Post on 08-Apr-2023
Research Paper Wiltshire 1
Lyn C. WiltshireProfessor Courtney Weida(ART-223534)Images of Women and Western CivilizationWorkshop 05.09 Final Draft SubmissionAugust 28, 2007
Hair Raising Influences on Historical and
Contemporary
Events and Problems
Research Paper Wiltshire 2
Hair is one of our most
noticeable features and for women
specifically, hair has social
significance.
These dead
strands
extruding from
tiny pores on
our heads have
extraordinary power in
determining status. Throughout
history women’s hair has had
special significance and played
an important role regarding,
wealth, beauty and attraction in
ancient and modern societies.
Full of symbolic importance, this natural human beauty accessory
which continually replenishes itself has been defined by myth and
tradition. For today’s women during their childhood the fairy
tale Rapunzel, Samson and Delilah in the Bible and mythological
Medusa created memories which have had a psychological affect.
Hair is associated with physical habits, such as head flicking or
affecting the psyche by producing underlying fears and emotions
when a person is faced with cutting long hair. The purpose of
this paper is to explore how this fashionable and often styled
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Research Paper Wiltshire 4
When you consider the history of hair from 3000 B.C. to
present day, scholarly reference sources associated and aligned
with an era and geography, include many differences in
perspective, implications and evidence. Historically, the early
Egyptians developed grooming tools such as combs, the children’s
hair was shaved leaving only one lock on the side and the ancient
Assyrians wore curly hairstyles, which were at the time
considered to reflect intelligence. As a sign of servitude
Hebrew women cropped their hair and wore wigs in the first
century. Today Orthodox women no longer crop their hair but cover
it or wear wigs when in public. To signify the renunciation of
personal vanity and depict a sense of modesty women in the Muslim
community are required to conceal their hair in public as well as
the Amish and Old Order Mennonites. Religious affiliations such
as the Pentecostal sects do not allow woman to cut their hair,
although when she reaches maturity it must be bound tight and
secured to the top of the head. To determine age, marital and
economic status, unmarried Chinese girls usually wore their hair
long and braided while women combed the hair back, wound into a
knot at the nape of the neck. Koppelman’s article The Politics of
Hair summarizes these social implications as indications of how
sexual attraction related to hair has been controlled by
society, not just society but patriarchal society for thousands
of years. Interestingly, Pomeroy in her book Goddesses, Whores, Wives
and Slaves also studies the patriarchal society and the effect on
the status and activities of women.
Research Paper Wiltshire 5
Throughout the Medieval period women’s hair was long and
loose until the seventeenth century when hair become more styled,
swept up and piled on top of the head with pins and jeweled
combs. The Geisha’s hairdo was particularly sophisticated worn
high and heavily lacquered and enhanced with hairpieces. African
hair customs were many and varied usually to reflect status also.
The Mangbetu women’s hairstyle was complex involving hair thinly
braided and arranged over a cone-shaped basket frame, flaring the
top and adorning it with long bone needles. Native American
Indian were divided in their hairstyles; a ridge of hair along
the crown was all that was left after the rest of the hair was
shaved for women on the East Coast while in the Plains both men
and women wore the recognized long braids decorated with
feathers. In the South the Incas wore short bobbed hair with
black headbands, while the Aztec women braided their hair
interlaced with strips of colored cloth then wound it around the
head.
Research Paper Wiltshire 6
In the Western world, during the Renaissance period of the
sixteenth century paintings revealed portraits of women with a
plucked hairline, which was deemed to give the impression of a
noble brow and the appearance of a high forehead. Queen Elizabeth
was the female image of the sixteenth century and set the trends.
Women seeking to emulate a pallid complexion would use a highly
poisonous while lead and used lead based rouge to their cheeks.
Wigs became more elaborate in the eighteenth century with high
coiffures and ornate curls. The wigs now were white powdered
with long ringlets and decorated with bows, garlands and
feathers. Big hair was the image in the 1800s and the hair was
piled high and draped or wrapped over a cage frame or horsehair
pads. The idea that bigger is better had women spending hours to
create this architecture, therefore it was only natural that
weeks would go by with varmint as the new squatter. When these
imaginative creations gave way to a more subdued style, braided,
pulled back and wound, the idea that loose hair was vulgar was
part of the latter half of the century. Women of the Victorian
era were much more restrained, preferring a natural healthier
look to express their natural beauty. Styles were more elegant
and the hair was worn sleek, shiny and healthy. In the latter
part of the century hair was braided and wound tightly in coils
at the nape of the neck. Neatness was the style for this puritan
era and hair was confined to hair nets.
Research Paper Wiltshire 7
Society of the twentieth century discarded earlier values
and abandoned the strict principles of the Victorian era. A new
independence emerged in what was known as the “Roaring Twenties”
and hair was cut short, bobbed and waved. A more common access to
theatre and movies gave way to imitation of the trends of the
stars. Move over silent film and in comes the Hollywood screen
idol of the 40’s to further influence women’s choices.
Research Paper Wiltshire 8
Hair has power; it has the power to test the control of ones
identity. For example, hairstyles in the military signify
conformity, as well as “monastic celibacy and group-determined
aesthetic.” As a form of rebellion today, a woman with a shaved
head may indicate female bonding or a statement against the
beauty myth. There is a further correlation for women with a
shaved or a bald head, which is the negative connotation “those
woman” are seen as threatening. Personal or political, baldness
is associated with age, illness, punishment and as mentioned
above conformity and rebellion. After World War II, French women
who were suspected of working with the enemy were punished by
having their head shaved. And today the media capitalizes on the
loss of hair due to age or illness. We know that when women are
faced with losing their hair, because of illness, they equate
this loss with a loss of attractiveness. Not only that but men
equate women’s hair with attractiveness. What this also
indicates is hair has sexual connotation. When it is gone, for
women in particular, so goes attractiveness and sexuality. Of
course, we know that this is absolutely not true but the social
stratification indicates that this is.
Research Paper Wiltshire 9
As we begin to consider the symbolic aspects of hair, it is
important to note that examples can be multiplied without limit.
“The view of hair as a natural life force is echoed in Sikhism,
whose devotees believe that God created hair to cover and protect
the brain from the natural elements. Hair is regarded as a
symbol of holiness and strength, and cutting one’s hair is seen
as violating natural law and refusing to accept God’s creation as
He intended it.”
In addition, consider the duality, “Hair is perhaps our most
powerful symbol of individual and group identity - powerful first
because it is physical and therefore extremely personal, and
second because, although personal, it is also public rather than
private” (Synnott, 1987). The single most important aspect of
this dualism is hair surrounds the face, an area of the body with
the most concentrated and varied communicative role. The idea of
public and private is defined by Leach (1957), the
public=sociological and private=psychological are symbolisms to
lend further context. “Leach (1958) introduced a comparative
perspective to the discussion, in an effort to effect a synthesis
between anthropological and psychological insights; after
reviewing evidence from Hinduism in India and Buddhism in Ceylon,
now Sri Lanka, Leach concluded that
long hair = unrestrained sexuality
short hair or partially shaved head = restricted sexuality
or tightly bound hair
close shaven head = celibacy”
Research Paper Wiltshire 10
“Hallpike (1969), using examples from the Bible and from
contemporary society, suggested an alternative equation:
cutting the hair = social control
long hair = being outside society”
In reviewing each of the equations the image of women and the way
in which they wear their hair is embedded in the mind either from
experience or through observation.
Even the color of hair can suggest a variety of
connotations, for instance: “Redheads were sacrificed in ancient
Egypt; redheads were associated with witches and vampires in
Europe; redheads were reputed to bleed more; and Mary Magdalene,
Adam, Judas and even Jesus were depicted as redheads. Patrick
O'Sullivan, head of the Irish Diaspora Research Unit, says he has
never come across a link however, "People could feel forbidden to
attack their usual victims and are searching around for ones that
have not yet achieved the protection of the law." This
statement is giving emphasis to documentation in Europe that
children and even adults are the target of aggressive behavior
because of their red head of hair. Woman with red hair are have
been given the labels of “siren”, “temptress”, “fiery” and “hot
tempered”. Most if not all represent today’s perception of red
as well.
Research Paper Wiltshire 11
“The significance of hairstyle as a mark of ethnic
differentiation was, of course, particularly great in those areas
where different populations lived side by side”. (Bartlett, 1994)
Cultural membership is another; hairstyle references of the 20s
indicate traditional long hair was cut short, in “Bob cuts” to
show independence and sexual freedom, as well as the tightly
curled Afro worn among Blacks as a symbol of racial pride.
The politics of hair has infiltrated the workplace on many
fronts. We all consider grooming our hair as individual and
private. Even though we spend time at a hair salon on occasion,
some more than others, the idea that hairstyle restrictions can
be designated and those designations are targeted in this day and
time is unconscionable. The target is braided and natural
hairstyles. I hesitate to say this hairstyle is targeted due to
race and culture, although that is the case, however now, these
braided hairstyles are worn by many cultures now. An example of
this effect can be seen in the following quote,
Research Paper Wiltshire 12
“Whether motivated by politics, ethnic pride, health, or
vanity, I was outraged by the idea that an employer could
regulate or force me to explain something as personal and private
as the way I groom my hair. I resented the implication that I
could not be trusted to choose standards appropriate for the
workplace and that my right to work could be conditioned on my
disassociation with my race, gender, and culture. Mostly, I
marveled with sadness that something as simple as a black woman’s
hair continues to threaten the social, political, and economic
fabric of American life.” (Caldwell, 1991). Let me add this last
and very important statement, “…public degradation on account of
hair texture is not exclusive to black woman.” Here Caldwell
explains that non-black students have told her privately that
…”they have suffered low self-esteem because the texture of their
hair is too close to that of a black women.”
Through time women have in some way refused to comply with
ideologies that sustain subordination and the measure of
compliance or lack thereof is open to interpretation.
Furthermore, society is continuously suggests that all
characteristics which make an individual distinctly Black be
removed from the equation.
Research Paper Wiltshire 13
Too much of one color can saturate, too much food can over-
satiate, too much of anything can distort. Too much of an over
indulgence in an archaic and demeaning influence of an ideal can
distort. Such is the history of hair. While the new color
fashion is now a means of personal expression, there comes with
it a new understanding that this rainbow of color, cuts, hair
parting and style is more than a personal expression. A
rebellion as it were of what came before. It seems this step is
not much different than the steps before it, however, our
awareness and ability to document it from the feminine
perspective is more apparent now. Some of the most defined ideas
about hair and attractiveness vary by region, social class as
well as culture, and Weitz bases the term “conventionally
attractive” from these norms:
Research Paper Wiltshire 14
“First, to be most feminine and hence most attractive,
women's hair should be long, curly or wavy, and preferably blonde
(Clayson and Maughan 1986; Rich and Cash 1993). It should most
definitely not be gray (Kerner Furman 1997) or kinky (suggesting
either African or Jewish heritage). Second, women's hair should
look intentionally styled explaining why even women who adopt
tousled hairstyles like those sported by actresses Meg Ryan and
Winona Ryder typically use hair gels or sprays to maintain the
desired "tousle." Similarly, there is widespread agreement that
women should spend time, effort, and money on making their hair
attractive (Synott 1987); even Moslem women who cover their hair
outside the home typically strive to make their hair attractive
whenever their hair is uncovered. Finally, women's hair should
look different from men's hair (Synott 1987).”
Research Paper Wiltshire 15
To provide more examples of the effect of hair for
conventionally attractive women, they are hired and promoted
more and receive higher salaries. What this suggests is that the
influence of these ideology “conventionally attractive” aspects
of hair is a “realistic route to power for women in both intimate
relationships and career.” (Weitz) Therefore, it appears the
documented chain of events through history that has given hair
such reputed authority is and can be manipulated to a women’s
advantage. A woman can decide to make a radical change, cut,
color, style etc. and based on the reaction she receives, her
sense of empowerment can be heightened or diminished. It is
important to remember, color itself can illicit a variety of
responses as mentioned previously. A positive public reaction
promotes empowerment and a negative public reaction diminishes
self-esteem. And negative statements leave a negative impression
for the receiver. Statements such a “the devil’s curly hair,” or
“she has good hair” to denote straight hair or “look at how long
her hair is to indicate approval for a woman’s appearance. While
the last two statements are positive statements as read on a page
when articulated the opposite interpretation is “bad hair or
kinky, curly hair” or “short hair is less attractive.” The women
will store this response and use this information privately in
establishing changes or resistance, tolerance or accommodation,
how they are seen publicly and how they wish to be seen. Within
the last few years, with the increase in natural hairstyles
Research Paper Wiltshire 16
language to denote texture is reflected in phrases such as “coil
pattern” and “hair styled for the activity.”
In our society, we equate femininity with incompetence
(Weitz 2001), therefore utilizing conventional attractiveness can
be harmful to women if they are regarded as less competent.
Young girls are often overlooked in the male-dominated sports
field if they wear their hair with any hair ornaments that denote
femininity, i.e., ribbons, barrettes, etc. Similarly, cutting
hair short for the workplace takes the element of femininity out
of the equation as well as a person with long hair pulling it
back to strengthen the idea of being taken more seriously. To go
further, African American women are faced with a more complex set
of circumstances because the dominant culture that does not align
them with conventional attractiveness and defines them less
attractive and less feminine. To avoid radical hairstyles (afro,
braid, locks and corn rows) they use wigs or expensive ways to
conform.
Research Paper Wiltshire 17
Due to the decision making process embedded in the sociology
of hair, women have taken on a variety of behavior patterns.
Identified in Weitz’ article, “…an Asian American woman, pays to
have her hair permed every few months because she thinks
otherwise it looks "too Asian." Because her hair straightens out
when it gets wet, she always carries an umbrella, never swims
with friends, and dries her hair after showering before letting
anyone see her.” An African American woman with long wavy hair
knows that her hair attracts considerable male attention. Why is
this? Is it because men consider her pretty because her hair is
long or because anything that looks “white” is superior? She has
the ability to control the attention by making the decision to
wear her hair down or put it up to limit the attention. Another
example of limiting attention is a non-Muslim women married to a
Muslim man, who when surrounded by his family chooses to wear her
hair covered to avoid any advances while left alone. Women have
additional ways to strategize by going in the opposite direction.
For example, a comment stating that a person is attracted to a
women because of her hair, can lead to a radical hair cut to make
the statement “I am not my Hair” (Song 2006, Lyrics by
India.Arie) dispelling the beauty myth and bringing the focus
back to the essence of the individual.
Research Paper Wiltshire 18
We have our own beliefs. Our perceptions are our realities.
I believe if I eat ice cream and no one sees me that the calories
do not count. I believe if a person watches a movie instead of
reading the book they lack imagination. This topic was extremely
enlightening. The notion of hair having historical and
contemporary influence is not new. As a matter of fact, there
are millions of website, articles, books and literature on
hairstyles, through the centuries, first impressions, social
significance, the politics of hair and so on.
Research Paper Wiltshire 19
As mentioned earlier, hair and sexuality has significance
and therefore, the relationship of hair and sex was very apparent
in several of the articles and books. It appears the image of
hair would be missing a significant component without the sexual
context being examined. We know that on any given day, when our
hair isn’t right, we don’t feel right. Why else would we spend
so much time checking it in the mirror as we walk by or running
our fingers through it as a final touch when meeting up with
someone, or even the more common behavior of flicking the head to
get it our of our eyes, even when the hair is pulled back or cut
short. Damien R. von Dahlem of Hair News Magazine states, “Hair,
for better or worse, is the single most important part of our
anatomy affecting our psyche. We will readily reschedule an
appointment with our attorney, doctor, or accountant, before we
will risk losing an opening with our favorite hairstylist. If
our genitalia is a primary sexual object, then hair is a
secondary sexual object. In most countries and cultures it is
socially unacceptable to openly display one's genitals, and
usually unlawful too. It is precisely this social taboo that
gives hair most of its power as a sexual object as it can usually
be openly displayed, and even flaunted.
Research Paper Wiltshire 20
Female hair is usually viewed as seductive with the color
and length being used to categorize. Redheads are labeled as
wanton, brunettes as aggressive, and blondes as submissive. Long
hair an indicator of fertility and availability, and short hair
as independent and forceful. The thinning of female hair implies
loss of sexuality and femininity. Lack of luster and body
indicates poor personal grooming.”
Research Paper Wiltshire 21
Here the idea that brunettes are aggressive rings true for
the African American culture. Most ethnic hair is dark brown or
black and African American women are categorized as being
aggressive whereas East Indian or Asian woman are considered
culturally to be submissive. This is less so for African
American women when the hair is styled in the Eurocentric style
of straight, sleek and shiny, through relaxers and extension
however more so when worn natural, in an Afro, braided, corn-
rowed or locked. To give more fuel to this argument, there is a
blog on the site of the Washington Post regarding U.S.
Representative Cynthia McKinney’s recent visibility with regard
to her hair, “…As a result of the “good hair”/”bad hair” thing,
it is not seen as professional for a black woman to wear her hair
naturally. Those black women that DO wear their hair naturally
are seen as trying to make some political statement. I must
admit, I see it that way too. And, being honest with myself, I
perceive that she is probably angry. Obviously, I know that it
is wrong to pre-judge, but this IS the perception for some reason
that comes to my mind and I don’t think I am alone on this one.
The politics and economics of this country demand that a black
woman wear her hair more like non-blacks.”
Research Paper Wiltshire 22
While this statement is targeted and not the direction this
research is meant to go, the most significant point is the words
“for some reason…and I don’t think I am alone on this one.” I
believe that if you ignore the emotion (the wound) or the stigma
of the behavior (scar) still exists. There was so much
information about what certain hairstyles say about an
individual, but it was difficult to find information about how
women feel about this influence or what problems these influences
have caused. I frame that statement however, with the much more
recent inquiries, which revolve around ethnic hair. There is
substantial information about the hairstyles of women of color
and the images, distortions and impressions that have been set up
which these women are left to respond to or not. So what I’ve
come to realize is, if your hair fits a specific mold society has
set up, blond, straight, full-bodied, or if you have the ability
to create that image for yourself, then it is easy to slip into
the abyss and somehow lose yourself. You can look around on any
given day, at any given time and see how women have been
influenced by societies view of hair, some to the point of
distortion and behavior modification. Flicks of hair, shielding
the eyes, eccentric colors, all to attain, gain, and strive for
something. For what? To reach for an image that is difficult to
attain and costly to maintain. To stay comfortably or should I
say, uncomfortably within a mold, a frame, a stereotype.
Innately women realize that this is happening to them. Pointing
out some of the negative associations, a women’s reaction
Research Paper Wiltshire 23
receives a distinct “ah ha”. Why else do we decide the moment
the blue strip changes at the sign of pregnancy to immediately
stop specific hair enhancement strategies. We cease dyeing the
hair as it may harm the baby, no more perms or relaxers during
the pregnancy also because of harm (to the baby). We go back to
natural hair. It is important to be aware how the media portrays
the modern obsession of youthfulness and a thin physique while
selling products that affect the health of women. “In spite of
warnings of the possibility of carcinogens in hair dye, many
women refuse to heed warnings of danger.” (Koppelman, 1996)
Research Paper Wiltshire 24
These attitudes and influences are not just a result of
contemporary fashion but seem to have been embedded for centuries
and now we have a response to hair that is more a reflex, an
impulse, a thoughtless reaction. Perhaps the idea of good
health, and peace of mind, freedom and the pursuit of happiness
may not be enough. Domestication suits us, being tamed is
comfort, and individuality and freedom of personal expression is
not the order of the day. However, if we really go deep, into
the core we’ll discover, “It rests on suppositions that are
deeply imbedded in American culture – assumptions so entrenched
and so necessary to the maintenance of interlocking,
interdependent structure of domination that their mythological
bases and political functions have become invisible, especially
to those to whom their existence is most detrimental.”
(Caldwell, 1991) These influences and events are a historical
and contemporary reality and the dominant patriarchy is still
evident.
“A girl just isn’t a girl without her hair” quoted from
Hemmingway, 1979 in Synnott’s article. This statement rings
true, it is not said of men and the connection women have to head
hair is profound. With the length of hair perhaps being the
most important aspect as defined in mythology and stories such as
Mary Magdalene, Rapunzel and Lady Godiva.
Research Paper Wiltshire 25
“The feminist Susan Brownmiller brings the issue of length
up to date (1984: 55) I harbor a deep desire to wear my hair long
because like all the women I know, I grew up believing that long
hair is irrefutably feminine. I could certainly use the advantage
that long hair confers, but I happen to look terrible when my
hair is long. I know what some people think about short hair -
they say short hair is mannish, dyky . . . So I keep my hair at a
middle length and fret about its daily betrayal.” (Synnott, 1987)
Through my research the idea that short hair is less feminine was
portrayed not only by the observer but by the wearer as well.
However, the hair of African Americans is excluded entirely from
most of what I found or referenced very little with regard to
length.
It is important to note that while investigating this line
of research I questioned within myself how I was effected by
“deeply-ingrained myths, negative images and stereotypes that
operate to define the social and economic position...” (Caldwell,
1991) In 1994, when faced with chronic illness, it was not at
all difficult to reconsider my standards and be motivated to
confront objectification. I quickly monitored my diet, my
clothes, my household environment, and hair. I removed all
processed foods from my diet, synthetic fabrics from my fashion,
poisonous ingredient used to clean and chemical processing from
my hair. Having gone deeper to assess my motivation and receiving
a nudge to reconsider my standards, it is crystal clear how often
the images of women are compromised.
Research Paper Wiltshire 26
When images are provided over and over again, saturating all
of the ways one sees, media, advertising, work and play, it
desensitizes and normalizes the behavior pattern and the
characteristics. So much so, when approaching individuals to
make them aware of the impact and influences these images have on
women, some are not aware of their pattern, others are in denial
and still other try to justify their action. “Being aware of
such stereotypes ultimately influences the way the sterotyped
person thinks of himself or herself and his or her group.”
(Ellemers, Van Rijwiji, Roefs and Simons, 1997) So what is the
recourse, to dispel these images, to reverse the psychology, to
replace “normal” with “natural” behaviors. “No matter what a
woman does or doesn't do with her hair--dyeing or not dyeing,
curling or not curling, covering with a bandana or leaving
uncovered her hair will affect how others respond to her, and her
power will increase or decrease accordingly.” (Weitz) The answer
is for women to continue to find their authentic selves and glory
in the essence of who they are. Making personal statements that
bring a harmonious existence to them and the lives they lead.
Allowing the distortions, impressions and misconception to be
mirror images of the issues of the individuals that inject them
maliciously or ignorantly, or wrongfully and with bias. I would
suggest loosening the ties to antiquated concepts implicitly
affirmed by these individuals.
Research Paper Wiltshire 27
Lastly, based on the results of this invaluable data, I
would offer that in general, we question what is offered to us in
the way of products and medicine very little and perhaps, just
perhaps the recognition of a healthier life may be the root cause
and reason to disregard the standard for any race, culture and
gender, especially women.
Research Paper Wiltshire 28
Bibliography and Reference
Bartlett, Robert. “Symbolic Meanings of Hair in the Middle Ages”.
Transaction of the Royal Historical Society, 6th Ser., Vol. 4 (1994), pp. 43-60. Retrieved 16 July 2007.
Caldwell, Paulette M. “A Hair Piece: Perspectives on the Intersection
of Race and Gender”. Duke Law Journal, Vol. 1991, No.2. (Apr.,
1991), pp. 365-396. Retrieved 16 July 2007.
Givhan, Robin. Washington Post Staff Writer. Friday, April 7, 2006; Page C01. “Why a Hairstyle Made Headlines”.
Washington Post.com Page. Retrieved 5 July 2007<http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/
content/article/2006/04/06/AR2006040602341.html?nav=rss_artsandliving>
Koppelman, Connie. “The Politics of Hair”. Frontiers: A Journal of Women StudiesVol 17, No. 2 (1996), pp. 87-88 Retrieved 29 July 2007
< http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0160-9009%281996%2917%3A2%3C87%
3ATPOH%3E2.0.CO%3B2-M>
Pomeroy, Sarah B. Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves: Women inClassical Antiquity.Schocken. Retrieved 30 June 2007
Leach, E.R. “Magical Hair”. The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 88, No. 2.
(Jul. - Dec., 1958), pp. 147-164. Retrieved 20 July 2007
Synnott, Anthony. The British Journal of Sociology, Vol. 38, No.3
(Sep., 1987), pp. 381-413, Retrieved 14 July 2007.
“The Politics (and Economics) of Hair”. Mixed Media Watch.com Page.
Retrieved 5 July 2007. <http://www.mixedmediawatch.com/2006/04/27/the-politics-and-economics-of-hair/