kashmire etc, in 1789. Fredric

Drew in 1875 published The Jummoo and Kashmir Teritories: a Geographical

Account from Delhi, William Moorcraft and George Trebeck in 1819, Walter

Lawrence in 1890, G. Trebece from 1819 to 1825, Joseph Wolf in 1832 visited

Kashmir for historio-relegious investigations. J.M. Honigberger‟s Thirty Five

Years in the East. Adventures relating to Cashmere etc. was published in 1852.

Godfrey Thomas Vigne wrote Travels in Kashmir and Skardoo. French Baron

Charles Hugel‟s Travels in Kashmir and in the Punjab, containing a particular

account of the government and character of the Sikhs was published from

London in 1845. Travels in India and Kashmir by The Baron Erich von.

Schonberg published in 1853. Jhon B. Ireland‟s Wall-Street to Kashmir got

published in 1859. Captian W.H. Knight wrote Diary of a Pedestrian in Cashmere

and Thibet in 1863. Victor Jcquemont, George Bühler in 1875, Bishop W.G.

Cowiardy Cole from1865 to 1869, Major Garrik in 1882 remained in Kashmir.

Oswaldo Roerco di Cortanze‟s Cashemir, Piccolo e Medio Thibet e Turkistan

appeared from Turin in 1881. A comprehensive bibliography could be consulted in

author‟s bibliography of Kashmir for archaeologists (Ahmad: 2013). Among the

archaeologists who worked in Kashmir are Cunningham, Stein and John Marshall

but none of them excavated any site in the area under study. Ince’s Hand book of

Kashmir is a useful tool for the Sikh and Dogra period archaeology. Its 1869

edition exists in Colombia University Library.6 I am thankful to Dr. Tahira Saeed

for making its photographs available to me.

6

2.8 Chinese Sources

Fahian visited Kashmir in 399 CE. Che- Mong in 404-424 CE, Fa-Yong 420 CE,

Heun Tsiang reached Kashmir in 631 CE and mentioned the route he took via

Urash and Muzaffarabad to enter Kashmir in Si-yu-ki or the Travels of Heun

Tsang. Ou-Kong or Dharma Dattya followed the same route and reached Kashmir

in 759CE.

2.9 Research Works

S. Maqbul Ahmad and Raja Bano in Historical Geography of Kashmir failed to

give any useful information about the area under study (Ahmad & Bano 1984:196-

199). Cultural Heritage of Kashmir; A Survey of Kashmir’s contribution to

Sanskrit Literature by Sures Chandra Banerji 1965 Calcutta comprehensively

describes the Sanskrit literary sources of Kashmir(Banerji 1965:). Kak (1923)

wrote first ever book on the archaeology of a part of the area under study. He

visited Bhimber, Bahsoli, Ramnagar, Rajouri and Poonch. The outcome of this

survey was three books including Antiquities of Bhimber and Rajouri. It was first

published in the 14th

Issue of Memoirs of the Archaeological Survey of India.

Hutchison wrote histories of the Rajadoms of western Himalayas. His History of

Jammu, Poonch and Rajouri states was first published in the Journal of Punjab

Historical Society in volume 8 and 9. Later many other Rajadoms including these

two were included in his History of the hill states of Punjab volume 2. The

Results of archaeological survey of Azad Jammu and Kashmir jointly undergoing

by TIAC and AJK Department of Archaeology and Tourism are still unpublished

though scanty information is available in newspapers and on internet.

Cunningham‟s Ancient Geography of India (London 1871) and Stein‟s Memoires

on the Maps illustrating the Ancient Geography of Kashmir (Calcutta 1899) are

valuable sources of ancient routs and archaeological and historical topography of

Azad Jammu and Kashmir.7 Geography of Jammu and Kashmir by Majid Husain,

Written in 1938, Geography of Jammu and Kashmir by A. N. Raina written in

1916 and Geography of the Jammu and Kashmir State By Ananda Kaula

Published in 1925 are also important sources of historical geography of Kashmir.

Tribal geography of India Jammu and Kashmir by Mohammed Bashir Magray

(2003) is a useful source of the history of Rajadoms of AJK. A study of Kushan

Rule in Kashmir (2000) by Shazia Shafiq Jan, Some Aspects of the Administrative

Socio-Economic and Cultural Life of the People of Kashmir under the Sikhs

1819-1846 by Abdul Rashid Khanday, Kashmir Valley from end of Afghan rule

till its sale to Dogra Gulab Singh by Harmet Sethi, Some Aspects of the

Administrative Socio-Economic and Cultural Life of the People of Kashmir

7 Unfortunately this Stein’s work was republished as Cunningham’s work from Lahore in 1990 by Gagan

and Amar Pak Kashmir Publications Jhelum and printed by Sahar Printing Press Lahore. Even a fake

dedication by Cunningham was added in the beginning.

under the Sultans 1339-1586 by Farooq Ahmad Bhat, Economic History of

Kashmir during the Mughal Period 1586-1819 by Farzana Ashfaque, Kashmiri

Administration under Partap Singh by Muhammad saleem Khan, some ascpects

of the social history of the valley of Kashmir during the period 1847-1947 by

Farhat Jabeen and Kashmir under Gulab Singh (1978) by Phool Piaree Mam are

PhD Theses written by scholars of Kashmir University Srinagar provide some

useful information on the history and geography of the area under study.

All the literary sources mentioned above provide information about the history and

archaeology of the region now called Azad Jammu and Kashmir and adjacent

regions to a larger or shorter extent. In the following chapters this evidence will be

presented and analyzed in a manner never done before.

3 Research Problems

Very little research based on literary sources has been conducted so far on the

history and archaeology of AJK. This becomes apparent on a survey of available

published and non-published materials on the subject. This indicates that a

historical and archaeological sketch of the region based on literary evidence is

needed to lay a proper foundation for future archaeological investigations.8

4 Aims, Objectives and expected outcome of the research

Aims:

1. To develop a historical sketch of AJK based on available literary sources.

2. To collect all possible information about the Archeological remains of AJK

through a thorough study of available literary sources.

Objectives:

1. To understand the geo-political, social, cultural, religious and economic past

of AJK in a historical perspective through investigating literary sources.

8 Since the writing of this thesis an excavation is going on in Bhrund. Below is a note by the Field Director on

Facebook:

A Team of archaeologists led by Prof. Dr. M. Ashraf Khan, Director Taxila Institute of Asian Civilizations, Quaid-i-

Azam University, Islamabad, starts Excavations (Trail) at Bhrund Temple complex in village Bhrund (Potha)

Sehnsa Kotli Azad Jammu & Kashmir in the second week of March 2015. The project is funded by Higher

Education Commission of Pakistan under the Thematic Research Grant Programme Phase II. The theme of the

Project is Documentations of the Endangered Cultural Heritage of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Team members: Dr.

Ghani-ur- Rahman, Dr. Sadeed Arif, Rukhsana said Khan, Mr. Muhammad Ibrahim, Mr. Safdar Iqbal, MSc, MPhil

and PhD Students of TIAC have been working since 2013 to explore various aspects of cultural Heritage of AJ&K.

The purpose of this excavation is to define the level and features of archaeological potential of the site for further

research work or before extensive excavation work is undertaken.

https://www.facebook.com/media/set/?set=a.928476027184709.1073741842.118712658161054&type=1

2. To create an initial database of Archeological sites and monuments in AJK

based on literary sources.

3. To do a topographic study of the archaeological landscape of the region

under study by exploring the literary sources.

4. To improve our knowledge of ancient routes traversing the area under study

for the purpose of a better understanding of trade and Commerce & socio-

religious activity of silk route and its arteries.

5. Outcome

Present research will enable the reader to understand the region‟s past in a wider

perspective. This research is, therefore, highly significant as it takes onboard a

thorough study literary sources and there analysis. This work will lay foundation

for more research to understand AJK material culture in its historical context.

Moreover the ancient topographical sketching will help locate ancient urban

centers and the routes linking them with each other and with neighboring regions.

6. Methodology

This work addresses the above mentioned issues by fully exploring first hand and

secondary literary materials and previous historical and archaeological research to

prepare an “archaeo-historical” sketch of the area under study. In this connection

following methodology is used:

6.1 Data Collection

As mentioned earlier, both primary and secondary literary evidence was accessed,

studied and properly analyzed to seek solutions to the problems. In this connection,

the following device was used to collect relevant data for the current research:

6.2 Original Sources through library research

Original sources were consulted by directly accessing them or by obtaining

microfilms, digital prints and copies of the manuscripts from the libraries in

Pakistan and abroad.

6.3 Secondary data through library research

Secondary literary data was collected through academic research by accessing

libraries and personal collections.

6.4 Classification and analysis

After collecting the data based on literary evidence, the same was properly

organized, classified and analyzed. Analysis was done through comparison and

cross checking of the data to reach to the conclusions. Thus a thorough analysis of

literary evidence enables us to better understand the history and material cultural

past of the area under study. Moreover it enables us to answer many historical and

archaeological questions concerning the region with maximum level of accuracy.

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