Being able to play is a crucial

developmental achievement.   What

impact does being able to play confer

upon an individual's life and

subsequent development, and why do

some never really achieve the ability

to play?

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“You can discover more about a person in an hour of play than in an hour of

conversation”

Plato (500–300 BCE)

(Cited in D’Angour, 2013, p.293)

INTRODUCTION

As a child counsellor, play is doubtlessly the central element

of my sessions with children I work with. When considering

play, the first thing that might come to our minds is the image

of a happy, focused child involved in some sort of activity.

But, as the above quote clearly invites us, on reflecting,

play seems to be much more than a simple, ordinary action in

children’s lives. Is perhaps Plato implying that play is a

sort of window on our minds? Therefore, what is hidden behind

a child involved in play? Why do children play? And finally,

is everyone able to play?

In this essay I will first briefly explore the definition of

play and the different types of play that emerge from existing

research. Seeing how research approaches “play” is useful in

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order to get a better understanding of why play is, in fact, a

crucial developmental achievement, as the title of this essay

suggests. Successively, the essay will develop a reflection on

how play affects children’s lives, highlighting the benefits

that it has on development. It will then discuss what happens

when play is deprived, or when children are not given the

opportunity to play freely. I will go on to discuss how play,

indeed, acts as a “password” to access the child’s internal

world. It will be argued what it means when a child is unable

to enjoy play and unable to become at one with the play

experience, including a reflection of my work as a counsellor

with a school aged boy. Concluding thoughts intend to sum up

the main issues the essay has presented as well as presenting

tips for future research in play.

PLAY AND ITS ROLE IN SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH

Although this essay does not intend to offer a literature

review of research on play, it is useful to acquire some

knowledge in regards to what researchers in the field have

been looking for. Thus, it would be sensible to start by

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defining play. Scales et al. (1991) define play as an activity

which sees a child being enthusiastic and completely absorbed

in what he or she is doing. Moreover, Street (2002) highlights

that play is an activity a child undertakes without any

specific previously given directions; so it’s an activity a

child initiates without somebody imposing a structure. A

curious definition has been proposed by some other

psychologists in the field: according to Gleave and Cole-

Hamilton (2012), play is an instinct that occurs in childhood,

and it is not only enjoyable, but absolutely fundamental in

forming ourselves as healthy individuals, impacting on all

aspects of development, from language to physical, and from

social and emotional to creative.

Play theorist Hughes (2002) believes that, in total, there are

about 16 different types of play. These include imaginative

play, where, for example, children play shopping, cook at the

kitchen corner with play-food and pans, or tend to be someone

else, or something else. There is also creative play, role

play (children talking over the phone, drinking tea…) and

rough and tumble play, which includes physical touch: for

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example climbing on each other, play fighting, and tickling.

It was reported by Whitebread (2012) that this type of play

together with pretence/socio-dramatic play (for example

playing with guns) are the most extensively researched play

types. The author highlights how, in fact, play has received

increasing attention from researchers in the field probably

because, according to him, there seems to be a very positive

link between play and individuals’ emotional well-being.

By acknowledging the definitions presented above, play seems

to be an essential element in our lives; therefore, it is fair

to wonder how play impacts our lives and development. Do we

benefit from play? Research on animals certainly offers

fascinating results in this regard. For example, research on

rats has reported interesting outcomes. Diamond, Krech and

Rosenzweig (1964) demonstrated how a playful environment

(wooden colourful toys were located in the cage of the rats)

as opposed to a solitary environment (rats living in empty

cages) would have a significant impact on brain growth

(increasing the depth of its cortex) in the case of rats

raised in the more joyful and playful environment. Neural

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plasticity and cell growth in the brain of rats seems to be

highly stimulated when rats play (Gordon, 2003; Pellis and

Pellis, 2009) due to the production of protein BDNF (B-derived

Neutrophic Factor). Pellis and his colleague (2009) showed how

play-deprived rats were in fact more aggressive and more

uncertain when allocated to environments unknown to them.

Therefore, it seems that play is crucial for healthy

development, as demonstrated by the researchers cited above.

Existing research still on rats also demonstrated how play is

absolutely fundamental for understanding how to live in a

society (Van der Berg et al., 1999), and learning about self-

regulation (Von Frijtag, 2002).

Research on monkeys is equally meaningful, especially in

regards to the link between play and attachment. In fact, as

reported by Bruner, Jolly and Sylva (1976), it seems that

young chimpanzees feel fully comfortable and safe in creating

a play situation when their mother is close to them.

Similarly, Harlow, Dodsworth and Harlow (1965) have found

that a monkey who has always being in contact with family and

other monkeys since birth would freely and confidently play

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either alone or with other monkeys, while a monkey who was

raised in a solitary environment wouldn’t be interested in

play at all. Interestingly, about ten years later, Ainsworth

et al. (1978) confirmed through The Strange Situation study that a

secure attachment with the mother would have significant

influences on their playfulness.

In regards to the benefits of play in humans, it seems that,

as pointed out by Panksepp (2002), there is no exhaustive

scientific evidence available concerning the impact of play on

the brain; however, the author also explains how we are not

that different from other animals, as taught by molecular

biology. And, probably, it would nowadays be unethical to

carry out experiments on children by investigating, for

example, play deprivation or total isolation. However, it is

assumed by many psychologists, such as Cole-Hamilton and Gill

(2002) that “play creates a brain that has greater behavioural

flexibility and improves potential for learning later in life”

(p. 59). Play theorist Sutton-Smith (1997) explains that

children are born with an extensive neuronal capacity, which

will soon fade if the child is not “played with or enjoyed”,

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or not given enough time to play. Therefore, it seems that

play has a huge impact on subsequent development, as further

indicated by Brown (2006a). The author explains that through

play children learn how to behave in societies, and they get

to know customs and rules. They also learn to categorize

objects, their properties, problem solving and in general they

develop higher thinking skills.

In this regards, very interesting results have emerged in

relation to the effects of play in children’s development. For

example, in an experiment conducted by Pellegrini and

Gustafson (2005), the researchers have observed young children

(3, 4 and 5 year olds) for one academic year in their

classroom. The outcome was that the longer children were given

to play with toys such as blocks or bricks, the better they

performed on problem-solving tasks. The same methodology as

Pellegrini and colleague (2005) was previously applied to the

experiment carried by Sylva, Bruner and Genova (1976). The

researchers have found a link between playing with

constructions and a positive attitude in taking risks and the

development of perseverance.

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This essay has so far presented definition and main types of

play; successively reporting evidence suggesting that play is

a fundamental developmental achievement, which benefits

children in many ways, including their subsequent development.

It would now be interesting to understand what happens when

children are not given enough opportunities to play by

exploring the main factors contributing to such scenario.

FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR TOO LITTLE PLAY OPPORTUNITIES IN A

CHILD’S LIFE

Play indeed benefits our development and works on our well-

being. For this, it seems self-evident that the absence of

play is in fact harmful. This is exactly what theorists such

as Siviy et al. (2003) have hypothesized. They believe, in

fact, that since play has been always correlated with healthy

development, the absence of it in a child’s life could easily

underlie some sort of illness or pathology.

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There are many factors linked to the ability or inability to

play: for example, the socio-economic status of the family, or

whether the children are properly looked after or are

maltreated. It is also interesting to think what is in fact

expected from a child considering different cultures, and what

the play opportunities of children in different contexts are.

Doubtlessly, also mental disorders contribute to less play in

a child life, or result in showing different play patterns to

that of normally developing children. The next paragraphs

intend to discuss these factors a little more in detail.

It was largely discussed by Manwaring and Taylor (2007) how

children raised without the opportunity to play are more

likely to become aggressive or anti-social. Furthermore, it

was demonstrated by Tobin (1997) how play deprivation in

Romanian orphans was highly correlated with a smaller brain

size compared to children given wide play opportunities

throughout their lives. This links to the research on animals

previously presented in this essay; therefore, it seems that

there is a significant amount of research supporting the

damage that play deprivation can bring to our development.

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Lester and Russell (2010) discussed which environments in the

whole world contribute to make a child vulnerable and often

unable to play peacefully. The researchers pointed out that

children living in large cities are often so busy with all

sorts of activities that they are left with not enough time to

play freely. They also considered children in extreme poverty.

These children might have plenty of time to play, however they

might not have enough energy due to a very poor diet. Probably

in both contexts, but especially for those living in poverty,

parents could often be feeling stressed and this could impinge

on forming secure attachments, leaving the child to cope with

too much anxiety for spending time healthily playing.

A very interesting observation in regards to the relationship

between ability to play and the environment by which a child

is surrounded was made by Veicht et al. (2006) who pointed out

that children living in wealthy environments could have

parents or teachers who are supervising and protecting the

children at a too high level. In this way it becomes difficult

for a child to benefit from free play, because carers do not

give the child the opportunities to do so. In this regards, a

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truly fascinating study has been conducted by Shier (2008). He

compared two different groups of children: one group included

children from the UK, and one group included children from

Nicaragua. The opportunities to play across these groups were

observed, reflecting two completely different cultures. The

outcome of the study showed how children living in Nicaragua

have many more opportunities of playing outdoors, for example

climbing trees or swimming, while children in UK are

protagonists of more structured play (for example in after

school clubs), with much less outdoor play. Whitebread (2012)

analysed what children are expected to do, across different

countries. The aim of this analysis was to see whether in

these countries children should spend more time playing

freely, or learning. In the UK, Italy, Spain and France,

“playing” and “learning” are mostly seen as two very different

concepts. It’s true that for these countries and probably

within western culture as a whole, children are supposed to

spend most of the time sitting learning about numbers, and

doing their reading.

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Children’s play can also present unusual patterns when a child

has a mental disorder: for example, children diagnosed with

ADHD or on the ASD. Children with ADHD find it very difficult

to relate with peers, and are often viewed negatively and

excluded (Hoza et al., 2005) probably because of their

difficulty to pay attention and focus and missing social cues

(Andrade et al., 2012). Therefore, this group of children

could have much less opportunity to play and socialize due to

these behavioural issues. In regards to children on the

autistic spectrum, there have been conflicting opinions

concerning their ability to play, especially in regards to

symbolic play. Libby et al. (1998) was one of the most

convinced by stating that autistic children present some sort

of symbolic play, and there was some later research that for

children with autism it is fundamental to have an adult

playing with them, imitating their actions and behaviour

(Field et al., 2001).

The main factors impinging on the ability to play have been

presented, but there is more to add. In fact, play seems to be

a key to a child’s world, or the means through which is

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possible to understand a child’s emotional state. The next

session intends to explore this perspective in more detail.

PLAY AS THE PASSWORD FOR ACCESSING A CHILD’S MIND

I support Alvarez and Phillips’s (1998) statement in saying

that what is important is not much the meaning of play, but

the ability to play at all. This should be in the mind of

anyone working in the therapeutic sector. Only by observing

play can we grasp how a child is, for example, coping with

anxieties. This was beautifully explained by Freud in 1920.

He was one of the first to observe a child involved in a play

activity. The child he observed was in fact his 18 months old

grandson, described by Freud as a very well behaved boy, who

would not scream or misbehave in the absence of his parents,

but would rather entertain himself with objects he would find

around him. Interestingly, Freud highlighted the link between

the toy his grandson was playing with (a wooden toy attached

to a string) and the absence of the child’s parents. The

child, by using the string to throw and recapture the toy,

would somehow fight against the anxiety provoked by the

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absence of the parents. Alvarez and Phillips (1998) point out

how child analyst Melanie Klein, in the 1920’s, developed a

technique according to which observing children’s play would

act as a window to children’s unconscious. The analyst

strongly believed that emotionally disturbed children would

often find relief through play because whilst playing the

unconscious feelings would be somehow given a conscious

meaning, similarly to the free association method used by Freud in

his therapies with adults.

The real problem is that not all children find through play

moments of true enjoyment, or a way to cope with anxieties or

worries, because they are not given the possibility with no

time or space to do so; therefore, they become children unable

to play, and to have fun.

Whitebread (2012) explained that children who are not able to

play include depressed children or traumatised children;

however, due to ethical reasons there is no scientific

evidence of the effect of play deprivation in children.

Ziegler (n.d.) explains how traumatised children are indeed

unique in the way they play, and this is because they tend to

bring in their play the stress and anxiety which characterizes

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their life. Therefore, trauma does now benefit the process of

children expressing themselves in a childlike manner. A child

subjected to traumas becomes hyper-vigilant and loses his or

her ability to enjoy play and have fun, because he or she is

too busy being concerned about what is going on around them.

Therefore, what a child in this position needs is certainly to

be taught how to play.

As I reflect on my practice, I find that the discussion made

by Ziegler (n.d.) presented above is of extreme importance,

not only for traumatised children, but for all children with

any kind of emotional disturbance. In my role as a counsellor

I work with a 7 year old boy who is extremely concerned about

being always the winner. Each session he would choose the same

activity (which happens to be Connect 4) and for the whole

session he would repeat: “I am going to beat you! I am going

to beat you!” This boy has witnessed domestic violence and had

to deal with an alcoholic parent for four years. “Winning” and

“Losing” is the constant variable in his play; he needs to be

in control, and he raises his voice when telling me he must

find out my strategies for winning the play. Childlike play

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seems indeed to be absent for this child. Thinking back to the

definitions of play presented in this essay, it seems obvious

that they are opposite of what happens in the room with this

particular client. His play must always be structured and with

a utilitarian purpose; he needs to be constantly vigilant and

in control of everything that is going on. This is not

surprising considering his background. Probably, the most

important thing to take further in order to create a childlike

play pattern in this boy’s life, is to teach him how to play,

believing that it is possible to give a child a second chance.

The fundamental concept in intervention in regards to play is

to gradually let the child discover the simplicity of play.

Play should have no structure or purpose, and although it is

understandable that a child aged 7, 8, and 9 or older wants to

win a game, it is important to recognize that when this

becomes extreme, childlike play needs to be introduced to the

child’s life in affordable doses.

CONCLUDING THOUGHTS

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This essay had started by simply introducing the concept of

play as a crucial achievement in a developing child. It was

mentioned that there are different types of play, which all

contribute to our healthy development and well-being. It was

argued that play has many benefits; therefore, when play is

denied, deprived or not “childlike” it can lead to significant

changes in brain development, as well as disrupted social,

emotional, or cognitive development. It was explored which

factors contributed to keep a child away from enjoying play,

amongst which are socio-economic status, the environments the

child is surrounded by and their culture, as well as mental

disorders. Successively, a reflection on my direct work with a

child was presented, with the aim of raising attention on how

traumatised children and children with emotional disturbances

are in need of interventions in which they are given a second

chance by being taught how to play.

In the future it would be interesting to find more evidence of

the importance of play in children’s lives, especially in

regards to friendships with peers, as well as concerning

gender, age, cultural background and special educational

needs. It would doubtlessly be interesting to read more about

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cross-cultural studies where patterns of play are investigated

and what impact these have on subsequent development across

cultures. Research on adults and play is a field which seems

to be not as popular as it should; for example, it would be

extremely fascinating to see if there is any correlation

between play and heart diseases, or tumours. I surely believe

that by getting to know more about research on play would be

useful not only for designing future research, but also for

therapeutic intervention, where awareness about what is linked

to play in matters of different cultures or how this

correlates to subsequent development are of extreme importance

for a therapist. I hope this essay has satisfactorily

discussed important themes in regards to play, raising the

reader’s curiosity on a truly engaging topic.

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