Post on 28-Mar-2023
A Model of Subjective Well-Being for Adolescentsin High School
Ali Eryılmaz
Published online: 11 April 2011� Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2011
Abstract The aim of this study is to develop and test a subjective well-being model for
adolescents in high school. A total of 255 adolescents in high school (131 female and 124
male) participated in this study. Data was collected by using the general needs satisfaction
questionnaire, questionnaire for the strategies to increase subjective well-being, life sat-
isfaction questionnaire and positive and negative affects questionnaire. The structural
equation modelling method was used for analysis of the data. The results of the analysis
showed that in the original model, the individual variables and the total effect of variables
were directly and indirectly related to subjective well being of adolescents in high school.
The direct and indirect effects of the independent variables to subjective well-being were
found significant. The findings suggest that to enhance the subjective well-being of high
school students, a combination of strategies and satisfaction of needs is essential.
Keywords Subjective well-being � Satisfaction of needs � Strategies � Adolescents
1 Introduction
Adolescence is considered a complex stage of life with its own specific biological, psy-
chological, and sociological aspects. According to Erikson (1968), the development of a
healthy individual identity is a major task of adolescence during which every adolescent
experiences an identity crisis. If an integrated sense of identity cannot be established by the
end of adolescence, the state of identity confusion is experienced. Adolescence is also a
period of cognitive development. Rapid cognitive changes result in increased interest in
abstract ideas and issues (Piaget and Inhelder 1973). During this time, adolescents develop
an interest in political issues, human rights, feminism, and environment or spiritual issues
(Steinberg 2005). Additionally, another developmental task during this period is to achieve
psychological independence from parents, while maintaining connectedness (Allen et al.
1994; Grotevant and Cooper 1985). The transformation model suggests that adolescents’
A. Eryılmaz (&)Eskisehir Osmangazi University, Eskisehir, Turkeye-mail: erali76@hotmail.com
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J Happiness Stud (2012) 13:275–289DOI 10.1007/s10902-011-9263-9
affect with their families decreases in early adolescence and then increases in late ado-
lescence (Collins and Laursen 2004; Eberly and Montemayor 1999; Larson et al. 1996).
Moreover, during adolescence, close friends play important role, and also they begin to
surpass parents as adolescents’ primary source of social support and contribute in
important ways to adolescents’ self-concept and well-being (Furman and Buhrmester 1992;
La Greca and Harrison 2005). These changes take place in a context of cognitive, physical,
and psychosocial development (Collins and Repinski 1994) which enables adolescents to
become more stable and mature (Lerner 1985; Moore and Boldero 1991).
The rapid changes in development may cause adaptation problems. For instance, ado-
lescents who experience identity confusion-related distress had more school and behavioral
problems (Wires et al. 1994), many adolescents have a propensity for risk taking behaviors
as a result of cognitive immaturity (Steinberg 2004). Discrepancies between adolescents’
and parents’ expectations about decision making and control could give rise to a decline of
warmth and to increasing conflicts (Collins et al. 1997). Furthermore, some studies have
found linkages between adolescents’ peer relations and mental health, such as feelings of
depression and social anxiety (Hecht et al. 1998; La Greca and Lopez 1998). These
negative experiences prevent adolescents from fulfilling their responsibilities and devel-
opmental tasks (Mcknight et al. 2002). As a result, the changes experienced during this
period might affect adolescents’ happiness, in other words, their subjective well-being.
Happiness is conceptualized as subjective well-being in literature, which refers to an
individuals’ evaluation of their life. Subjective well-being is not a single dimensional
structure but is considered to comprise three elements: positive affection, negative affec-
tion and life satisfaction (Andrews and Withey 1976; Deiner 1984). Positive affection
includes positive feelings such as confidence, interest, hope, pride, and joy while negative
affection includes negative feelings such as rage, hate, guilt, and sadness. The life satis-
faction dimension is a cognitive component of subjective well-being (Myers and Deiner
1995). If they have more experiences that give pleasure; they are considered to have more
subjective well-being.
In the literature, the subjective well being of children and adolescents were investigated
based on demographic factors such as age, education, gender, and socioeconomic status.
Conflicting results have been reported about the relationship between adolescents’ sub-
jective well-being and demographic variables. For instance, in a recent study with
Lithuanian adolescents (Sarakauskien _e and Bagdonas 2010) significant relationships
between subjective well-being and some demographic variables such as age, living con-
ditions, academic achievement, family composition, and parental education were reported.
On the other hand, age and gender were not significantly associated with subjective well-
being of Scottish adolescents (Karatzias et al. 2006). In addition, studies in the USA do not
ascribe much significance to the relationship between demographic factors and subjective
well-being (Huebner et al. 2000, 2004; McCullough et al. 2002). Subjective well being also
shows variations based on the different stages of adolescence. For instance, according to
results of a recent longitudinal study with Norwegian students, aged 8–16 years, showed
statistically significant differences in terms of age and gender in various domains of
subjective well-being (Jozefiak et al. 2009).
Adolescents’ subjective well-being is also related with psychological factors such as
internal locus of control and self esteem (Huebner 1991), positive transitions during early
adolescence from primary to junior high school (Wigfield et al. 1991), peer relations
(Hartup and Stevens 1997), personality traits of extraversion and neuroticism and lack of
stressful life events (Mcknight et al. 2002), somatic diseases (Vargus-Adams 2006; Varni
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et al. 2004), family structure and relationships (Huebner 2004; Huebner et al. 2000;
Joronen and Kurki 2005; Park 2004; Rask et al. 2003; Shek 1998; Shek and Lee 2007).
Nowadays, educators and psychologists have shifted their focus from individual
pathologies to studying positive structures in school environments (Suldo et al. 2006).
Therefore, many studies have focused on the relations between subjective well-being and
contextual variables such as school satisfaction (Baker 1998; Huebner and Gilman 2003),
teacher support (Suldo and Huebner 2004), and other individual variables such as intel-
ligence (Ash and Huebner 2001), and academic achievement (Cheng and Furnham 2002;
Huebner 1991; Huebner and Alderman 1993). However, a study does not exist which
focuses on how adolescents can lead a happy life in the school environment outside the
academic context. The present study focuses on a nonacademic contributor of subjective
well-being for adolescents in high school investigating the relationship between subjective
well-being increasing strategies and need satisfaction.
1.1 Subjective Well-Being and Subjective Well-Being Increasing Strategies
The achievement of subjective well-being is one of the most important goals of humankind
(Fordyce 1977, 1983). Numerous studies have focused on individual’s subjective well-
being (Buss 2000; Lyubomirsky 2001), but little scientific research has focused on the
relationship between subjective well-being of adolescents in high school and strategies to
increase subjective well-being. Purposeful activities are discussed in relation to strategies
for enhancing or increasing subjective well-being. Purposeful activities have been shown
to account for a 40% affect on an individuals’ subjective well-being (Tkach and Lyubo-
mirsky 2006). Strategies for increasing subjective well-being were first conducted by
Fordyce (1977, 1983). In the first phase of his empirical study, Fordyce (1977) determined
eight strategies that increase individuals’ subjective well-being. In the second phase, he
increased the number of strategies to 14. In the third phase of the study, he concluded that
the most effective strategies were positive and optimistic thinking, dealing with new
activities, having a life full of activities, participating in more social activities, improving
extravert personality traits, and decreasing negative thoughts. In his later study, he con-
cluded similar findings (Fordyce 1983).
According to evolutionary psychology, humans are a species highly concerned with
subjective well-being, with a potential for considerable variation in mood. Therefore,
subjective well-being possibly means more to our species than to another (Grinde 2002).
Evolutionary psychology yields insight into some of the major obstacles to achieving a
high subjective well-being including discrepancies between modern and ancestral condi-
tions, the existence of evolved mechanisms designed to produce psychological pain, and
the inherently competitive nature of some evolved mechanisms (Buss 2000; Cosmides and
Tooby 1999; Eaton et al. 1988). Evolutionary psychology also identifies several strategies
to reduce the gap between the living conditions of primitive and modern times, to improve
relations with relatives and friends, to obtain close friends, to decrease subjective stress, to
change competitive structures into cooperation and to manage them, and also to satisfy
desires (Buss 2000).
A number of strategies were found positively related to increased subjective well-being
(Tkach and Lyubomirsky 2006). These strategies are having social relations, participating
in activities actively and passively, defining and reaching goals, displaying behaviors
related to subjective well-being, taking part in religious activities and having cognitive
control. Several studies on strategies to increase subjective well-being have also been
conducted in Turkey. Eryılmaz and Yorulmaz (2006) concluded that, in their pursuit of
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happiness, adolescents employ strategies such as having positive relations with other
people, giving respect and love to others, seeking delectation, having positive academic
experiences, having romantic relations, retaining happiness, and controlling negative
feelings. In another study, Eryılmaz (2010) measured five strategies commonly used by
adolescents to enhance their subjective well-being. The instrument measured their desires
to receive positive reaction from the environment, react positively to other people, satisfy
one’s desires, participate in religious activity, and retain subjective well-being or mental
control.
Similar findings have been reported in literature. Receiving and giving positive reac-
tions to an environment are similar to Buss’s (2000) strategy of developing closeness to
extended kin and deep friendship, Fordyce’s (1977, 1983) developing an outgoing social
personality, and Tkach and Lyubomirsky’s (2006) social affiliation strategy. The third
strategy, which is related to Tkach and Lyubomirsky’s (2006) religion strategy, is to
participate in religious activities. The fourth strategy concerns the satisfaction of desires
and is similar to Buss’s (2000) fulfillment of desire. Protecting subjective well being is a
strategy akin to Tkach and Lyubomirsky’s (2006) one for mental control.
1.2 Subjective Well-Being and Need Satisfaction
Satisfaction of needs is an important variable which affects subjective well-being. The self
determination theory proposes that, from birth, individuals exhibit three important psy-
chological needs: competence, relatedness, and autonomy. Competence means that con-
cerning the individual’s success in difficult matters and their efforts until he or she gets the
desired result. Secondly, the need for relatedness means to form trust based on mutual
respect. Finally, the need for autonomy refers to the individual’s making a choice and
having initiative (Ryan and Deci 2000).
When the literature is examined, significant associations can be seen between satis-
faction of competence, relatedness, autonomy and subjective well-being. (Ryan and Deci
2000). When individuals satisfy their needs of competence, relatedness, and autonomy,
they become healthier and feel better. When these needs are not satisfied, individuals
develop more diseases (Baard et al. 1998; Kasser and Ryan 1999; Ilardi et al. 1993;
Sheldon et al. 1996; Reis et al. 2000; Sheldon and Bettencourt 2002). Other studies either
directly or indirectly refer to the importance of satisfaction of needs for children and
adolescents (Crocker and Hakim–Larson 1997; Noom et al. 1999; Ryan and Grolnick
1986). According to Ryan and Deci (2000), these three basic needs must be handled in all
stages of life. Therefore, the relation between satisfaction of needs and subjective well-
being can be observed throughout an individual’s development. From this standpoint, it is
important to investigate the relationship between satisfaction of needs and subjective well-
being in adolescence.
Studies on subjective well-being are quite recent and this topic is still in its infancy
(Lyubomirsky et al. 2005). Indeed, no studies seem to exist in the literature which
examines the relation between satisfaction of needs and strategies for increasing subjective
well-being. Given that satisfaction of needs is related to subjective well-being, it is thought
that there is an interrelated role between subjective well-being and the strategies to
increase it.
It is also important to examine these concepts across cultures. Turkey is a rapidly
changing society. Turkey has been a secular democracy since 1923, and has adopted
Western life style for the past 88 years. Western values and lifestyles have been fostered
both by the state and the mass media (Hortacsu 1997). Although they are raised in
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traditional families, the Turkish adolescents are familiar with western lifestyles and values
from the mass media. In our day, globalization causes many more people to seek ways of
subjective well-being (Lyubomirsky et al. 2005), including adolescents in high school.
Demographically Turkey is a young society. For instance, in Turkey, there are 11,237
school psychologists. The number of schoolchildren who are in 12-year compulsory
education is 14,346,637 (Jimerson et al. 2009). The subjective well-being of so many
children is an important issue.
Studies conducted in Turkey or elsewhere; do not seem to focus on subjective well-being,
need satisfaction and strategies to increase subjective well-being for adolescents in high
school. Understanding the relations between these variables will provide insight into the
direction and the power of these variables. This information can be useful for the positive
development of adolescents in high school (Huebner 1991; McCullough et al. 2002).
The aim of this study is to test a model that examines the relation between subjective
well-being of adolescents attending high school, satisfaction of their needs and the strat-
egies to increase subjective well-being. Three important hypotheses were established:
(a) The strategies to increase subjective well-being have a positive effect on subjective
well-being of adolescents in high school,
(b) Satisfaction of needs has a positive effect on subjective well-being of adolescents in
high school and,
(c) Satisfaction of needs has a significant mediator effect on the relation between
subjective well-being and the strategies to increase it.
2 Method
2.1 Research Design and Procedure
This study aims to develop a structural equation model which involves subjective well-
being, satisfaction of needs and strategies to increase subjective well-being for adolescents
attending high school. A causal comparative scanning model was used as this was seen to
best fit the purpose of the study. In this study, frequency and percentage analyses have been
used to analyze the demographic features of the participants. In order to test the developed
model, a structural equation model was employed. The dependent variable of the study is
subjective well-being and the independent variables are satisfaction of needs and strategies
to increase subjective well-being.
Sample selection method was purposive sampling. Purposive sampling allows
researcher to be able to select one or more sub-sections from the universe rather than a
representative sampling of the universe. In other words, purposive sampling allows
researcher to select the most appropriate observation unit from the universe (Fraenkel and
Wallen 1993). Researcher in using purposive sampling is able to choose a specific unit
based on theoretical knowledge and specific goals of the study (Buyukozturk et al. 2008;
Sencer 1989). In this study, maximum variation was used among the purposive sampling
methods. In order to determine the sample, inclusion and exclusion criteria were used.
Inclusion criteria for the study were the following: participants should be between 14 and
16-years-old and should be attending a general high school. Exclusion criteria for the study
were not to have a chronic illness and should not have a psychiatric diagnosis.
Structural equation models (SEM) are sensitive to sample size which means that the
SEM nearly always rejects the model when large samples are used (Bentler and Bonnet
A Model of Subjective Well-Being for Adolescents in High School 279
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1980; Joreskog and Sorbom 1993). On the other hand, where small samples are used, SEM
lacks power and, because of this, may not distinguish between good fitting models and
poor fitting models (Kenny and McCoach 2003). Concerning sample size, Kline (1998,
2005) refers to sample sizes lower than 100 as small, those between 100 and 200 as
medium and those higher than 300 as large samples. Based on these explanations, the study
group consisted of 200–300 adolescents attending high school.
This study was carried on adolescents attending a state high school in Ankara, Turkey.
The school was chosen for practical reasons as the author of this study worked at this
school. A cross-sectional model was used, as data was collected at one time. The data was
collected by asking the participants to fill out the scales individually. The participants were
briefly informed about the aim of the study and further information was provided if
requested. All participants were volunteers and were required to provide personal identity
information. The implementation of the scales took 60–70 min. The data was collected
between February and March 2010.
2.2 Participants
The study group initially consisted of 306 participants. Prior to data analyses, the participants’
answers were reviewed. As a result of this review, 34 individuals who left most of the items of
the scale blank (at least 5% of the items) or who were detected to mistakenly check the wrong
answer in the answer sheet were excluded from the data set. Nine adolescents who have
chronic illness and eight adolescents who have psychiatric diagnosis were excluded from the
data set. As a result, a total of 255 adolescents, 124 (48.6%) males and 131 (51.4%) females,
participated in the study. Their ages varied between 14 and 16 years. The mean age of
subjects was 15.84 years and the standard deviation was .75. The sample was divided
between 162 (63.5%) ninth grade students and 93 (36.5%) students in the tenth grade.
Among the mothers of participants, 102 (40.0%) were high school graduates; 83
(32.5%) had completed only primary education; 56 (22.0%) had a bachelor’s degree; 11
(4.3%) had two-year university degrees and 3 (1.2%) had a master’s degree. Among the
fathers, 103 (40.4%) held a bachelor’s degree; 88 (34.5) were high school graduates; 36
(14.1%) were primary school graduates; 21 (8.2) had two-year university degrees; and 7
(2.7%) had a master’s degree. Of the parents of participants, 230 (90.2%) were married and
living together in the same house; 18 (7.1%) were divorced and 7 (2.7%) were deceased.
The adolescents were asked to grade their socio-economic level and 201 (78.83%) spec-
ified it as middle, 32 (12.54%) as lower, and 22 (8.63%) as higher socio-economic level.
2.3 Instruments
2.3.1 Personal Information Form
In this study, a personal information form which included variables such as having chronic
illness, having psychiatric diagnosis, age, gender, educational level and socio-economic
level was used to reveal the demographic features of the participants.
2.3.2 Satisfaction with Life Scale
This scale was developed by Diener (1994) and translated into Turkish by Koker (1991). It
is a Likert-type scale with five items. The total point score is obtained by adding the values
280 A. Eryılmaz
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of the marked choices in the scale. The test–retest reliability co-efficient of the scale which
was administered twice with a three-week interval was .85. In the reliability calculation,
the Cronbach Alpha reliability co-efficient was found as .76. In the adaptation work of this
scale to Turkish, there was no attempt to establish the validity of this scale. For this reason,
the factor structure of the scale was examined in this study. After the exploratory factor
analysis, a single factorial structure was obtained. This single dimension explained 56.05%
of the total variance.
2.3.3 Positive and Negative Affects Scale-PANAS
Positive and Negative Affects Scale was developed by Watson, Tellegen and Clark (1988)
and adapted to Turkish by Gencoz (2000). This scale consists of a total of twenty state-
ments, ten positive and ten negative, about affects. Evaluation is carried out with a five
point likert scale. In Gencoz’s study (2000), the Turkish version of Positive and Negative
Affects Scale was found to have two dimensions and be consistent with its original version.
Its internal consistency for positive affects was reported to be .83 and negative affects to be
.86. In addition, its test–retest consistency was reported to be .40 for positive affects and
.54 for negative affects. In order to reveal criterion-related validity, the Beck Depression
Inventory and Beck Anxiety Inventory were used. The correlation of the positive affects
scale with the first one of these two inventories is -.48 and with the second one -.22. The
correlation of the negative affects scale with the first inventory is .51 and with the second
one .47.
2.3.4 Basic Need Satisfaction in General Scale
This scale which was developed by Deci and Ryan (1991) and has 21 items concerning
three needs: competence, autonomy and relatedness. It was adapted to Turkish by
Cihangir-Cankaya and Bacanli (2003). This 21-item questionnaire assesses the individuals’
satisfaction of intrinsic needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness. There are six
items for competence, eight items for relatedness, and seven items for autonomy, to which
participants responded on 5-point scales. The internal consistency of the scale for com-
petence is .80; for autonomy .82, and for relatedness .81.
2.3.5 Subjective Well Being Increasing Strategies Scale for Adolescents
This scale was developed by Eryılmaz (2010). The scale is composed of 17 items with a
4-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (almost never) to 4 (all the time). Exploratory
factor analysis was performed to examine the factor structure of scale. It explained 59% of
the variance in five dimensions: (a) receiving positive reaction from an environment,
(b) participating in religious activity, (c) reacting positively to an environment, (d) satis-
faction of desires, and (e) protecting subjective well being or mental control. The total
score is computed as the sum of the scores on each of the 17 items. In addition to the total
score, the scores from the subscales were computed. The total score of the scale can range
between 17 and 68 points. The scale can be administered individually or collectively. A
higher total and subscale score indicates a higher level of using subjective well-being
strategies. The internal consistency of the scale for receiving positive reaction from an
environment is .85, for doing religious activities .92, for reacting positively to environment
.90, for satisfaction of desires .68, for protecting subjective well being or mental control
A Model of Subjective Well-Being for Adolescents in High School 281
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.71, and for the whole scale .86. The item-total correlations also supported the internal
consistency of the scale. The items were moderately correlated with the total point (.53–.74
range). A sub-sample of individuals (n = 60) completed a 2-week test–retest session,
which yielded a reliability coefficient of .89. The concurrent validity of the scale was
computed with the satisfaction with life scale. The reliability and validity analyses showed
that the scale was reliable and valid.
3 Results
First, statistical findings related to the dependent and independent variables are presented.
Thereafter, the findings related to the structural model developed during this study are
reported.
3.1 Descriptive Statistical Findings Related to the Dependent and Independent
Variables in the Research
Mean and Standard Deviation measures related to the dependent and independent variables
in the study were calculated. The results of the analysis are given in Table 1.
3.2 Findings Related to the Model of Subjective Well-Being Adolescence Attending
High School
The structural equation model and the findings related to standardized coefficients repre-
senting the relation between the variables were developed in this part of the study. The
findings of the fitness of the model and their evaluations are presented.
As seen in Fig. 1, the structural equation model’s standardized coefficients express the
relation between the dependent and independent variables of the research. The general
fitness coefficients related to the developed structural model are given in Table 2.
As seen in Table 2, the fitness coefficients related to the developed model are above
acceptable limits. For example, the value of NFI is .93, NNFI is .95, CFI is .96, GFI is .94,
RMSEA is .066, and AGFI is .90. According to Kline (1998, 2005) these values indicate
that the model is acceptable.
Table Descriptive statistics
n = 255
Variables X SD
Life satisfaction 24.77 5.71
Positive affect 36.78 5.88
Negative affect 20.77 5.74
Need for autonomy 36.72 5.45
Need for competence 29.74 4.95
Need for relatedness 37.01 6.44
Receiving positive reaction from an environment 14.70 2.01
Participating in religious activity 9.74 2.35
Reacting positively to an environment 10.27 1.72
Mental control 10.10 1.90
Satisfaction of desires 12.64 2.29
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It is necessary to clarify the meanings of model fitness coefficients, the standardized and
unstandardized values of model, and the direct, indirect and mediation relations. The effect
size of the coefficients in the developed model was also taken into consideration in the
evaluation of the model which is given in Table 3.
Standardized and unstandardized path coefficients have been used to explain the effect
of the independent variables of this research on subjective well-being. Kline (1998, 2005)
defines standardized path coefficients effect size as low if it is below .10, average if it is
below .30 and, high if it is above .50. Accordingly, the strongest predictor in the model is
satisfaction of needs (standardized coefficient = .95). One unit increase in satisfaction of
needs increases subjective well-being by .89. The second predictor in the model is strat-
egies for increasing subjective well being (standardized coefficient = .31). One unit
increase in strategies for increasing subjective well being increases subjective well-being
by .31 points.
0.34
0.95
0.31
Subjective
Well-Being
Increasing
Strategies
Satisfaction
of Needs
Subjective
Well -Being
Need for
Autonomy
Need for
Competence
Need for
Relatedness
0.68
0.74
0.70
Satifaction of
Desires
Participating In
Religious
Activity
Reacting
Positively To An
Environment
Receiving Positive
Reaction From An
Environment
Mental Control
Negative Affect
Satisfaction of
Life
Positive Affect
0.480.700.75 0.76 0.55
0.56
0.51
-0.44
0.51 0.44 0.42 0.70 0.77
0.74
-0.800.45
0.51
0.54
0.69
0.95
Fig. 1 Structural equation model related to subjective well-being of adolescents in high school—satisfaction of needs and employment of strategies for improving subjective well-being
Table 2 General fitness coeffi-cients related to post-hoc modelchanges
* p \ .01
Fit index Value
v2 78.12*
DF 41
NFI .93
NNFI .95
CFI .96
GFI .94
AGFI .90
RMSEA .066*
A Model of Subjective Well-Being for Adolescents in High School 283
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It can be seen from Table 3 that there is a mediator effect of satisfaction of needs
between subjective well-being and strategies for increasing well being in the model. In
other words, adolescents with high subjective well being strategies are able to satisfy their
needs, which in turn increases their subjective well-being (Sobel Test = 3.72; p = 00).
These results also show that those adolescents who use subjective well-being strategies can
satisfy their needs and this satisfaction increases the level of their subjective well being
(standardized coefficients = .30).
The total effect of one variable on the other is defined as the total effect of all direct and
indirect effects between them. Based on this, while the unstandardized total effect size of
subjective well being increasing strategies on subjective well-being is .63, the standardized
effect is .61 (Z = 4.23; p \ .00).
A general view of these findings is that the effect of subjective well-being increasing
strategies and the direct, indirect and total effect of satisfaction of needs on subjective well
being are meaningful. The findings were therefore observed to support all the hypotheses
of the research.
4 Discussion
In this study, a model for subjective well-being of adolescents in high school was devel-
oped based on subjective well-being increasing strategies and satisfaction of needs. In this
section, the results of the study are discussed by referring to the literature.
The literature shows that satisfying individual needs increases the level of subjective
well-being. Most studies mentioned have been conducted on young adults and adults
(Baard et al. 1998; Kasser and Ryan 1999; Ilardi et al. 1993; Ryan and Deci 2000; Sheldon
et al. 1996; Reis et al. 2000; Sheldon and Bettencourt 2002). This study concludes that the
satisfaction of adolescents’ needs is in parallel with the increase in their subjective well-
being. At this point, it can be concluded that there are similar relationships between
satisfaction of needs and subjective well-being even in different developmental stages.
These results are an important contribution to the literature as the relations between these
two variables have been studied with adolescents attending high school.
The literature shows that employing subjective well-being increasing strategies is
effective on subjective well-being as a whole. The studies mentioned have been undertaken
with young adults (Tkach and Lyubomirsky 2006). In this particular study, the effect of the
related variable on subjective well-being has been analyzed with adolescents attending
high school. To improve the subjective well-being of adolescents attending high school,
Table 3 The evaluation of the final model
Variables Standardizedcoefficients
Unstandardizedcoefficients
Effectsize
The direct effect of subjective well-beingincreasing strategies
.31 .31 Moderate
The direct effect of satisfaction of needs .95 .89 High
The mediator effect of satisfaction of needs .30 .32 Moderate
The total effect of subjective well-beingincreasing strategies
.61 .63 High
284 A. Eryılmaz
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this study has contributed to the field by putting forth the relation between subjective well-
being increasing strategies and satisfaction of needs.
The literature shows that while there are studies that analyze the direct relations
between subjective well-being and the mentioned variables, none have analyzed the
indirect relations. On the other hand, theoretical explanations of the relations between these
variables are mentioned in the literature. For example, according to the Telic Theory of
subjective well-being, goal oriented activities account for a 40% affect on individuals’
subjective well-being (Tkach and Lyubomirsky 2006). Goal-oriented activities include
both satisfaction of needs and involvement in goal-oriented activities. According to Telic
Theory, subjective well-being, goals and needs are related to each other (Lykken and
Tellegen, 1996). Some goals arise as a result of the individuals’ desire to fulfill their needs
(Deiner 1984; Ryan and Deci 2000). According to the model in this study, adolescents
attending high school can unite subjective well-being increasing strategies with satisfaction
of needs. In this way, subjective well-being achieves a positive level through both needs
and goal oriented activities. This result supports the theoretical explanations in the
literature.
This study informs school psychologists’ practices which aim to improve adolescents’
subjective well-being. First of all, to increase the subjective well-being of adolescents
attending high school knowing and applying subjective well-being strategies is necessarybut not sufficient. A greater contribution to subjective well-being of adolescents attending
high school can be achieved when these strategies are put into practice paralleled with
efforts to satisfy the needs of individuals. Secondly, the importance of the mediating effect
of need satisfaction in increasing adolescents’ subjective well-being should not be ignored.
School psychologists may engage in studies to give adolescents more need satisfaction and
strategies to increase subjective well-being. The need for larger positive intervention and
prevention is also emphasized in the literature (Ash and Huebner 2001). School psy-
chologists, teachers and school administrators should organize their learning environments
to satisfy the needs of adolescents and to increase using of subjective well-being increasing
strategies. During this organization process, parents, school psychologists, teachers and
school administrators can offer social support to adolescents, thus assuming a role in
increasing their subjective well-being by applying subjective well-being increasing strat-
egies and need satisfaction. For example, school psychological counseling and guidance
programs may include activities to use subjective well-being increasing strategies of
adolescents attending high school as well as supply them satisfaction of needs.
Adolescent development depends on socio-cultural factors (Chen 2000). Debates are
present in literature asking whether findings about subjective well-being are valid for all
cultures (Diener and Diener 1995). At the heart of these debates lie the different views on
subjective well-being in individualistic and collectivist cultures. For instance, there are
previous studies about the affects of culture on Korean and USA adolescents’ subjective
well-being (Park and Huebner 2005). Therefore, testing the validity of the model on
adolescents attending high school from different cultures may contribute to the literature.
Further, there are studies that have revealed developmental differences in the subjective
well-being of early, middle, and late adolescents (Jozefiak et al. 2009; Park 2005). Thus,
future studies may test subjective well-being models on individuals at different stages of
adolescence attending high school.
The life-span development approach has provided significant information and data
(Baltes 1987). A similar study may provide an opportunity to produce developmental
information when conducted on individuals in every stage of life. Hence, the place of the
relation among these three variables in life can be better put forward.
A Model of Subjective Well-Being for Adolescents in High School 285
123
The most significant limitation of this study is that all participants were adolescents
attending high school. The model developed here should also be tested on adolescents who
are not in high school or engaged in further education, have chronic illness and psychiatric
diagnosis.
In conclusion, strategies that increase subjective well-being are necessary but insuffi-
cient to enhance the subjective well-being of adolescents attending high school. It can thus
be claimed that in order to enhance the subjective well-being of adolescents attending high
school, a combination of strategies and needs satisfaction is essential.
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