Post on 21-Jan-2023
1
Introduction
Changing fashion is as commonplace as any other thing related
to lifestyle. Over the centuries, we have come across
different phenomenal incidents of changing fashion, be it
recreating the old or introducing the new. These changes were
not are result of one single event or person. In fact, it is a
team effort of time, economy, society, climate, and politics.
The eighteenth century was not an exception to this
phenomenon. Throughout the world, the eighteenth century is
marked by some socio-political activity. The Far East was
opening up to the west, the Asian sub-continent and the
Americas were on the verge of becoming European colonies, and
Europe was being heavily influenced and awed by the riches of
the Orient.
If there was one thing that symbolised eighteenth century
European society’s fascination with the east, it was the
‘banyan’, a long loose garb worn by men of status1. They were
often made of silk, cotton, linen or other exotic materials,
but this garment was not just limited to Europe. In fact, the
banyan crossed the Atlantic and reached the Americas as well.
Although this garment had several other nomenclature attached
to it like ‘Indian gown’, ‘morning gown’ etc, the name
‘banyan’ has a particular significance pertaining to its
journey to the west.
1 Naomi E A Tarrant, “Lord Sheffield's Banyan,” The Costume Society, no. 11(1977): 92-97, http://docserver.ingentaconnect.com/deliver/connect/maney/05908876/v11n1/s10.pdf?expires=1366542986&id=73869316&titleid=75000335&accname=University+of+Glasgow&checksum=C40EEBA2E9CF9B36DAA4F5483400A2B6
2
On this note, I would like to mention what the primary
questions are that this particular paper seeks to answer. The
first and foremost question is that of the etymological
background of the term ‘banyan’, and its journey from India to
Europe. The next issue that this paper will look closely into
is the issue of its true nature of origin. The paper will
examine the physical resemblance of the European nightgowns
and their original Indian counterparts from the perspective of
its cut and construction. This will eventually lead into
observations of other Indian influences that shaped this
eighteenth Century European garment, like the influence of the
Indian lattice work on its embroidery. Finally, this paper
will try and solve a supplementary question of loss of class
in translation because banyans in the sub-continent today are
contrary to the ostentatious ones from eighteenth century
Europe. In the sub-continent today, banyans are very similar
to an American undershirt in cut and construction. However,
rather than being fashionable wear, they are used as no better
than rags.
Etymological Roots
The earliest examples of gowns were just conventional
nightgown styles (rather than the more stylistic features
found in Japanese kimonos) in its collars and sleeves and
construction. Although they were called by different names in
different parts of Europe, like ‘banyans’ by the Portuguese,
it was not until the early 17th Century that the term ‘Indian
3
gown’ made it into British parlance2. Hence it is clear that
till the 17th century ‘banyan’ was the popular nomenclature for
this garment. Moira Thunder, design curator at the Victoria
and Albert Museum, mentions in her paper Man’s Banyan, ‘The term
banyan came from a word in Gujerati [sic] for a Hindu merchant
or trader, in the province of Gujerat [sic], India. The
anglicised form of the word was mentioned as early as about
1599.’3
While researching the word’s etymological root, the earliest
example of the word ‘banyan’ I could find was written in a
book by Richard Haklyut (c. 1552-1616), a Jesuit priest and
scholar entitled The Principal Navigations, Voiages, Traffiques and
Discoueries of the English Nation4. Although Thunder states that the
anglicised form of the word was mentioned first in about c.
1599, the book mentioned above was first published in c. 1589,
at least ten years before the date mentioned by Thunder.
2 Swain, Margaret, “Nightgown into Dressing Gown: A Study of Men's Nightgowns in the Eighteenth Century,” The Costume Society, 6, no. 1, (1972): 10-21, http://docserver.ingentaconnect.com/deliver/connect/maney/05908876/v6n1/s2.pdf?expires=1366498212&id=73865855&titleid=75000335&accname=University+of+Glasgow&checksum=3F08789459548C21C9437EB2DFBB1BCC (accessed March 14, 2013)3 Thunder, Moira, “An investigation into Masculinities and Nightgowns in Britain, 1659–1763,” unpublished MA dissertation, http://www.fashioningtheearlymodern.ac.uk/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Banyans-21.pdf4 “King's College Library,” King's College Cambridge, http://www.kings.cam.ac.uk/library/images/discovery/hakluyt.html (accessed March 20, 2013)
4
The online Oxford English Dictionary defines the word ‘banyan’
as:
A Hindu trader, especially one from the
province of Gujarat (‘many of which have
for ages been settled in Arabian ports,
and known by this name’ —Col. Yule);
sometimes applied by early writers to all
Hindus in Western India.5
Thus we know that the popular belief that the word ‘banyan’
refers to a Hindu trader from the region of Gujarat in western
India.
Contrary to this belief, my theory is that the etymological
root of this word is much more complicated than this, and a
lot more ancient. Although it has a deep rooted connotation to
the trade and economic history of the Indian sub-continent, it
does not directly refer to the business or merchant class
people from the western part of India.
5 “Oxford English Dictionary,” Oxford English Dictionary, http://www.nationalgalleries.org/visit/introduction-118 (accessed March 22,2013)
5
The word ‘banyan’ has both Sanskrit and Persian roots to it.
In Sanskrit, ‘banij (k)’ “is connected to the Vedic ‘paani’
which means water, which was later often written as ‘vanij’ or
‘banij’, a trade or traffic. A trader or merchant is known as
a ‘banik’6. In Persian, the word ‘banya’ means “victuals which
people carry into the country”. Derived from this is the term
‘bunyad’ which means “a foundation, fabric, or wall”.
Alternatively, there is the word“bunyan” (pronounced as
banyan), which means “roots”7.
From an Indian perspective, ‘banyan’ is a garment worn by
traders (banya). Keeping the Persian root of the word ‘banyan’
in mind, I can conclude that it was a basic (a sort of 'root'
or 'foundation') garment, something worn beneath the main
garment by the traders from India that was originally called a
‘banyan’ but the European travellers of the 15th and 16th
century misinterpreted it. They not only switched the meaning
of the words ‘banyan’ / ‘bunyan’ and 'bunya', it also seems
like they did not grasp the meaning of the Persian word
6 Monier Williams, A Sanskrit – English Dictionary, (London: Clarendon Press, 1873), _____7 F Stiengass, A Comprehensive Persian-English Dictionary, (London: Routledge and Keagan Paul, 1943), ____
6
'bunyan', which as explained above, could refer to as the
'foundation' garment, but instead ended up applying the term
to the main garment worn on top of the eastern banyan. This is
probably why the western banyan was closer in construction to
the main garments worn by people in the east, despite the fact
that the term used for it actually referred to the
undergarment that was worn in India, as we shall see later in
the paper.
7
The Nature of its Origin
As mentioned earlier, the true nature of this garment was not
what the original Indian ‘banyan’ was like. What the Europeans
adopted was the basic shape of the main garments worn by
regular people of western India, most of whom were traders or
merchants. The Europeans who first travelled to India in the
15th century were primarily merchants themselves, with the
intention of trading with the east. Therefore, it would not be
surprising to know that the people they came across and
interacted the most with were other traders like themselves.
Furthermore, the colourful and exotic clothes which were worn
by these common traders (or banyas) that so intrigued Europeans
were influenced by what was worn in the rulers' courts, a
point that some foreign traders would have noticed as they
were as occasional guests in the houses of nobility. This, in
turn, gave the clothes a greater sense of worth than what they
perhaps actually had. This point is exemplified by one of the
key accessories that travelled to the west along with the
banyan – the turban. In the sub-continent, turbans have
historically and culturally been viewed as a symbol of pride
and respect and are quite often associated with princes and
kings, who were quite often the ones who wore turbans.
Although the Portuguese traders were not importing cotton as a
part of their main cargo, the dresses and costumes had a major
influence on them. The Portuguese traders were not just
8
influenced by the common garment but also the rich and
colourful exoticness of the royal courts (especially that of
the Mughals), while adopting them into a style more suitable
and palatable to European tastes.
From researching various primary and secondary literatures, I
can conclude that it was Portuguese traders, and not English,
who first turned what was a garment worn by commoners in India
into an exotic and upmarket garment in the west. This, in
turn, makes me assume that it was in fact the Portuguese who
coined the term and meaning of the garment incorrectly. This
assumption of mine is based on two important factors. Firstly,
according to P.J.A. Guinote, ‘(...) between the years 1497 to
1640, 1,033 ships travelled from Lisbon to 8India on what was
called the Carreira da India.’ The 'Carreira da India' refers
to 'the India Run', the trade route they had established
between their country and the sub-continent. In contrast, the
first English ship arrived in India almost a hundred years
after the first Portuguese armada had made it there, which was
in 1601. Furthermore, it took another eleven years for them to
visit the Mughal court of the then emperor Jahangir. By the
time the British arrived, the Portuguese had already
established a stronghold in modern day Gujarat. Modern day
Surat was used as the main port town and the Portuguese
already had the town of Daman under their control9. Secondly,
8 Guinote, PJA, “India Route Project: THE RISE AND DECLINE OF THE Carreirada India,” Nautical Archaeology Program, Texas A & M University (2003)9 Ellison B. Findly, “The Capture of Maryam-uz-Zamānī's Ship: Mughal Womenand European Traders,” American Oriental Society,108, no. 8 (1998): 227-
9
as mentioned earlier, Richard Haklyut mentions this word in
his writings, which were published in the year 1589. But we
also know that the term ‘Indian gown’ was not used before the
17th century in Britain. Prior to the 17th century, these
garments were primarily known as ‘banyan’ and they were
brought to Europe mainly by Portuguese traders.
The earliest possible Indian influence of the European banyan
could have been the ‘chakdar jama’ or the ‘akbari jama’. Both these
garments were worn in the royal darbars, as well as by the
common men, if not as elaborately designed in the case of the
latter. These garments were accompanied by the elaborate
turbans or sometimes a cap. Both these garments were fastened
with a sash around the waist commonly known as the ‘patka’ (Fig
1.)
238, http://www.jstor.org/stable/603650?seq=1
10
This painting is an illustration of the
variety of jamas in use during the Mughal
period. The top two figures are Hindu
noblemen dressed in fine white Ichakdar
jamasI. The Muslim noblemen on the bottom
are wearing round-hemmed Akbari jama, which
are fastened on the right as opposed to the
left.10
10 Ritu Kumar, Costumes and Textiles of Royal India, (Christie’s Books Ltd, 2006), 39
Fig 1. Miniature from the Jahangir Album, attributed to Bhishan Das, c.1615
11
A banyan, although popular for its rather straight and lose
fit, still had an amount of shape to it with the wavy hem and
the rouged effect at the elbow of the sleeves as seen in Fig
211.
11 Nikki Scheur. “The Elegant Art of Embroidery”, in An Elegant Art, ed. Edward Maeder, 89-106 (Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum, 1983)
12
Fig 2. Banyan and Waistcoat (sleeved), England, c. 1760-80Pink, green, pale yellow, and cream meandering realistic floral pattern on palegreen diapered silk ground; self covered buttons; double
13
Cut and Construction a startling similarity
The general look of a European banyan dating back to the 17th
and 18th Century was a loose robe, sometimes with collars and
sometimes without (Fig 3.)12.
12 "V&A Collections,” Victoria and Albert Museum, http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O89443/banyan-unknown/ (accessed March 20, 2013)
Fig 3. Banyan, Coromandel Coast, India (fabric), Holland (possibly, tailored) , England, Great Britain (possibly, tailored), 1750-1775, Cotton chintz painted and dyed, and lined with block-printed cotton,Victoria and Albert Museum, London, Dimension: Width: 47 in along the arms, maximum, Width: 190 cm along thearms, maximum, Length: 57 in neck to hem, Length: 145
14
The banyans in Europe were one of the earliest examples of
readymade garments. They were constructed to fit every size
and shape because, unlike other garments of the time, banyans
were not tailor made to fit the wearer. The finished product
looked like a T-shaped lose garment (Fig 4.)13. However, the
construction details of a banyan reveal that, although
straight and loose and made to fit every size, it was not
absolutely shapeless [(Fig 5.) and (Fig 6.)]*14. Some banyans
were tailored more closely to the body.
13 Swain, Margaret, “Nightgown into Dressing Gown: A Study of Men's Nightgowns in the Eighteenth Century,” The Costume Society, 6, no. 1, (1972): 10-21, http://docserver.ingentaconnect.com/deliver/connect/maney/05908876/v6n1/s2.pdf?expires=1366498212&id=73865855&titleid=75000335&accname=University+of+Glasgow&checksum=3F08789459548C21C9437EB2DFBB1BCC (accessed March 14, 2013)14 Swain, Margaret, “Nightgown into Dressing Gown: A Study of Men's Nightgowns in the Eighteenth Century,” The Costume Society, 6, no. 1, (1972): 10-21, http://docserver.ingentaconnect.com/deliver/connect/maney/05908876/v6n1/s2.pdf?expires=1366498212&id=73865855&titleid=75000335&accname=University+of+Glasgow&checksum=3F08789459548C21C9437EB2DFBB1BCC (accessed March 14, 2013) *Note: These images are scaled because they were one of those typical examples of a tailor made banyan. The images are used as sample for the sole purpose of the pattern and cut. It is not to be scaled.
15
Fig 4. Man's Nightgown of brown and green Spitafields silk, woven from a design by AnnaMaria Garthwaite dated 1742.
16
Fig 5. Man's nightgown of light orange Indian Silk, striped with red cream andblack. Lined with self material, and with matching waistcoat fronts fastened to the inner sideseams. Padded and quilted in a diamond pattern. Pocked slits in side
Fig 6.
17
In comparison if we study the construction of several types of
Indian garments worn in the Indian subcontinent from the 14th
to the 19th Century we cannot help but notice the startling
resemblance between the two. Figure 7 (Fig 7.)15 is an
illustration from a Mughal manuscript dating back to c. 1590
which shows the royals of the Mughal court in lose garbs,
something very similar to the European banyans.
15 "V&A Collections,” Victoria and Albert Museum, http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/t/a-teachers-resource-plant-motifs/ (accessed March 14, 2013)
Fig 7. 'Babur supervising the laying out of the Garden of Fidelity', illustration from a Mughalbook of manuscripts, watercolour and gold on paper, India or Pakistan, about 1590, Museum no. IM.276-1913, Victoria and
18
Heavy influences of other Indian garments can also be seen in
European banyans in the later years. I would like to point out
here that although it has been mentioned that the European
banyans were influenced from the T-shaped Japanese kimonos16,
it was not until The Dutch East India Company started trading
with the Tokugawa shogunate (roughly around 164017) that the
kimonos started influencing this fashionable European garb,
and was after the Portuguese had already started their trade
campaigns with the east.
The later Indian influences range from ‘chogha’ to a ‘jama’. The
origin and the development of a ‘jama’ is not known for sure.
The word refers to a garment which has failed to stick to a
precise stylistic definition. The meaning of this Persian word
ranges from robe, vest, gown, or coat to simply a garment. In
fact, hardly any difference is noticed between a ‘jama’ and a
‘chogha’ at times. It is my conclusion that since the ‘jama’
originated from Central Asia, where it is more popularly known
as the ‘yaktahi jama' (which translates to 'unlined garment'),
European banyans were mostly influenced by them. It first made
its appearance in India in the second century through the
Kushan Empire and was a rather popular fashion amongst the
Rajputs. However, there was a long absence of this garment in
the country's fashion history before it reappeared again in
16 Linda Baumgarten, What Clothes Reveal: The language of Clothing in Colonial and Federal America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003), 11017 Thunder, Moira, “An investigation into Masculinities and Nightgowns in Britain, 1659–1763,” unpublished MA dissertation, http://www.fashioningtheearlymodern.ac.uk/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/Banyans-21.pdf
19
the 16th Century Mughal court of Delhi. This time, it appeared
in a different, newer version18. The following figure (Fig 8.)
clearly shows the resemblance between the ‘chogha’ of Indian
origin and the banyan in figure 3 (Fig 3.)
Woven in Kashmir this Ochre Chogha was
probably for a Jaipur or Rajasthan court.
The hem seams and cuffs are edged with
three decorative borders. The two outer 18 Ritu Kumar, Costumes and Textiles of Royal India, (Christie’s Books Ltd, 2006), 150
Fig 8. A Kashmir chogha designed for a court in west India, c. 19th Century, Length: 144 cm.
20
borders feature small flower motifs on an
ecru background and frame a central border
which is woven with a line of olive-green,
red and blue butis. The main body of the
garment is woven with a repeat buti
pattern.19
Influence of Indian lattice works in embroidery
With the advent of the cotton textile in the English market
which was rather sudden like an overnight event, and the craze
for calicoes surged high. With this event, the English finally
established a foothold in trade with the east. The demand for
Indian textiles surged extremely high. The categories of goods
shipped from India were so extensive and diverse that in 1696,
an anonymous merchant published a catalogue of these goods and
fabrics that were available in order to enlighten consumers
about the quality of the products20. This craze was not just
limited to calicoes or Indian chintz. In fact, it took a
unique turn. Demand for textile of Indian origin so high that
the British market was soon awash with floral patterns. The
rich, famous, and academic circles preferred flowers over all
19 Ritu Kumar, Costumes and Textiles of Royal India, (Christie’s Books Ltd, 2006), 18520 Beverly Lemire, Fashion’s Favourite: The Cotton Trade and the Consumer in Britain, 1660-1800, (Oxford: Pasold Research Fund and Oxford University Press, 1991), 3-17
21
other things. Nothing was spared from this botanical wave, not
even the scholar’s garb called the banyan21.
From silk damasks to woven or embroidered silks to more exotic
cotton ones, banyans only saw floral patterns on them. The
influence of these patterns for embellishment was also of
Indian origin. The Indian counterparts of these banyans were
often embellished with fine, rich floral designs. In fact,
during the time of the first English settlements in India, the
Mughal court was experiencing an overwhelming surge of
interest for flora and fauna under the emperor Jahangir.
Jahangir’s craze for gardens and his successor Shah Jahan’s
craze for making the exotic gardens built by his father
immortal are well recorded. If Jahangir’s expertise lay in,
gardens then Shah Jahan’s expertise was imitating his father's
floral patterns and bringing life to lifeless architecture.
21 Beverly Lemire, “Domesticating the Exotic: Floral Culture and the East India Calico Trade with England, c. 1600-1800,” Textile: The Journal of Cloth and Culture 1, no. 1 (2003): 64-85, http://docserver.ingentaconnect.com/deliver/connect/bloomsbury/14759756/v1n1/s5.pdf?expires=1366597742&id=73876053&titleid=6328&accname=University+of+Glasgow&checksum=73562DD3FC0FB2E6C1E003085C34D93B
22
Both father and son took all measures to lay the foundations
of a glorious architectural renaissance. European banyans
experienced the phenomenal influence of this duo during its
hay days.
Despite the prohibition of Indian textile in the late 17th
century, the influence of these floral designs were so popular
that Indian gown makers in Britain were ordered to make
designs which resembled exotic Indian designs which were
earlier brought from the province of Gujarat. Some nightcaps
and gowns from this period still bear evidence to this fact
(Fig 9)22 and (Fig 10.)23.
22 Linda Baumgarten, What Clothes Reveal: The language of Clothing in Colonial and Federal America (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003), 11023 “Heilburn Timeline of Art History,” Metropolitan Museum of Art, http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/55.121.10.39 (accessed March 20, 2013)
24
Fig 10. Rosette (shamsa) bearing the name and titles of Emperor Shah Jahan (r. 1628–58), Mughal, 17th century, Ink, opaque watercolor, and gold on paper, 15 3/16 x 10 7/16 in. (38.6 x 26.5 cm), Metropolitan Museum of Art.
25
The loss of class in translation
In the 18th century, European Banyans were very ostentatious,
but in modern day India the banyans look like an American
undershirt. However, unlike in America, banyans in India are
used as a vest for men and are treated like a rag. So why was
there a sudden seeming loss of class for it? The answer to
this question is probably the easiest: there was no loss. It
was the Portuguese who misinterpreted the term and mistook a
garment that was not a banyan as it was truly called in India.
In the subcontinent, the meaning of the word 'banyan' still
refers to the undress or the foundation garment. Yes, it has
definitely evolved in its shape and construction from its
original counterpart, but then again, so has every other
garment.
26
Conclusion
In conclusion I can only sum up what has already been
mentioned in the paper. The answers to my questions at the
very beginning of the paper are short and simple. It was the
Portuguese traders who first came up with the concept of the
European banyans. In the process, they misinterpreted the
meaning of the term and also the originality of the Indian
banyans. They ended up imitating the main outer garments worn
in India as a fashionable undress and termed it banyan, a term
used to refer to undress or undergarment in India and the sub
continent. Finally, the influence of the Indian floral designs
inspired by the lattice works were so prominent, that even
after over a century’s time when this garment made into the
English fashion scene, they were very high in demand.
27
Bibliography
1. Naomi E A Tarrant, “Lord Sheffield's Banyan,”
The Costume Society, no. 11 (1977): 92-97,
http://docserver.ingentaconnect.com/deliver/
connect/maney/05908876/v11n1/s10.pdf?
expires=1366542986&id=73869316&titleid=75000335&
accname=University+of+Glasgow&checksum=C40EEBA2E
9CF9B36DAA4F5483400A2B6 (Accessed March 14,
2013)
2. Swain, Margaret, “Nightgown into Dressing Gown:
A Study of Men's Nightgowns in the Eighteenth
Century,” The Costume Society, 6, no. 1, (1972):
28
10-21,
http://docserver.ingentaconnect.com/deliver/conn
ect/maney/05908876/v6n1/s2.pdf?
expires=1366498212&id=73865855&titleid=75000335&
accname=University+of+Glasgow&checksum=3F0878945
9548C21C9437EB2DFBB1BCC (Accessed March 14,
2013)
3. Thunder, Moira, “An investigation into
Masculinities and Nightgowns in Britain, 1659–
1763,” unpublished MA dissertation,
http://www.fashioningtheearlymodern.ac.uk/wordpr
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(Accessed March 14, 2013)
4. “King's College Library,” King's College
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http://www.nationalgalleries.org/visit/introduct
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6. Monier Williams, A Sanskrit – English
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7. F Stiengass, A Comprehensive Persian-English
Dictionary, (London: Routledge and Keagan Paul,
1943)
8. Guinote, PJA, “India Route Project: THE RISE AND
DECLINE OF THE Carreira da India,” Nautical
29
Archaeology Program, Texas A & M University
(2003)
9. Ellison B. Findly, “The Capture of Maryam-uz-
Zamānī's Ship: Mughal Women and European
Traders,” American Oriental Society,108, no. 8
(1998): 227-238,
http://www.jstor.org/stable/603650?seq=1
(accessed March 22, 2013)
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Museum,
http://collections.vam.ac.uk/item/O89443/banyan-
unknown/ (accessed March 20, 2013)
11. "V&A Collections,” Victoria and Albert
Museum,
http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/t/a-
teachers-resource-plant-motifs/ (accessed
March 14, 2013)
12. Linda Baumgarten, What Clothes Reveal: The
language of Clothing in Colonial and Federal
America (New Haven: Yale University Press,
2003), 110
13. Ritu Kumar, Costumes and Textiles of Royal
India, (Christie’s Books Ltd, 2006), 150
14. Beverly Lemire, Fashion’s Favourite: The
Cotton Trade and the Consumer in Britain, 1660-
1800, (Oxford: Pasold Research Fund and Oxford
University Press, 1991), 3-17
30
15. Beverly Lemire, “Domesticating the Exotic:
Floral Culture and the East India Calico Trade
with England, c. 1600-1800,” Textile: The
Journal of Cloth and Culture 1, no. 1 (2003):
64-85,
http://docserver.ingentaconnect.com/deliver/conn
ect/bloomsbury/14759756/v1n1/s5.pdf?
expires=1366597742&id=73876053&titleid=6328&accn
ame=University+of+Glasgow&checksum=73562DD3FC0FB
2E6C1E003085C34D93B (Accessed March 14, 2013)
16. “Heilburn Timeline of Art History,”
Metropolitan Museum of Art,
http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/works-of-art/55.12
1.10.39 (accessed March 20, 2013)
17. Scheur, Nikki. “The Elegant Art of
Embroidery”, in An Elegant Art, ed. Edward Maeder,
89-106 (Los Angeles: Los Angeles County Museum,
1983)
Further Reading
1. Haklyut , Richard, Voyages and Discoveries, (London:
Penguin Books, 1972)
2. Boxer , C R, The Portuguese Seaborne Empire 1415-1825,
(London: Carcanet Press Limited, 1991)
3. Pepys, Samuel, Letters and the second diary of Samuel
Pepys, (London: J M Dent and Sons, 1933)
31
4. Subrahmanyam, Sanjay, The Career and Legend of Vasco da
Gama, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1997)
5. Boxer, C R, Portuguese Conquest and Commerce in
Southern Asia 1500-1750, (London: Variorum Reprints,
1985)
6. Buck, Anne, Dress in Eighteenth Century England,
(London: BT Batsford, 1979)
7. Andrews, Peter. “The Architecture and Gardens of
Islamic India (1982).” In The Arts of India,
edited by Basil Gray, 95-124. New Delhi: Vikas
Publishing House, 1982
8. Leach, Linda York. “Later Mughal Painting
(1982).” In The Arts of India, edited by Basil
Gray, 95-124. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House,
1982
9. Zebrowski, Mark. “Decorative Arts of Mughal
India (1982).” In The Arts of India, edited by
Basil Gray, 95-124. New Delhi: Vikas Publishing
House, 1982
10. Riello, Giorgio and Peter McNeil. “The
fashion revolution: the long eighteenth century
(2010).” In The Fashion History Reader: Global
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