High School Credentials for the Adult Learner: Alternative Pathways to High School Completion

Running Head: HIGH SCHOOL CREDENTIALS FOR THE ADULT LEARNER

Marlana Schnell

A capstone defense submitted to the graduate faculty

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Major: Education (Education Leadership and Policy Studies)

Community College Leadership

Program of Study Committee:

Major Professor Jan Friedel

Larry H. Ebbers

Frankie Laanan

Soko Starobin

Jan Westerman-Beatty

Iowa State University

Ames, Iowa

HIGH SCHOOL CREDENTIALS FOR THE ADULT LEARNER 2

Abstract

For almost seventy years, the only option available to adult students seeking a high school

equivalency was the General Equivalency Development exam, the GED. Students who leave

high school without a diploma or equivalent face an uphill battle in obtaining employment,

entering the armed forces or entering college programs. The state of Iowa is interested in

identifying options to earning this credential, outside of three tests currently available.

This literature review and state high school equivalency information covers every state, and

is a tool to inform policy decisions considered by the state of Iowa.

Federal funding for adult education is trending downward, and states must make difficult

budget decisions. At the same time, the need for increasing options for completion of high

school equivalency is at an all-time high. President Obama’s College Completion Agenda and

workforce skills shortages are driving the push for more completers. For students enrolling in

adult basic education, the decision to enter diploma programs is fraught with multiple obstacles.

High School Credentials for the Adult Learner

Alternative Pathways to High School Completion

Recent data indicates that nearly 39 million adults in the United States do not have a high

school diploma. According to the US Census Bureau (2012) over 223,688 Iowans’ over eighteen

do not have a high school credential. Individuals lacking a high school equivalency diploma face

the highest unemployment rates and the lowest annual wages as compared to all education level

groups. (Census Bureau, 2012). Iowa Department of Education, Division of Community

Colleges is in the unique position of changing the landscape in Iowa for adult students seeking a

high school credential. Iowa Administrative Code 260C-1 designates Iowa community colleges

as the provider of education and support for adults over the age of 18, in need of a credential.

History and changes for high school equivalency

Iowa was the birthplace of the General Equivalency Diploma (GED) (NPR & WAMU,

2013). In the 1940’s, Everet Franklin Lindquist was a professor and researcher at University of

Iowa. He served as an advisor to the United States Armed Forces Institute and to the American

Council on Education (ACE). Lindquist played a major role in formulating policies with respect

to granting academic credit for general educational growth during military service. These

policies resulted in the development of the General Educational Development Test (GED).

Lindquist oversaw the creation of the initial forms of the GED, modeled after the Iowa Test of

Educational Development.

In 1959 Lindquist and Ted McCarrel, registrar at the University of Iowa, cofounded the

American College Testing Program (ACT) as an alternative to the College Entrance Examination

Board. Lindquist was personally responsible for the design and development of the early editions

of the ACT tests. All of these tests continue to be the standard requirement for college admission

in the early twenty-first century.

The first generation of GED tests, developed in 1942, reflected an industrial era when a

high school education was sufficient for many jobs. Initially, completing GED tests provided a

credential to those entering or leaving the military, specifically, World War II era veterans.

(GED, Testing, & Service, 2013). The GED covers five subject areas, language arts- comprised

of two separate reading and writing tests, social studies, science, and mathematics. Taking the

GED test was initially limited to soldiers and adults over the age of 18. Eventually, many states

authorized the test in lieu of high school completion for students 16 and over, who dropped out

of traditional high school. Oversight of the GED was originally provided by the American

Council on Education (ACE) and ACE implemented significant changes in test design, 1978,

1988 and 2002. The test grew more applicable to real-life and the developers provided greater

emphasis on inclusive language that reflected the more diverse pool of test takers. ACE added

writing samples and developed questions that demonstrated critical thinking and problem solving

skills. (GED et al., 2013) The biggest change, however, occurred in 2011, when the American

Council on Education (ACE) and Pearson VUE joined to create a new public-private partnership

known as the GED Testing Service that drives the future direction, design, and delivery of the

GED® testing program. Nearly 800,000 GED Tests are taken each year, and in 2011, more than

453,000 individuals were awarded their high school credential. (NPR & WAMU, 2013; Pearson,

2013; Sieben, 2011). The public-private venture doubled the price of the GED from $60 per

assessment to $120. GED/Pearson VUE defends the higher price by providing a comprehensive

suite of services, such as transcripts and practice tests that purport to offer more value. (Elmer,

2013). Also compelling the shift in price is the transformation of the GED to conform to K-12

common-core standards for the subject areas. While ACE touted the shift as a necessary step in

improve the GED and provide better service to students in common core knowledge areas, the

announcement sparked a national dialogue regarding the costs, options, and validity, of general

testing for high school equivalency. (Fain, 2013) ACE also eliminated the paper and pencil

exams and required complete transition to computerized testing and scoring. The changes shook

the foundation for education providers that depend on this service to remediate high school

dropouts. The announcement spurred competition in this arena for the first time in United States

history.

For clarity sake, a brief description of the two test alternatives follows, because education

leaders across the nation first had to consider the testing options. (Fain, 2013) The Iowa

Department of Education opened a competitive-bidding process to review the options. In

addition to GED, two other testing platforms surfaced, the High School Equivalency Test

(HiSET), and Test Assessing Secondary Completion (TASC). (Fain, 2013) One assumption of

this research is that there are viable options to earn a high school equivalency outside of the three

tests in the United States that are replicable. Furthermore, the client does not have an interest in

research focused on the newly emerging competitors for GED.

The HiSET exam was developed and promoted by Education Testing Service, ETS (2013) in

Iowa City, Iowa. ETS developed and administers the Graduate Record Examination, (GRE), and

Advanced Placement, (AP), tests nationwide, so there is a great deal of name recognition and

credibility about the organization. The HiSET test is modular, so that students can take test

subjects separately, and HiSET covers the same subject areas as GED; mathematics, reading and

writing (referred to as language arts) social studies and science. The HiSET offers pencil and

paper exams, English and Spanish versions and the cost per test administration for both the

paper- and computer-delivered versions is $50 for the full battery and $15 for a single subtest.

CTB/McGraw Hill (2013) developed the Test Assessing Secondary Completion, (TASC),

which too, covers the core five subjects. (Hill, 2013). According to McGraw Hill, TASC looks

like GED, claiming to measure examinees' levels of achievement and readiness for college and

the workforce as outlined by the Common Core State Standards1. This exam is also available in

English and Spanish. The vendor advertises immediate scoring for computer-based tests while

paper-based and writing tests scores are available through mailing to CTB/McGraw-Hill. The

price for this exam is set at $54.00, in January 2014, which includes materials and scoring.

Upon completion of the competitive bidding process, Iowa Department of Education chose

the HiSET, based on the price, the availability of paper-pencil testing materials, and the support

for an Iowa-operated enterprise.

Ultimately, this project represents a response to Iowa education leaders who are interested in

offering multiple pathways to demonstrate high school proficiency, in order to increase the

number of completers.(Skills2Compete, 2013) The report intends to provide:

1. Complete review of literature regarding options for basic education and literacy as it

relates to high school completion for adults ages eighteen and over.

2. Discover high school completion options used in the United States, outside of traditional

assessments (GED or HiSET or TASC) and develop a table to provide as much detail as

1 The state-led effort to develop the Common Core State Standards launched in 2009 by state leaders, including

governors and state commissioners of education from 48 states, two territories and the District of Columbia, through

their membership in the National Governors Association Center for Best Practices (NGA Center) and the Council of

Chief State School Officers (CCSSO). State school chiefs and governors recognized the value of consistent, real-

world learning goals and launched this effort to ensure all students, regardless of where they live, are graduating

high school prepared for college, career, and life. http://www.corestandards.org/about-the-standards/development-

process/

possible, such as costs, staffing requirements, training requirements, issuing authority,

contact information, methodology and outcomes.

3. Prepare materials to present to designated officials, representatives, and task force,

regarding these topic issues and reporting to Department of Education.

Problem Statement

The adult education system faces monumental financial and policy challenges, just when

higher education and credentials are becoming more important than ever for individuals and the

economy. (M. Foster, McLendon, L. , 2012; Strawn, 2007).

According to Iowa’s state Administrative Code, 260C.1, community colleges are the

authorized provider of secondary credentials for adults in Iowa. (IDOE, 2013). Most students in

Iowa successfully receive a high school diploma, given the 92% graduation rate reported by the

state.(Chronicle.com, 2014). All 50 states calculate graduation rates in the same manner, a result

of a National Governors Association agreement in 2009. The first report from all 50 states started

reporting the same way occurred in 2010-2011, where 26 states reported lower graduation rates

and 24 states reported unchanged or increased rates, compared to their prior reporting practices.

(Chronicle.com, 2014).

Unfortunately, according to (Ryder, 2013) if a student drops out of high school, the chance

that he will complete an equivalency exam is extremely low. Research suggests students need an

average at least 100 hours of instruction to advance a grade level and 110 hours to move up one

level in English ability. (Strawn, 2007). Conversely, Strawn (2007) also reports that most

students who enroll in adult basic education courses complete less than fifty hours of adult basic

education before dropping out. In the GED Testing Service annual report for 2012, data indicates

only .8% of eligible Iowa dropouts actually passed a GED test. This demonstrates need for

alternatives for this population. It also begs the question: why do not more students participate in

programs to increase their education attainment. When less than one percent of the population

participates in the only available option, institutions need to consider different options.

Numerous researchers report that students who do not complete a high school equivalency are at

great risk of never completing any educational program. (Strawn, 2007) (Ryder, 2013).

One benefit of completing a high school credential widely reported is the increase in lifetime

wages. Additionally, students who successfully complete a high school equivalency report

increased enrollment and persistence in postsecondary education. States also benefit from the

increased tax revenues, reductions in request for state and federal assistance programs and

increased education outcomes for future generations of students. Human capital theorist would

agree in the generational gain for families who seek higher education. (J. J. Heckman, J. E.

Humphries, & N. S. Mader, 2010; Ryder, 2013; Strawn, 2007).

Iowa joins many states and countries around the world in the need for building and

maintaining an educated workforce. According to a policy report presented by Iowa

Skills2Compete Coalition, by 2020, 85 percent of jobs in Iowa’s labor market will require a high

school diploma or equivalency and beyond, demonstrating a robust demand for skilled workers.

The Skills2Compete Coalition is a statewide partnership of Iowa’s business, community,

education, legislative, and workforce development leaders that serve as a voice for skills and

build policymaker support for state policies that grow Iowa’s economy by investing in its

workforce. (Skills2Compete, 2013).

This work coincides well with President Obama’s ambitious agenda to encourage states and

institutions to increase the level of college completers across the United States. The

administration announced the 2020 College Completion Agenda, committed to increasing the

number of community college students completing a degree or other credential by 50% upwards

of 5 million students by the year 2020(Whitehouse.gov, 2013). The reality is that the United

States lags as compared to many industrialized nations in the global market for education

achievement. National and state economies stand to improve with an educated workforce.

(Assistance, 2012; 2013). Additionally, employers are already facing a skills shortage that has

the potential to reach endemic proportions. (Manpower, 2013).

A study by Federal Reserve economists examined the factors contributing to greater state

prosperity over a 65-year period and found that a state’s high school and college attainment rates

were important factors in explaining its per capita income growth relative to other states between

1939 and 2004 (Bauer, Schweitzer, & Shane, 2006). The authors reflect on a states “knowledge

stock,” or the proportion of the population with at least a high school degree, the proportion of

the state’s population with at least a bachelor’s degree, and the stock of patents held by people or

businesses in the state.

A state’s stock of knowledge is the main factor explaining its relative level of per capita

personal income. If state policymakers want to improve their state’s economic performance,

then they should concentrate on effective ways of boosting their stock of knowledge.

Ultimately, to grow Iowa’s knowledge stock, we must increase the number of high school

graduates. The problem statement is two-fold. Iowa needs more students to earn a high school

equivalency diploma, for all of the aforementioned reasons, and adult basic education providers

need to identify multiple effective pathways to motivate students to completion.

Literature Review

Providing multiple options to complete a high school credential can pave the way for more

students to attend postsecondary education. In conducting this review of literature, the objective

is to identify options that work and that effectively move students toward completing a high

school credential. In order to serve this population, practitioners and funders need to understand

what is lacking in programs and how the existing programs can be improved.

Unfortunately, the majority of high school dropouts in the United States do not earn a high

school equivalency diploma, even over the long run. While longitudinal studies that track adult

education student outcomes over several years are rare, those studies that do exist reveal that

most adult education participants do not participate beyond a few months and typically 70

percent or more do not earn a GED (Bos, Scrivener, Snipes, & G., 2002). In Iowa, among

11,675 Iowa high school dropouts who enrolled in the General Education Development (GED)

preparation program during the 2003-04 fiscal years, less than a third (31.5 percent or 3,680)

earned a GED by the end of the 2009 fiscal year. Just 12.9 percent of them (1,504) went on to

enroll in community college, and only 2 percent (229) completed a community college credential

by the end of June 2010. (Bos et al., 2002);(Ryder, 2013).

Profiling needs of the adult basic education student

Adult secondary education focuses on the courses and curriculum designed to remediate

students who did not complete a high school education or have completed a diploma but need

remediation that is not credit bearing or college-level, in one or more areas to achieve academic

success. (Ryder, 2013) Generally students are seeking assistance to pass tests, GED in the past

and now HiSET, in Iowa. Some non-native students need English language remediation,

regardless of the level of education they received in their country of origin, as the language

barrier is one that prohibits them from moving forward in their goals of higher education or

employment in the United States.

This paper will focus on serving adults that seek a high school diploma or equivalency.

Many of the recent research articles define the end goal as transition to postsecondary

institutions. (Ryder, 2013; Strawn, 2007; Tighe, Barnes, Connor, & Steadman, 2013)Most of the

research conducted with adult learners focuses on literacy or numeracy gains, teaching strategies

and attempts to improve persistence or retention. (Ritt, 2008; TEAL, 2011)

Students seeking adult education generally have one of two goals in mind, employment

or high school completion. A 2003 national survey of adult learners conducted by the GED

Testing Service found that 44 percent had “high school completion” as a goal and that another 34

percent were seeking “a better job.” Among those taking the GED test in 2010, 30 percent were

taking the test for “employment” goals, while 66 percent had the goal of “further education.” (T.

S. GED, 2013).

At the same time, adult students face multiple barriers to success. Adult learning theorist

and researcher, Patricia Cross (1981), categorized three clusters of barriers that typically play a

critical role in adult learners’ participation or non-participation in educational programs. Since

these are widely accepted and minimally modified throughout the literature, these three clusters

helped to inform and organize the content of this study. (Cross, 1981).

Institutional barriers, consisting of those systemic barriers typically created by the

educational institutions themselves—geographic inaccessibility, “red tape,” credit

transfer issues, ineffective teaching, educational costs, and others.

Situational barriers, comprised of barriers in home and life situations—lack of family

support, lack of childcare, illness, lack of transport, pregnancy, and others.

Dispositional barriers, referring to individual perceptions as developed through

experiences, which, in this case, influence participants’ views of formal education. These

can create, for instance, concerns over the ability to succeed in education, distrust of

teachers/administrators, concern over large classes, doubts about the real value or

relevance of formal education, and others.

Through this grouping, policy makers and leaders can adjust their focus based on the

student or institutional needs.

Institutional Barriers

Funds are tight, and federal funding for adult basic education decreased steadily over the

past four years. In 2010, Adult Education-Basic Grants to all states were at an all-time high of

$628,221,000.00, and by 2013, the Department of Education awarded only $563,954,515. This

represents a decrease in federal funding of $64,266,485 (or 10%.) (Ed.gov, 2013). Iowa’s piece

of the federal pie was $3,639,113 in 2010 decreasing to $3,511,118 by 2013, a difference of

nearly $128,000 (almost 4%). These lost funds might equal reduction in force of two or three

full-time teachers in a basic education program. Conversely, that reduction could mean fewer

hours of classes offered at several institutions across the state.

Do increases in funding equate to better outcomes for students? The answer, according to

most researchers, is yes, especially in higher education. Research conducted by Wolff, Baumol,

& Saini, (2014) contends that America funds education at a rate higher than most comparable

nations, with significantly lower outcomes in primary and secondary school cognitive testing.

Wolff, et.al (2014) also points out that while America puts forth a great deal of funding into the

education of its citizenry, the funding does not grow at the same rate at which the growth is seen

in other sectors of society. In fact, after a thorough review, the Wolff, et.al, (2014) points out that

the United States is increasing funding for education at one of the slower paces observed around

the world. Human capital theorists maintain that higher investments in education result in

increased benefits to the society. (Becker, 1975) Economists tend to agree; based on recent

literature and research on endogenous growth theory, modest investments by governments in

education can revive or encourage development of a society’s economy. Public spending on

higher education has a positive and significant effect on increasing college enrollment.

Unfortunately, investment in primary and secondary education does not show the same effect for

college enrollment. (Yang & McCall, 2014)The economy fluctuated wildly during that (2010-

2013) period, in fact, real estate prices went up, community college enrollment went down,

(NSCRC, 2014), unemployment went down, the cost of living increased significantly. The

impact on programs that serve students who are at the lowest education levels is unknown, as

national and state data on enrollment for ABE programs is scarce.

Assessment needs

Every adult participates in an assessment before embarking in a high school equivalency

program in Iowa. Literacy and numeracy assessments, (CASAs in Iowa) assist instructors in

determining placement for adult education. Community colleges also use other assessment tools

for college enrollment like COMPASS, while workforce centers might use the Test of Adult

Basic Education (TABE). These assessments serve a specific purpose, as the student and the

instructor need to know where to begin class work. Assessments cost money for the community

colleges that administer them. A quick look at the 2014 CASAS catalog itemizes 100 answer

sheets for $58.00, 10 different level tests for reading, each costing $75.00 for a packet of 25 tests

(which are reusable, since students use the answer sheets) and 8 different level tests for math,

also costing $75.00 each for a set of 25. There is a writing assessment requirement, for which

CASAS details a starter kit for $360.00. There are also costs for manuals and training for the

assessor. Totaling costs for this assessment tool kit in a general testing center at a community

college reveals expenses of over $2000.00. Some of those materials are reusable, but others

reflect costs that only serve the first 100 students. In addition, there are the cost of infrastructure,

facilities, staff, and equipment. GED Testing Service (2012) reported over 5200 students tested

for GED in Iowa, 2012. It is likely that thousands more students entered the doors of Iowa’s

forty-two testing centers and took CASAS at a significant cost to the state and the institutions

that serve these students. Assessment is necessary and the expenditure is necessary. In addition,

students entering testing centers complete the TOPSPro assessment, which is an intake tool

providing necessary demographic data so that the state can monitor the number of students

engaging in adult education assessments and have a benchmark with which to determine growth

and needs. TOPSPro is a tool that ensures Iowa receives funding for serving its students. State

administrators submit the data to the National Reporting System, (NRS) to prove eligibility to

receive the Adult Education Basic Grants from the US Department of Education. (IDOE, 2013)

Obviously, a quality literacy assessment is a very important tool for administrators and

providers of adult education, but another type of assessment arose in the literature: should

programs focus on assessing cognitive (literacy and numeracy skills) or noncognitive (softer

skills, life skills, ability to persist) functioning? Cross (1981) refers to students facing

dispositional barriers, mentioned earlier in this review. Noncognitive skills , sometimes referred

to as soft skills, include those personality traits, persistence, motivation and charm that matter for

success in life.(J. Heckman, 2010). Dispositional barriers have similar characteristics to the

description of noncognitive skills. Much research in the last twenty years indicates a need to

focus on noncognitive development for nontraditional students. Sedlacek (2004) builds a case

for assessing noncognitive skills because these skills are not academic (cognitive) and they are

not assessable through commonly administered cognitive tests such as CASA’s, COMPASS,

TABE or SAT. Additionally, students who completed GED’s do not perform in earnings and

educational pursuits any better than their counterparts who never finished a diploma. According

to research conducted by Heckman et al., (2010)

GED (recipients) fail to perform at the level of high school graduates. We show that

noncognitive deficits, such as lack of persistence, low self-esteem, low self-efficacy, and

high propensity for risky behavior explain the lack of success for many GEDs.

Heckman conducted research specifically on GED students and the correlated economic

gains or losses through acquiring this credential. He claims that GED completers score

comparable to their high school diploma counterparts in cognitive ability. However, the GED

completers do not have the same social outcomes as high school completers. This begs the

question: If the GED student had the same academic skills, why is he not reaping the same social

benefits as the high school completers? Terminal GEDs and uncredentialed dropouts have nearly

identical distributions of noncognitive ability while high school graduates demonstrate

significantly higher levels of noncognitive attributes. (Heckman, 2010) Much of Heckman’s

work provides in-depth analysis of the noncognitive attributes of those high school and GED

completers. His research is important to this review since so many students who need adult

education do not pursue it. Is the high school dropout that avoids education opportunity a by-

product of institutional barriers, extensive academic needs or lack of noncognitive skills (or a

combination of all three?) Research on noncognitive traits holds that social investments in the

development of noncognitive factors yield high payoffs in improved educational outcomes as

well as reduced racial or ethnic and gender disparities in school performance and educational

attainment.((Farrington et al., 2012); (J. Heckman, 2010)). While developing or possessing

noncognitive characteristics is useful for all students, they are particularly critical for

nontraditional students, since standardized tests and prior grades provide only a limited view of

their potential. (Sedlacek, 2004)writes, "Traditional tests do not give us information on a range

of attributes that are crucial to those who have not been socialized in traditional ways." (p. 141)

Adults seeking high school credentials are not traditional students. Sedlacek advises an

evaluation in eight critical areas: (see Table 1. Appendix I) these areas illustrate what is

important in assessing noncognitive traits as administrators consider options to assist

nontraditional students in the development of skills for education endeavors.

Methodology

The empirical framework for this study draws upon the “perfect timing” of rapid changes

in the structure and dissemination of information in the United States since GED privatized in

2011. (T. S. GED, 2013) Upon announcement of the change, purveyors of the GED had to notify

the student population and those that utilize the assessments of the changes forthcoming and all

states had to evaluate their decision to keep the GED test in its newer form or to adopt other

options. The author went to every state website for high school completion, (workforce

development offices, departments of education, or combination therein) and scrutinized each of

those offices to see if they had notified students of the impending changes. One hundred percent

of the fifty states reported that GED had changed and/or that the state was adopting new options.

In some cases, (i.e., HI, MA, WI) there were options for students prior to the GED

announcement, and it was still evident that the state had updated their contacts and information.

Some states, (i.e., HI, NJ, and WA) documented the changes in memos that were public

documents accessible on the web. Because this change affects every state of the union, this was a

rare opportunity to document how the states responded to this change. Documentation of their

response is included in Appendix 2 and when state offices did not have extensive office

information, they were contacted by phone to verify state leads or changes in leadership.

The initial document and information yielded almost fifty pages of excel spreadsheets

which was cumbersome to review and difficult to print. The author narrowed the descriptions of

the high school options to condense the document, while keeping the extensive detailed

information on file, should readers require more information than provided in the appendix, the

information is available from the author, just as a qualitative researcher would keep his/her

transcripts from interviews with study participants.

Promising Practices a Scan of the 50 States

Adult basic and secondary education has not changed very much in over fifty years.

Teaching theory continues to change through the years, but achieving a high school equivalency

diploma has not changed (Broadus, 2013). GED, serving as the only option for fifty years,

experienced continuing growth in both participation and numbers of completers. (Sieben, 2011)

Recent efforts to create a more dynamic experience for students seeking adult education include

more classroom participation and less self-directed work. Unfortunately, little research is

available on programs that are utilizing noncognitive assessments to determine fit for high school

equivalency options.

The information available on individual States’ adult education web sites indicate that

adult education providers are moving toward increasing advising and mentoring with their

students. Education for adults is beginning to shift. Few states offer a menu of options for the

adult learner, but more states are moving in that direction than witnessed in the past.(Future,

2013; Robert Balfanz, 2009) GED held a monopoly for adult high school equivalency in

America for almost 70 years. Even before ACT announced its intention to change structure and

funding, organizations around the country were beginning to look at this population as having

untapped potential. (Rumberger & Lamb, 2003; Skills2Compete, 2013)The prediction of a

baby-boomer workforce coming into retirement age sent workforce strategists, business and

education leaders into problem-solving mode. Evaluating state and regional policy as it

pertained to prospective employees led a direct path to the hundreds of thousands of Iowans who

do not possess a high school credential. In recent years, the focus on workforce needs and

economic needs appears to be driving change in adult education.

Included in Appendix 2 is a scan of all 50 states with their respective testing, alternative

programs and contact information. Some strategies are too new to document without

longitudinal data or research to verify outcomes. Some of the most promising strategies show

potential because they integrate interventions grounded in existing research. It is with this lens

that the author reviews several alternatives.

The most common option observed in the States are adult high school equivalency

programs that become centers for adult basic and secondary education, equivalency assessments

(GED, HiSET and TASC) and classes, English as a Second Language (ESL/ESOL) and other

continuing education or workforce offerings. Most fall under the administrative umbrella of

state departments of education, while departments of workforce development operate others.

Notably, three states (Indiana, Maryland, and Texas) moved their adult education from

“department of education” to “departments of labor or workforce development” in the last five

years. This is probably due to the receipt of funds funneled through federal Department of Labor-

Workforce Investment Act funds, which assist in funding remedial education as a part of

workforce development, provided to States since 1998. Students that demonstrate eligibility can

use this funding to support obtaining a high school credential. According to the Act: “(1) Adult

education. The term “adult education” means services or instruction below the postsecondary

level for individuals--

(A) “who have attained 16 years of age,

(B) who are not enrolled or required to be enrolled in secondary school under State law;

(C) who

(i) lack sufficient mastery of basic educational skills to enable the individuals to

function effectively in society;

(ii) do not have a secondary school diploma or its recognized equivalent, and have not

achieved an equivalent level of education; or

(iii) are unable to speak, read, or write the English language.”

In 2013, Iowa received $3,365,888 for adult activities funding from WIA (Department

of Labor) and $4,479,610 in funding for dislocated workers. These are considered Title I funds.

Fifteen state workforce regions manage the federal funds received by Iowa Department of

Workforce Development. It appears that in the states where the adult education function has

moved to department of workforce or labor, the states have effectively combined administration

of Title I and Title II funds. According to “An Analysis of Adult Education (Title II) Provisions

in WIA Reauthorization Proposals” CLASP report in (2012),

Collaboration between workforce and adult education partners is difficult, and they have

few strong incentives to work together. Even when state and local partners take great

strides to collaborate, they encounter significant barriers. These include different and

conflicting performance measures … (and) lack of unified state plans requiring

collaboration.

Most states promote testing with GED and some have switched to HiSET and/or TASC,

and provide free or low-fee remedial course work as a means to obtaining the secondary

credential.

Many states also provide coursework and testing to obtain an adult high school diploma;

CA, CT, DE, FL, HI, IL, IN, IA, ME, MA, MI, MS, OR, NV, NC, SC, TN, TX, UT, VT, VA,

WA, are among them. Often operated by community colleges, these centers provide a one-stop

shop atmosphere, assessing the students’ academic needs and referring to the appropriately

leveled courses for the student skill levels. Most charge tuition, yet others, such as ME, TN and

VT, reportedly offers free high school level courses to adults seeking a diploma. This option

works well for students who have already earned significant credits. In many cases, including

Iowa, the course offerings at community colleges are available year-round, but the adult students

pay tuition. Some states, like CA, IN, MA, NJ and SC, still require completion of state-mandated

exit exams after completion of high school level coursework. In Iowa, students enroll in high

school completion courses; Kirkwood, Iowa Lakes and Des Moines Area Community Colleges

(DMACC) offer these, designed as independent study courses. The cost in Iowa, however, can be

prohibitive, adult high school course tuition at DMACC starts at $100 per credit. A student

without financial means might avoid this option even if the individual only needed five credits

($500) to complete. That expense helps cover the administrative work of evaluating transcripts

and offering instruction, but the student pays considerably for the class, books and any necessary

fees. Unfortunately, this disincentive prohibits many students from seeking a high school

diploma and opting for the much less expensive testing option through GED or HiSET, etc. The

states that offer free courses are often using Department of Labor Workforce Investment Act

(WIA), Title II funds, designed to assist nontraditional students in obtaining an alternative high

school diploma. (Appendix 2)

Several states, CT, DC, HI, MD, MA, MN, NY, RI, UT, VA, VT, and WI are offering

adult high school equivalency diplomas that combine credits with work experience, life

experiences, and other competency-based measures to earn the credential. The detail for each

state option is in the all-state scan. (Appendix 2). Some are opting to use the model designed by

CASAs called National Equivalency Diploma Program (NEDP). The program is self-paced,

flexible and has no timed tests. Students meet weekly with assessors to demonstrate high school

level abilities by applying them in simulated, real-life situations. This program is for self-

directed adult students who are comfortable working independently at home for several hours a

week. The program takes an average of three to twelve months to complete and yields a high

school diploma, which can lead to college, advanced job training, or military service. Costs are

more for those that administer this program; the assessment costs are $100 for all assessments

and site fees are $850 per year. Staff costs may increase temporarily due to the learning curve

that learning a new system entails, and research indicates the caseload for an advisor to student is

about 1:6 on average. This is more expensive to operate than the traditional testing program, as

most adult education classes in Iowa average 1:15. Data on outcomes is largely unavailable, as

this program rolled out nationally in 2012. The research to provide options is clear and states are

attempting to administer programs that provide a more balanced approach to competency-based

learning and assessment. The benefit to students can be significant, Maryland, for example,

charges $200.00 to students who select this option.

Of those mentioned above that are creating competency-based diploma options, HI, MA,

VT, VA, WA and WI have created their own individual hybrid competency-based options.

Hawaii’s program, referred to as Competency Based Community School Diploma (CBCS)

promotes two phases, the academic and the career phase as follows: (Hawaii Department of

Education website, 2013)

Academic — Phase 1

1. Students must attend classes regularly. Each student must be present at a minimum of

75 percent of the total number of class sessions for each unit in order to fulfill this

requirement.

2. Students must complete the required number of student tasks before taking the Unit

Test in any of the five knowledge areas.

3. Students must score 70 percent or better on the Unit Test in order to pass each unit.

4. Students must score 70 percent or better on the CBHSDP Mastery Test as the final

requirement to pass Phase I.

Career — Phase 2

The student must decide before the end of the first unit, which of the career choices

he/she intends to pursue.

1. Advanced Academic: The student must be enrolled in an accredited post-secondary

school.

2. Occupational/Vocational: Employment: The student must be gainfully employed on a

regular basis for not less than 100 hours over a period of at least three months. A letter

verifying employment must be submitted to the school.

◦ Obtain or possess a marketable skill: The student must submit a state license, certificate

of completion or other official document indicating that he has a marketable skill or is

enrolled in an acceptable training program.

3. Home Management: After passing the Mastery Test, the student must demonstrate to a

Board of Examiners, by means of an oral examination, whether he has acquired the skills

necessary to manage a household effectively (including nutrition, first aid, personal

hygiene and good health practices, family care, household legal issues, etc.).

4. Life Management: Upon passing the Mastery test, the student must pass an oral

interview administered by a panel of examiners demonstrating that she possesses the

ability and skills to manage her life (including issues involving, health, consumer

economics, time management, anger management, goal setting, etc.).

Wisconsin, has been offering hybrid diploma options for the longest period. The state

statute that provides this system provides a waiver for adult pathways to a regular diploma.2 A

school board may grant a high school diploma to a pupil who has not satisfied the credit

requirements if the student is enrolled in an alternative education program and demonstrates a

level of proficiency in the subject’s credit areas.

Competency Based

Project Based

GED Option #2

Conversion of HSED to a regular diploma

This provides Wisconsin Department of Education the flexibility to create ways for the

student to demonstrate competency. There is extensive documentation and regulation behind the

options that Wisconsin provides, all of which is available through the state website, but would be

too lengthy to add to this review.

Additionally in Washington State, officials are creating a high school equivalency

program that is competency-based for adult learners 21 and older who do not have a GED or

high school diploma called “HS21+”. Adults demonstrate competencies in reading, writing and

2 See (Wisconsin State Statute) §118.15 (1) (b) (c) (d) Stats. For complete description, (d) A school board may grant

a high school diploma to a pupil who has not satisfied the requirements under par. (a) If all of the following apply: 1.

the pupil was enrolled in an alternative education program, as defined in s. 115.28 (7) (e) 1.2. The school board

determines that the pupil has demonstrated a level of proficiency in the subjects listed in par. (a) Equivalent to that

which he or she would have attained if he or she had satisfied the requirements under par. (a).

math contextualized in science, history, government, occupational studies and digital literacy.

Many options are available to demonstrate competency: high school and college transcript

credits, work, life, military experience, prior learning portfolio, credit for testing, etc. This

program intends to expand HS completion options already offered by community and technical

colleges to include a comprehensive approach that aligns with adult learning styles and includes

competency-based assessments that demonstrate the academic, career and personal competencies

needed in further education/training and/or employment. Students are eligible for basic skills

tuition, $25.00 per quarter. This work is newly emerging; the proposal to begin work on HS21+

in Washington began in 2013 and is still in the construction phase. Washington State Board of

Community and Technical Colleges developed a google site to store their education rubrics and

work plans. (https://sites.google.com/site/adulthighschooldiploma/)

Texas is also in the process of building a hybrid adult high school diploma, in addition to

an Industry Certification Charter School Pilot Program for adults ages 19-50. Texas SB 1142 by

Sen. Robert Duncan creates a drop out recovery pilot program for adults ages 19 to 50. The

program will allow adults up to age 50 to obtain a high school diploma while pursuing career and

technical education in a high-demand occupation. At the end of the 2013 legislative session,

Texas announced passage of SB 307 establishing a new adult education advisory committee to

develop a statewide strategy for improving student transitions to postsecondary education and

career and technical education training. There is a great deal of change expected as Governor

Rick Perry, TX, moved authority of adult education from the Texas Education Agency to the

Texas Workforce Commission in the fall of 2013.

Many states are offering distance learning or online remediation and coursework to

provide around the clock services to nontraditional students, (FL, IL, KS, MI, MD, NE, NC and

OK, TX). Costs vary in each state and online offerings are stronger in some states than others.

Unfortunately, providers recognize that with the changes in testing assessments in the last 12

months, much of the online assistance offered by previous providers is outdated and not revised

to reflect the new assessments. Iowa does not have an adult basic education online offering since

changing from GED to HiSET. Texas, however, and other states that have maintained their

agreements with GED, have increased their online offerings and even developed entire high

school completion options online. One would expect decreased overhead when offering online

courses, as there is a decrease in the need for numbers of teachers, physical location, and even

materials costs, via online websites. However, a high school education with University of Texas

(UT) Online High School can be an expensive option for adult students looking to complete a

diploma. In Texas, traditional high schools are publicly funded based on student daily

attendance. UT does not receive public funding and is funded through the course tuition that

students pay. An estimated cost for a student entering as a ninth grader without any high school

credits is $9,000 plus textbooks and some additional fees, such as lab kits, when enrolling in

science courses. For students that do not have a financial problem paying those fees for services,

students over the age of 21 can register from any city, state, or country. The UTHS is similar to

Texas public schools in that, students must satisfy the same graduation requirements (number of

credits, courses, and Texas Assessment of Knowledge and Skills exam) before a diploma is

issued.

Another strategy that states promote are scholarships and incentive-based, such as New

Mexico, West Virginia and Wyoming: where they offer scholarships to attend in-state two-year

or four-year universities upon successful completion of high school equivalency.

In Pennsylvania and Washington State, earning college credits can earn a student a high

school diploma. Pennsylvania requires at least 30 approved credits from an accredited college,

and in Washington State, those that earn an associate degree can request to receive a high school

diploma, even if they have not otherwise met the high school graduation requirement. This might

work well for non-natives who come to the country to complete higher education options.

According to federal guidelines for financial aid, this too, would be difficult for students from

poverty, as they would have to finance their entire degree on their own. Current federal policy is

such that students are not eligible for federal financial aid without completing a high school

credential.

Construct the alternatives

Given the state’s general interest in student success and the workforce development and

economic underpinnings that tie higher education with improved earnings for the individual and

improved outcomes in the economy at large, the theoretical framework used to explore the data

falls under human capital theory. Earnings are influenced by many factors other than education,

including experience, compensating wage differentials for job characteristics or employee

benefit levels, and luck. Those who make educational investments expect a return, in terms of

either money or utility, and they will not invest if the expected returns are too low (Heckman,

et.al, 2010; Becker, 2009). Tinto, Bandera and Beder all write extensively with regard to adult

persistence in higher education. Persistence theory for adult learners – a theory from the higher

education literature used to explain how adult learners decide to enroll in and finish a college

program or choose to stop-out or dropout of postsecondary education, will be a lens with which

to examine the efficacy of alternatives from the perspective of the participants therein.

Considering the state has a stake in improving outcomes for the participants of adult education,

focus on the relationships between students’ backgrounds, academic performance, personal

circumstances, goals, and satisfaction and their intent to persist to completion or leave will be an

integral piece of determining successful program options.

While we know that more students need to complete their diploma and more options are

necessary, the question remains, which options are the best for the state of Iowa? Because the

options described are so new, there is minimal information available to the outcomes they yield.

As noted, it might behoove administrators to consider additional assessments to promote fit and

functionality for students. Completion of a GED has historically yielded less positive outcomes

than completion of a high school diploma. (J. Heckman, J. Humphries, & N. Mader, 2010).

Individuals’ lack of noncognitive skills is a predictor of problems with persistence and

completion. State administrators and education leaders should discuss the value of adding

noncognitive assessments to better place students seeking a secondary credential. The bulk of

options available in the US are of these five categories:

Testing-GED, HiSET or TASC, already exists in Iowa

High school completion- already exists in Iowa; but pricey and largely independent

study. This option requires completion of necessary high school classes to complete all

necessary requirements of high school to earn a diploma.

Hybrid Diploma options-blending work experience, college courses, life experiences and

coursework and assessments to demonstrate competency of skills and applies toward a

diploma. (two states offer diploma for college credit)

Incentives to complete-state sponsored scholarships and career certifications as a result of

high school completion

Online high school-national vendors available, students would have to work with

community college system in Iowa or local school districts and work independently

One problem exists in Iowa that is different from most states in the Union. In Iowa, state

administrative code dictates that school or school districts must require the following as part of

its graduation requirements: 1) one-half unit of United States government, 2) one unit of

American History, and 3) student participation in physical education for one-eighth unit in each

semester of enrollment in high school. Further, each district shall include four years of English

and language arts, three years of mathematics, three years of science, and three years of social

science. Any additional graduation credits or units are locally determined. Criteria established

for early graduation are locally determined. Every district in Iowa can calculate credits

differently, so evaluation of transcripts varies across the state. (IADOE, 2014)

It might be necessary for the state of Iowa to develop a statewide measure for completion

that would be acceptable for community colleges or districts to approve necessary coursework or

competencies for completion. Even at community colleges, the diploma requirements differ

vastly; DMACC’s high school completion webpage promotes these requirements.

English

Science

American Government

US History

Electives

6 semester credits

3 semester credits

2 semester credits

1 semester credit

2 semester credits

18 semester credits

Total 32 semester credits

Conversely, Iowa Lakes Community College advertises these requirements on their High

School Diploma webpage:

An initial step in providing a statewide diploma option could be the development of a

high school equivalency policy uniformly accepted by providers. The simple illustration above

merely illustrates the difference between two community colleges. The differences among

individual high school districts in the state of Iowa add to the confusion of this design challenge.

Des Moines Public Schools, for example, requires a student to complete 23 credits for

graduation. Why does Iowa Lakes require 13 more credits for a diploma than the largest high

school district in the state?

Beyond the agreement with diploma requirements lie costs for programs. In most cases,

States do not mandate fees and tuition. Districts and regions look at the multiple options and base

their decisions on funding streams available at any given time. For students, costs are undeniably

inconsistent. Throughout the literature review, research determined that dropouts, adults without

a high school credential, are paid the least, and experience the highest unemployment rates

observed across the nation. Students in high school equivalency programs are the most likely to

be penniless and without resources from which to draw upon, whether they need childcare,

transportation or the fees for taking an assessment or class. (Brock, 2010; Cunham & Heckman,

Communications (may include speech)

Science

American Government

US History

Electives

8 semester credits

4 semester credits

1 semester credit

2 semester credits

17 semester credits

Total 36 semester credits

2007). Alternatively, research has also justified returns on investments of education. (J. J.

Heckman et al., 2010). In Iowa and many states, there remains a huge disconnect between the

need for education options and the accessibility of those options to students who have no

resources. To do so, this work indicates that we need to start by helping the student identify those

situational and dispositional barriers, evaluating and assessing strengths and weaknesses on a

cognitive and noncognitive basis; then addressing the institutional barriers, to include cost,

access to options, and policy or rules and regulations, that make options more difficult to attain.

The state might start by considering a pilot program of the National Equivalency

Diploma Program, (NEDP). Previously discussed in this review, this high school completion

program is available from CASAS. The state of Iowa already has a relationship with this vendor

as the primary provider of assessment tools for adult education throughout the state. The state

might decide instead to develop administrative rules about what constitutes high school

equivalency and competency-based assessments, similar to Hawaii, Texas or Washington

borrowing significantly from their experience and processes. If the state of Iowa has an interest

in promoting a competency-based diploma without starting from scratch, the existing program

provided by CASAS might be a good place to start. A needs assessment could determine the best

region for pilot and study the process to analyze costs, effectiveness and outcomes.

Another simple, inexpensive and currently unavailable in Iowa is to increase the number

of students who have a diploma is to consider the college credits completion option, such as the

one in Pennsylvania. Students who have 30 or more college credits are able to apply for a state-

issued equivalency diploma. The student has already demonstrated the ability to successfully

complete college-level work and after a year of work (assuming 30 credits is the near equivalent

of two full time semesters of college), the student demonstrates competency of first year of

college, ready to move into the second year. Pennsylvania education system awards the student

for work of a high school graduate, but a mandated state assessment could clarify this to be

certain. This option costs the least to implement yet, would only apply to a small percentage of

the diploma-seeking population.

The field of adult education is changing, and with it, financing and tuition policies are shifting

to meet new priorities. (M. Foster & McLendon, 2012) States should ensure that policies support,

rather than discourage, programs that expand economic opportunity to lower-skilled adult

students and English language learners. Iowa’s youth are neither enrolled in school nor

participating in the labor market –they are neither accumulating human capital in school or

college nor accumulating labor market skills by working. (Belfield, Levin, & Rosen, 2012).

Implications of Policy alternatives and need for future study

The reality is that it does cost more to state budgets to assist adults lacking a high school

credential in terms of staff, resources, effort, and the longer term pay-off is excruciating slow.

(i.e., higher individual wages, increased tax revenues, decrease in crime and decrease in

dependence on social service/federal and state programs.)(Bos et al., 2002; Broadus, 2013;

Ryder, 2013). However, the research indicates that the returns on the investment are worth it.

Policy-makers, institutions and practitioners, tend to react to immediate needs rather than

promote policy or change that proactively responds to issues deeply entrenched in the culture of

poverty. (Kraaykamp & Eijck, 2010) Current trends are based on the knowledge that America

needs a skilled workforce to compete in a global economy. At a time when many states are

decreasing funds to adult literacy, Iowa joins several states that are actually increasing their

investment. (Skills2Compete, 2012) The state will need to determine if it is feasible to create a

more unified message about high school credentials. Even if it is not possible at the K-12 district

level, community colleges might be able to agree on those courses and elective credits that would

be appropriate for a high school credential.

Ultimately, it takes a collective interest, among policy makers, education systems, public

welfare interests and workforce and economic interests all moving in concert to garner attention

and funding for issues that yield so few immediate gains, but do reap long term benefits.

There are some limitations to this work, for example, most of the research to date, about

assessment strategies and promising practices, has a focus of completion of the GED as the end

goal. The literature is limited in demonstrating best practices in delivery of education that has

alternative testing or credit-bearing potential. Whether an adult high school diploma or work-

based learning experience leads to the credential, most of these are so new to the field of adult

education, little research exists to explore all of the outcomes and ramifications.

The notion of assessing noncognitive abilities begs the question of what interventions go

into place when educators are aware of deficiencies. While Heckman’s work (2010) was

effective in implementing strategies in early childhood education models, little quantitative

research is available that describes effective interventions for adult learners. This area demands

greater emphasis and research.

Glossary

Adult Education, Adult Basic Education and Adult Secondary Education (AE, ABE and ASE):

Adult Education is the umbrella term for education that does not lead to a terminal degree or

certificate, or is remedial in nature. ABE Programs and services target adults functioning below

the ninth grade level based on an approved assessment. ASE serves adults who function above

the ninth grade level and seek to remediate for purposes of diploma or certification.

Adult High School Diploma: An option that enables an adult no longer enrolled in public

education to complete the required courses/activities to earn an Adult High School diploma, with

the local high school scheduling classes and determining course requirements in accordance with

standards established by the state.

Adult Secondary Education (ASE): Programs and services that target adults functioning at or

above the ninth grade level based on an approved assessment

Assessment: Methods of measuring learner progress, including state approved assessments, non-

approved testing, staff evaluation, and self-reporting of learners.

Basic skills: refer to remedial reading, writing, mathematics, or other skills typically below the

level necessary to complete a high school equivalency. Students participate in an assessment

initially, to start improving basic skills. Iowa utilizes a base assessment tool, Comprehensive

Adult Student Assessment Systems (CASAS) to determine need and starting point of education.

All data regarding involvement and progress is reported in “Tracking of Programs and Students”

(TOPS) system. CASA's is administered in conjunction with enrollment for HiSET, as well.

CASAS- Comprehensive Adult Student Assessment System, the assessment used in Iowa to

determine baseline cognitive abilities in order to place an adult student in remedial coursework,

toward high school completion or simply to improve reading/literacy or numeracy skills.

Improvement (or lack of) is necessary for institutions to receive federal funding for their adult

basic education programs. Students take the CASAs prior to enrolling in adult education,

English as a Second Language coursework or to complete GED or HiSET testing.

Disadvantaged Adults—Low-income and hard-to-serve adults who demonstrate basic skills

deficiency below the eighth-grade level. Adult education provides basic skills training,

preparation for the General Educational Development (GED) test, preparation toward earning a

high school diploma, and job skills training opportunities.

Distance Learning: The learner is matched with a teacher, tutor, or volunteer with whom he/she

has regular interaction with regard to the content of the distance-learning curriculum, and who

provides support throughout the distance learning experience.

English as a Second Language (ESL): These classes and programs target those limited English

proficient learners who have a focus on improving English communication skills in the

instructional areas of speaking, reading, writing, and listening.

External Diploma Program (EDP): A program developed for adults, 21 and above, who have not

had recent schooling or test taking experience but now have acquired high school level academic

skills in other than curriculum-based programs. It is an adult applied-performance, competency-

based assessment program that awards an adult high school diploma to skilled adults who have

acquired many of their high school level abilities in a series of simulations that parallel job and

life situations.

Nontraditional Student: Most commonly, these are students over the age of 25 seeking

postsecondary college enrollment. In this work, the nontraditional student will have attributes of

lacking a high school credential, dependence on public funds for financial assistance, or faces

difficulty in class times and locations designed for traditional students. In a frequently cited

definition used by the National Center for Education Statistics, a student is nontraditional if he or

she exhibits any of the following characteristics:

delays enrollment into postsecondary education

attends part-time and is financially independent of parents

works full-time while enrolled

has dependents other than a spouse

is a single parent

lacks a standard high school diploma

Post-secondary education or training: The learner enters another education or training program,

such as a community college, trade school, a four-year college, or university.

Tests of high school equivalency- Instruments provided to students in order to assess high school

equivalency. Three are currently available in the United States, GED, TASC, and HiSET, all of

which cover five subject areas, (math, reading, writing, science and social science).

Workplace literacy programs: A program designed to improve the literacy skills needed to

perform a job and it is at least partly under the auspices of an employer.

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Appendix 1

Table 1

Description of Noncognitive Variables

Variable No. Variable Name

1 Positive Self-Concept

Demonstrates confidence, strength of character, determination, and

independence.

2 Realistic Self-Appraisal

Recognizes and accepts any strengths and deficiencies, especially academic,

and works hard at self-development. Recognizes need to broaden his/her

individuality.

3 Understands and Knows How to Handle Racism (the System)

Exhibits a realistic view of the system based upon personal experience of

racism. Committed to improving the existing system. Takes an assertive

approach to dealing with existing wrongs, but is not hostile to society, nor is a

"cop-out." Able to handle racist system.

4 Prefers Long-Range to Short-Term or Immediate Needs

Able to respond to deferred gratification, plans and sets goals.

5 Availability of Strong Support Person

Seeks and takes advantage of a strong support network or has someone to turn

to in a crisis or for encouragement.

6 Successful Leadership Experience

Demonstrates strong leadership in any area of his/her background (e.g.

church, sports, non-educational groups, gang leader, etc.).

7 Demonstrated Community Service

Participates and is involved in his/her community.

8 Knowledge Acquired in or about a Field

Acquires knowledge in a sustained and/or culturally related way in any field.

Note. Adapted from: (Sedlacek, 2008). Using noncognitive variables in K-12 and higher education. In University of Michigan summit on

college outreach and academic success: Summary report from meetings at the School of Education, August 11-12, 2008. (pp. 35-42).

Ann Arbor, Michigan.

Appendix 2

50 State Scan of High School Equivalency Options

High School Credentials for the Adult Learner: Alternative Pathways to High School Completion

Documents

Transcript of High School Credentials for the Adult Learner: Alternative Pathways to High School Completion

High School Presentation

Middletown High School

DENMARK HIGH SCHOOL

Relying Party Credentials Framework

san marino - high school

Collie Senior High School

VOCATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL Of

Wakefield High School Magazine

Maclean High School 2012.

High School Newsletter

Adelante High School

International Credentials Guide - CiteSeerX

Athens High School

DUNMAN HIGH SCHOOL

Chagrin Falls High School

ST. LAWRENCE HIGH SCHOOL

school phone numbers (high school section) - School Vartha

EMS High School 2014

BARRON COLLIER HIGH SCHOOL

Thornton High School Library