Post on 04-Apr-2023
Being able to play is a crucial
developmental achievement. What
impact does being able to play confer
upon an individual's life and
subsequent development, and why do
some never really achieve the ability
to play?
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“You can discover more about a person in an hour of play than in an hour of
conversation”
Plato (500–300 BCE)
(Cited in D’Angour, 2013, p.293)
INTRODUCTION
As a child counsellor, play is doubtlessly the central element
of my sessions with children I work with. When considering
play, the first thing that might come to our minds is the image
of a happy, focused child involved in some sort of activity.
But, as the above quote clearly invites us, on reflecting,
play seems to be much more than a simple, ordinary action in
children’s lives. Is perhaps Plato implying that play is a
sort of window on our minds? Therefore, what is hidden behind
a child involved in play? Why do children play? And finally,
is everyone able to play?
In this essay I will first briefly explore the definition of
play and the different types of play that emerge from existing
research. Seeing how research approaches “play” is useful in
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order to get a better understanding of why play is, in fact, a
crucial developmental achievement, as the title of this essay
suggests. Successively, the essay will develop a reflection on
how play affects children’s lives, highlighting the benefits
that it has on development. It will then discuss what happens
when play is deprived, or when children are not given the
opportunity to play freely. I will go on to discuss how play,
indeed, acts as a “password” to access the child’s internal
world. It will be argued what it means when a child is unable
to enjoy play and unable to become at one with the play
experience, including a reflection of my work as a counsellor
with a school aged boy. Concluding thoughts intend to sum up
the main issues the essay has presented as well as presenting
tips for future research in play.
PLAY AND ITS ROLE IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
Although this essay does not intend to offer a literature
review of research on play, it is useful to acquire some
knowledge in regards to what researchers in the field have
been looking for. Thus, it would be sensible to start by
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defining play. Scales et al. (1991) define play as an activity
which sees a child being enthusiastic and completely absorbed
in what he or she is doing. Moreover, Street (2002) highlights
that play is an activity a child undertakes without any
specific previously given directions; so it’s an activity a
child initiates without somebody imposing a structure. A
curious definition has been proposed by some other
psychologists in the field: according to Gleave and Cole-
Hamilton (2012), play is an instinct that occurs in childhood,
and it is not only enjoyable, but absolutely fundamental in
forming ourselves as healthy individuals, impacting on all
aspects of development, from language to physical, and from
social and emotional to creative.
Play theorist Hughes (2002) believes that, in total, there are
about 16 different types of play. These include imaginative
play, where, for example, children play shopping, cook at the
kitchen corner with play-food and pans, or tend to be someone
else, or something else. There is also creative play, role
play (children talking over the phone, drinking tea…) and
rough and tumble play, which includes physical touch: for
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example climbing on each other, play fighting, and tickling.
It was reported by Whitebread (2012) that this type of play
together with pretence/socio-dramatic play (for example
playing with guns) are the most extensively researched play
types. The author highlights how, in fact, play has received
increasing attention from researchers in the field probably
because, according to him, there seems to be a very positive
link between play and individuals’ emotional well-being.
By acknowledging the definitions presented above, play seems
to be an essential element in our lives; therefore, it is fair
to wonder how play impacts our lives and development. Do we
benefit from play? Research on animals certainly offers
fascinating results in this regard. For example, research on
rats has reported interesting outcomes. Diamond, Krech and
Rosenzweig (1964) demonstrated how a playful environment
(wooden colourful toys were located in the cage of the rats)
as opposed to a solitary environment (rats living in empty
cages) would have a significant impact on brain growth
(increasing the depth of its cortex) in the case of rats
raised in the more joyful and playful environment. Neural
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plasticity and cell growth in the brain of rats seems to be
highly stimulated when rats play (Gordon, 2003; Pellis and
Pellis, 2009) due to the production of protein BDNF (B-derived
Neutrophic Factor). Pellis and his colleague (2009) showed how
play-deprived rats were in fact more aggressive and more
uncertain when allocated to environments unknown to them.
Therefore, it seems that play is crucial for healthy
development, as demonstrated by the researchers cited above.
Existing research still on rats also demonstrated how play is
absolutely fundamental for understanding how to live in a
society (Van der Berg et al., 1999), and learning about self-
regulation (Von Frijtag, 2002).
Research on monkeys is equally meaningful, especially in
regards to the link between play and attachment. In fact, as
reported by Bruner, Jolly and Sylva (1976), it seems that
young chimpanzees feel fully comfortable and safe in creating
a play situation when their mother is close to them.
Similarly, Harlow, Dodsworth and Harlow (1965) have found
that a monkey who has always being in contact with family and
other monkeys since birth would freely and confidently play
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either alone or with other monkeys, while a monkey who was
raised in a solitary environment wouldn’t be interested in
play at all. Interestingly, about ten years later, Ainsworth
et al. (1978) confirmed through The Strange Situation study that a
secure attachment with the mother would have significant
influences on their playfulness.
In regards to the benefits of play in humans, it seems that,
as pointed out by Panksepp (2002), there is no exhaustive
scientific evidence available concerning the impact of play on
the brain; however, the author also explains how we are not
that different from other animals, as taught by molecular
biology. And, probably, it would nowadays be unethical to
carry out experiments on children by investigating, for
example, play deprivation or total isolation. However, it is
assumed by many psychologists, such as Cole-Hamilton and Gill
(2002) that “play creates a brain that has greater behavioural
flexibility and improves potential for learning later in life”
(p. 59). Play theorist Sutton-Smith (1997) explains that
children are born with an extensive neuronal capacity, which
will soon fade if the child is not “played with or enjoyed”,
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or not given enough time to play. Therefore, it seems that
play has a huge impact on subsequent development, as further
indicated by Brown (2006a). The author explains that through
play children learn how to behave in societies, and they get
to know customs and rules. They also learn to categorize
objects, their properties, problem solving and in general they
develop higher thinking skills.
In this regards, very interesting results have emerged in
relation to the effects of play in children’s development. For
example, in an experiment conducted by Pellegrini and
Gustafson (2005), the researchers have observed young children
(3, 4 and 5 year olds) for one academic year in their
classroom. The outcome was that the longer children were given
to play with toys such as blocks or bricks, the better they
performed on problem-solving tasks. The same methodology as
Pellegrini and colleague (2005) was previously applied to the
experiment carried by Sylva, Bruner and Genova (1976). The
researchers have found a link between playing with
constructions and a positive attitude in taking risks and the
development of perseverance.
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This essay has so far presented definition and main types of
play; successively reporting evidence suggesting that play is
a fundamental developmental achievement, which benefits
children in many ways, including their subsequent development.
It would now be interesting to understand what happens when
children are not given enough opportunities to play by
exploring the main factors contributing to such scenario.
FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR TOO LITTLE PLAY OPPORTUNITIES IN A
CHILD’S LIFE
Play indeed benefits our development and works on our well-
being. For this, it seems self-evident that the absence of
play is in fact harmful. This is exactly what theorists such
as Siviy et al. (2003) have hypothesized. They believe, in
fact, that since play has been always correlated with healthy
development, the absence of it in a child’s life could easily
underlie some sort of illness or pathology.
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There are many factors linked to the ability or inability to
play: for example, the socio-economic status of the family, or
whether the children are properly looked after or are
maltreated. It is also interesting to think what is in fact
expected from a child considering different cultures, and what
the play opportunities of children in different contexts are.
Doubtlessly, also mental disorders contribute to less play in
a child life, or result in showing different play patterns to
that of normally developing children. The next paragraphs
intend to discuss these factors a little more in detail.
It was largely discussed by Manwaring and Taylor (2007) how
children raised without the opportunity to play are more
likely to become aggressive or anti-social. Furthermore, it
was demonstrated by Tobin (1997) how play deprivation in
Romanian orphans was highly correlated with a smaller brain
size compared to children given wide play opportunities
throughout their lives. This links to the research on animals
previously presented in this essay; therefore, it seems that
there is a significant amount of research supporting the
damage that play deprivation can bring to our development.
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Lester and Russell (2010) discussed which environments in the
whole world contribute to make a child vulnerable and often
unable to play peacefully. The researchers pointed out that
children living in large cities are often so busy with all
sorts of activities that they are left with not enough time to
play freely. They also considered children in extreme poverty.
These children might have plenty of time to play, however they
might not have enough energy due to a very poor diet. Probably
in both contexts, but especially for those living in poverty,
parents could often be feeling stressed and this could impinge
on forming secure attachments, leaving the child to cope with
too much anxiety for spending time healthily playing.
A very interesting observation in regards to the relationship
between ability to play and the environment by which a child
is surrounded was made by Veicht et al. (2006) who pointed out
that children living in wealthy environments could have
parents or teachers who are supervising and protecting the
children at a too high level. In this way it becomes difficult
for a child to benefit from free play, because carers do not
give the child the opportunities to do so. In this regards, a
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truly fascinating study has been conducted by Shier (2008). He
compared two different groups of children: one group included
children from the UK, and one group included children from
Nicaragua. The opportunities to play across these groups were
observed, reflecting two completely different cultures. The
outcome of the study showed how children living in Nicaragua
have many more opportunities of playing outdoors, for example
climbing trees or swimming, while children in UK are
protagonists of more structured play (for example in after
school clubs), with much less outdoor play. Whitebread (2012)
analysed what children are expected to do, across different
countries. The aim of this analysis was to see whether in
these countries children should spend more time playing
freely, or learning. In the UK, Italy, Spain and France,
“playing” and “learning” are mostly seen as two very different
concepts. It’s true that for these countries and probably
within western culture as a whole, children are supposed to
spend most of the time sitting learning about numbers, and
doing their reading.
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Children’s play can also present unusual patterns when a child
has a mental disorder: for example, children diagnosed with
ADHD or on the ASD. Children with ADHD find it very difficult
to relate with peers, and are often viewed negatively and
excluded (Hoza et al., 2005) probably because of their
difficulty to pay attention and focus and missing social cues
(Andrade et al., 2012). Therefore, this group of children
could have much less opportunity to play and socialize due to
these behavioural issues. In regards to children on the
autistic spectrum, there have been conflicting opinions
concerning their ability to play, especially in regards to
symbolic play. Libby et al. (1998) was one of the most
convinced by stating that autistic children present some sort
of symbolic play, and there was some later research that for
children with autism it is fundamental to have an adult
playing with them, imitating their actions and behaviour
(Field et al., 2001).
The main factors impinging on the ability to play have been
presented, but there is more to add. In fact, play seems to be
a key to a child’s world, or the means through which is
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possible to understand a child’s emotional state. The next
session intends to explore this perspective in more detail.
PLAY AS THE PASSWORD FOR ACCESSING A CHILD’S MIND
I support Alvarez and Phillips’s (1998) statement in saying
that what is important is not much the meaning of play, but
the ability to play at all. This should be in the mind of
anyone working in the therapeutic sector. Only by observing
play can we grasp how a child is, for example, coping with
anxieties. This was beautifully explained by Freud in 1920.
He was one of the first to observe a child involved in a play
activity. The child he observed was in fact his 18 months old
grandson, described by Freud as a very well behaved boy, who
would not scream or misbehave in the absence of his parents,
but would rather entertain himself with objects he would find
around him. Interestingly, Freud highlighted the link between
the toy his grandson was playing with (a wooden toy attached
to a string) and the absence of the child’s parents. The
child, by using the string to throw and recapture the toy,
would somehow fight against the anxiety provoked by the
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absence of the parents. Alvarez and Phillips (1998) point out
how child analyst Melanie Klein, in the 1920’s, developed a
technique according to which observing children’s play would
act as a window to children’s unconscious. The analyst
strongly believed that emotionally disturbed children would
often find relief through play because whilst playing the
unconscious feelings would be somehow given a conscious
meaning, similarly to the free association method used by Freud in
his therapies with adults.
The real problem is that not all children find through play
moments of true enjoyment, or a way to cope with anxieties or
worries, because they are not given the possibility with no
time or space to do so; therefore, they become children unable
to play, and to have fun.
Whitebread (2012) explained that children who are not able to
play include depressed children or traumatised children;
however, due to ethical reasons there is no scientific
evidence of the effect of play deprivation in children.
Ziegler (n.d.) explains how traumatised children are indeed
unique in the way they play, and this is because they tend to
bring in their play the stress and anxiety which characterizes
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their life. Therefore, trauma does now benefit the process of
children expressing themselves in a childlike manner. A child
subjected to traumas becomes hyper-vigilant and loses his or
her ability to enjoy play and have fun, because he or she is
too busy being concerned about what is going on around them.
Therefore, what a child in this position needs is certainly to
be taught how to play.
As I reflect on my practice, I find that the discussion made
by Ziegler (n.d.) presented above is of extreme importance,
not only for traumatised children, but for all children with
any kind of emotional disturbance. In my role as a counsellor
I work with a 7 year old boy who is extremely concerned about
being always the winner. Each session he would choose the same
activity (which happens to be Connect 4) and for the whole
session he would repeat: “I am going to beat you! I am going
to beat you!” This boy has witnessed domestic violence and had
to deal with an alcoholic parent for four years. “Winning” and
“Losing” is the constant variable in his play; he needs to be
in control, and he raises his voice when telling me he must
find out my strategies for winning the play. Childlike play
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seems indeed to be absent for this child. Thinking back to the
definitions of play presented in this essay, it seems obvious
that they are opposite of what happens in the room with this
particular client. His play must always be structured and with
a utilitarian purpose; he needs to be constantly vigilant and
in control of everything that is going on. This is not
surprising considering his background. Probably, the most
important thing to take further in order to create a childlike
play pattern in this boy’s life, is to teach him how to play,
believing that it is possible to give a child a second chance.
The fundamental concept in intervention in regards to play is
to gradually let the child discover the simplicity of play.
Play should have no structure or purpose, and although it is
understandable that a child aged 7, 8, and 9 or older wants to
win a game, it is important to recognize that when this
becomes extreme, childlike play needs to be introduced to the
child’s life in affordable doses.
CONCLUDING THOUGHTS
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This essay had started by simply introducing the concept of
play as a crucial achievement in a developing child. It was
mentioned that there are different types of play, which all
contribute to our healthy development and well-being. It was
argued that play has many benefits; therefore, when play is
denied, deprived or not “childlike” it can lead to significant
changes in brain development, as well as disrupted social,
emotional, or cognitive development. It was explored which
factors contributed to keep a child away from enjoying play,
amongst which are socio-economic status, the environments the
child is surrounded by and their culture, as well as mental
disorders. Successively, a reflection on my direct work with a
child was presented, with the aim of raising attention on how
traumatised children and children with emotional disturbances
are in need of interventions in which they are given a second
chance by being taught how to play.
In the future it would be interesting to find more evidence of
the importance of play in children’s lives, especially in
regards to friendships with peers, as well as concerning
gender, age, cultural background and special educational
needs. It would doubtlessly be interesting to read more about
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cross-cultural studies where patterns of play are investigated
and what impact these have on subsequent development across
cultures. Research on adults and play is a field which seems
to be not as popular as it should; for example, it would be
extremely fascinating to see if there is any correlation
between play and heart diseases, or tumours. I surely believe
that by getting to know more about research on play would be
useful not only for designing future research, but also for
therapeutic intervention, where awareness about what is linked
to play in matters of different cultures or how this
correlates to subsequent development are of extreme importance
for a therapist. I hope this essay has satisfactorily
discussed important themes in regards to play, raising the
reader’s curiosity on a truly engaging topic.
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