Post on 09-Jul-2015
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 1/44
=
KMCMI MHM[
KMK G
^EIAMCUDUMI
M) Dmqm{ Kedm`mib
Zekmbmg ̀ oize`ueizg mqmz qe{kgqiwm Uiamib,
Uiamib [e~ukdg` Giaoiezgm iolo{ ;> qmcui
;>>: qeiqmib Zgzqel ^eiagag`mi Imzgoimd ami
^e{mqu{mi ^ele{giqmc #^^' iolo{ =7 qmcui
;>>5 qeiqmib Zqmiam{ Imzgoimd ^eiagag`mi
#ZI^'$ ^ele{giqmc$ amdml cmd gig Leiqe{g
^eiagag`mi Imzgoimd$ qedmc leie{kgq`mi ke{kmbmg ~e{mqu{mi mbm{ ~eiwedeibbm{mmi
~eiagag`mi ag zedu{uc rgdmwmc Iebm{m @ezmqumi [e~ukdg` Giaoiezgm #I@[G'
~mdgib qgam` am~mq leleiucg zqmiam{ lgiglmd qe{qeiqu) Ke{kmbmg zqmiam{ qe{zekuq
mamdmc8 #=' zqmiam{ gzg$ #;' zqmiam{ `ol~eqeizg duduzmi$ #:' zqmiam{ ~{ozez$ #1'
zqmiam{ ~eiagag` ami qeimbm `e~eiagag`mi$ #5' zqmiam{ zm{mim ami ~{mzm{mim$ #6'
zqmiam{ ~eibedodmmi$ #2' zqmiam{ ~elkgmwmmi$ ami #3' zqmiam{ ~eigdmgmi
~eiagag`mi)
Amdml ~eijm~mgmi zqmiam{ gzg #ZG' wmib lelumq zqmiam{ `ol~eqeizg #Z@' ami
`ol~eqeizg amzm{ #@A' wmib cm{uz agjm~mg odec ~eze{qm agag` zeqedmc ledmdug
~elkedmhm{mi amdml heihmib ami rm`qu qe{qeiqu$ zecgibbm ~mam bgdg{miiwm
leijm~mg zqmiam{ `ol~eqeizg duduzmi #Z@D' zeqedmc leiwedezmg`mi ~elkedmhm{mi
~mam zmqumi ~eiagag`mi qe{qeiqu zejm{m quiqmz) Mbm{ ~eze{qm agag` am~mq leijm~mg
Z@$ @A$ lmu~ui Z@D wmib agcm{m~`mi$ ~e{du agau`uib odec ke{kmbmg zqmiam{
dmgiiwm$ miqm{m dmgi zqmiam{ ~{ozez ami zqmiam{ ~eiagag` ami qeimbm `e~eiagag`mi)
Amdml ^^ iolo{ =7 qmcui ;>>5 ^mzmd ;>$ aggzwm{mq`mi kmcrm bu{u
agcm{m~`mi leibelkmib`mi lmqe{g ~elkedmhm{mi$ wmib `eluagmi ag~e{qebmz
lmdmdug ^e{mqu{mi Leiqe{g ^eiagag`mi Imzgoimd #^e{leiag`imz' iolo{ 1= qmcui
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 2/44
;
;>>2 qeiqmib Zqmiam{ ^{ozez$ wmib miqm{m dmgi leibmqu{ qeiqmib ~e{eijmimmi
~{ozez ~elkedmhm{mi wmib leizwm{mq`mi kmbg ~eiagag` ~mam zmqumi ~eiagag`mi
uiqu` leibelkmib`mi {eijmim ~edm`zmimmi ~elkedmhm{mi #[^^') Zmdmc zmqu
edelei amdml [^^ mamdmc zulke{ kedmhm{) Aeibmi aelg`gmi$ bu{u agcm{m~`mi
uiqu` leibelkmib`mi kmcmi mhm{ zekmbmg zmdmc zmqu zulke{ kedmhm{) Zedmgi gqu$
~mam dml~g{mi ^e{leiag`imz iolo{ =6 qmcui ;>>2 qeiqmib Zqmiam{ @umdgfg`mzg
M`maelg` ami @ol~eqeizg Bu{u$ hubm agmqu{ qeiqmib ke{kmbmg `ol~eqeizg wmib
cm{uz aglgdg`g odec ~eiagag`$ kmg` wmib ke{zgfmq `ol~eqeizg giqg lmu~ui
`ol~eqeizg lmqm ~edmhm{mi) Kmbg bu{u ~mam zmqumi ~eiagag`mi heihmib Ze`odmc
Leieibmc Mqmz #ZLM'$ kmg` amdml quiquqmi `ol~eqeizg ~eambobg` lmu~ui
`ol~eqeizg ~{ofezgoimd$ ke{`mgqmi e{mq aeibmi `elml~umi bu{u amdml
leibelkmib`mi zulke{ kedmhm{ ami kmcmi mhm{) Odec `m{eim gqu$ agzml~gib
zekmbmg gl~deleiqmzg am{g ^e{leiag`imz iolo{ ;5 qmcui ;>>6 qeiqmib [gijgmi
Qubmz Uigq @e{hm ag Dgib`uibmi Agqhei Lmiag`amzlei kmcrm {gijgmi qubmz
Zukag{e`qo{mq ^elkedmhm{mi , Agq) ^ZLM #wmib miqm{m dmgi agzekuq`mi kmcrm
ledm`zmim`mi ~eiwgm~mi kmcmi ~eiwuzuimi ~eaolmi ami ~{ozeau{ ~edm`zmimmi
~elkedmhm{mi$ qe{lmzu` ~eiwuzuimi ~eaolmi ~edm`zmimmi `u{g`udul' ag~miamib
~e{du leiwuzui ~miaumi kmbg bu{u ZLM zecgibbm am~mq aghmag`mi zmdmc zmqu
{efe{eizg amdml ~eibelkmibmi kmcmi mhm{)
K) Quhumi
^eiwuzuimi ̂ miaumi gig ke{quhumi 8
=) Leihedmz`mi ~eiqgibiwm kmcmi mhm{ amdml ~edm`zmimmi ̀ ebgmqmi
~elkedmhm{mi ag ZLM)
;) Leihedmz`mi ̀ oize~ amzm{ kmcmi mhm{)
:) Leibelu`m`mi ke{kmbmg heigz kmcmi mhm{)
1) Leihedmz`mi dmib`mc,dmib`mc ~eiwuzuimi kmcmi mhm{)
J) Lmifmmq
Kmcmi mhm{ le{u~m`mi kmbgmi ~eiqgib amdml ~edm`zmimmi ~eiagag`mi ag
ze`odmc) Ledmdug kmcmi mhm{ bu{u m`mi dekgc luamc amdml ledm`zmim`mi
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 3/44
:
~elkedmhm{mi ami zgzrm m`mi dekgc qe{kmiqu ami luamc amdml kedmhm{) Kmcmi mhm{
am~mq agkumq amdml ke{kmbmg keiqu` zezumg aeibmi `ekuqucmi ami `m{m`qe{gzqg`
lmqe{g mhm{ wmib m`mi agzmhg`mi) Ku`u gig agzuzui aeibmi cm{m~mi ke{lmifmmq
kmbg zelum ~gcm` wmib ke{`e~eiqgibmi aeibmi ~eibelkmibmi kmcmi mhm{$ ze~e{qg
`e~mdm ze`odmc$ bu{u$ ~eibmrmz ze`odmc leieibmc mqmz lmu~ui ~elkgim
~eiagag`mi dmgiiwm) Kmbg `e~mdm ze`odmc ku`u gig am~mq aghmag`mi kmcmi
~elkgimmi kmbg bu{u wmib leibmdmlg `ezudgqmi amdml leibelkmib`mi kmcmi
mhm{)
@e~mdm ze`odmc amdml `ebgmqmiiwm zecm{g,cm{g hubm lele{du`mi kmcmi mhm{
zekmbmg mdmq kmiqu amdml ledm`u`mi ~{olozg mqmu~ui ~{ezeiqmzg qeiqmib cmd,cmd
wmib ke{`mgqmi aeibmi ~eibelkmibmi ze`odmc)
Kmbg bu{u ku`u gig agcm{m~`mi am~mq aglmifmmq`mi zekmbmg {uhu`mi amdml
leibelkmib`mi kmcmi mhm{) Aeibmi lel~edmhm{g ku`u gig agcm{m~`mi ~m{m bu{u
ag ze`odmc m`mi leiam~mq`mi gifo{lmzg qeiqmib ~eibelkmibmi kmcmi mhm{ wmib
~mam bgdg{miiwm ~m{m bu{u am~mq leibelkmib`mi kmcmi mhm{ uiqu` lelkmiqu
ag{giwm amdml ledm`zmim`mi `ebgmqmi kedmhm{ leibmhm{) Ag zml~gib gqu
agcm{m~`mi bu{u hubm m`mi qe{loqgvmzg uiqu` leibelkmib`mi kmcmi mhm{ wmib
ke{mbml ami leim{g` zecgibbm m`mi leibcmzgd`mi zmqu `ebgmqmi kedmhm{ leibmhm{
wmib ke{lm`im kmg` kmbg bu{u lmu~ui kmbg ~eze{qm agag`iwm) ^eibelkmibmi
kmcmi mhm{ mamdmc le{u~m`mi qmibbuib hmrmk bu{u zekmbmg ~eibmhm{ kmbg ~eze{qm
agag` ag ze`odmc)
Kmbg ~eibmrmz ze`odmc leieibmc mqmz mqmu ~m{m ~elkgim ~eiagag`mi dmgiiwm
`eke{mammi ku`u ~eaolmi gig ~mzqg ke{lmifmmq) @m{eim zeqgm~ ~eibmrmz cm{uz
leibeqmcug ke{kmbmg cmd wmib agdm`u`mi odec bu{u$ zecgibbm hg`m qe{am~mq
`ezudgqmi wmib agmdmlg odec bu{u$ ~eibmrmz am~mq zebe{m lelkmiquiwm) Aeibmi
lelkmjm ku`u ~eaolmi gig ~eibmrmz m`mi leiam~mq`mi ~elmcmlmi ami
lmzu`mi,lmzu`mi qeiqmib kmcmi mhm{ wmib am~mq ag`elkmib`mi odec bu{u amdml
leigib`mq`mi `umdgqmz `ebgmqmi kedmhm{ leibmhm{) Aeibmi aelg`gmi lm`m
~eibmrmz m`mi leiam~mq`mi ke`md amdml ledm`zmim`mi qubmz `e~eibmrmzmi
wmgqu lelkgim bu{u amdml leibelkmib`mi kmcmi mhm{)
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 4/44
1
A) [umib Dgib`u~
Ku`u gig m`mi ag`cuzuz`mi ~mam ~elkmczmi qeiqmib kmcmi mhm{ jeqm` zekmbmg
zmdmc zmqu keiqu` kmcmi mhm{ wmib ~mdgib kmiwm` agbuim`mi) ^elkmcmzmi m`mi
leijm`u~8
=) ^eiqgibiwm kmcmi mhm{ amdml ~edm`zmimmi `ebgmqmi kedmhm{ leibmhm{ ag
ze`odmc leieibmc mqmz)
;) Ke{kmbmg heigz kmcmi mhm{ jeqm` wmib am~mq ag`elkmib`mi)
:) Dmib`mc,dmib`mc ~eibelkmibmi kmcmi mhm{)
1) Joiqoc zgzqelmqg`m kmcmi mhm{)
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 5/44
5
KKMMKK GGGG
KK
MM
CC
MM
II
MM
HH
MM
[[
M) ^eibe{qgmi
Buim leibcmzgd`mi qmlmqmi wmib lel~uiwmg `elml~umi zezumg zqmiam{a
`ol~eqeizg duduzmi$ ag~e{du`mi ~eibelkmibmi ~elkedmhm{mi uiqu` zeqgm~
`ol~eqeizg zejm{m zgzqelmqgz$ qe{~mau$ ami quiqmz #lmzqe{w dem{igib') ^mam
~eiagag`mi leieibmc ulul$ ag zml~gib ku`u,ku`u qe`z$ hubm ag`eimd`mi mamiwm
delkm{,delkm{ ~elkedmhm{mi #gizq{ujqgoimd zceeq' aeibmi imlm wmib ke{lmjml,
lmjml$ miqm{m dmgi8 delkm{ qubmz #hok zceeq'$ delkm{ `e{hm #ro{` zceeq'$ delkm{
gifo{lmzg #gifo{lmqgoi zceeq' ami kmcmi mhm{ dmgiiwm kmg` jeqm` lmu~ui ioi,
jeqm`) Zelum kmcmi wmib agbuim`mi uiqu` leiau`uib ~{ozez kedmhm{ gqu agzekuq
zekmbmg kmcmi mhm{ #qemjcgib lmqe{gmd')
Uiqu` ~elkedmhm{mi wmib ke{quhumi leijm~mg `ol~eqeizg zezumg ~{ofgd
`elml~umi qmlmqmi ~mam @u{g`udul Qgib`mq Zmqumi ^eiagag`mi #@QZ^'
ag~e{du`mi `elml~umi bu{u uiqu` am~mq leibelkmib`mi wmib qe~mq) Aeibmi
~eiae`mqmi kedmhm{ quiqmz #lmzqe{w dem{igib' agcm{m~`mi zgzrm am~mq leibumzmg
`ol~eqeizg,`ol~eqeizg zejm{m uquc$ zezumg aeibmi `eje~mqmi kedmhm{iwm) Uiqu`
gqu kmcmi mhm{ ceiam`iwm agzuzui mbm{ zgzrm dekgc m`qgf amdml `ebgmqmi
~elkedmhm{mi leijm~mg `ol~eqeizg)
Qe{am~mq aum gzqgdmc wmib ze{gib agbuim`mi uiqu` lm`zua wmib zmlm imlui
zekeim{iwm lelgdg`g ~eibe{qgmi wmib zeag`gq ke{keam$ wm`ig zulke{ kedmhm{ ami
kmcmi mhm{) Uiqu` gqu$ lm`m ke{g`uq gig m`mi aghedmz`mi qe{dekgc amcudu qeiqmib
~eibe{qgmi zulke{ kedmhm{ ami kmcmi mhm{)
=) ^eibe{qgmi Zulke{ Kedmhm{
Ze{gib `gqm aeibm{ gzqgdmc zulke{ kedmhm{ #dem{igib {ezou{je'$ o{mib hubm
kmiwm` wmib qedmc lelmifmmq`mi zulke{ kedmhm{$ imlui ululiwm wmib
ag`eqmcug cmiwm ~e{~uzqm`mmi ami ku`u zekmbmg zulke{ kedmhm{) ^mamcmd zejm{m
qgam` qe{mzm m~m wmib le{e`m buim`mi$ o{mib$ ami keiam qe{qeiqu mamdmc qe{lmzu`
zulke{ kedmhm{)
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 6/44
6
Zulke{ kedmhm{ amdml rekzgqe kjea agaefgigzg`mi zekmbmg ke{g`uq8 Dem{igib
{ezou{jez m{e aefgiea mz gifo{lmqgoi$ {e~{ezeiqea mia zqo{ea gi m vm{geqw of leagm
mia fo{lmqz$ qcmq mzzgzqz zquaeiq dem{igib mz aefgiea kw ~{ovgijgmd o{ dojmd
ju{{gjudm) Qcgz gijduaez kuq gz ioq dglgqea qo$ lmqe{gmdz gi ~{giq$ vgaeo$ mia
zofqrm{e fo{lmqz$ mz redd mz jolkgimqgoiz of qceze fo{lmqz giqeiaea fo{ uze kw
qemjce{z mia zquaeiqz) cqq~8//rrr)kjea)bov)kj)jm/g{~/m~~z`gdd/ mzdem{ez)cql
Hmium{w ;3 $ =777)
Zulke{ kedmhm{ agqeqm~`mi zekmbmg gifo{lmzg wmib agzmhg`mi ami agzgl~mi
amdml ke{kmbmg keiqu` leagm$ wmib am~mq lelkmiqu zgzrm amdml kedmhm{ zekmbmg
~e{ruhuami am{g `u{g`udul) Keiqu`iwm qgam` qe{kmqmz m~m`mc amdml keiqu`
jeqm`mi$ vgaeo$ fo{lmq ~e{mib`mq duim` mqmu `olkgimzg am{g ke{kmbmg fo{lmq wmib
am~mq agbuim`mi odec zgzrm mqmu~ui bu{u)
Zmaglmi leiaefgigzg`mi zulke{ kedmhm{ zekmbmg zebmdm zezumqu wmib am~mq
agbuim`mi uiqu` kedmhm{$ wm`ig am~mq ke{u~m o{mib$ keiam$ ~ezmi$ kmcmi$ qe`ig`$
ami dmqm{ #Zmaglmi$ M{gef Z)$ ^eiamwmbuimmi Qe`iodobg Gifo{lmzg ami
@oluig`mzg uiqu` ̂ elkedmhm{mi$ lm`mdmc$ ;>>1'
Leiu{uq Mzzojgmqgoi fo{ Eaujmqgoimd Jolluigjmqgoiz mia Qejciodobw
#MEJQ$ =722'$ zulke{ kedmhm{ mamdmc zebmdm zezumqu mqmu amwm wmib am~mq
aglmifmmq`mi odec bu{u$ kmg` zejm{m qe{~gzmc lmu~ui amdml keiqu` bmkuibmi$
uiqu` `e~eiqgibmi kedmhm{ leibmhm{ aeibmi quhumi leigib`mq`mi efe`qgvgqmz ami
efgzgeizg quhumi ~elkedmhm{mi)
Aeibmi aelg`gmi lm`m zulke{ kedmhm{ hubm agm{qg`mi zekmbmg zebmdm qel~mq
mqmu dgib`uibmi ze`gqm{$ keiam$ ami o{mib wmib leibmiauib gifo{lmzg am~mq
agbuim`mi zekmbmg rmcmim kmbg ~eze{qm agag` uiqu` ledm`u`mi ~{ozez ~e{ukmcmi
qgib`mc dm`u)
Am{g ~eibe{qgmi qe{zekuq lm`m zulke{ kedmhm{ am~mq ag`mqebo{g`mi zekmbmg
ke{g`uq8
m) Qel~mq mqmu dgib`uibmi mdml ze`gqm{ wmgqu aglmim zmhm zezeo{mib
am~mq ledm`u`mi kedmhm{ mqmu ~{ozez ~e{ukmcmi qgib`mc dm`u lm`m
qel~mq gqu am~mq ag`mqebo{g`mi zekmbmg qel~mq kedmhm{ wmib ke{m{qg
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 7/44
2
zulke{ kedmhm{$ lgzmdiwm ~e{~uzqm`mmi$ ~mzm{$ luzeul$ zuibmg$
buiuib$ qel~mq ~elkumibmi zml~mc$ ̀ odml g`mi ami dmgi zekmbmgiwm)
k) Keiam wmgqu zebmdm keiam wmib leluib`gi`mi qe{hmagiwm ~e{ukmcmi
qgib`mc dm`u kmbg ~eze{qm agag`$ lm`m keiam gqu am~mq ag`mqebo{g`mi
zekmbmg zulke{ kedmhm{) Lgzmdiwm zgquz$ jmiag$ keiam ~eigibbmdmi
dmgiiwm)
j) O{mib wmgqu zgm~m zmhm wmib lelgdg`g `emcdgmi qe{qeiqu ag lmim ~eze{qm
agag` am~mq kedmhm{ zezumqu$ lm`m wmib ke{zmib`uqmi am~mq
ag`mqebo{g`mi zekmbmg zulke{ kedmhm{) Lgzmdiwm bu{u$ mcdg beodobg$
~odgzg$ ami mcdg,mcdg dmgiiwm)
a) Kmcmi wmgqu zebmdm zezumqu wmib ke{u~m qe`z qe{qudgz$ jeqm`$ {e`mlmi
ede`q{oig`$ rek$ add wmib am~mq agbuim`mi uiqu` kedmhm{)
e) Ku`u wmgqu zebmdm lmjml ku`u wmib am~mq agkmjm zejm{m lmiag{g odec
~eze{qm agag` am~mq ag`mqebo{g`mi zekmbmg zulke{ kedmhm{) Lgzmdiwm
ku`u ~edmhm{mi$ ku`u qe`z$ `mluz$ eizg`do~eag$ fg`zg ami dmgi
zekmbmgiwm)
f) ^e{gzqgrm ami fm`qm wmib zeamib qe{hmag$ lgzmdiwm ~e{gzqgrm `e{uzucmi$
~e{gzqgrm keijmim$ ami ~e{gzqgrm dmgiiwm wmib bu{u am~mq leihmag`mi
~e{gzqgrm mqmu fm`qm zekmbmg zulke{ kedmhm{)
Zulke{ kedmhm{ m`mi leihmag ke{lm`im kmbg ~eze{qm agag` lmu~ui bu{u
m~mkgdm zulke{ kedmhm{ ago{bmigzg{ ledmdug zmqu {mijmibmi wmib
leluib`gi`mi zezeo{mib am~mq lelmifmmq`miiwm zekmbmg zulke{ kedmhm{)
Hg`m qgam` lm`m qel~mq mqmu dgib`uibmi mdml ze`gqm{$ keiam$ o{mib$ ami
mqmu ku`u cmiwm ze`eam{ qel~mq$ keiam$ o{mib mqmu ku`u wmib qgam` mam
m{qgiwm m~m,m~m)
;) ^eibe{qgmi Kmcmi Mhm{
Am{g u{mgmi qeiqmib ~eibe{qgmi zulke{ kedmhm{ ag mqmz$ am~mq agzgl~ud`mi
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 8/44
3
kmcrm kmcmi mhm{ le{u~m`mi kmbgmi am{g zulke{ kedmhm{) Kmcmi mhm{
mamdmc zebmdm keiqu` kmcmi wmib agbuim`mi uiqu` lelkmiqu
bu{u/gizq{u`qo{ amdml ledm`zmim`mi `ebgmqmi kedmhm{ leibmhm{) Kmcmi
wmib aglm`zua kgzm ke{u~m kmcmi qe{qudgz lmu~ui kmcmi qgam` qe{qudgz)
Kmcmi mhm{ mqmu qemjcgib,lmqe{gmd$ qe{ag{g mqmz aum `mqm wmgqu qemjcgib mqmu
leibmhm{ ami lmqe{gmd mqmu kmcmi)
Leiu{uq Uigve{zgqw of Roddoiboib IZR ;5;;$ MUZQ[MDGM ~mam
rekzgqe,iwm$ Rek^mbe dmzq u~amqea8 Mubuzq =773$ Qemjcgib gz aefgiea
mz qce ~{ojezz of j{emqgib mia zuzqmgigib mi effejqgve eivg{oileiq fo{
dem{igib)
Ledm`zmim`mi ~elkedmhm{mi agm{qg`mi zekmbmg ~{ozez leijg~qm`mi ami
lel~e{qmcmi`mi zumqu dgib`uibmi kedmhm{ wmib efe`qgf)
^mud Z) Mjce dekgc dmihuq leibelu`m`mi qeiqmib lmqe{gmd wmgqu8
Koo`z jmi ke uzea mz {efe{eije lmqe{gmd $ o{ qcew jmi ke uzea mz ~m~e{
regbcqz$ kuq qcew jmiioq qemjc)
Ku`u am~mq agbuim`mi zekmbmg kmcmi {uhu`mi$ mqmu am~mq agbuim`mi
zekmbmg kmcmi qe{qudgz wmib ke{kokoq)
Amdml rekzgqe Ag`leihu{ ag`elu`m`mi ~eibe{qgmi kmcrm$ kmcmi mhm{
le{u~m`mi ze~e{mib`mq lmqe{g/zukzqmizg ~elkedmhm{mi #qemjcgib lmqe{gmd'
wmib agzuzui zejm{m zgzqelmqgz$ leiml~gd`mi zozo` uquc am{g `ol~eqeizg
wmib m`mi ag`umzmg zgzrm amdml `ebgmqmi ~elkedmhm{mi) Aeibmi kmcmi
mhm{ leluib`gi`mi zgzrm am~mq lel~edmhm{g zumqu `ol~eqeizg mqmu @A
zejm{m {uiquq ami zgzqelmqgz zecgibbm zejm{m m`uludmqgf lml~u leibumzmg
zelum ̀ ol~eqeizg zejm{m uquc ami qe{~mau)
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 9/44
7
Dekgc dmihuq agzekuq`mi kmcrm kmcmi mhm{ ke{fuibzg zekmbmg8
m) ^eaolmi kmbg Bu{u wmib m`mi leibm{mc`mi zelum m`qgvgqmziwm amdml
~{ozez ~elkedmhm{mi$ ze`mdgbuz le{u~m`mi zukzqmizg `ol~eqeizg wmib
zecm{uziwm agmhm{`mi `e~mam zgzrm)
k) ^eaolmi kmbg Zgzrm wmib m`mi leibm{mc`mi zelum m`qgvgqmziwm
amdml ~{ozez ~elkedmhm{mi$ ze`mdgbuz le{u~m`mi zukzqmizg
`ol~eqeizg wmib zecm{uziwm ag~edmhm{g/ag`umzmgiwm)
j) Mdmq evmdumzg ~eijm~mgmi/~eibumzmmi cmzgd ~elkedmhm{mi)
^eiam~mq dmgi leibmqm`mi zekmbmg ke{g`uq0
Aefgigqgoi of qemjcgib lmqe{gmd
Qcew m{e qce gifo{lmqgoi$ e}ug~leiq mia qesq fo{ gizq{ujqo{z qcmq m{e
{e}ug{ea fo{ ~dmiigib mia {evger u~oi q{mgigib gl~deleiqmqgoi) Qesq mia
q{mgigib e}ug~leiq m{e gijduaea gi qce qemjcgib lmqe{gmd)# Mioigl amdml
Rek,zgqe'
Kmcmi mhm{ le{u~m`mi gifo{lmzg$ mdmq ami qe`z wmib ag~e{du`mi
bu{u/gizq{u`qo{ uiqu` ~e{eijmimmi ami ~eiedmmcmi gl~deleiqmzg
~elkedmhm{mi)
Kmcmi mhm{ mamdmc zebmdm keiqu` kmcmi wmib agbuim`mi uiqu` lelkmiqu
bu{u/gizq{u`qo{ amdml ledm`zmim`mi `ebgmqmi kedmhm{ leibmhm{ ag `edmz)
Kmcmi wmib aglm`zua kgzm ke{u~m kmcmi qe{qudgz lmu~ui kmcmi qgam`
qe{qudgz) #Imqgoimd Jeiqe{ fo{ Vojmqgoimd Eaujmqgoi [ezem{jc
Dqa/Imqgoimd Jeiqe{ fo{ Jol~eqeijw Kmzea Q{mgigib')
^eibedol~o`mi kmcmi mhm{ leiu{uq Fmjudqç ae ^zwjcodobge eq aez
Zjgeijez ae d‗Eaujmqgoi Uigve{zgqç ae Beiãve amdml rekzgqe mamdmc
zekmbmg ke{g`uq 8
Giqeb{mqea leagm,r{gqqei$ muagovgzumd$ edejq{oigj$ mia giqe{mjqgve,m~~em{z
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 10/44
=>
gi mdd qceg{ ~{ob{mlz uiae{ qce imle of Leageive{kuia o{ Leagmlgs
#Fe{ei Uigve{zgqmeq mia O~ei Uigve{zgqw {ez~ejqgvedw')
cqq~8//qejfm)uigbe)jc/qejfm/beie{md/qejfm~eo~de/~e{mwm)cqld9cqq~8//
qejfm)uigbe)jc/qejfm/beie{md/qejfm,~eo~de/ ~e{mwm)cqld$ Fmjudqç ae
^zwjcodobge eq aez Zjgeijez ae d‗Eaujmqgoi Uigve{zgqç ae Beiãve)
Leagm qudgz$ muago vgzumd$ ede`q{oig`$ ami giqe{m`qgf qe{giqeb{mzg wmib
`eluagmi agzekuq zekmbmg leageive{kuia #kmcmzm he{lmi wmib ke{m{qg
leagm qe{giqeb{mzg' mqmu leagmlgs)
Zeamib`mi Ke{ia Regaeilmii$ =771 amdml ku`u De{iei lgq Kgdaleagei
leibedol~o``mi leihmag qgbm kezm{$ ~e{qmlm muagqgv wmib leiwmib`uq
{mago # [uiafui` '$ `mzeq #Qoi`mzzeqqe'$ ~g{gibmi cgqml #Zjcmdd~dmqqe')
@eaum wmgqu vgzumd #vgzuedd' wmib leiwmib`uq Fdg~jcm{q $ bmlkm{
#Rmiakgda '$ fgdl kgzu #Zqullfgdl'$ vgaeo kgzu #Zqullvgaeo'$ ~{ob{ml
`ol~uqe{ #Jol~uqe{,De{i~{ob{mll'$ kmcmi qe{qudgz aeibmi ami qmi~m
bmlkm{ # De{iqesq $ lgq uia ocie Mkkgdauib') @eqgbm wmgqu muago vgzumd
#muagovgzuedd' wmib leiwmib`uq ke{kgjm{m aeibmi bmlkm{ #[eae lgq Kgda'$
~e{quihu`mi zum{m ami bmlkm{ #Qoikgdazjcmu'$ami fgdl/vgaeo)
Am{g ke{kmbmg ~eiam~mq ag mqmz am~mq agzm{g`mi kmcrm kmcmi mhm{ mamdmc
le{u~m`mi ze~e{mib`mq lmqe{g wmib agzuzui zejm{m zgzqelmqgz zecgibbm
qe{jg~qm dgib`uibmi/zumzmim wmib leluib`gi`mi zgzrm uiqu` kedmhm{)
Zekumc kmcmi mhm{ ~mdgib qgam` leijm`u~ miqm{m dmgi 8
m) ^equihu` kedmhm{ #^equihu` zgzrm/bu{u'
k) @ol~eqeizg wmib m`mi agjm~mg
j) Joiqeiq mqmu gzg lmqe{g ~elkedmhm{mi
a) Gifo{lmzg ~eiau`uib
e) Dmqgcmi,dmqgcmi
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 11/44
==
f) ^equihu` `e{hm$ am~mq ke{u~m Delkm{ @e{hm #D@'
b) Evmdumzg
c) [ez~oi mqmu kmdg`mi qe{cmam~ cmzgd evmdumzg
K) Leibm~m bu{u ~e{du leibelkmib`mi Kmcmi Mhm{?
Qe{am~mq zehuldmc mdmzmi$ leibm~m bu{u ~e{du uiqu` leibelkmib`mi kmcmi
mhm{$ wm`ig miqm{m dmgi0 `eqe{zeagmmi kmcmi zezumg quiquqmi `u{g`udul$
`m{m`qe{gzqg` zmzm{mi$ ami quiquqmi ~elejmcmi lmzmdmc kedmhm{) ^eibelkmibmi
kmcmi mhm{ cm{uz lel~e{cmqg`mi quiquqmi `u{g`udul$ m{qgiwm kmcmi kedmhm{
wmib m`mi `gqm `elkmib`mi cm{uz zezumg aeibmi `u{g`udul) ^mam
`u{g`u`udul qgib`mq zmqumi ~eiagag`mi$ zqmiam{a `ol~eqeizg duduzmi qedmc
agqeqm~`mi odec ~ele{giqmc$ imlui kmbmglmim uiqu` leijm~mgiwm ami m~m
kmcmi mhm{ wmib agbuim`mi agze{mc`mi ze~eiuciwm `e~mam ~m{m ~eiagag`
zekmbmg qeimbm ~{ofezgoimd) Amdml cmd gig$ bu{u agquiquq uiqu` lel~uiwmg
`elml~umi leibelkmib`mi kmcmi mhm{ zeiag{g) Uiqu` leiau`uib
`u{g`udul$ zekumc kmcmi mhm{ kgzm zmhm leiel~mqg ~ozgzg zekmbmg kmcmi mhm{
~o`o` mqmu~ui zu~deleiqe{) Kmcmi mhm{ ~o`o` mamdmc kmcmi mhm{ wmib
leleiucg quiquqmi `u{g`udul) Zeamib`mi kmcmi mhm{ zu~deleiqe{ mamdmc
kmcmi mhm{ wmib aglm`zua`mi uiqu` lel~e{`mwm$ leimlkmc mqmu~ui
lel~e{amdml gzg ̀ u{g`udul)
M~mkgdm kmcmi mhm{ wmib zezumg aeibmi quiquqmi `u{g`udul qgam` mam mqmu~ui
zudgq ag~e{odec$ lm`m lelkumq kmcmi kedmhm{ zeiag{g mamdmc zumqu `e~uquzmi
wmib kghm`) Uiqu` leibelkmib`mi kmcmi mhm{$ {efe{eizg am~mq ag~e{odec am{g
ke{kmbmg zulke{ kmg` gqu ke{u~m ~eibmdmlmi mqmu~ui ~eibeqmcmumi zeiag{g$
mqmu~ui ~eibbmdgmi gifo{lmzg am{g im{mzulke{ kmg` o{mib mcdg mqmu~ui qelmi
zehmrmq) Aelg`gmi ~udm {efe{eizg am~mq `gqm ~e{odec am{g ku`u,ku`u$ leagm
lmzm$ giqe{ieq$ add) Imlui aelg`gmi$ `mdmu~ui kmcmi wmib zezumg aeibmi
`u{g`udul ju`u~ ledgl~mc ku`mi ke{m{qg `gqm qgam` ~e{du leibelkmib`mi
kmcmi zeiag{g) Kmbg zgzrm$ ze{gib`mdg kmcmi wmib qe{dmdu kmiwm` lelkumq
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 12/44
=;
le{e`m kgibuib$ uiqu` gqu lm`m bu{u ~e{du lelkumq kmcmi mhm{ uiqu`
leihmag ~eaolmi kmbg zgzrm)
^e{qglkmibmi dmgi mamdmc `m{m`qe{gzqg` zmzm{mi) Kmcmi mhm{ wmib
ag`elkmib`mi o{mib dmgi ze{gib`mdg qgam` jojo` uiqu` zgzrm `gqm) Mam
zehuldmc mdmzmi `eqgam`jojo`mi$ lgzmdiwm$ dgib`uibmi zozgmd$ beob{mfgz$
kuamwm$ add) Uiqu` gqu$ lm`m kmcmi mhm{ wmib ag`elkmib`mi zeiag{g am~mq
agzezumg`mi aeibmi `m{m`qe{gzqg` zmzm{mi) Zedmgi dgib`uibmi zozgmd$ kuamwm$
ami beob{mfgz$ `m{m`qe{gzqg` zmzm{mi hubm leijm`u~ qmcm~mi ~e{`elkmibmi
zgzrm$ `elml~umi mrmd wmib qedmc ag`umzmg$ lgimq$ dmqm{ kedm`mib `edum{bm
add) Uiqu` gqu$ lm`m kmcmi mhm{ wmib ag`elkmib`mi zeiag{g am~mq agzezumg`mi
aeibmi ̀ m{m`qe{gzqg` zgzrm zekmbmg zmzm{mi)
Zedmihuqiwm$ ~eibelkmibmi kmcmi mhm{ cm{uz am~mq leihmrmk mqmu
lelejmc`mi lmzmdmc mqmu~ui `ezudgqmi amdml kedmhm{) Qe{am~mq zehuldmc
lmqe{g ~elkedmhm{mi wmib ze{gib`mdg zgzrm zudgq uiqu` lelmcmlgiwm mqmu~ui
bu{u zudgq uiqu` leihedmz`miiwm) @ezudgqmi qe{zekuq am~mq zmhm qe{hmag `m{eim
lmqe{g qe{zekuq mkzq{m`$ {ulgq$ mzgib$ azk) Uiqu` leibmqmzg `ezudgqmi gig lm`m
~e{du ag`elkmib`mi kmcmi mhm{ wmib qe~mq) M~mkgdm lmqe{g ~elkedmhm{mi wmib
m`mi agzml~mg`mi ke{zgfmq mkzq{m`$ lm`m kmcmi mhm{ cm{uz lml~u lelkmiqu
zgzrm leibbmlkm{`mi zezumqu wmib mkzq{m` be{zekuq$ lgzmdiwm aeibmi
~eibbuimmi bmlkm{$ foqo$ kmbmi$ z`elm$ add) Aelg`gmi ~udm lmqe{g wmib
{ulgq$ cm{uz am~mq aghedmz`mi aeibmi jm{m wmib zeae{cmim$ zezumg aeibmi
qgib`mq ke{fg`g{ zgzrm$ zecgibbm leihmag dekgc luamc ag~mcmlg)
J) Quhumi ami Lmifmmq ^eiwuzuimi Kmcmi Mhm{
=) Quhumi
Kmcmi mhm{ agzuzui aeibmi quhumi8
m) Leiweagm`mi kmcmi mhm{ wmib zezumg aeibmi quiquqmi `u{g`udul
aeibmi lel~e{qglkmib`mi `ekuqucmi zgzrm$ wm`ig kmcmi mhm{ wmib
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 13/44
=:
zezumg aeibmi ̀ m{m`qe{gzqg` ami zeqqgib mqmu dgib`uibmi zozgmd zgzrm)
k) Lelkmiqu zgzrm amdml lel~e{odec mdqe{imqgf kmcmi mhm{ ag zml~gib
ku`u,ku`u qe`z wmib qe{`mamib zudgq ag~e{odec)
j) Leluamc`mi bu{u amdml ledm`zmim`mi ~elkedmhm{mi)
;) Lmifmmq
Mam zehuldmc lmifmmq wmib am~mq ag~e{odec m~mkgdm zeo{mib bu{u
leibelkmib`mi kmcmi mhm{ zeiag{g$ wm`ig miqm{m dmgi0 ~e{qmlm$ ag~e{odec
kmcmi mhm{ wmib zezumg quiquqmi `u{g`udul ami zezumg aeibmi `ekuqucmi
kedmhm{ zgzrm$ `eaum$ qgam` dmbg qe{bmiquib `e~mam ku`u qe`z wmib
qe{`mamib zudgq uiqu` ag~e{odec$ `eqgbm$ kmcmi mhm{ leihmag dmkgc `mwm
`m{eim ag`elkmib`mi aeibmi leibbuim`mi ke{kmbmg {efe{eizg$ `eel~mq $
leimlkmc `cmzmimc ~eibeqmcumi ami ~eibmdmlmi bu{u amdml leiudgz
kmcmi mhm{$ `edglm$ kmcmi mhm{ m`mi lml~u lelkmibui `oluig`mzg
~elkedmhm{mi wmib efe`qgf miqm{m bu{u aeibmi zgzrm `m{eim zgzrm m`mi
le{mzm dekgc ~e{jmwm `e~mam bu{uiwm)
Ag zml~gib gqu$ bu{u hubm am~mq lel~e{odec lmifmmq dmgi$ lgzmdiwm
qudgzmi qe{zekuq am~mq agmhu`mi uiqu` leimlkmc mib`m `{eagq mqmu~ui
ag`ul~ud`mi leihmag ku`u ami agqe{kgq`mi)
Aeibmi qe{zeagmiwm kmcmi mhm{ wmib ke{vm{gmzg$ lm`m zgzrm m`mi
leiam~mq`mi lmifmmq wmgqu$ ̀ ebgmqmi ~elkedmhm{mi leihmag dekgc leim{g`)
Zgzrm m`mi dekgc kmiwm` leiam~mq`mi `ezel~mqmi uiqu` kedmhm{ zejm{m
lmiag{g ami leibu{mibg `eqe{bmiquibmi qe{cmam~ `ecmag{mi bu{u) Zgzrm
hubm m`mi leiam~mq`mi `eluamcmi amdml lel~edmhm{g zeqgm~ `ol~eqeizg
wmib cm{uz ag`umzmgiwm)
A) ^{gizg~ ^eibelkmibmi Kmcmi Mhm{
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 14/44
=1
^eibelkmibmi kmcmi mhm{ ceiam`dmc lel~e{cmqg`mi ~{gizgz~,~{gizg~
~elkedmhm{mi) Ag miqm{m ~{gizg~ ~elkedmhm{mi qe{zekuq mamdmc8
Ludmg am{g wmib luamc uiqu` lelmcmlg wmib zudgq$ am{g wmib `oib`{eq uiqu`
lelmcmlg wmib mkzq{m`$
Zgzrm m`mi dekgc luamc lelmcmlg zumqu `oize~ qe{qeiqu m~mkgdm ~eihedmzmi
agludmg am{g wmib luamc mqmu zezumqu wmib `oib`{eq$ zezumqu wmib iwmqm mam
ag dgib`uibmi le{e`m) Lgzmdiwm uiqu` leihedmz`mi `oize~ ~mzm{$ lm`m
ludmgdmc zgzrm agmhm` uiqu` ke{kgjm{m qeiqmib ~mzm{ wmib qe{am~mq ag qel~mq
le{e`m qgibbmd) Zeqedmc gqu$ `gqm kgzm lelkmrm le{e`m uiqu` ke{kgjm{m
qeiqmib ke{kmbmg heigz ~mzm{ dmgiiwm)
^eibudmibmi m`mi lel~e{`umq ~elmcmlmi
Amdml ~elkedmhm{mi$ ~eibudmibmi zmibmq ag~e{du`mi mbm{ zgzrm dekgc
lelmcmlg zumqu `oize~) Amdml ~{gizg~ gig `gqm ze{gib leiaeibm{ ~e~mqmc
wmib leibmqm`mi kmcrm 5 s ; dekgc kmg` am{g~mam ; s 5) M{qgiwm$ rmdmu~ui
lm`zuaiwm zmlm$ zezumqu gifo{lmzg wmib agudmib,udmib$ m`mi dekgc ke{ke`mz
~mam gibmqmi zgzrm) Imlui ~eibudmibmi amdml ~eiudgzmi kmcmi kedmhm{ cm{uz
agzmhg`mi zejm{m qe~mq ami ke{vm{gmzg zecgibbm qgam` lelkozmi`mi)
Ul~mi kmdg` ~ozgqgf m`mi lelke{g`mi ~eibumqmi qe{cmam~ ~elmcmlmi zgzrm
Ze{gib`mdg `gqm leibmibbm~ eiqeib aeibmi lelke{g`mi {ez~oia wmib
ze`eam{iwm mqmz cmzgd `e{hm zgzrm) ^mamcmd {ez~oia wmib agke{g`mi odec bu{u
qe{cmam~ zgzrm m`mi leihmag ~eibumqmi ~mam ag{g zgzrm) ^e{`mqmmi zeo{mib
bu{u ze~e{qg ‗wm keim{‗ mqmu ‘‗wm `mlu ~giqm{‗ mqmu$‗gqu keim{$ imlui m`mi
dekgc kmg` `mdmu kebgig)))‗ m`mi leiglkud`mi `e~e{jmwmmi ag{g ~mam zgzrm
kmcrm gm qedmc leihmrmk mqmu leibe{hm`mi zezumqu aeibmi keim{) Zekmdg`iwm$
{ez~oia iebmqgf m`mi lelmqmc`mi zelmibmq zgzrm) Uiqu` gqu$ hmibmi du~m
ke{g`mi ul~mi kmdg` wmib ~ozgqgf qe{cmam~ cmzgd `e{hm zgzrm)
Loqgvmzg kedmhm{ wmib qgibbg le{u~m`mi zmdmc zmqu fm`qo{ ~eieiqu
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 15/44
=5
`eke{cmzgdmi kedmhm{
Zeo{mib zgzrm wmib lelgdg`g loqgvmzg kedmhm{ qgibbg m`mi dekgc ke{cmzgd amdml
kedmhm{) Uiqu` gqu$ lm`m zmdmc zmqu qubmz bu{u amdml ledm`zmim`mi
~elkedmhm{mi mamdmc lelke{g`mi ao{oibmi #loqgvmzg' mbm{ zgzrm lmu kedmhm{)
Kmiwm` jm{m uiqu` lelke{g`mi loqgvmzg$ miqm{m dmgi aeibmi lelke{g`mi
~uhgmi$ lelke{g`mi cm{m~mi$ leihedmz quhumi ami lmifmmq$ lelke{g joiqoc$
mqmu~ui leije{gqm`mi zezumqu wmib lelkumq zgzrm zeimib kedmhm{$ add)
Leijm~mg quhumi gkm{mq img` qmibbm$ zeqmcm~ aelg zeqmcm~$ m`cg{iwm m`mi
leijm~mg ̀ eqgibbgmi qe{qeiqu)
^elkedmhm{mi mamdmc zumqu ~{ozez wmib ke{qmcm~ ami ke{`edmihuqmi) Uiqu`
leijm~mg zumqu zqmiam{a `ol~eqeizg wmib qgibbg$ ~e{du agkumq`mi quhumi,
quhumi miqm{m) Gkm{mq mim` qmibbm$ zelm`gi dekm{ mim` qmibbm zelm`gi zudgq `gqm
ledmib`mc$ imlui hubm mim` qmibbm wmib qe{dmdu `ejgd qe{dml~mu luamc
ledermqgiwm) Uiqu` gqu$ lm`m bu{u ~e{du leiwuzui mim` qmibbm quhumi
~elkedmhm{mi zejm{m ~mz$ zezumg aeibmi `m{m`qe{gzqg` zgzrm) Amdml kmcmi mhm{$
mim` qmibbm qe{zekuq ag{uluz`mi amdml keiqu` giag`mqo{,giag`mqo{
`ol~eqeizg)
Leibeqmcug cmzgd wmib qedmc agjm~mg m`mi leiao{oib zgzrm uiqu` qe{uz
leijm~mg quhumi
Gkm{mq leiel~uc ~e{hmdmimi hmuc$ uiqu` leijm~mg `oqm wmib agquhu$ ze~mihmib
~e{hmdmimi `gqm m`mi ledermqg `oqm,`oqm dmgi) @gqm m`mi zeimib m~mkgdm
~elmiau ~e{hmdmimi `gqm lelke{gqmcu`mi zeqgm~ `oqm wmib agdermqg$ zecgibbm
`gqm leihmag qmcu zuamc zml~mg ag lmim ami ke{m~m hmuc dmbg `gqm m`mi
ke{hmdmi) Aelg`gmi ~udm amdml ~{ozez ~elkedmhm{mi$ bu{u gkm{mq ~elmiau
~e{hmdmimi) ^elmiau ~e{hmdmimi wmib kmg`$ m`mi lelke{gqmcu`mi `oqm quhumi
m`cg{ wmib gibgi agjm~mg$ kmbmglmim jm{m leijm~mgiwm$ `oqm,`oqm m~m zmhm
wmib m`mi agdermqg$ ami lelke{gqmcu`mi ~udm zuamc zml~mg ag lmim ami
ke{m~m hmuc dmbg ~e{hmdmimi) Aeibmi aelg`gmi$ zelum ~eze{qm am~mq leijm~mg
`oqm quhumi aeibmi zedmlmq) Amdml ~elkedmhm{mi$ zeqgm~ mim` m`mi leijm~mg
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 16/44
=6
quhumi qe{zekuq aeibmi `eje~mqmiiwm zeiag{g$ imlui le{e`m zelum m`mi
zml~mg `e~mam quhumi lez`g~ui aeibmi rm`qu wmib ke{keam,keam) Gigdmc
zekmbgmi am{g ~{gizg~ kedmhm{ quiqmz)
E) Heigz Kmcmi Mhm{
Ke{amzm{`mi qe`iodobg wmib agbuim`mi$ kmcmi mhm{ am~mq ag`edol~o``mi
leihmag el~mq `mqebo{g$ wmgqu kmcmi jeqm` # ~{giqea' ze~e{qg miqm{m dmgi
cmiaouq$ ku`u$ loaud$ delkm{ `e{hm zgzrm$ k{ozu{$ demfdeq$ rmddjcm{q$
foqo/bmlkm{$ loaed/lm`eq) Kmcmi mhm{ aeibm{ #muago' ze~e{qg `mzeq$ {mago$
~g{gibmi cgqml$ ami jol~mjq agz` muago) Kmcmi mhm{ ~miamib aeibm{ #muago
vgzumd' ze~e{qg vgaeo jol~mjq agz`$ fgdl) Kmcmi mhm{ ludqgleagm giqe{m`qgf
#giqe{mjqgve qemjcgib lmqe{gmd' ze~e{qg JMG #Jol~uqe{ Mzzgzqea Gizq{ujqgoi'$
jol~mjq agz` #JA' ludqgleagm ~elkedmhm{i giqe{m`qgf$ ami kmcmi mhm{ ke{kmzgz
rek #rek kmzea dem{igib lmqe{gmdz')
Zedmihuqiwm ~mam ku`u ~eaolmi gig cmiwm m`mi agkmcmz qeiqmib kmcmi mhm{
jeqm`) Uiqu` kmcmi mhm{ ioi,jeqm` m`mi agkmcmz ~mam ku`u ~eaolmi
qe{zeiag{g)
=) Kmcmi Mhm{ Jeqm` #^{giqea'
Kmcmi jeqm` am~mq agqml~gd`mi amdml ke{kmbmg keiqu`) Hg`m kmcmi mhm{
jeqm` qe{zuzui zejm{m kmg` lm`m kmcmi mhm{ m`mi leiamqmib`mi keke{m~m
`euiquibmi ze~e{qg wmib ag`elu`m`mi odec Zqeffei ^eqe{ Kmddzqmeaq$ =771
wmgqu8
m) Kmcmi qe{qudgz kgmzmiwm leiml~gd`mi amfqm{ gzg$ zecgibbm leluamc`mi
kmbg zeo{mib bu{u uiqu` leiuihu``mi `e~mam ~eze{qm agag` kmbgmi
lmim wmib zeamib ag~edmhm{g
k) Kgmwm uiqu` ~eibmammiiwm {edmqgf zeag`gq
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 17/44
=2
j) Kmcmi qe{qudgz je~mq agbuim`mi ami am~mq ag~giamc,~giamc zejm{m
luamc
a) Zuzuimiiwm leimrm{`mi `eluamcmi zejm{m dumz ami `{emqgvgqmz kmbg
giagvgau
e) Kmcmi qe{qudgz {edmqgf {gibmi ami am~mq agkmjm ag lmim zmhm
f) Kmcmi mhm{ wmib kmg` m`mi am~mq leloqgvmzg ~elkmjm uiqu`
ledm`u`mi m`qgvgqmz$ ze~e{qg leimiamg$ leijmqmq$ lelkumq z`eqzm
b) Kmcmi qe{qudgz am~mq agig`lmqg zekmbmg zekumc ao`ulei wmib ke{igdmg
kezm{
c) ^elkmjm am~mq leibmqu{ qel~o zejm{m lmiag{g
@gqm leibeimd ke{kmbmg heigz kmcmi mhm{ jeqm`$ miqm{m dmgi cmia ouq$ ku`u$
loaud$ ~ozqe{$ k{ozu{$ ami demfdeq)
m) Cmiaouq
Cmiaouq mamdmc kmcmi qe{qudgz wmib agzgm~`mi odec zeo{mib bu{u uiqu`
lel~e{`mwm ~eibeqmcumi ~eze{qm agag`) Leiu{uq `mluz Osfo{a cmd
:37$ cmiaouq gz ~{e~m{ea zqmqeleiq bgvei) Cmiaouq mamdmc ~e{iwmqmmi
wmib qedmc agzgm~`mi odec ~elkgjm{m)
Cmiaouq kgmzmiwm agmlkgd`mi am{g keke{m~m dgqe{mqu{ wmib lelgdg`g
{edevmizg aeibmi lmqe{g wmib agmhm{`mi/ @A ami lmqe{g ~o`o` wmib
cm{uz ag`umzmg odec ~eze{qm agag`) Zmmq gig cmiaouq am~mq ag~e{odec
aeibmi ke{kmbmg jm{m$ miqm{m dmgi aeibmi jm{m aori,doma am{g giqe{ieq$
mqmu leiwmau{ am{g zekumc ku`u)
k) Ku`u
Ku`u mamdmc kmcmi qe{qudgz wmib leiwmhg`mi gdlu ~eibeqmcumi kumc
~g`g{mi am{g ~eibm{mibiwm) Odec ~eibm{mibiwm gzg ku`u agam~mq am{g
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 18/44
=3
ke{kmbmg jm{m lgzmdiwm8 cmzgd ~eiedgqgmi$ cmzgd ~eibmlmqmi$ m`qumdgzmzg
~eibmdmlmi$ oqokgob{mfg$ mqmu cmzgd glmhgimzg zezeo{mib wmib agzekuq
zekmbmg fg`zg) Leiu{uq `mluz osfo{a cmd 71$ ku`u agm{qg`mi zekmbmg8
Koo` gz iulke{ of zceeq of ~m~e{$ egqce{ ~{giqea o{ kdmi`$ fmzqeiea
qobeqce{ gi m jove{) Ku`u mamdmc zehuldmc delkm{mi `e{qmz kmg`
jeqm`mi lmu~ui `ozoib wmib aghgdga ami agke{g `udgq) Ku`u zekmbmg
kmcmi mhm{ le{u~m`mi ku`u wmib ke{gzg zumqu gdlu ~eibeqmcumi cmzgd
mimdgzgz qe{cmam~ `u{g`udul amdml keiqu` qe{qudgz)
Ku`u wmib kmg` mamdmc ku`u wmib agqudgz aeibmi leibbuim`mi kmcmzm
wmib kmg` ami luamc agleibe{qg$ agzmhg`mi zejm{m leim{g` agdeib`m~g
aeibmi bmlkm{ ami `eqe{mibmi,`eqe{mibmiiwm$ gzg ku`u hubm
leibbmlkm{`mi zezumqu wmib zezumg aeibmi gae ~eiudgzmiiwm) Ku`u
~edmhm{mi ke{gzg qeiqmib gdlu ~eibeqmcumi wmib am~mq agbuim`mi odec
~eze{qm agag` uiqu` kedmhm{$ ku`u fg`zg m`mi ke{gzg qeiqmib fg`g{mi,
fg`g{mi fg`zg zg ~eiudgz$ ami zeqe{uziwm)
j) Loaud
Loaud mamdmc zekumc ku`u wmib agqudgz aeibmi quhumi mbm{ ~eze{qm
agag` am~mq kedmhm{ zejm{m lmiag{g qmi~m mqmu aeibmi kglkgibmi bu{u$
zecgibbm loaud ke{gzg ~mdgib qgam` qeiqmib8
^equihu` kedmhm{ #^equihu` zgzrm/bu{u'
@ol~eqeizg wmib m`mi agjm~mg
Joiqeiq mqmu gzg lmqe{g
Gifo{lmzg ~eiau`uib
Dmqgcmi,dmqgcmi
^equihu` `e{hm$ am~mq ke{u~m Delkm{ @e{hm #D@'
Evmdumzg
Kmdg`mi qe{cmam~ cmzgd evmdumzg
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 19/44
=7
Zekumc loaud m`mi ke{lm`im `mdmu ~eze{qm agag` am~mq aeibmi luamc
leibbuim`miiwm) ^elkedmhm{mi aeibmi loaud leluib`gi`mi
zeo{mib ~eze{qm agag` wmib lelgdg`g `eje~mqmi qgibbg amdml kedmhm{
m`mi dekgc je~mq leiwedezmg`mi zmqu mqmu dekgc @A agkmiagib`mi
aeibmi ~eze{qm agag` dmgiiwm) Aeibmi aelg`gmi lm`m loaud cm{uz
leibbmlkm{`mi @A wmib m`mi agjm~mg odec ~eze{qm agag`$ agzmhg`mi
aeibmi leibbuim`mi kmcmzm wmib kmg`$ leim{g`$ agdeib`m~g aeibmi
gduzq{mzg)
a) Delkm{ `ebgmqmi zgzrm
Delkm{ `ebgmqmi zgzrm #zquaeiq ro{`zceeq' mamdmc delkm{mi,delkm{mi
ke{gzg qubmz wmib cm{uz ag`e{hm`mi odec ~eze{qm agag`) Delkm{ `ebgmqmi
kgmzmiwm ke{u~m ~equihu`$ dmib`mc,dmib`mc uiqu` leiwedezmg`mi zumqu
qubmz) Zumqu qubmz wmib ag~e{giqmc`mi amdml delkm{ `ebgmqmi cm{uz
hedmz @A wmib m`mi agjm~mgiwm) Delkm{ `ebgmqmi am~mq agbuim`mi
uiqu` lmqm ~elkedmhm{mi m~m zmhm) Qubmz,qubmz zekumc delkm{
`ebgmqmi qgam` m`mi am~mq ag`e{hm`mi odec ~eze{qm agag` zejm{m kmg`
m~mkgdm qgam` agdeib`m~g aeibmi ku`u dmgi mqmu {efe{eizg dmgi wmib
qe{`mgq aeibmi lmqe{g qubmziwm) Qubmz,qubmz wmib agke{g`mi `e~mam
~eze{qm agag` am~mq ke{u~m qeo{gqgz ami mqmu qubmz,qubmz ~{m`qgz)
Qubmz qeo{gqgz lgzmdiwm qubmz lelkmjm zekumc m{qg`ed qe{qeiqu$
`eluagmi lelkumq {ezule uiqu` ag~{ezeiqmzg`mi) Zeamib`mi qubmz
~{m`qgz am~mq ke{u~m `e{hm dmko{mqo{gul mqmu `e{hm dm~mibmi$ lgzmdiwm
zu{vew qeiqmib cm{bm jmke amdml `u{ui rm`qu qe{qeiqu ag zumqu qel~mq)
@euiquibmi mamiwm delkm{ `ebgmqmi mamdmc kmbg bu{u$ leluamc`mi
bu{u amdml ledm`zmim`mi ~elkedmhm{mi$ kmbg zgzrm m`mi kedmhm{
zejm{m lmiag{g ami kedmhm{ lelmcmlg ami leihmdmi`mi zumqu qubmz
qe{qudgz)
Amdml leiwgm~`miiwm bu{u cm{uz je{lmq ami lelgdg`g ~eibeqmcumi
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 20/44
;>
ami `eqe{ml~gdmi wmib lelmamg$ `m{eim zekumc delkm{ `e{hm cm{uz
leleiucg ~mdgib qgam` `{gqe{gm wmib ke{`mgqmi aeibmi qe{jm~mg/
qgam`iwm zekumc @A ag`umzmg odec ~eze{qm agag`)
e) K{ozu{
K{ozu{ mamdmc kmcmi gifo{lmzg qe{qudgz leibeimg zumqu lmzmdmc wmib
agzuzui zejm{m ke{zgzqel mqmu jeqm`mi wmib cmiwm qe{ag{g mqmz keke{m~m
cmdmlmi ami agdg~mq qmi~m aghgdga mqmu zedekm{mi jeqm`mi wmib ke{gzg
`eqe{mibmi zgib`mq qeqm~g deib`m~ qeiqmib ~e{uzmcmmi mqmu o{bmigzmzg
#@mluz kezm{ Kmcmzm Giaoiezgm$ Eagzg @eaum$ Kmdmg ^uzqm`m$ =776')
Aeibmi aelg`gmi$ lm`m k{ozu{ am~mq aglmifmmq`mi zekmbmg kmcmi mhm{$
zedmlm zmhgmi k{ozu{ agqu{ui`mi am{g @A wmib cm{uz ag`umzmg odec
zgzrm) Luib`gi zmhm k{ozu{ am~mq leihmag kmcmi mhm{ wmib leim{g`$
`m{eim keiqu`iwm wmib leim{g` ami ~{m`qgz) Mbm{ delkm{mi k{ozu{
qgam` qe{dmdu kmiwm`$ lm`m k{ozu{ agaezmgi cmiwm lelumq zmqu @A
zmhm) Gduzq{mzg amdml zekumc k{ozu{ m`mi leimlkmc leim{g` lgimq
~eze{qm agag` uiqu` leibbuim`miiwm)
f) Demfdeq
M ze~m{mqe zceeq of ~{giqea lmqqe{$ ofqei fodaea kuq ioq zqgqjcea
#Rekzqe{‗z Ier Ro{da$ =776' Demfdeq mamdmc kmcmi jeqm` qe{qudgz
ke{u~m delkm{mi wmib agdg~mq qm~g qgam` aglmqg`mi/aghmcgq) Mbm{
qe{dgcmq leim{g` kgmzmiwm demfdeq agaezmgi zejm{m je{lmq agdeib`m~g
aeibmi gduzq{mzg ami leibbuim`mi kmcmzm wmib zeae{cmim$ zgib`mq
ze{qm luamc ag~mcmlg) Demfdeq zekmbmg kmcmi mhm{ hubm cm{uz lelumq
lmqe{g wmib am~mq leibbg{gib ~eze{qm agag` uiqu` leibumzmg zmqu mqmu
dekgc @A)
b) Rmddjcm{q
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 21/44
;=
Rmddjcm{q mamdmc kmcmi jeqm`$ kgmzmiwm ke{u~m kmbmi zg`duz/~{ozez
mqmu b{mfg` wmib ke{lm`im leiuihu``mi ~ozgzg qe{qeiqu) Mbm{
rmddjcm{q qe{dgcmq dekgc leim{g` kmbg zgzrm lmu~ui bu{u$ lm`m
rmddjcm{q agaezmgi aeibmi leibbuim`mi qmqm rm{im ami ~eibmqu{mi
~{o~o{zg wmib kmg`) Rmddjcm{q kgmzmiwm lmzu` amdml `mqebo{g mdmq
kmiqu ledm`zmim`mi ~elkedmhm{mi$ imlui amdml cmd gig rmddjcm{q
agaezmgi zekmbmg kmcmi mhm{) @m{eim agaezmgi zekmbmg kmcmi mhm{$ lm`m
rmddjcm{q cm{uz leleiucg `{gqe{gm zekmbmg kmcmi mhm{ miqm{m dmgi
kmcrm lelgdg`g `ehedmzmi qeiqmib @A ami lmqe{g ~o`o` wmib cm{uz
ag`umzmg odec ~eze{qm agag`$ agmhm{`mi uiqu` ke{m~m dmlm$ ami
kmbmglmim jm{m leibbuim`miiwm) Zekmbmg joiqoc rmddjcm{q qeiqmib
zg`duz lm`cdu` cgau~ kgimqmib miqm{m udm{$ qg`uz ami dgib`uibmiiwm)
c) Foqo/Bmlkm{
Foqo/bmlkm{ lelgdg`g lm`im wmib dekgc kmg` agkmiagib`mi aeibmi
qudgzmi) Foqo/bmlkm{ zekmbmg kmcmi mhm{ qeiqu zmhm ag~e{du`mi zmqu
{mijmibmi wmib kmg` mbm{ zeqedmc zedezmg ledgcmq zekumc mqmu
ze{mib`mgmi foqo/bmlkm{ zgzrm am~mq ledm`u`mi zezumqu wmib ~mam
m`cg{iwm leibumzmg zmqu mqmu dekgc @A)
Leiu{uq Regaeilmii amdml ku`u Dec{ei lgq Kgdaleagei
leibbmlkm{`mi kmcrm ledgcmq zekumc foqo/bmlkm{ dekgc qgibbg
lm`imiwm am{g ~mam lelkmjm mqmu leiaeibm{) Ledmdug lelkmjm
wmib am~mq aggibmq cmiwm =>%$ am{g leiaeibm{ wmib aggibmq ;>%$ ami
am{g ledgcmq wmib aggibmq :>%) Foqo/bmlkm{ wmib agaezmgi zejm{m kmg`
am~mq lelke{g`mi ~elmcmlmi wmib dekgc kmg`) Kmcmi mhm{ gig amdml
leibbuim`miiwm cm{uz agkmiqu aeibmi kmcmi qe{qudgz) Kmcmi qe{qudgz
am~mq ke{u~m ~equihu` jm{m leibbuim`miiwm ami mqmu kmcmi qez)
Zekumc bmlkm{ wmib ke{lm`im ~mdgib qgam` lelgdg`g `{gqe{gm zekmbmg
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 22/44
;;
ke{g`uq8
Bmlkm{ cm{uz leibmiauib zezumqu wmib am~mq agdgcmq ami ~eiuc
aeibmi gifo{lmzg/amqm) Zecgibbm bmlkm{ qgam` cmiwm ze`eam{
bmlkm{ wmib qgam` leibmiauib m{qg mqmu qgam` mam wmib am~mq
ag~edmhm{g)
Bmlkm{ ke{lm`im ami am~mq agleibe{qg) Zecgibbm$ zg ~elkmjm
bmlkm{ keim{,keim{ leibe{qg$ qgam` zmdmc ~eibe{qgmi)
Deib`m~$ {mzgoimd uiqu` agbuim`mi amdml ~{ozez ~elkedmhm{mi$
kmcmiiwm agmlkgd am{g zulke{ wmib keim{) Zecgibbm hmibmi zml~mg
bmlkm{ lgz`gi gifo{lmzg wmib ke{m`gkmq ~eibbuimiwm qgam` kedmhm{
m~m,m~m)
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 23/44
;:
KKMMKK GGGGGG
^^
EE
II
WW
UU
ZZ
UU
II
MM
II
KK
MM
CC
MM
II
MM
HH
MM
[[
M) Mimdgzgz @ekuqucmi Kmcmi Mhm{
Uiqu` leiam~mq`mi kmcmi mhm{ wmib zezumg aeibmi quiquqmi `ol~eqeizg wmib
cm{uz ag`umzmg odec ~eze{qm agag`$ ag~e{du`mi mimdgzgz qe{cmam~ Z@,@A$
mimdgzgz zulke{ kedmhm{$ ami ~eieiqumi heigz ze{qm huaud kmcmi mhm{) Mimdgzgz
aglm`zua aghedmz`mi zekmbmg ke{g`uq8
=) Mimdgzgz Z@,@A
Mimdgzgz Z@,@A agdm`u`mi uiqu` leieiqu`mi `ol~eqeizg,`ol~eqeizg
lmim wmib lele{du`mi kmcmi mhm{) Am{g cmzgd mimdgzgz gig m`mi am~mq
ag`eqmcug ke{m~m kmiwm` kmcmi mhm{ wmib cm{uz agzgm~`mi amdml zmqu
zelezqe{ qe{qeiqu ami heigz kmcmi mhm{ lmim wmib ag~gdgc) Ke{g`uq agke{g`mi
joiqoc mimdgzgz Z@,@A uiqu` leieiqu`mi heigz kmcmi mhm{)
Joiqoc8 Mimdgzgz Z@,@A
Lmqm ^elkedmhm{mi 8 @glgm
@mdmz 8 S
Zelezqe{ 8 ;
Zqmiam{ @ol~eqeizg 8 Leiaez`{g~zg`mi zgfmq,zgfmq dm{uqmi$ leqoae
~eibu`u{mi ami qe{m~miiwm
@ol~eqeizg
Amzm{Giag`mqo{
Lmqe{g
^elkedmhm{mi
@ebgmqmi
^elkedmhm{mi
Heigz
K) Mhm{
Leibuhg
amwm cmiqm{
dgzq{g`
ke{kmbmg
Le{mijmib
~e{jokmmi
uhg ede`q{odgq
Leiwgl~ud`
Dm{uqmi
ede`q{odgq ami
ioi ede`q{odgq
Jg{g,jg{g
Leiwuzui
{mijmibmi
~e{jokmmi uiqu`
leibgaeiqgfg`mzg
Ku`u$
D@Z
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 24/44
;1
dm{uqmi
uiqu` lelkeam`m
i dm{uqmi
ede`q{odgq
ami ioi
ede`q{odgq
mi jg{g,jg{g
cmiqm{mim{uz dzgq{g`
amdml
ke{kmbmg
dm{uqmi
ke{amzm{`mi
cmzgd
~eibmlmqmi
ede`q{odgq ami
ioi ede`q{odgq )))))))))))azq
dm{uqmi ede`q{odgq
ami ioi ede`q{odgq Agz`uzg gifo{lmzg
qeiqmib cmzgd
{mijmibmi
~e{jokmmi)
Ledm`u`mi
~e{jokmmi amwm
cmiqm{ dgzq{g` uiqu`
leieiqu`mi jg{g,jg{g
dm{uqmi wb ke{zgfmq
ede`q{odgq ami ioi
ede`q{odgq
D@Z
@ekuqucmi kmcmi mhm{ am~mq agdgcmq am{g mimdgzgz ag mqmz$ heigz kmcmi mhm{
am~mq agqu{ui`mi am{g ~eibmdmlmi kedmhm{iwm) Zelm`gi hedmz ~eibmdmlmi
kedmhm{ agu{mg`mi m`mi zelm`gi luamc bu{u leieiqu`mi heigz kmcmi
mhm{iwm) Hg`m mimdgzgz agdm`u`mi qe{cmam~ zedu{uc Z@$ lm`m m`mi ag`eqmcug
ke{m~m kmiwm` kmcmi mhm{ wmib cm{uz agzgm~`mi odec bu{u)
;) Mimdgzgz Zulke{ Kedmhm{
Zulke{ kedmhm{ wmib m`mi agbuim`mi zekmbmg kmcmi ~eiwuzuimi kmcmi
mhm{ ~e{du agdm`u`mi mimdgzgz) Mimdgzgz agdm`u`mi qe{cmam~ `eqe{zeagmmi$
`ezezumgmi$ ami `eluamcmi amdml lelmifmmq`miiwm) Jm{miwm mamdmc
leibgiveiqm{gzmzg `eqe{zeagmmi zulke{ kedmhm{ wmib ag`mgq`mi aeibmi
`ekuqucmi)
:) ^elgdgcmi ami ^eieiqumi Kmcmi Mhm{
^elgdgcmi ami ~eieiqumi kmcmi mhm{ aglm`zua`mi uiqu` leleiucg zmdmc
zmqu `{gqe{gm kmcrm kmcmi mhm{ cm{uz leim{g`$ am~mq lelkmiqu zgzrm uiqu`
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 25/44
;5
leijm~mg `ol~eqeizg) Zecgibbm kmcmi mhm{ agkumq zezumg aeibmi
`ekuqucmi ami `ejojo`mi aeibmi @A wmib m`mi ag{mgc odec ~eze{qm agag`)
Heigz ami keiqu` kmcmi mhm{ agqeqm~`mi mqmz amzm{ mimdgzgz `u{g`udul ami
mimdgzgz zulke{ kmcmi zekeduliwm)
K) ^eiwuzuimi ^eqm Kmcmi Mhm{
^eqm `ekuqucmi kmcmi mhm{ agzuzui zeqedmc ag`eqmcug ke{m~m kmiwm` kmcmi mhm{
wmib cm{uz agzgm~`mi ledmdug mimdgzgz `ekuqucmi kmcmi mhm{) ^eqm @ekuqucmi
kmcmi mhm{ zmibmq ag~e{du`mi buim leibeqmcug huldmc kmcmi mhm{ wmib cm{uz
agqudgz ami ze`ueizg mqmu u{uqmi kmcmi mhm{iwm ze~e{qg m~m) Ze`ueizg kmcmi
mhm{ gig zmibmq ag~e{du`mi amdml leieiqu`mi ~{go{gqmz ~eiudgzmi) Ag zml~gib
gqu ~eqm am~mq agbuim`mi uiqu` leieiqu`mi zgfmq kmcmi mhm{$ m~m`mc ae~eiaei
#qe{bmiquib' mqmu giae~eiaei #ke{ag{g zeiag{g') Kmcmi mhm{ ae~eiaei mamdmc
kmcmi mhm{ wmib mam `mgqmiiwm miqm{m kmcmi mhm{ wmib zmqu aeibmi kmcmi mhm{
wmib dmgi$ zecgibbm amdml ~eiudgzmiiwm cm{uz zmdgib lel~e{cmqg`mi zmqu
zmlm dmgi$ m~mdmbg `mdmu zmdgib lel~e{zwm{mq`mi) Zeamib`mi kmcmi mhm{
giae~eiaei mamdmc kmcmi mhm{ wmib ke{ag{g zeiag{g mqmu amdml ~eiwuzuimiiwm
qgam` cm{uz lel~e{cmqg`mi mqmu qe{g`mq aeibmi kmcmi mhm{ wmib dmgi)
Zekmbmg joiqoc ~eqm kmcmi mhm{ uiqu` Kgodobg ZLM zelezqe{ G ^eqm agmlkgd
am{g Z@ iolo{ ;$ @A iolo{ =$ aglmim lmqe{g ~o`o` zekmbmg huaud kmcmi mhm{)
Lelmcmlg cm`g`mqkgodobg zekmbmg gdlu$
leielu`mi okwe` ami{mbml ~e{zomdmiiwm
am{g))))))
Lel~edmhm{g {umibdgib`u~ kgodobg$lmifmmq amikmcmwmiwm
=) Okwe` Kgodobg
;) ^e{zomdmi Kgodobg
:) Qgib`mq o{bmigzmzg`ecgau~mi
1) ^e{lmzmdmcmi kgodobg
5) Lmifmmq kgodobg kmbglmiuzgm ami dgib`uibmi
Lmqe{g ^elk)Huaud K) Mhm{
@ol~eqeizg Amzm{ #@A' Z@
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 26/44
;6
J) Zq{u`qu{ Kmcmi Mhm{
Amdml ~eiwuzuimi kmcmi mhm{ qe{am~mq ~e{keammi amdml zq{u`qu{iwm miqm{m
kmcmi mhm{ wmib zmqu aeibmi kmcmi mhm{ wmib dmgi) Buim leibeqmcug
~e{keammi,~e{keammi aglm`zua am~mq agdgcmq ~mam lmq{g` ke{g`uq gig8
Kmcmi Mhm{ Jeqm` #^{giqea '
Io) @ol~oiei Cq Ku Ld D@Z K{o Df Rjc F/Bk Lo/L
=) Huaud ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘
;) ^equihu` kedmhm{ , ∘ ∘ , , , , ,
:) @A/L^ , ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ (( (( ((
1) Gifo{lmzg ~eiau`uib ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ (( (( ((
5) Dmqgcmi , ∘ ∘ , , , , , ,
6) Qubmz/dmib`mc `e{hm , ∘ ∘ , , , (( ((
2) ^eigdmgmi , ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ ∘ (( (( ((
Cq8 cmiaouq$ Ku8Ku`u$ Ld8Loaud$ D@Z8Delkm{ @ebgmqmi Zgzrm$ K{o8K{ozu{$
Df8Demfdeq$ Rjc8Rmddjcm{q$ F/Bk8Foqo/ Bmlkm{$ Lo/L8 Loaed/Lm`eq
A) ^eiwuzuimi Kmcmi Mhm{ Jeqm`
Kmcmi mhm{ am~mq ke{u~m cmiaouq$ ku`u$ delkm{ `ebgmqmi zgzrm #D@Z'$ loaud$
k{ozu{ mqmu demfdeq$ Rmddjcm{q $ Foqo/Bmlkm{$ Loaed/Lm`eq) Amdml leiwuzui
kmcmi wmib ~e{du ag~e{cmqg`mi mamdmc kmcrm huaud mqmu lmqe{g wmib agzmhg`mi
cm{uz ke{giqg`mi @A mqmu lmqe{g ~o`o` wmib cm{uz agjm~mg odec ~eze{qm agag`$
ag zml~gib gqu leiu{uq Zqeffei,^eqe{ Kmddzqmeaq kmcmi mhm{ jeqm` cm{uz
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 27/44
;2
lel~e{cmqg`mi keke{m~m cmd zekmbmg ke{g`uq8
Zuzuimi qml~gdmi$ wmib leiwmib`uq8 U{uqmi wmib luamc$ huaud wmibzgib`mq$ qe{am~mq amfqm{ gzg$ zq{u`qu{ `obigqgfiwm hedmz$ {mib`ulmi$ ami
qubmz ~elkmjm)
Kmcmzm wmib luamc$ leiwmib`uq8 leibmdg{iwm `ozm `mqm$ hedmziwm
`mdglmq$ hedmziwm cukuibmi `mdglmq$ `mdglmq wmib qgam` qe{dmdu ~mihmib)
Leibuhg ~elmcmlmi$ wmib leiwmib`uq8 leigdmg ledmdug o{mibiwm$
jcej` dgzq uiqu` ~elmcmlmi)
Zqgludmi$ wmib leiwmib`uq8 eim` qgam`iwm agdgcmq$ qudgzmi leiao{oib
~elkmjm uiqu` ke{fg`g{$ leibuhg zqgludmi)
@eluamcmi agkmjm$ wmib leiwmib`uq8 `e{mlmcmi qe{cmam~ lmqm #cu{uf
wmib agbuim`mi qgam` qe{dmdu `ejgd ami eim` agkmjm'$ u{uqmi qe`z
qe{zq{u`qu{$ luamc agkmjm)
Lmqe{g gizq{u`zgoimd$ wmib leiwmib`uq8 ~elgdgcmi qe`z$ kmcmi `mhgmi$
delkm{ `e{hm #ro{` zceeq')
m) Cmiaouq
Gzqgdmc cmiaouq lelmib kedul mam ~mamimiiwm amdml kmcmzm Giaoiezgm)
Cmiaouq kgmzmiwm le{u~m`mi kmcmi mhm{ qe{qudgz wmib agcm{m~`mi am~mq
leiau`uib kmcmi mhm{ dmgiiwm mqmu ~eihedmzmi am{g bu{u) Zqeffei,^eqe{
Kmddzqmeaq leibelu`m`mi aum fuibzg am{g cmiaouq wmgqu8
Buim lelkmiqu ~eiaeibm{ mbm{ qgam` ~e{du leijmqmq)
Zekmbmg ~eiaml~gib ~eihedmzmi zg ~eije{mlmc/bu{u)
Zekumc cmiaouq cm{uz lelumq ~mdgib qgam`8
Leiuiqui ~elkgjm{m zejm{m qe{mqu{ ami hedmz
Ke{~uzmq ~mam ~eibeqmcumi cmzgd ami ~e{iwmqmmi ~mamq)
B{mfg` ami qmked wmib zudgq agbmlkm{ odec ~eiaeibm{ am~mq aeibmi
luamc agam~mq)
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 28/44
;3
Zezumg aeibmi wmib qedmc aghedmz`mi ag mqmz kmcrm cmiaouq agzuzui mqmz
amzm{ @A wmib cm{uz agjm~mg odec ~eze{qm agag`) Aeibmi aelg`gmi lm`m
cmiaouq cm{uz agqu{ui`mi am{g `u{g`udul) Cmiaouq kgmzmiwm le{u~m`mi
kmcmi qe{qudgz qmlkmcmi wmib am~mq lel~e{`mwm ~eze{qm agag` amdml
kedmhm{ uiqu` leijm~mg ̀ ol~eqeizgiwm)
Dmib`mc,dmib`mc leiwuzui cmiaouq mamdmc zekmbmg ke{g`uq8
Ledm`u`mi mimdgzgz ̀ u{g`udul
Leieiqu`mi huaud cmiaouq$ zezumg`mi aeibmi @A ami lmqe{g ~o`o`
wmib m`mi agjm~mg)
Leibul~ud`mi {efe{eizg zekmbmg kmcmi ~eiudgzmi) U~mwm`mi {efe{eizg
qe{`gig ami {edevmi aeibmi lmqe{g ~o`o`iwm)
Leiudgz cmiaouq$ amdml leiudgz u~mwm`mi mbm{ `mdglmq wmib agbuim`mi
qgam` qe{dmdu ~mihmib$ uiqu` zgzrm ZLM ag~e{`g{m`mi huldmc `mqm ~e{
`mdglmqiwm qgam` dekgc am{g ;5 `mqm ami amdml zmqu ~m{mb{mf uzmcm`mi
huldmc `mdglmqiwm miqm{m : ‚ 2 `mdglmq zmhm)
Leibevmdumzg cmzgd qudgzmi aeibmi jm{m agkmjm udmib$ kgdm ~e{du agkmjm
o{mib dmgi qe{dekgc amcudu uiqu` leiam~mq`mi lmzu`mi)
Lel~e{kmg`g cmiaouq zezumg aeibmi `e`u{mibmi,`e`u{mibmi wmib
agqelu`mi)
Buim`mi ke{kmbmg zulke{ kedmhm{ wmib am~mq lel~e{`mwm lmqe{g
cmiaouq lgzmdiwm ku`u$ lmhmdmc$ giqe{ieq$ hu{imd cmzgd ~eiedgqgmi)
k) Ku`u
Zekumc ku`u kgmzmiwm m`mi ke{gzg qeiqmib zezumqu wmib leihmag kumc
~g`g{mi am{g zeo{mib ~eibm{mibiwm) Hg`m zeo{mib bu{u leiwgm~`mi zekumc
ku`u wmib agbuim`mi zekmbmg kmcmi mhm{ lm`m kumc ~g`g{miiwm cm{uz
agqu{ui`mi am{g @A wmib qe{qumib amdml `u{g`udul$ zecgibbm ku`u m`mi
lelke{g lm`im zekmbmg kmcmi mhm{ kmbg ~eze{qm agag` wmib
lel~edmhm{giwm)
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 29/44
;7
Zekumc ku`u m`mi agludmg am{g dmqm{ kedm`mib ~eiudgzmi$ aefgigzg/
~eibe{qgmi am{g huaud wmib ag`elu`m`mi$ ~eihedmzmi {umib dgib`u~
~elkmcmzmi amdml ku`u$ cu`ul mqmu mqu{mi,mqu{mi wmib agkmcmz$ joiqoc,
joiqoc wmib ag~e{du`mi$ cmzgd ~eiedgqgmi$ amqm ami giqe{~{eqmzgiwm$ ke{kmbmg
m{bulei wmib zezumg uiqu` agzmhg`mi)
Dmib`mc,dmib`mc wmib am~mq agdm`u`mi odec zeo{mib bu{u amdml leiudgz
ku`u mamdmc zekmbmg ke{g`uq8
Lel~edmhm{g ̀ u{g`udul aeibmi jm{m leibmimdgzgziwm
Leieiqu`mi huaud ku`u wmib m`mi agqudgz zezumg aeibmi Z@ wmib m`mi
agzeagm`mi ku`uiwm)
Le{mijmib ouqdgie ku`u mbm{ gzg ku`u deib`m~ leijm`u~ zedu{uc
mz~e` wmib ag~e{du`mi uiqu` leijm~mg zumqu `ol~eqeizg)
Leibul~ud`mi {efe{eizg zekmbmg kmcmi ~eiudgzmi$ u~mwm`mi uiqu`
leibbuim`mi {efe{eizg qe{`gig ami {edevmi aeibmi kmcmi ̀ mhgmiiwm)
Leiudgz ku`u agdm`u`mi aeibmi lel~e{cmqg`mi ~eiwmhgmi `mdglmq
wmib agzezumg`mi aeibmi uzgm ami ~eibmdmlmi ~elkmjmiwm) Uiqu`
zgzrm ZLM u~mwm`mi uiqu` lelkumq `mdglmq wmib qgam` qe{dmdu
~mihmib$ lm z̀glmd ;5 `mqm ~e{ `mdglmq ami amdml zmqu ~m{mb{mf : ‚ 2
`mdglmq)
Leibevmdumzg/leibeagq cmzgd qudgzmi aeibmi jm{m lelkmjm udmib)
Hg`m mam `e`u{mibmi zebe{m agdm`u`mi ~eimlkmcmi)
Lel~e{kmg`g qudgzmi
Buim`mi ke{kmbmg zulke{ kedmhm{ wmib am~mq lel~e{`mwm lmqe{g
lgzmdiwm ku`u$ lmhmdmc$ giqe{ieq$ hu{imd cmzgd ~eiedgqgmi)
j) Loaud
Loaud mamdmc ze~e{mib`mq kmcmi mhm{ wmib agzmhg`mi zejm{m zgzqelmqgz
zecgibbm ~eibbuimiwm am~mq kedmhm{ aeibmi mqmu qmi~m zeo{mib
fmzgdgqmqo{/bu{u) Aeibmi aelg`gmi lm`m zekumc loaud cm{uz am~mq
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 30/44
:>
aghmag`mi zekumc kmcmi mhm{ zekmbmg ~eibbmiqg fuibzg bu{u) @mdmu bu{u
lelgdg`g fuibzg leihedmz`mi zezumqu lm`m loaud cm{uz lml~u
leihedmz`mi zezumqu aeibmi kmcmzm wmib luamc agqe{glm ~eze{qm agag`
zezumg aeibmi qgib`mq ~eibeqmcumi ami uzgmiwm)
^eiudgzmi kmcmi mhm{ loaud
Amdml leiudgz kmcmi mhm{ `cuzuziwm loaud qe{am~mq keke{m~m qmcm~mi
wmib cm{uz agdmdug$ wmgqu8
, Mimdgzgz Z@ ami @A
Mimdgzgz aglm`zua`mi uiqu` leieiqu`mi lmqe{g,lmqe{g lmim wmib
lele{du`mi kmcmi mhm{) Amdml leieiqu`mi lmqe{g agmimdgzgz
aeibmi jm{m ledgcmq giqg am{g lmqe{g wmib m`mi agmhm{`mi$ `eluagmi
`ol~eqezg wmib cm{uz aglgdg`g odec zgzrm ami cmzgd kedmhm{ `{gqgz
wmib cm{uz aglgdg`g odec zgzrm #j{gqgjmd dem{igib ouqjolez' gqu
ze~e{qg m~m)
, Leieiqu`mi huaud,huaud loaud
Huaud loaud agqeiqu`mi mqmz amzm{ @A,@A mqmu lmqe{g
~elkedmhm{mi wmib qe{am~mq amdml zgdmkuz) Zmqu `ol~eqeizg am~mq
aghmag`mi zekmbmg huaud loaud m~mkgdm `ol~eqeizg gqu qgam` qe{dmdu
kezm{$ zeamib`mi kezm{iwm `ol~eqeizg am~mq agaeqe`zg miqm{m dmgi
aeibmi jm{m m~mkgdm agu{mg`mi `e amdml lmqe{g ~o`o` leiam~mq`mi
lm`zglmd 1 L^$ lm`m `ol~eqeizg gqu qedmc am~mq aghmag`mi zekmbmg
zmqu huaud loaud) Imlui m~mkgdm agu{mg`mi leihmag dekgc am{g 1
L^$ lm`m ~e{du ag~g`g{`mi `elkmdg m~m`mc ~e{du ag~ejmc lgzmdiwm
leihmag ; huaud loaud)
, ^elke{gmi ̀ oae loaud
@oae loaud zmibmq ag~e{du`mi buim leluamc`mi amdml
~eibedodmmi loaud) Kgmzmiwm `oae loaud le{u~m`mi mib`m,mib`m
wmib agke{g lm`im$ lgzmdiwm agbgq ~e{qmlm$ mib`m zmqu #=' ke{m{qg
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 31/44
:=
G^M$ #;' 8 G^Z) #:' 8 Kmcmzm) @eluagmi agbgq `eaum le{u~m`mi
`dmzgfg`mzg/`edol~o` uqmlm `mhgmi mqmu m`qgvgqmz mqmu z~ezgmdgzmzg
~mam hu{uzmi wmib ke{zmib`uqmi) Lgzmdiwm hu{uzmi G^M$ iolo{ =
agbgq `eaum ke{m{qg Fgzg`m$ ; @glgm$ : Kgodobg ami zeqe{uziwm)
, ^eiudgzmi Loaud
^eiudgzmi loaud am~mq agdm`u`mi aeibmi dmib`mc,dmib`mc zekmbmg
ke{g`uq8
( ^e{uluzmi @A wmib cm{uz ag`umzmg
[uluzmi @A ~mam zumqu loaud le{u~m`mi z~ezgfg`mzg `umdgqmz
wmib zecm{uziwm qedmc aglgdg`g odec zgzrm zeqedmc gm ke{cmzgd
leiwedezmg`mi loaud qe{zekuq) @A wmib qe{jmiqul amdml
loaud agmlkgd am{g ~eaolmi `cuzuz `u{g`udul ;>>1) M~mkgdm
zgzrm qgam` ke{cmzgd lelgdg`g qgib`mc dm`u zekmbmg wmib
ag{uluz`mi amdml @A gqu$ lm`m @A ~elkedmhm{mi amdml
loaud gqu cm{uz ag{uluz`mi `elkmdg) Amdml cmd gig km{mib`mdg
kmcmi mhm{ wmib bmbmd$ ku`mi zgzrm wmib bmbmd) @elkmdg ~mam
qe{lgimd kecmvgou{$ hg`m qe{lgimd kecmvgou{ aggaeiqgfg`mzg
zejm{m qe~mq$ lm`m m~m wmib cm{uz ag`e{hm`mi uiqu`
leijm~mgiwm am~mq agqeiqu`mi zejm{m qe~mq ~udm)
Joiqoc [uluzmi @A wmib cm{uz ag`umzmg8
Miam lml~u leibuhg amwm cmiqm{ dgzq{g` ke{kmbmg dm{uqmi
uiqu` lelkeam`mi dm{uqmi ede`q{odgq ami ioi ede`q{odgq
cmzgdiwm leleiucg ̀ {gqe{gm zekbmg ke{g`uq8
=' Mam {mijmibmi ~e{jokmmi ede`q{odgq )
;' Qe{am~mq `ezgl~udmi jg{g,jg{g cmiqm{mi m{uz dgzq{g` amdml
ke{kmbmg dm{uqmi ke{amzm{`mi cmzgd ~eibmlmqmi)
:' Leibedol~o``mi dm{uqmi `e amdml dm{uqmi ede`q{odgq ami
ioi ede`q{odgq ke{amzm{`mi zgfmq cmiqm{mi dgzq{g`iwm)
1' Leihedmz`mi ~eiwekmk `elml~umi dm{uqmi ede`q{odgq
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 32/44
:;
leibcmiqm{`mi m{uz dgzq{g`)
5' Leihedmz`mi kmcrm dm{uqmi ede`q{odgq am~mq ke{u~m
zeiwmrm goi ami zeiwmrm `ovmdei ~odm{)
( Leieiqu`mi mdmq evmdumzg/~eigdmgmi
J{gqe{goi gqelz mamdmc zehuldmc ~e{qmiwmmi mqmu qez wmib
agbuim`mi uiqu` leibeqmcug qgib`mq `eke{cmzgdmi zgzrm amdml
leibumzmg zumqu @A amdml keiqu` qgib`mc dm`u) @m{eim
~eiae`mqmi ~elkedmhm{miiwm wmib agbuim`mi mamdmc
`ol~eqeizg$ aglmim zgzqel evmdumzgiwm agamzm{`mi ~mam
~eibumzmmi `ol~eqeizg$ lm`m mdmq evmdumzg wmib jojo` mamdmc
leibbuim`mi ~eiae`mqmi ^migdmgmi Mjumi ^mqo`mi #^M^' mqmu
J{gqe{goi [efe{eijea Mzzezleiq )
Evmdumzg am~mq zebe{m agzuzui zeqedmc agqeiqu`mi @A wmib m`mi
agjm~mg zekedul leiwuzui lmqe{g ami delkm{ `e{hm/qubmz,qubmz
wmib cm{uz ag`e{hm`mi odec zgzrm) Cmd gig aglm`zua`mi mbm{
evmdumzg wmib ag`e{hm`mi keim{,keim{ zezumg aeibmi m~m wmib
ag`e{hm`mi odec zgzrm)
Joiqoc evmdumzg am{g joiqoc @A ag mqmz8
Io #25% `{gqe{gm `eke{cmzgdmi'(' Wm Qa`
=) Mam {mijmibmi ~e{jokmmi ede`q{odgq)
;) Qe{am~mq ̀ ezgl~udmi jg{g,jg{g cmiqm{mi m{uz
dgzq{g` amdml ke{kmbmg dm{uqmi ke{amzm{`mi cmzgd
~eibmlmqmi)
:) Leibedol~o``mi dm{uqmi `e amdml dm{uqmi
ede`q{odgq ami ioi ede`q{odgq ke{amzm{`mi zgfmq
cmiqm{mi dgzq{g`iwm)
1) Leihedmz`mi ~eiwekmk ̀ elml~umi dm{uqmi
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 33/44
::
ede`q{odgq leibcmiqm{`mi m{uz dgzq{g`)
5) Leihedmz`mi kmcrm dm{uqmi ede`q{odgq am~mqke{u~m zeiwmrm goi ami zeiwmrm `ovmdei ~odm{)
Qoqmd
Jmqmqmi (' 8 Hg`m 25% am{g `e,5 `{gqe{gm qe{~eiucg$ lm`m
agiwmqm`mi duduz)
( ^eiwuzuimi Lmqe{g
Lmqe{g mqmu gzg loaud zmibmq qe{bmiquib ~mam @A wmib m`mi
agjm~mg) Lmqe{g loaud m`mi zmibmq kmg` hg`m leibbuim`mi
{efe{eizg ‚ {efe{eizg luqm`cg{ wmib lelgdg`g {edevmizg am{g
ke{kmbmg zulke{ lgzmdiwm ku`u$ giqe{ieq$ lmhmdmc$ hu{imd cmzgd
~eiedgqgmi) Lmqe{g loaud qgam` cm{uz agqudgz zedu{uciwm$ am~mq
zmhm amdml loaud gqu agquihu``mi {efe{eizg wmib agbuim`mi
mbm{ zgzrm lelkmjm dekgc hmuc qeiqmib lmqe{g gqu) Qubmz,qubmz
cm{uz agqudgz zejm{m hedmz buim leibu{mibg ~e{qmiwmmi am{g
zgzrm qeiqmib cmd,cmd wmib zecm{uziwm zgzrm am~mq
ledm`u`miiwm) Lgzmdiwm qeiqmib qubmz agz`uzg) Huaud agz`uzg
agke{g`mi zejm{m hedmz ami agagz`uzg`mi aeibmi zgm~m$ ke{m~m
o{mib amdml `edol~o` agz`uzg ami ke{m~m dmlm)
@mdglmq wmib agzmhg`mi qgam` qe{dmdu ~mihmib) Kmbg zgzrm ZLM
u~mwm`mi uiqu` lelkumq `mdglmq wmib qgam` qe{dmdu ~mihmib$
lm`zglmd ;5 `mqm ~e{,`mdglmq ami amdml zmqu ~m{mb{mf : ‚ 2
`mdglmq)
Bmlkm{,bmlkm{ wmib zgfmqiwm leiau`uib gzg lmqe{g zmibmq
ag~e{du`mi$ `m{eim ag zml~gib lel~e{hedmz ~eihedmzmi hubm
am~mq leimlkmc amwm qm{g` kmbg zgzrm uiqu` lel~edmhm{giwm)
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 34/44
:1
( U{uqmi ~elkedmhm{mi
U{uqmi ~elkedmhm{mi am~mq agke{g`mi amdml ~equihu`
leibbuim`mi loaud) Lgzmdiwm agkumq ~equihu` kmbg bu{u
wmib m`mi leibmhm{`mi lmqe{g qe{zekuq ami ~equihu` kmbg
zgzrm) ^equihu` zgzrm agm{mc`mi `e~mam cmd,cmd wmib cm{uz
ag`e{hm`mi ami wmib qgam` kodec ag`e{hm`mi odec zgzrm$
zecgibbm zgzrm qgam` ~e{du kmiwm` ke{qmiwm$ bu{u hubm qgam`
~e{du qe{dmdu kmiwm` leihedmz`mi mqmu aeibmi `mqm dmgi bu{u
ke{fuibzg zekmbmg fmzgdgqmqo{)
( Zq{u`qu{ kmcmi mhm{/loaud
Zq{u`qu{ loaud am~mq ke{vm{gmzg$ qe{bmiquib ~mam `m{m`qe{
lmqe{g wmib m`mi agzmhg`mi$ `eqe{zeagmmi zulke{amwm ami
`ebgmqmi kedmhm{ wmib m`mi agdm`u`mi) Zejm{m ulul loaud
cm{uz lelumq ~mdgib qgam`8
, Huaud
, ^equihu` kedmhm{ #^equihu` zgzrm/bu{u'
, @ol~eqeizg wmib m`mi agjm~mg
, Gifo{lmzg ~eiau`uib
, Dmqgcmi,dmqgcmi
, ^equihu` `e{hm$ am~mq ke{u~m Delkm{ @e{hm #D@'
, Evmdumzg/^eigdmgmi
a) Delkm{ @ebgmqmi Zgzrm #D@Z'
Delkm{ `ebgmqmi zgzrm #zquaeiq ro{` zceeq' mamdmc delkm{mi,delkm{mi
ke{gzg qubmz wmib cm{uz ag`e{hm`mi odec ~eze{qm agag`) Delkm{ `ebgmqmi
zgzrm m`mi lelumq ~mdgib qgam`0 huaud$ @A wmib m`mi agjm~mg$ rm`qu
~eiwedezmgmi$ ~e{mdmqmi/kmcmi wmib ag~e{du`mi uiqu` leiwedezmg`mi qubmz$
gifo{lmzg zgib`mq$ dmib`mc `e{hm$ qubmz wmib cm{uz agdm`u`mi$ ami dm~o{mi
wmib cm{uz ag`e{hm`mi)
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 35/44
:5
Amdml leiwgm~`mi delkm{ `ebgmqmi zgzrm am~mq agdm`u`mi aeibmi
dmib`mc,dmib`mc zekmbmg ke{g`uq8
Mimdgzgz ̀ u{g`udul
Mimdgzgz `u{g`udul aglm`zua`mi uiqu` leieiqu`mi lmqe{g,lmqe{g lmim
wmib lele{du`mi kmcmi mhm{ D@Z) Kgmzmiwm amdml leieiqu`mi lmqe{g
agmimdgzgz aeibmi jm{m ledgcmq lmqe{g ~o`o` ami ~eibmdmlmi kedmhm{ am{g
lmqe{g wmib m`mi agmhm{`mi$ `eluagmi `ol~eqezg wmib cm{uz aglgdg`g
odec zgzrm)
Leiwuzui ~eqm `ekuqucmi D@Z
^eqm `ekuqucmi D@Z zmibmq ag~e{du`mi buim leibeqmcug huldmc D@Z
wmib cm{uz agqudgz ami ze`ueizg mqmu u{uqmi D@Z,iwm hubm am~mq agdgcmq)
Ze`ueiz D@Z gig zmibmq ag~e{du`mi amdml leieiqu`mi ~{go{gqmz
~eiudgzmi) Agmrmdg aeibmi mimdgzgz `u{g`udul ami mimdgzgz zulke{ kedmhm{)
Leieiqu`mi huaud,huaud D@Z
Huaud D@Z agqeiqu`mi mqmz amzm{ @A,@A$ lmqe{g,lmqe{g ~o`o` mqmu
~eibmdmlmi kedmhm{ wmib qe{am~mq amdml `u{g`udul) Zmqu @A am~mq
aghmag`mi zekmbmg huaud loaud m~mkgdm `ol~eqeizg gqu qgam` qe{dmdu kezm{$
zeamib`mi kezm{iwm @A am~mq agaeqe`zg miqm{m dmgi aeibmi jm{m m~mkgdm
agu{mg`mi `e amdml lmqe{g ~o`o` #L^' leiam~mq`mi lm`zglmd 1 L^$
lm`m `ol~eqeizg gqu qedmc am~mq aghmag`mi zekmbmg zmqu huaud D@Z)
Imlui m~mkgdm agu{mg`mi leihmag dekgc am{g 1 L^$ lm`m ~e{du
ag~g`g{`mi `elkmdg m~m`mc ~e{du ag~ejmc lgzmdiwm leihmag ; huaud D@Z)
^eiudgzmi D@Z
^eiudgzmi D@Z am~mq agdm`u`mi aeibmi dmib`mc,dmib`mc zekmbm ke{g`uq8
, ^e{uluzmi @A wmib cm{uz ag`umzmg
[uluzmi @A ~mam zumqu D@Z dmibzuib agqu{ui`mi am{g ao`ulei ZG)
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 36/44
:6
, Leieiqu`mi mdmq ^eigdmgmi
^eigdmgmi agdm`u`mi qe{cmam~ ~{ozez `e{hm ami cmzgd `e{hm ~eze{qm
agag`) @m{eim ~eiae`mqmi ~elkedmhm{,mi wmib agbuim`mi mamdmc
`ol~eqeizg$ aglmim ~eigdmgmiiwm agamzm{`mi ~mam ~eibumzmmi
`ol~eqei,zg$ lm`m mdmq ~eigdmgmi wmib jojo` mamdmc leibbuim`mi
~eiae`mqmi ^migdmgmi Mjumi ^mqo`mi #^M^' mqmu J{gqe{goi
[efe{eijea Mzzezleiq ) Aeibmi aelg`gmi bu{u am~mq leigdmgiwm
ledmdug ~{ozez ami cmzgd `e{hmiwm)
, ^eiwuzuimi Lmqe{g
Lmqe{g D@Z zmibmq qe{bmiquib ~mam @A wmib m`mi agjm~mg) Lmqe{g
D@Z am~mq ke{u~m gifo{lmzg ~eiau`uib$ wmgqu bmlkm{mi ulul mqmu
{umib dgib`u~ zukzqmizg wmib m`mi ag~edmhm{g) Lmqe{g am~mq agmlkgd
am{g ke{kmbmg zulke{ ze~e{qg ku`u$ lmhmdmc$ giqe{ieq$ hu{imd cmzgd
~eiedgqgmi) Mbm{ ~elmcmlmi zgzrm qe{cmam~ lmqe{g dekgc `umq$ lm`m
am~mq zmhm amdml D@Z agquihu``mi {efe{eizg wmib agbuim`mi mbm{
zgzrm lelkmjm dekgc hmuc qeiqmib lmqe{g gqu) Qubmz,qubmz cm{uz
agqudgz zejm{m hedmz buim leibu{mibg ~e{qmiwmmi am{g zgzrm qeiqmib
cmd,cmd wmib zecm{uziwm zgzrm am~mq ledm`u`miiwm$ lgzmdiwm
qeiqmib qubmz agz`uzg) Huaud agz`uzg agke{g`mi zejm{m hedmz ami
agagz`uzg`mi aeibmi zgm~m$ ke{m~m o{mib amdml `edol~o` agz`uzg
ami ke{m~m dmlm)
, Zq{u`qu{ D@Z
Zq{u`qu{ D@Z zejm{m ulul mamdmc zekmbmg ke{g`uq8
( Huaud
( ^equihu` kedmhm{ #^equihu` zgzrm'
( @ol~eqeizg wmib m`mi agjm~mg
( Gifo{lmzg ~eiau`uib
( Qubmz,qubmz ami dmib`mc,dmib`mc ̀ e{hm
( ^eigdmgmi
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 37/44
:2
e) K{ozu{
K{ozu{ mamdmc kmcmi gifo{lmzg qe{qudgz leibeimg zumqu lmzmdmc wmib
agzuzui zejm{m ke{zgzqel mqmu jeqm`mi wmib cmiwm qe{ag{g mqmz keke{m~m
cmdmlmi ami agdg~mq qmi~m aghgdga mqmu zedekm{mi jeqm`mi wmib ke{gzg
`eqe{mibmi zgib`mq qeqm~g deib`m~ qeiqmib ~e{uzmcmmi mqmu o{bmigzmzg
#@mluz kezm{ Kmcmzm Giaoiezgm$ Eagzg @eaum$ Kmdmg ̂ uzqm`m$ =776')
Amdml leiwuzui zekumc k{ozu{ zekmbmg kmcmi mhm{$ k{ozu{ ~mdgib qgam`
lelumq miqm{m dmgi8
Huaud agqu{ui`mi am{g @A mqmu lmqe{g ~o`o` zezumg aeibmi kezm{
`ejgdiwm lmqe{g)
@A/lmqe{g ~o`o` wmib m`mi agjm~mg$ agqu{ui`mi am{g ZG ami Z@D)
Gifo{lmzg ~eiau`uib aghedmz`mi zejm{m hedmz$ ~mamq$ leim{g`
lel~e{cmqg`mi ~eiwmhgmi `mdglmq wmib agzezumg`mi aeibmi uzgm ami
~eibmdmlmi ~elkmjmiwm) Uiqu` zgzrm ZLM u~mwm`mi uiqu`
lelkumq `mdglmq wmib qgam` qe{dmdu ~mihmib$ lm`zglmd ;5 `mqm ~e{
`mdglmq ami amdml zmqu ~m{mb{mf : ‚ 2 `mdglmq)
Qubmz,qubmz am~mq ke{u~m qubmz lelkmjm ku`u qe{qeiqu wmib qe{`mgq
aeibmi lmqe{g kedmhm{ ami lelkumq {ezuleiwm) Qubmz am~mq agke{g`mi
zejm{m giagvgau mqmu `edol~o` ami agqudgz amdml `e{qmz dmgi)
^eigdmgmi am~mq agdm`u`mi qe{cmam~ cmzgd `m{wm am{g qubmz wmib
agke{g`mi)
Buim`mi ke{kmbmg zulke{ kedmhm{ wmib am~mq lel~e{`mwm lmqe{g
lgzmdiwm ku`u$ lmhmdmc$ giqe{ieq$ hu{imd cmzgd ~eiedgqgmi)
f) Demfdeq
M ze~m{mqe zceeq of ~{giqea lmqqe{$ ofqei fodaea kuq ioq zqgqjcea #Rekzqe{‗z
Ier Ro{da$ =776') Demqdeq mamdmc kmcmi jeqm` qe{qudgz ke{u~m delkm{mi
wmib agdg~mq qm~g qgam` aglmqg`mi/aghmcgq) Mbm{ qe{dgcmq leim{g` kgmzmiwm
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 38/44
:3
demfdeq agaezmgi zejm{m je{lmq agdeib`m~g aeibmi gduzq{mzg ami
leibbuim`mi kmcmzm wmib zeae{cmim$ zgib`mq ze{qm luamc ag~mcmlg)
Demfdeq zekmbmg kmcmi mhm{ hubm cm{uz lelumq lmqe{g wmib am~mq
leibbg{gib ~eze{qm agag` uiqu` leibumzmg zmqu mqmu dekgc @A)
Amdml lelkumq demfdeq zejm{m ulul zmlm aeibmi lelkumq k{ozu{$
keamiwm cmiwm amdml ~eiml~gdmi fgzg`iwm zmhm$ zecgibbm gzg demfdeq am~mq
agdgcmq ~mam k{ozu{ ag mqmz) Demfdeq kgmzmiwm agqml~gd`mi amdml keiqu` aum
`odol `eluagmi agdg~mq)
b) Rmddjcm{q
Rmddjcm{q mamdmc kmcmi jeqm`$ kgmzmiwm ke{u~m kmbmi zg`duz/~{ozez mqmu
b{mfg` wmib ke{lm`im leiuihu``mi ~ozgzg qe{qeiqu) Lgzmdiwm qeiqmib
zg`duz lm`cdu` cgau~ kgimqmib miqm{m udm{$ qg`uz ami dgib`uibmiiwm mqmu
~{ozez am{g zumqu `ebgmqmi dmko{mqu{gul) Amdml lel~e{zgm~`miiwm
rmddjcm{q ~mdgib qgam` ke{gzg qeiqmib8
Huaud agqu{ui`mi am{g @A mqmu lmqe{g ~o`o` zezumg aeibmi kezm{
`ejgdiwm lmqe{g)
^equihu` ~eibbuimmi rmddjcm{q $ aglm`zua`mi mbm{ rmddjcm{ q qgam`
qe{dmdu kmiwm` qudgzmi)
Gifo{lmzg ~eiau`uib aghedmz`mi zejm{m hedmz$ ~mamq$ leim{g` amdml
keiqu` bmlkm{$ kmbmi mqmu zg`duz)
Qubmz,qubmz agqudgz amdml delkm{ `e{qmz dmgi$ lgzmdiwm ke{u~m qubmz
lelkmjm ku`u qe{qeiqu wmib qe{`mgq aeibmi lmqe{g kedmhm{ ami
lelkumq {ezuleiwm) Qubmz dmgi lgzmdiwm leiubmz`mi zgzrm uiqu`
leibbmlkm{ mqmu lelkumq kmbmi udmib) Qubmz am~mq agke{g`mi zejm{m
giagvgau mqmu ̀ edol~o`)
^eigdmgmi am~mq agdm`u`mi qe{cmam~ cmzgd `m{wm am{g qubmz wmib
agke{g`mi)
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 39/44
:7
Buim`mi ke{kmbmg zulke{ kedmhm{ wmib am~mq lel~e{`mwm lmqe{g
lgzmdiwm ku`u$ lmhmdmc$ giqe{ieq$ hu{imd cmzgd ~eiedgqgmi)
c) Foqo/Bmlkm{
Foqo/bmlkm{ lelgdg`g lm`im wmib dekgc kmg` agkmiagib`mi aeibmi
qudgzmi) Foqo/bmlkm{ zekmbmg kmcmi mhm{ qeiqu zmhm ag~e{du`mi zmqu
{mijmibmi wmib kmg` mbm{ zeqedmc zedezmg ledgcmq zekumc mqmu ze{mib`mgmi
foqo/bmlkm{ zgzrm am~mq ledm`u`mi zezumqu wmib ~mam m`cg{iwm
leibumzmg zmqu mqmu dekgc @A)
Amdml leiwgm~`mi zekumc bmlkm{ uiqu` kmcmi mhm{ am~mq agdm`u`mi
aeibmi dmib`mc zekmbmg ke{g`uq8
Huaud agqu{ui`mi am{g @A mqmu lmqe{g ~o`o` zezumg aeibmi kezm{ `ejgdiwm
lmqe{g) Hg`m foqo$ lm`m huaudiwm am~mq agqudgz agkmdg`iwm)
Kumq aezmgi qeiqmib foqo/bmlkm{ wmib agibgi`mi aeibmi lelkumq
zqo{wkom{a) Zqo{wkom{a foqo qgam` m̀ mi zekmiwm` uiqu` vgaeo/fgdl)
Gifo{lmzg ~eiau`uib agmlkgd`mi am{g zqo{wkom{a zejm{m hedmz$ ~mamq$
leim{g` agqudgz agkmdg` foqo) Buim`mi zulke{ dmgi wmib am~mq
lel~e{`mwm lmqe{g lgzmdiwm foqo$ giqe{ieq$ ku`u) Mbm{ foqo eim`
agdgcmq ami lelumq ju`u~ gifo{lmzg$ lm`m zekmg`iwm foqo/bmlkm{
ke{u`u{mi ~mdgib qgam` ;>,[)
^eibmlkgdmi bmlkm{ agdm`u`mi mqmz amzm{ zq{o{wkom{a) Mbm{ cmzgdiwm
kmg` ag`e{hm`mi odec o{mib wmib leibumzmg ~eibbuimmi foqo$ mqmu
`mdmu bmlkm{ agbmlkm{ odec o{mib wmib qe{ml~gd leibbmlkm{)
Eagqgib qe{cmam~ foqo/bmlkm{ agdm`u`mi odec o{mib wmib leibumzmg
zukzqmizg/gzg lmqe{g vgaeo/fgdl)
Mbm{ cmzgdiwm lelumz`mi$ zekmg`iwm zekedul agbmiam`mi agdm`u`mi
~eigdmgmi qe{cmam~ ~{ob{ml zejm{m `ezedu{ucmi kmg` zejm{m zukzqmizg$
eau`mzg lmu~ui zgielmqob{mfgiwm)
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 40/44
1>
Foqo/bmlkm{ kgmzmiwm qgam` giqe{m`qgf$ imlui qubmz,qubmziwm am~mq
agke{g`mi ~mam m`cg{ ~eiml~gdmi bmlkm{$ lgzmdiwm uiqu` ~elkedmhm{mikmcmzm Gibb{gz zgzrm aglgiqm uiqu` leije{gqm`mi udmib zejm{m o{md
qeiqmib zgqumzg amdml foqo/bmlkm{) Qubmz,qubmz am~mq hubm agqudgz
amdml delkm{ `e{qmz dmgi$ lgzmdiwm ke{u~m leije{gqm`mi udmib qeiqmib
foqo/ bmlkm{ wmib agdgcmqiwm amdml keiqu` qe{qudgz) Qubmz am~mq
agke{g`mi zejm{m giagvgau mqmu ̀ edol~o`)
^eigdmgmi am~mq agdm`u`mi qe{cmam~ ~eiml~gdmi zgzrm amdml
leije{gqm`mi `elkmdg foqo/bmlkm{ wmib agdgcmqiwm mqmu je{gqm qe{qudgz
am{g foqo/bmlkm{ wmib qedmc agdgcmqiwm)
g) Loaed/Lm`eq
Loaed/lm`eq wmib agaezmgi zejm{m kmg` m`mi lelke{g`mi lm`im wmib
cml~g{ zmlm aeibmi keiam mzdgiwm) Regae{lmii leibelu`m`mi kmcrm
aeibmi legdcmq keiam mzdgiwm wmib ke{m{qg am~mq ag~ebmib$ lm`m ~eze{qm agag`
m`mi dekgc luamc amdml lel~edmhm{giwm) Lgzmdiwm amdml ~elkedmhm{mi
kgodobg zgzrm am~mq ledgcmq zejm{m dmibzuib kmbgmi,kmbgmi qukuc lmiuzgm
ledmdug zekumc loaed) Kgmzmiwm loaed zelmjml gig am~mq agkumq aeibmi
z`mdm =8= m{qgiwm keiam wmib agdgcmq lelgdg`g kezm{ wmib ~e{zgz zmlm aeibmi
keiam mzdgiwm mqmu am~mq hubm aeibmi z`mdm wmib dekgc `ejgd$ qe{bmiquib ~mam
keiam m~m wmib m`mi agkumq loaediwm) Kmcmi mhm{ zelmjml gig qgam` am~mq
ke{ag{g zeiag{g ledmgi`mi cm{uz agkmiqu aeibmi kmcmi qe{qudgz mbm{
leluamc`mi bu{u amdml ledm`zmim`mi ~elkedmhm{mi lmu~ui zgzrm amdml
kedmhm{) Amdml lelmifmmq`mi loaed/lm`eq zekmbmg kmcmi mhm{ cm{uz
leibbuim`mi @A amdml `u{g`udul zekmbmg mjumiiwm)
Huaud agqu{ui`mi am{g `ol~eqe{izg amzm{ mqmu lmqe{g ~o`o` zezumg
aeibmi kezm{ ̀ ejgdiwm lmqe{g)
Lelkumq {mijmibmi zekumc loaed wmib m`mi agkumq kmg` zukzqmizgiwm
lmu~ui kmcmi wmib m`mi agbuim`mi zekmbmg loaed)
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 41/44
1=
Gifo{lmzg ~eiau`uib aghedmz`mi zejm{m hedmz$ ~mamq$ leim{g` ~mam
zedelkm{ `e{qmz) @m{eim qgam` luib`gi zekumc loaed lelumqgifo{lmzg qe{qudgz `ejumdg `eqe{mibmi,`eqe{mibmi zgib`mq zmhm) Buim`mi
ke{kmbmg zulke{ wmib am~mq lel~e{`mwm gifo{lmzg lgzmdiwm ku`u$
lmhmdmc$ giqe{ieq$ hu{imd cmzgd ~eiedgqgmi)
Mbm{ cmzgdiwm lelumz`mi$ zekmg`iwm ~elkumqmi loaed mqmu lm`eq
agdm`u`mi odec o{mib wmib lelgdg`g `eqe{ml~gdmi uiqu` lelkumqiwm)
Kmcmi wmib agbuim`mi qeiqu zmhm agzezumg`mi aeibmi `elml~umi
`eumibmi ami `eluamcmi amdml leijm{giwm)
Qubmz am~mq agke{g`mi ~mam m`cg{ ~eihedmzmi zekumc loaed$ aeibmi
lelke{g`mi ~e{qmiwmmi,~e{qmiwmmi o{md) Qubmz,qubmz am~mq hubm agqudgz
amdml delkm{ `e{qmz dmgi$ lgzmdiwm ke{u~m qubmz leihedmz`mi zejm{m
qe{qudgz qeiqmib lgzmdiwm uiqu` ~elkedmhm{mi kgodobg$ fuibzg hmiquib
kmbg `ecgau~mi lmiuzgm) Qubmz am~mq agke{g`mi zejm{m giagvgau mqmu
`edol~o`)
^eigdmgmi am~mq agdm`u`mi qe{cmam~ hmrmkmi dgzmi mqmu qe{qudgz am{g
~e{qmiwmmi wmib agke{g`mi)
E) Evmdumzg ami [evgzg
Zeqedmc zedezmg leiudgz kmcmi mhm{$ zedmihuqiwm wmib ~e{du Miam dm`u`mi
mamdmc evmdumzg qe{cmam~ kmcmi mhm{ qe{zekuq) Evmdumzg gig aglm`zua`mi uiqu`
leibeqmcug m~m`mc kmcmi mhm{ qedmc kmg` mqmu`mc lmzgc mam cmd wmib ~e{du
ag~e{kmg`g) Qe`ig` evmdumzg kgzm agdm`u`mi aeibmi keke{m~m jm{m$ lgzmdiwm
evmdumzg qelmi zehmrmq mqmu~ui uhg jokm `e~mam zgzrm zejm{m qe{kmqmz)
[ez~oiaei~ui kgzm miam qeiqu`mi m~m`mc zejm{m ke{qmcm~ ludmg am{g oie qo
oie$ b{ou~$ mqmu~ui jdmzz)
@ol~oiei evmdumzg leijm`u~ `edmwm`mi gzg$ `ekmcmzmmi$ zmhgmi$ ami
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 42/44
1;
`eb{mfg`mi)
@ol~oiei ̀ edmwm`mi gzg leijm`u~$ miqm{m dmgi8
=) @ezezumgmi aeibmi Z@$ @A
;) @ezezumgmi aeibmi ~e{`elkmibmi mim`
:) @ezezumgmi aeibmi `ekuqucmi kmcmi mhm{
1) @ekeim{mi zukzqmizg lmqe{g ~elkedmhm{mi
5) Lmifmmq uiqu` ~eimlkmcmi rmrmzmi
6) @ezezumgmi aeibmi igdmg lo{md$ ami igdmg,igdmg zozgmd
@ol~oiei @ekmcmzmmi miqm{m dmgi leijm`u~8
=) @eqe{kmjmmi
;) @ehedmzmi gifo{lmzg
:) @ezezumgmi aeibmi `mgamc Kmcmzm Giaoiezgm wmib kmg` ami keim{
1) ^elmifmmqmi kmcmzm zejm{m efe`qgf ami efgzgei #hedmz ami zgib`mq'
@ol~oiei ̂ eiwmhgmi miqm{m dmgi leijm`u~8
=) @ehedmzmi quhumi #giag`mqo{' wmib gibgi agjm~mg
;) U{uqmi zmhgmi
:) ^elke{gmi loqgvmzg$ amwm qm{g`
1) Giqe{m`zg #~elke{gmi zqgluduz ami {ez~oia'
5) @edeib`m~mi gifo{lmzg
@ol~oiei @eb{mfg`mi miqm{m dmgi leijm`u~8
=) ^eibbuimmi foiq0 heigz ami u`u{mi
;) Dmw ouq mqmu qmqm deqm`
:) Gduzq{mzg$ bmlkm{$ foqo
1) Aezmgi qml~gdmi
@ol~oiei,`ol~oiei ~eigdmgmi ag mqmz am~mq Miam `elkmib`mi `e amdml
fo{lmq gizq{ulei evmdumzg) Joiqoc fo{lmq evmdumzg mamdmc zekmbmg ke{g`uq8
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 43/44
1:
Joiqoc Fo{lmq Gizq{ulei Evmdumzg Fo{lmqgf Kmcmi Mhm{
GIZQ[ULEI EVMDUMZG FO[LMQGF
Huaud Kmcmi Mhm{ 8 )))))))))))
Lmqm ^edmhm{mi 8 )))))))))))
^eiudgz 8 )))))))))))
Evmdumqo{ 8 )))))))))))
Qmibbmd 8 )))))))))))
^equihu` ~eibgzgmi
Ke{gdmc qmiam jcej` #v' ~mam `odol wmib ~mdgib zezumg aeibmi ~eigdmgmi Miam)
= < zmibmq qgam` kmg`/zezumg
; < `u{mib zezumg
: < ju`u~
1 < kmg`
5 < zmibmq kmg`/zezumg
Io @ol~oiei = ; : 1 5
@EDMWM@MI GZG
= @ezezumgmi aeibmi Z@$ @A
; @ezezumgmi aeibmi `ekuqucmi zgzrm
: @ezezumgmi aeibmi `ekuqucmi kmcmi mhm{
1 @ekeim{mi zukzqmizg lmqe{g
5 Lmifmmq uiqu` ~eimlkmcmi rmrmzmi ~eibeqmcumi
6 @ezezumgmi aeibmi igdmg,igdmg$ lo{mdgqmz$ zozgmd
@EKMCMZMMI
2 @eqe{kmjmmi
3 @ehedmzmi gifo{lmzg
7 @ezezumgmi aeibmi `mgamc Kmcmzm Giaoiezgm
=> ^eibbuimmi kmcmzm zejm{m efe`qgf ami efgzgei
5/10/2018 Bahan Ajar - slidepdf.com
http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/bahan-ajar-55a0bb7448f47 44/44
11
ZMHGMI
== @ehedmzmi quhumi=; U{uqmi ~eiwmhgmi
=: ^elke{gmi loqgvmzg
=1 Giqe{m`qgvgqmz #zqgluduz ami {ez~oia'
=5 @edeib`m~mi gifo{lmzg
@EB[MFGZMI
=6 ^eibbuimmi foiq #heigz ami u`u{mi'
=2 Dmw ouq$ qmqm deqm` =3 Gduzq{mzg$ b{mfgz$ bmlkm{$ foqo
=7 Aezmgi qml~gdmi
Ke{amzm{`mi cmzgd evmdumzg qe{zekuq$ zedmihuqiwm Miam am~mq ledm`u`mi {evgzg mqmu
~e{kmg`mi qe{cmam~ kmcmi mhm{ wmib Miam `elkmib`mi) Zeqedmc gqu$ kmcmi mhm{
zgm~ uiqu` Miam lmifmmq`mi amdml ~{ozez ~elkedmhm{mi)
@oleiqm{/zm{mi evmdumqo{8
))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))
))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))
))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))